diff --git a/.github/workflows/check.yml b/.github/workflows/check.yml
index 33cf544..aced2f1 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/check.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/check.yml
@@ -21,9 +21,6 @@ on:
 concurrency:
   group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}
   cancel-in-progress: true
-defaults:
- run:
-  working-directory: ./optd-persistent
 name: check
 jobs:
   fmt:
@@ -61,22 +58,6 @@ jobs:
           components: clippy
       - name: cargo clippy
         run: cargo clippy --locked --all-targets --all-features -- -D warnings
-  doc:
-    # run docs generation on nightly rather than stable. This enables features like
-    # https://doc.rust-lang.org/beta/unstable-book/language-features/doc-cfg.html which allows an
-    # API be documented as only available in some specific platforms.
-    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    name: nightly / doc
-    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
-        with:
-          submodules: true
-      - name: Install nightly
-        uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@nightly
-      - name: Install cargo-docs-rs
-        uses: dtolnay/install@cargo-docs-rs
-      - name: cargo docs-rs
-        run: cargo docs-rs
   hack:
     # cargo-hack checks combinations of feature flags to ensure that features are all additive
     # which is required for feature unification
diff --git a/.github/workflows/test.yml b/.github/workflows/test.yml
index d6253a0..565c9eb 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/test.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/test.yml
@@ -17,9 +17,6 @@ on:
 concurrency:
   group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}
   cancel-in-progress: true
-defaults:
- run:
-  working-directory: ./optd-persistent
 name: test
 jobs:
   required:
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index db6bb3a..86281ff 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -1,14 +1,13 @@
-# Generated by Cargo
-# will have compiled files and executables
+# Contains compiled files and executables.
 debug/
 target/
 
-# These are backup files generated by rustfmt
+# These are backup files generated by rustfmt.
 **/*.rs.bk
 
+# Ignore any database files.
 **/*.db
-!init.db
 
-.DS_Store
-
-optd-persistent/sql/
+# We will check in all code-generated entity files, as newer versions of `sea-orm-cli` might
+# conflict with previous versions.
+# **/entities
diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock
index e81b740..8acb13b 100644
--- a/Cargo.lock
+++ b/Cargo.lock
@@ -1,82 +1,45 @@
 # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo.
 # It is not intended for manual editing.
-version = 3
+version = 4
 
 [[package]]
 name = "addr2line"
-version = "0.24.2"
+version = "0.14.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dfbe277e56a376000877090da837660b4427aad530e3028d44e0bffe4f89a1c1"
+checksum = "a55f82cfe485775d02112886f4169bde0c5894d75e79ead7eafe7e40a25e45f7"
 dependencies = [
  "gimli",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "adler2"
-version = "2.0.0"
+name = "adler"
+version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "512761e0bb2578dd7380c6baaa0f4ce03e84f95e960231d1dec8bf4d7d6e2627"
+checksum = "6aa100a6f6f525226719f8de3f70076be4f4191801ebd92621450d1c51e9053d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ahash"
-version = "0.7.8"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "891477e0c6a8957309ee5c45a6368af3ae14bb510732d2684ffa19af310920f9"
-dependencies = [
- "getrandom",
- "once_cell",
- "version_check",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "ahash"
-version = "0.8.11"
+version = "0.8.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e89da841a80418a9b391ebaea17f5c112ffaaa96f621d2c285b5174da76b9011"
+checksum = "77c3a9648d43b9cd48db467b3f87fdd6e146bcc88ab0180006cef2179fe11d01"
 dependencies = [
  "cfg-if",
- "const-random",
- "getrandom",
  "once_cell",
  "version_check",
  "zerocopy",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "aho-corasick"
-version = "1.1.3"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8e60d3430d3a69478ad0993f19238d2df97c507009a52b3c10addcd7f6bcb916"
-dependencies = [
- "memchr",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "aliasable"
 version = "0.1.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "250f629c0161ad8107cf89319e990051fae62832fd343083bea452d93e2205fd"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "alloc-no-stdlib"
-version = "2.0.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cc7bb162ec39d46ab1ca8c77bf72e890535becd1751bb45f64c597edb4c8c6b3"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "alloc-stdlib"
-version = "0.2.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "94fb8275041c72129eb51b7d0322c29b8387a0386127718b096429201a5d6ece"
-dependencies = [
- "alloc-no-stdlib",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "allocator-api2"
-version = "0.2.20"
+version = "0.2.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "45862d1c77f2228b9e10bc609d5bc203d86ebc9b87ad8d5d5167a6c9abf739d9"
+checksum = "d52f4a9cf8f3ff707b4eb1acd0136efd8b3bec6b345ed32fcab47c0a5c99b800"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "android-tzdata"
@@ -95,340 +58,89 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstream"
-version = "0.6.18"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8acc5369981196006228e28809f761875c0327210a891e941f4c683b3a99529b"
+checksum = "9e579a7752471abc2a8268df8b20005e3eadd975f585398f17efcfd8d4927371"
 dependencies = [
  "anstyle",
  "anstyle-parse",
  "anstyle-query",
  "anstyle-wincon",
  "colorchoice",
- "is_terminal_polyfill",
+ "is-terminal",
  "utf8parse",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle"
-version = "1.0.10"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "55cc3b69f167a1ef2e161439aa98aed94e6028e5f9a59be9a6ffb47aef1651f9"
+checksum = "41ed9a86bf92ae6580e0a31281f65a1b1d867c0cc68d5346e2ae128dddfa6a7d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle-parse"
-version = "0.2.6"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3b2d16507662817a6a20a9ea92df6652ee4f94f914589377d69f3b21bc5798a9"
+checksum = "e765fd216e48e067936442276d1d57399e37bce53c264d6fefbe298080cb57ee"
 dependencies = [
  "utf8parse",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle-query"
-version = "1.1.2"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "79947af37f4177cfead1110013d678905c37501914fba0efea834c3fe9a8d60c"
+checksum = "5ca11d4be1bab0c8bc8734a9aa7bf4ee8316d462a08c6ac5052f888fef5b494b"
 dependencies = [
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.48.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "anstyle-wincon"
-version = "3.0.6"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2109dbce0e72be3ec00bed26e6a7479ca384ad226efdd66db8fa2e3a38c83125"
+checksum = "4bcd8291a340dd8ac70e18878bc4501dd7b4ff970cfa21c207d36ece51ea88fd"
 dependencies = [
  "anstyle",
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.48.0",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "arrayref"
-version = "0.3.9"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "76a2e8124351fda1ef8aaaa3bbd7ebbcb486bbcd4225aca0aa0d84bb2db8fecb"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "arrayvec"
-version = "0.7.6"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7c02d123df017efcdfbd739ef81735b36c5ba83ec3c59c80a9d7ecc718f92e50"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "arrow"
-version = "47.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7fab9e93ba8ce88a37d5a30dce4b9913b75413dc1ac56cb5d72e5a840543f829"
-dependencies = [
- "ahash 0.8.11",
- "arrow-arith",
- "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-csv",
- "arrow-data",
- "arrow-ipc",
- "arrow-json",
- "arrow-ord",
- "arrow-row",
- "arrow-schema 47.0.0",
- "arrow-select",
- "arrow-string",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "arrow-arith"
-version = "47.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bc1d4e368e87ad9ee64f28b9577a3834ce10fe2703a26b28417d485bbbdff956"
-dependencies = [
- "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-data",
- "arrow-schema 47.0.0",
- "chrono",
- "half",
- "num",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "arrow-array"
-version = "47.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d02efa7253ede102d45a4e802a129e83bcc3f49884cab795b1ac223918e4318d"
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- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-data",
- "arrow-schema 47.0.0",
- "chrono",
- "chrono-tz",
- "half",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "num",
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-
-[[package]]
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-version = "47.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fda119225204141138cb0541c692fbfef0e875ba01bfdeaed09e9d354f9d6195"
-dependencies = [
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- "half",
- "num",
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-
-[[package]]
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-version = "47.0.0"
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- "num",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-checksum = "43ef855dc6b126dc197f43e061d4de46b9d4c033aa51c2587657f7508242cef1"
-dependencies = [
- "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
- "arrow-schema 47.0.0",
- "chrono",
- "csv",
- "csv-core",
- "lazy_static",
- "lexical-core",
- "regex",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
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- "num",
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-
-[[package]]
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-version = "47.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1248005c8ac549f869b7a840859d942bf62471479c1a2d82659d453eebcd166a"
-dependencies = [
- "arrow-array",
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- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
- "arrow-schema 47.0.0",
- "flatbuffers",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-version = "47.0.0"
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-checksum = "f03d7e3b04dd688ccec354fe449aed56b831679f03e44ee2c1cfc4045067b69c"
-dependencies = [
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- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
- "arrow-schema 47.0.0",
- "chrono",
- "half",
- "indexmap 2.6.0",
- "lexical-core",
- "num",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "arrow-ord"
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-checksum = "03b87aa408ea6a6300e49eb2eba0c032c88ed9dc19e0a9948489c55efdca71f4"
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- "arrow-buffer",
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-
-[[package]]
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-
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-checksum = "5d1d179c117b158853e0101bfbed5615e86fe97ee356b4af901f1c5001e1ce4b"
-
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-
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-
-[[package]]
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-checksum = "3c07dab4369547dbe5114677b33fbbf724971019f3818172d59a97a61c774ffd"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "async-compression"
-version = "0.4.17"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0cb8f1d480b0ea3783ab015936d2a55c87e219676f0c0b7dec61494043f21857"
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- "flate2",
- "futures-core",
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- "memchr",
- "pin-project-lite",
- "tokio",
- "xz2",
- "zstd 0.13.2",
- "zstd-safe 7.2.1",
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+checksum = "5a2f58b0bb10c380af2b26e57212856b8c9a59e0925b4c20f4a174a49734eaf7"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "async-stream"
-version = "0.3.6"
+version = "0.3.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0b5a71a6f37880a80d1d7f19efd781e4b5de42c88f0722cc13bcb6cc2cfe8476"
+checksum = "0a26cb53174ddd320edfff199a853f93d571f48eeb4dde75e67a9a3dbb7b7e5e"
 dependencies = [
  "async-stream-impl",
  "futures-core",
- "pin-project-lite",
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 [[package]]
 name = "async-stream-impl"
-version = "0.3.6"
+version = "0.3.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c7c24de15d275a1ecfd47a380fb4d5ec9bfe0933f309ed5e705b775596a3574d"
+checksum = "db134ba52475c060f3329a8ef0f8786d6b872ed01515d4b79c162e5798da1340"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "async-trait"
-version = "0.1.83"
+version = "0.1.43"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "721cae7de5c34fbb2acd27e21e6d2cf7b886dce0c27388d46c4e6c47ea4318dd"
+checksum = "b6287685011f026b98d26afd53251ad0101e856531b423eb2384265f7d4f5b01"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -442,50 +154,49 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "autocfg"
-version = "1.4.0"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ace50bade8e6234aa140d9a2f552bbee1db4d353f69b8217bc503490fc1a9f26"
+checksum = "f8aac770f1885fd7e387acedd76065302551364496e46b3dd00860b2f8359b9d"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "backtrace"
-version = "0.3.74"
+version = "0.3.58"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8d82cb332cdfaed17ae235a638438ac4d4839913cc2af585c3c6746e8f8bee1a"
+checksum = "88fb5a785d6b44fd9d6700935608639af1b8356de1e55d5f7c2740f4faa15d82"
 dependencies = [
  "addr2line",
+ "cc",
  "cfg-if",
  "libc",
  "miniz_oxide",
  "object",
  "rustc-demangle",
- "windows-targets 0.52.6",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "base64"
-version = "0.21.7"
+version = "0.21.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9d297deb1925b89f2ccc13d7635fa0714f12c87adce1c75356b39ca9b7178567"
+checksum = "a4a4ddaa51a5bc52a6948f74c06d20aaaddb71924eab79b8c97a8c556e942d6a"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "base64"
-version = "0.22.1"
+version = "0.22.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72b3254f16251a8381aa12e40e3c4d2f0199f8c6508fbecb9d91f575e0fbb8c6"
+checksum = "9475866fec1451be56a3c2400fd081ff546538961565ccb5b7142cbd22bc7a51"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "base64ct"
-version = "1.6.0"
+version = "1.4.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8c3c1a368f70d6cf7302d78f8f7093da241fb8e8807c05cc9e51a125895a6d5b"
+checksum = "71acf5509fc522cce1b100ac0121c635129bfd4d91cdf036bcc9b9935f97ccf5"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bigdecimal"
-version = "0.4.6"
+version = "0.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8f850665a0385e070b64c38d2354e6c104c8479c59868d1e48a0c13ee2c7a1c1"
+checksum = "5274a6b6e0ee020148397245b973e30163b7bffbc6d473613f850cb99888581e"
 dependencies = [
- "autocfg",
  "libm",
  "num-bigint",
  "num-integer",
@@ -495,177 +206,51 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitflags"
-version = "1.3.2"
+version = "1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "bef38d45163c2f1dde094a7dfd33ccf595c92905c8f8f4fdc18d06fb1037718a"
+checksum = "3d155346769a6855b86399e9bc3814ab343cd3d62c7e985113d46a0ec3c281fd"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "bitflags"
-version = "2.6.0"
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- "pin-project-lite",
- "rand",
- "sqlparser",
- "tempfile",
- "tokio",
- "tokio-util",
- "url",
- "uuid",
- "xz2",
- "zstd 0.12.4",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-checksum = "cb3903ed8f102892f17b48efa437f3542159241d41c564f0d1e78efdc5e663aa"
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- "arrow-schema 47.0.0",
- "chrono",
- "half",
- "num_cpus",
- "object_store",
- "parquet",
- "sqlparser",
+ "generic-array",
+ "typenum",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "datafusion-execution"
-version = "32.0.0"
+name = "cxx"
+version = "1.0.34"
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-checksum = "780b73b2407050e53f51a9781868593f694102c59e622de9a8aafc0343c4f237"
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- "chrono",
- "dashmap",
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- "futures",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "log",
- "object_store",
- "parking_lot",
- "rand",
- "tempfile",
- "url",
+ "cc",
+ "cxxbridge-flags",
+ "cxxbridge-macro",
+ "link-cplusplus",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "datafusion-expr"
-version = "32.0.0"
+name = "cxx-build"
+version = "1.0.63"
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-checksum = "24c382676338d8caba6c027ba0da47260f65ffedab38fda78f6d8043f607557c"
+checksum = "618f85c8f132bd8912aab124e15a38adc762bb7e3cef84524adde1692ef3e8bc"
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- "ahash 0.8.11",
- "arrow",
- "arrow-array",
- "datafusion-common",
- "sqlparser",
- "strum 0.25.0",
- "strum_macros 0.25.3",
+ "cc",
+ "codespan-reporting",
+ "once_cell",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "scratch",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "datafusion-optimizer"
-version = "32.0.0"
+name = "cxxbridge-flags"
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-checksum = "3f2904a432f795484fd45e29ded4537152adb60f636c05691db34fcd94c92c96"
+checksum = "ca21461be76a23df4f63a2107a0bb406ef41548e635ff7edcbd1ab5a6bb997e2"
+
+[[package]]
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- "datafusion-physical-expr",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "itertools 0.11.0",
- "log",
- "regex-syntax 0.7.5",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "datafusion-physical-expr"
-version = "32.0.0"
+name = "darling"
+version = "0.20.0"
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-checksum = "57b4968e9a998dc0476c4db7a82f280e2026b25f464e4aa0c3bb9807ee63ddfd"
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- "arrow",
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- "datafusion-expr",
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- "itertools 0.11.0",
- "libc",
- "log",
- "md-5",
- "paste",
- "petgraph",
- "rand",
- "regex",
- "sha2",
- "unicode-segmentation",
- "uuid",
+ "darling_core",
+ "darling_macro",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "datafusion-physical-plan"
-version = "32.0.0"
+name = "darling_core"
+version = "0.20.0"
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-checksum = "efd0d1fe54e37a47a2d58a1232c22786f2c28ad35805fdcd08f0253a8b0aaa90"
+checksum = "2ea05d2fcb27b53f7a98faddaf5f2914760330ab7703adfc9df13332b42189f9"
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- "arrow",
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- "datafusion-execution",
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- "datafusion-physical-expr",
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- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "indexmap 2.6.0",
- "itertools 0.11.0",
- "log",
- "once_cell",
- "parking_lot",
- "pin-project-lite",
- "rand",
- "tokio",
- "uuid",
+ "fnv",
+ "ident_case",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.87",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "datafusion-sql"
-version = "32.0.0"
+name = "darling_macro"
+version = "0.20.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b568d44c87ead99604d704f942e257c8a236ee1bbf890ee3e034ad659dcb2c21"
+checksum = "7bfb82b62b1b8a2a9808fb4caf844ede819a76cfc23b2827d7f94eefb49551eb"
 dependencies = [
- "arrow",
- "arrow-schema 47.0.0",
- "datafusion-common",
- "datafusion-expr",
- "log",
- "sqlparser",
+ "darling_core",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 2.0.87",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "der"
-version = "0.7.9"
+version = "0.7.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f55bf8e7b65898637379c1b74eb1551107c8294ed26d855ceb9fd1a09cfc9bc0"
+checksum = "19c5cb402c5c958281c7c0702edea7b780d03b86b606497ca3a10fcd3fc393ac"
 dependencies = [
  "const-oid",
  "pem-rfc7468",
@@ -1207,9 +494,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "deranged"
-version = "0.3.11"
+version = "0.3.9"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b42b6fa04a440b495c8b04d0e71b707c585f83cb9cb28cf8cd0d976c315e31b4"
+checksum = "0f32d04922c60427da6f9fef14d042d9edddef64cb9d4ce0d64d0685fbeb1fd3"
 dependencies = [
  "powerfmt",
  "serde",
@@ -1228,48 +515,54 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "displaydoc"
-version = "0.2.5"
+name = "dirs"
+version = "4.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "97369cbbc041bc366949bc74d34658d6cda5621039731c6310521892a3a20ae0"
+checksum = "ca3aa72a6f96ea37bbc5aa912f6788242832f75369bdfdadcb0e38423f100059"
 dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
+ "dirs-sys",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "doc-comment"
-version = "0.3.3"
+name = "dirs-sys"
+version = "0.3.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "fea41bba32d969b513997752735605054bc0dfa92b4c56bf1189f2e174be7a10"
+checksum = "03d86534ed367a67548dc68113a0f5db55432fdfbb6e6f9d77704397d95d5780"
+dependencies = [
+ "libc",
+ "redox_users",
+ "winapi",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "dotenvy"
-version = "0.15.7"
+version = "0.15.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1aaf95b3e5c8f23aa320147307562d361db0ae0d51242340f558153b4eb2439b"
+checksum = "ed9155c8f4dc55c7470ae9da3f63c6785245093b3f6aeb0f5bf2e968efbba314"
+dependencies = [
+ "dirs",
+]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "either"
-version = "1.13.0"
+version = "1.6.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "60b1af1c220855b6ceac025d3f6ecdd2b7c4894bfe9cd9bda4fbb4bc7c0d4cf0"
+checksum = "e78d4f1cc4ae33bbfc157ed5d5a5ef3bc29227303d595861deb238fcec4e9457"
 dependencies = [
  "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "equivalent"
-version = "1.0.1"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5443807d6dff69373d433ab9ef5378ad8df50ca6298caf15de6e52e24aaf54d5"
+checksum = "88bffebc5d80432c9b140ee17875ff173a8ab62faad5b257da912bd2f6c1c0a1"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "errno"
-version = "0.3.9"
+version = "0.3.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "534c5cf6194dfab3db3242765c03bbe257cf92f22b38f6bc0c58d59108a820ba"
+checksum = "a258e46cdc063eb8519c00b9fc845fc47bcfca4130e2f08e88665ceda8474245"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
  "windows-sys 0.52.0",
@@ -1288,9 +581,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "event-listener"
-version = "5.3.1"
+version = "5.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6032be9bd27023a771701cc49f9f053c751055f71efb2e0ae5c15809093675ba"
+checksum = "2b5fb89194fa3cad959b833185b3063ba881dbfc7030680b314250779fb4cc91"
 dependencies = [
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  "parking",
@@ -1299,45 +592,19 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "fastrand"
-version = "2.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "486f806e73c5707928240ddc295403b1b93c96a02038563881c4a2fd84b81ac4"
-
-[[package]]
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-version = "0.4.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0ce7134b9999ecaf8bcd65542e436736ef32ddca1b3e06094cb6ec5755203b80"
-
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4dac53e22462d78c16d64a1cd22371b54cc3fe94aa15e7886a2fa6e5d1ab8640"
-dependencies = [
- "bitflags 1.3.2",
- "rustc_version",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "flate2"
-version = "1.0.35"
+version = "2.0.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c936bfdafb507ebbf50b8074c54fa31c5be9a1e7e5f467dd659697041407d07c"
-dependencies = [
- "crc32fast",
- "miniz_oxide",
-]
+checksum = "25cbce373ec4653f1a01a31e8a5e5ec0c622dc27ff9c4e6606eefef5cbbed4a5"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "flume"
-version = "0.11.1"
+version = "0.11.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "da0e4dd2a88388a1f4ccc7c9ce104604dab68d9f408dc34cd45823d5a9069095"
+checksum = "55ac459de2512911e4b674ce33cf20befaba382d05b62b008afc1c8b57cbf181"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-sink",
- "spin",
+ "spin 0.9.8",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1348,28 +615,22 @@ checksum = "3f9eec918d3f24069decb9af1554cad7c880e2da24a9afd88aca000531ab82c1"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "form_urlencoded"
-version = "1.2.1"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e13624c2627564efccf4934284bdd98cbaa14e79b0b5a141218e507b3a823456"
+checksum = "ece68d15c92e84fa4f19d3780f1294e5ca82a78a6d515f1efaabcc144688be00"
 dependencies = [
+ "matches",
  "percent-encoding",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "funty"
-version = "2.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e6d5a32815ae3f33302d95fdcb2ce17862f8c65363dcfd29360480ba1001fc9c"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "futures"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "65bc07b1a8bc7c85c5f2e110c476c7389b4554ba72af57d8445ea63a576b0876"
+checksum = "90fa4cc29d25b0687b8570b0da86eac698dcb525110ad8b938fe6712baa711ec"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
- "futures-executor",
  "futures-io",
  "futures-sink",
  "futures-task",
@@ -1394,9 +655,9 @@ checksum = "05f29059c0c2090612e8d742178b0580d2dc940c837851ad723096f87af6663e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-executor"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e28d1d997f585e54aebc3f97d39e72338912123a67330d723fdbb564d646c9f"
+checksum = "29d6d2ff5bb10fb95c85b8ce46538a2e5f5e7fdc755623a7d4529ab8a4ed9d2a"
 dependencies = [
  "futures-core",
  "futures-task",
@@ -1420,17 +681,6 @@ version = "0.3.31"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9e5c1b78ca4aae1ac06c48a526a655760685149f0d465d21f37abfe57ce075c6"
 
-[[package]]
-name = "futures-macro"
-version = "0.3.31"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "162ee34ebcb7c64a8abebc059ce0fee27c2262618d7b60ed8faf72fef13c3650"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-sink"
 version = "0.3.31"
@@ -1452,7 +702,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures-channel",
  "futures-core",
  "futures-io",
- "futures-macro",
  "futures-sink",
  "futures-task",
  "memchr",
@@ -1461,11 +710,20 @@ dependencies = [
  "slab",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "fxhash"
+version = "0.2.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "c31b6d751ae2c7f11320402d34e41349dd1016f8d5d45e48c4312bc8625af50c"
+dependencies = [
+ "byteorder",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "generic-array"
-version = "0.14.7"
+version = "0.14.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "85649ca51fd72272d7821adaf274ad91c288277713d9c18820d8499a7ff69e9a"
+checksum = "501466ecc8a30d1d3b7fc9229b122b2ce8ed6e9d9223f1138d4babb253e51817"
 dependencies = [
  "typenum",
  "version_check",
@@ -1473,9 +731,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "getrandom"
-version = "0.2.15"
+version = "0.2.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c4567c8db10ae91089c99af84c68c38da3ec2f087c3f82960bcdbf3656b6f4d7"
+checksum = "c05aeb6a22b8f62540c194aac980f2115af067bfe15a0734d7277a768d396b31"
 dependencies = [
  "cfg-if",
  "libc",
@@ -1484,35 +742,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "gimli"
-version = "0.31.1"
+version = "0.23.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "07e28edb80900c19c28f1072f2e8aeca7fa06b23cd4169cefe1af5aa3260783f"
+checksum = "f6503fe142514ca4799d4c26297c4248239fe8838d827db6bd6065c6ed29a6ce"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "glob"
-version = "0.3.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d2fabcfbdc87f4758337ca535fb41a6d701b65693ce38287d856d1674551ec9b"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "half"
-version = "2.4.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6dd08c532ae367adf81c312a4580bc67f1d0fe8bc9c460520283f4c0ff277888"
-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "crunchy",
- "num-traits",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "hashbrown"
-version = "0.12.3"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8a9ee70c43aaf417c914396645a0fa852624801b24ebb7ae78fe8272889ac888"
-dependencies = [
- "ahash 0.7.8",
-]
+checksum = "9b919933a397b79c37e33b77bb2aa3dc8eb6e165ad809e58ff75bc7db2e34574"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hashbrown"
@@ -1520,23 +758,17 @@ version = "0.14.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "e5274423e17b7c9fc20b6e7e208532f9b19825d82dfd615708b70edd83df41f1"
 dependencies = [
- "ahash 0.8.11",
+ "ahash",
  "allocator-api2",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "hashbrown"
-version = "0.15.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3a9bfc1af68b1726ea47d3d5109de126281def866b33970e10fbab11b5dafab3"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "hashlink"
-version = "0.9.1"
+version = "0.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6ba4ff7128dee98c7dc9794b6a411377e1404dba1c97deb8d1a55297bd25d8af"
+checksum = "692eaaf7f7607518dd3cef090f1474b61edc5301d8012f09579920df68b725ee"
 dependencies = [
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
+ "hashbrown",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1553,9 +785,9 @@ checksum = "2304e00983f87ffb38b55b444b5e3b60a884b5d30c0fca7d82fe33449bbe55ea"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hermit-abi"
-version = "0.3.9"
+version = "0.3.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d231dfb89cfffdbc30e7fc41579ed6066ad03abda9e567ccafae602b97ec5024"
+checksum = "443144c8cdadd93ebf52ddb4056d257f5b52c04d3c804e657d19eb73fc33668b"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hex"
@@ -1565,176 +797,53 @@ checksum = "7f24254aa9a54b5c858eaee2f5bccdb46aaf0e486a595ed5fd8f86ba55232a70"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hkdf"
-version = "0.12.4"
+version = "0.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7b5f8eb2ad728638ea2c7d47a21db23b7b58a72ed6a38256b8a1849f15fbbdf7"
+checksum = "94f41e9c77b6fc05b57497b960aad55942a9bbc5b20e1e623cf7fb1868f695d1"
 dependencies = [
  "hmac",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "hmac"
-version = "0.12.1"
+version = "0.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6c49c37c09c17a53d937dfbb742eb3a961d65a994e6bcdcf37e7399d0cc8ab5e"
+checksum = "ddca131f3e7f2ce2df364b57949a9d47915cfbd35e46cfee355ccebbf794d6a2"
 dependencies = [
  "digest",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "home"
-version = "0.5.9"
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-
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-dependencies = [
- "num-bigint",
- "num-complex",
- "num-integer",
- "num-iter",
- "num-rational",
- "num-traits",
+ "version_check",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num-bigint"
-version = "0.4.6"
+version = "0.4.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a5e44f723f1133c9deac646763579fdb3ac745e418f2a7af9cd0c431da1f20b9"
+checksum = "f93ab6289c7b344a8a9f60f88d80aa20032336fe78da341afc91c8a2341fc75f"
 dependencies = [
+ "autocfg",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num-bigint-dig"
-version = "0.8.4"
+version = "0.8.2"
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-checksum = "dc84195820f291c7697304f3cbdadd1cb7199c0efc917ff5eafd71225c136151"
+checksum = "2399c9463abc5f909349d8aa9ba080e0b88b3ce2885389b60b993f39b1a56905"
 dependencies = [
  "byteorder",
  "lazy_static",
@@ -2117,15 +1092,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "zeroize",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
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-version = "0.4.6"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "73f88a1307638156682bada9d7604135552957b7818057dcef22705b4d509495"
-dependencies = [
- "num-traits",
-]
-
 [[package]]
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@@ -2134,40 +1100,29 @@ checksum = "51d515d32fb182ee37cda2ccdcb92950d6a3c2893aa280e540671c2cd0f3b1d9"
 
 [[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7969661fd2958a5cb096e56c8e1ad0444ac2bbcd0061bd28660485a44879858f"
-dependencies = [
- "num-traits",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "num-iter"
-version = "0.1.45"
+version = "0.1.42"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1429034a0490724d0075ebb2bc9e875d6503c3cf69e235a8941aa757d83ef5bf"
+checksum = "3f6ea62e9d81a77cd3ee9a2a5b9b609447857f3d358704331e4ef39eb247fcba"
 dependencies = [
  "autocfg",
- "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "num-rational"
-version = "0.4.2"
+name = "num-iter"
+version = "0.1.37"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f83d14da390562dca69fc84082e73e548e1ad308d24accdedd2720017cb37824"
+checksum = "af3fdbbc3291a5464dc57b03860ec37ca6bf915ed6ee385e7c6c052c422b2124"
 dependencies = [
- "num-bigint",
  "num-integer",
  "num-traits",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "num-traits"
-version = "0.2.19"
+version = "0.2.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "071dfc062690e90b734c0b2273ce72ad0ffa95f0c74596bc250dcfd960262841"
+checksum = "9a64b1ec5cda2586e284722486d802acf1f7dbdc623e2bfc57e65ca1cd099290"
 dependencies = [
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  "libm",
@@ -2175,141 +1130,56 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "1.16.0"
+version = "1.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4161fcb6d602d4d2081af7c3a45852d875a03dd337a6bfdd6e06407b61342a43"
+checksum = "c51a3322e4bca9d212ad9a158a02abc6934d005490c054a2778df73a70aa0a30"
 dependencies = [
- "hermit-abi",
  "libc",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4e613fc340b2220f734a8595782c551f1250e969d87d3be1ae0579e8d4065179"
-dependencies = [
- "num_enum_derive",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-checksum = "af1844ef2428cc3e1cb900be36181049ef3d3193c63e43026cfe202983b27a56"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro-crate",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "object"
-version = "0.36.5"
+version = "0.23.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "aedf0a2d09c573ed1d8d85b30c119153926a2b36dce0ab28322c09a117a4683e"
-dependencies = [
- "memchr",
-]
-
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- "bytes",
- "chrono",
- "futures",
- "humantime",
- "itertools 0.11.0",
- "parking_lot",
- "percent-encoding",
- "snafu",
- "tokio",
- "tracing",
- "url",
- "walkdir",
-]
+checksum = "a9a7ab5d64814df0fe4a4b5ead45ed6c5f181ee3ff04ba344313a6c80446c5d4"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "once_cell"
-version = "1.20.2"
+version = "1.18.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1261fe7e33c73b354eab43b1273a57c8f967d0391e80353e51f764ac02cf6775"
-
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- "itertools 0.13.0",
- "optd-persistent",
- "ordered-float 4.5.0",
- "rand",
- "serde",
- "serde_json",
- "serde_with",
- "test-case",
- "tokio",
- "trait-variant",
-]
+checksum = "dd8b5dd2ae5ed71462c540258bedcb51965123ad7e7ccf4b9a8cafaa4a63576d"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "optd-persistent"
+name = "optd-mvp"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
  "async-stream",
  "async-trait",
- "num_enum",
+ "fxhash",
  "sea-orm",
  "sea-orm-migration",
+ "serde",
  "serde_json",
- "strum 0.26.3",
+ "strum",
+ "thiserror 2.0.0",
  "tokio",
  "trait-variant",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "2.10.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "68f19d67e5a2795c94e73e0bb1cc1a7edeb2e28efd39e2e1c9b7a40c1108b11c"
-dependencies = [
- "num-traits",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f1e1c390732d15f1d48471625cd92d154e66db2c56645e29a9cd26f4699f72dc"
-dependencies = [
- "num-traits",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "ordered-float"
-version = "4.5.0"
+version = "3.4.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c65ee1f9701bf938026630b455d5315f490640234259037edb259798b3bcf85e"
+checksum = "d84eb1409416d254e4a9c8fa56cc24701755025b458f0fcd8e59e1f5f40c23bf"
 dependencies = [
  "num-traits",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ouroboros"
-version = "0.18.4"
+version = "0.18.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "944fa20996a25aded6b4795c6d63f10014a7a83f8be9828a11860b08c5fc4a67"
+checksum = "1c86de06555b970aec45229b27291b53154f21a5743a163419f4e4c0b065dcde"
 dependencies = [
  "aliasable",
  "ouroboros_macro",
@@ -2318,12 +1188,12 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ouroboros_macro"
-version = "0.18.4"
+version = "0.18.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "39b0deead1528fd0e5947a8546a9642a9777c25f6e1e26f34c97b204bbb465bd"
+checksum = "3633d65683f13b9bcfaa3150880b018899fb0e5d0542f4adaea4f503fdb5eabf"
 dependencies = [
  "heck 0.4.1",
- "itertools 0.12.1",
+ "itertools 0.12.0",
  "proc-macro2",
  "proc-macro2-diagnostics",
  "quote",
@@ -2332,15 +1202,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "parking"
-version = "2.2.1"
+version = "2.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f38d5652c16fde515bb1ecef450ab0f6a219d619a7274976324d5e377f7dceba"
+checksum = "427c3892f9e783d91cc128285287e70a59e206ca452770ece88a76f7a3eddd72"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "parking_lot"
-version = "0.12.3"
+version = "0.12.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f1bf18183cf54e8d6059647fc3063646a1801cf30896933ec2311622cc4b9a27"
+checksum = "87f5ec2493a61ac0506c0f4199f99070cbe83857b0337006a30f3e6719b8ef58"
 dependencies = [
  "lock_api",
  "parking_lot_core",
@@ -2348,65 +1218,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "parking_lot_core"
-version = "0.9.10"
+version = "0.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1e401f977ab385c9e4e3ab30627d6f26d00e2c73eef317493c4ec6d468726cf8"
+checksum = "b2f4f894f3865f6c0e02810fc597300f34dc2510f66400da262d8ae10e75767d"
 dependencies = [
  "cfg-if",
  "libc",
  "redox_syscall",
  "smallvec",
- "windows-targets 0.52.6",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-version = "47.0.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
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-dependencies = [
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- "arrow-array",
- "arrow-buffer",
- "arrow-cast",
- "arrow-data",
- "arrow-ipc",
- "arrow-schema 47.0.0",
- "arrow-select",
- "base64 0.21.7",
- "brotli",
- "bytes",
- "chrono",
- "flate2",
- "futures",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
- "lz4",
- "num",
- "num-bigint",
- "object_store",
- "paste",
- "seq-macro",
- "snap",
- "thrift",
- "tokio",
- "twox-hash",
- "zstd 0.12.4",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "parse-zoneinfo"
-version = "0.3.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1f2a05b18d44e2957b88f96ba460715e295bc1d7510468a2f3d3b44535d26c24"
-dependencies = [
- "regex",
+ "windows-sys 0.29.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "paste"
-version = "1.0.15"
+version = "1.0.6"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "57c0d7b74b563b49d38dae00a0c37d4d6de9b432382b2892f0574ddcae73fd0a"
+checksum = "0744126afe1a6dd7f394cb50a716dbe086cb06e255e53d8d0185d82828358fb5"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pem-rfc7468"
@@ -2419,63 +1246,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "percent-encoding"
-version = "2.3.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3148f5046208a5d56bcfc03053e3ca6334e51da8dfb19b6cdc8b306fae3283e"
-
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b4c5cc86750666a3ed20bdaf5ca2a0344f9c67674cae0515bec2da16fbaa47db"
-dependencies = [
- "fixedbitset",
- "indexmap 2.6.0",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-version = "0.11.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ade2d8b8f33c7333b51bcf0428d37e217e9f32192ae4772156f65063b8ce03dc"
-dependencies = [
- "phf_shared",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-version = "0.11.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e8d39688d359e6b34654d328e262234662d16cc0f60ec8dcbe5e718709342a5a"
-dependencies = [
- "phf_generator",
- "phf_shared",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "phf_generator"
-version = "0.11.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "48e4cc64c2ad9ebe670cb8fd69dd50ae301650392e81c05f9bfcb2d5bdbc24b0"
-dependencies = [
- "phf_shared",
- "rand",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "phf_shared"
-version = "0.11.2"
+version = "2.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "90fcb95eef784c2ac79119d1dd819e162b5da872ce6f3c3abe1e8ca1c082f72b"
-dependencies = [
- "siphasher",
-]
+checksum = "d4fd5641d01c8f18a23da7b6fe29298ff4b55afcccdf78973b24cf3175fee32e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-project-lite"
-version = "0.2.15"
+version = "0.2.12"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "915a1e146535de9163f3987b8944ed8cf49a18bb0056bcebcdcece385cece4ff"
+checksum = "12cc1b0bf1727a77a54b6654e7b5f1af8604923edc8b81885f8ec92f9e3f0a05"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-utils"
@@ -2506,9 +1285,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "pkg-config"
-version = "0.3.31"
+version = "0.3.19"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "953ec861398dccce10c670dfeaf3ec4911ca479e9c02154b3a215178c5f566f2"
+checksum = "3831453b3449ceb48b6d9c7ad7c96d5ea673e9b470a1dc578c2ce6521230884c"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "powerfmt"
@@ -2518,58 +1297,50 @@ checksum = "439ee305def115ba05938db6eb1644ff94165c5ab5e9420d1c1bcedbba909391"
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "0.2.20"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "77957b295656769bb8ad2b6a6b09d897d94f05c41b069aede1fcdaa675eaea04"
-dependencies = [
- "zerocopy",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "proc-macro-crate"
-version = "3.2.0"
+version = "0.2.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8ecf48c7ca261d60b74ab1a7b20da18bede46776b2e55535cb958eb595c5fa7b"
-dependencies = [
- "toml_edit",
-]
+checksum = "237a5ed80e274dbc66f86bd59c1e25edc039660be53194b5fe0a482e0f2612ea"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "proc-macro-error-attr2"
-version = "2.0.0"
+name = "proc-macro-error"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "96de42df36bb9bba5542fe9f1a054b8cc87e172759a1868aa05c1f3acc89dfc5"
+checksum = "2d259aa4825fa1a2371419d30a520219feff9fb3591550a209b4477d2ebaae4f"
 dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro-error-attr",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
+ "version_check",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "proc-macro-error2"
-version = "2.0.1"
+name = "proc-macro-error-attr"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "11ec05c52be0a07b08061f7dd003e7d7092e0472bc731b4af7bb1ef876109802"
+checksum = "dd21889899aa8e1ca2b924c1d3f08086631fc90768225b3268b5d5c3e806a503"
 dependencies = [
- "proc-macro-error-attr2",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
+ "syn-mid",
+ "version_check",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "proc-macro2"
-version = "1.0.89"
+version = "1.0.83"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f139b0662de085916d1fb67d2b4169d1addddda1919e696f3252b740b629986e"
+checksum = "0b33eb56c327dec362a9e55b3ad14f9d2f0904fb5a5b03b513ab5465399e9f43"
 dependencies = [
  "unicode-ident",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "proc-macro2-diagnostics"
-version = "0.10.1"
+version = "0.10.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "af066a9c399a26e020ada66a034357a868728e72cd426f3adcd35f80d88d88c8"
+checksum = "606c4ba35817e2922a308af55ad51bab3645b59eae5c570d4a6cf07e36bd493b"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -2578,57 +1349,32 @@ dependencies = [
  "yansi",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "ptr_meta"
-version = "0.1.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0738ccf7ea06b608c10564b31debd4f5bc5e197fc8bfe088f68ae5ce81e7a4f1"
-dependencies = [
- "ptr_meta_derive",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-version = "0.1.4"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "16b845dbfca988fa33db069c0e230574d15a3088f147a87b64c7589eb662c9ac"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "quote"
-version = "1.0.37"
+version = "1.0.35"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b5b9d34b8991d19d98081b46eacdd8eb58c6f2b201139f7c5f643cc155a633af"
+checksum = "291ec9ab5efd934aaf503a6466c5d5251535d108ee747472c3977cc5acc868ef"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
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-version = "0.7.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dc33ff2d4973d518d823d61aa239014831e521c75da58e3df4840d3f47749d09"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "rand"
-version = "0.8.5"
+version = "0.8.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404"
+checksum = "2e7573632e6454cf6b99d7aac4ccca54be06da05aca2ef7423d22d27d4d4bcd8"
 dependencies = [
  "libc",
  "rand_chacha",
  "rand_core",
+ "rand_hc",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rand_chacha"
-version = "0.3.1"
+version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e6c10a63a0fa32252be49d21e7709d4d4baf8d231c2dbce1eaa8141b9b127d88"
+checksum = "e12735cf05c9e10bf21534da50a147b924d555dc7a547c42e6bb2d5b6017ae0d"
 dependencies = [
  "ppv-lite86",
  "rand_core",
@@ -2643,176 +1389,119 @@ dependencies = [
  "getrandom",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "rand_hc"
+version = "0.3.0"
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+checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73"
+dependencies = [
+ "rand_core",
+]
+
 [[package]]
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+version = "0.2.8"
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-checksum = "9b6dfecf2c74bce2466cabf93f6664d6998a69eb21e39f4207930065b27b771f"
+checksum = "742739e41cd49414de871ea5e549afb7e2a3ac77b589bcbebe8c82fab37147fc"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.6.0",
+ "bitflags 1.1.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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+name = "redox_users"
+version = "0.4.0"
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-checksum = "b544ef1b4eac5dc2db33ea63606ae9ffcfac26c1416a2806ae0bf5f56b201191"
+checksum = "528532f3d801c87aec9def2add9ca802fe569e44a544afe633765267840abe64"
 dependencies = [
- "aho-corasick",
- "memchr",
- "regex-automata 0.4.9",
- "regex-syntax 0.8.5",
+ "getrandom",
+ "redox_syscall",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "regex-automata"
-version = "0.1.10"
+name = "regex"
+version = "1.6.0"
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-checksum = "6c230d73fb8d8c1b9c0b3135c5142a8acee3a0558fb8db5cf1cb65f8d7862132"
+checksum = "4c4eb3267174b8c6c2f654116623910a0fef09c4753f8dd83db29c48a0df988b"
 dependencies = [
- "regex-syntax 0.6.29",
+ "regex-syntax",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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+version = "0.1.0"
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-checksum = "809e8dc61f6de73b46c85f4c96486310fe304c434cfa43669d7b40f711150908"
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 dependencies = [
- "aho-corasick",
- "memchr",
- "regex-syntax 0.8.5",
+ "byteorder",
+ "regex-syntax",
+ "utf8-ranges",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "0.6.29"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
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-
-[[package]]
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-checksum = "71fe3824f5629716b1589be05dacd749f6aa084c87e00e016714a8cdfccc997c"
-dependencies = [
- "bytecheck",
-]
+checksum = "a3f87b73ce11b1619a3c6332f45341e0047173771e8b8b73f87bfeefb7b56244"
 
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-version = "0.17.8"
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-checksum = "c17fa4cb658e3583423e915b9f3acc01cceaee1860e33d59ebae66adc3a2dc0d"
+checksum = "fb9d44f9bf6b635117787f72416783eb7e4227aaf255e5ce739563d817176a7e"
 dependencies = [
  "cc",
- "cfg-if",
  "getrandom",
  "libc",
- "spin",
+ "spin 0.9.8",
  "untrusted",
- "windows-sys 0.52.0",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rkyv"
-version = "0.7.45"
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- "uuid",
-]
-
-[[package]]
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-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
+ "windows-sys 0.48.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rsa"
-version = "0.9.6"
+version = "0.9.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5d0e5124fcb30e76a7e79bfee683a2746db83784b86289f6251b54b7950a0dfc"
+checksum = "3dd2017d3e6d67384f301f8b06fbf4567afc576430a61624d845eb04d2b30a72"
 dependencies = [
+ "byteorder",
  "const-oid",
  "digest",
  "num-bigint-dig",
  "num-integer",
+ "num-iter",
  "num-traits",
  "pkcs1",
  "pkcs8",
  "rand_core",
  "signature",
- "spki",
  "subtle",
  "zeroize",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rust_decimal"
-version = "1.36.0"
+version = "1.26.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b082d80e3e3cc52b2ed634388d436fe1f4de6af5786cc2de9ba9737527bdf555"
+checksum = "ee9164faf726e4f3ece4978b25ca877ddc6802fa77f38cdccb32c7f805ecd70c"
 dependencies = [
  "arrayvec",
- "borsh",
- "bytes",
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- "rand",
- "rkyv",
  "serde",
- "serde_json",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "719b953e2095829ee67db738b3bfa9fa368c94900df327b3f07fe6e794d2fe1f"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "rustc_version"
-version = "0.4.1"
+version = "0.1.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "cfcb3a22ef46e85b45de6ee7e79d063319ebb6594faafcf1c225ea92ab6e9b92"
-dependencies = [
- "semver",
-]
+checksum = "3058a43ada2c2d0b92b3ae38007a2d0fa5e9db971be260e0171408a4ff471c95"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustix"
-version = "0.38.40"
+version = "0.38.31"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "99e4ea3e1cdc4b559b8e5650f9c8e5998e3e5c1343b4eaf034565f32318d63c0"
+checksum = "6ea3e1a662af26cd7a3ba09c0297a31af215563ecf42817c98df621387f4e949"
 dependencies = [
- "bitflags 2.6.0",
+ "bitflags 2.4.0",
  "errno",
  "libc",
  "linux-raw-sys",
@@ -2821,9 +1510,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls"
-version = "0.23.16"
+version = "0.23.11"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eee87ff5d9b36712a58574e12e9f0ea80f915a5b0ac518d322b24a465617925e"
+checksum = "4828ea528154ae444e5a642dbb7d5623354030dc9822b83fd9bb79683c7399d0"
 dependencies = [
  "once_cell",
  "ring",
@@ -2835,65 +1524,57 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-pemfile"
-version = "2.2.0"
+version = "2.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "dce314e5fee3f39953d46bb63bb8a46d40c2f8fb7cc5a3b6cab2bde9721d6e50"
+checksum = "35e4980fa29e4c4b212ffb3db068a564cbf560e51d3944b7c88bd8bf5bec64f4"
 dependencies = [
+ "base64 0.21.0",
  "rustls-pki-types",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "rustls-pki-types"
-version = "1.10.0"
+version = "1.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "16f1201b3c9a7ee8039bcadc17b7e605e2945b27eee7631788c1bd2b0643674b"
+checksum = "976295e77ce332211c0d24d92c0e83e50f5c5f046d11082cea19f3df13a3562d"
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "0.102.8"
+version = "0.102.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "64ca1bc8749bd4cf37b5ce386cc146580777b4e8572c7b97baf22c83f444bee9"
+checksum = "f9a6fccd794a42c2c105b513a2f62bc3fd8f3ba57a4593677ceb0bd035164d78"
 dependencies = [
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  "rustls-pki-types",
  "untrusted",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
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-version = "1.0.18"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0e819f2bc632f285be6d7cd36e25940d45b2391dd6d9b939e79de557f7014248"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "ryu"
-version = "1.0.18"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f3cb5ba0dc43242ce17de99c180e96db90b235b8a9fdc9543c96d2209116bd9f"
+checksum = "c92464b447c0ee8c4fb3824ecc8383b81717b9f1e74ba2e72540aef7b9f82997"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "same-file"
-version = "1.0.6"
+name = "scopeguard"
+version = "1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "93fc1dc3aaa9bfed95e02e6eadabb4baf7e3078b0bd1b4d7b6b0b68378900502"
-dependencies = [
- "winapi-util",
-]
+checksum = "d29ab0c6d3fc0ee92fe66e2d99f700eab17a8d57d1c1d3b748380fb20baa78cd"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "scopeguard"
-version = "1.2.0"
+name = "scratch"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "94143f37725109f92c262ed2cf5e59bce7498c01bcc1502d7b9afe439a4e9f49"
+checksum = "7e114536316b51a5aa7a0e59fc49661fd263c5507dd08bd28de052e57626ce69"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sea-bae"
-version = "0.2.1"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f694a6ab48f14bc063cfadff30ab551d3c7e46d8f81836c51989d548f44a2a25"
+checksum = "3bd3534a9978d0aa7edd2808dc1f8f31c4d0ecd31ddf71d997b3c98e9f3c9114"
 dependencies = [
  "heck 0.4.1",
- "proc-macro-error2",
+ "proc-macro-error",
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "syn 2.0.87",
@@ -2919,8 +1600,8 @@ dependencies = [
  "serde",
  "serde_json",
  "sqlx",
- "strum 0.26.3",
- "thiserror",
+ "strum",
+ "thiserror 1.0.35",
  "time",
  "tracing",
  "url",
@@ -2929,9 +1610,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sea-orm-cli"
-version = "1.1.1"
+version = "1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "70a157f42d291ccbd6e913b9d9b12dbe2ccbcf0472efc60c8715dd1254083aec"
+checksum = "0aefbd960c9ed7b2dfbab97b11890f5d8c314ad6e2f68c7b36c73ea0967fcc25"
 dependencies = [
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  "clap",
@@ -2960,9 +1641,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sea-orm-migration"
-version = "1.1.1"
+version = "1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "63ba07e9f2479cc671758fcb1edee42ff2e32c34b3e67ab41d0af1e41f73c74e"
+checksum = "aa7bbfbe3bec60b5925193acc9c98b9f8ae9853f52c8004df0c1ea5193c01ea0"
 dependencies = [
  "async-trait",
  "clap",
@@ -2984,7 +1665,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "bigdecimal",
  "chrono",
  "inherent",
- "ordered-float 3.9.2",
+ "ordered-float",
  "rust_decimal",
  "sea-query-derive",
  "serde_json",
@@ -3019,14 +1700,14 @@ dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
  "syn 2.0.87",
- "thiserror",
+ "thiserror 1.0.35",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sea-schema"
-version = "0.16.0"
+version = "0.16.0-rc.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "aab1592d17860a9a8584d9b549aebcd06f7bdc3ff615f71752486ba0b05b1e6e"
+checksum = "a2a4ff9e87c4340affbec4f7790d724dcd87e71fcd0ffe2247481843380485aa"
 dependencies = [
  "futures",
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@@ -3045,38 +1726,20 @@ dependencies = [
  "syn 2.0.87",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "seahash"
-version = "4.1.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1c107b6f4780854c8b126e228ea8869f4d7b71260f962fefb57b996b8959ba6b"
-
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "61697e0a1c7e512e84a621326239844a24d8207b4669b41bc18b32ea5cbf988b"
-
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a3f0bf26fd526d2a95683cd0f87bf103b8539e2ca1ef48ce002d67aad59aa0b4"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "serde"
-version = "1.0.215"
+version = "1.0.194"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6513c1ad0b11a9376da888e3e0baa0077f1aed55c17f50e7b2397136129fb88f"
+checksum = "0b114498256798c94a0689e1a15fec6005dee8ac1f41de56404b67afc2a4b773"
 dependencies = [
  "serde_derive",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_derive"
-version = "1.0.215"
+version = "1.0.194"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ad1e866f866923f252f05c889987993144fb74e722403468a4ebd70c3cd756c0"
+checksum = "a3385e45322e8f9931410f01b3031ec534c3947d0e94c18049af4d9f9907d4e0"
 dependencies = [
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  "quote",
@@ -3085,63 +1748,32 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_json"
-version = "1.0.132"
+version = "1.0.118"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d726bfaff4b320266d395898905d0eba0345aae23b54aee3a737e260fd46db03"
+checksum = "d947f6b3163d8857ea16c4fa0dd4840d52f3041039a85decd46867eb1abef2e4"
 dependencies = [
- "itoa",
- "memchr",
+ "itoa 1.0.1",
  "ryu",
  "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "serde_urlencoded"
-version = "0.7.1"
+version = "0.7.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d3491c14715ca2294c4d6a88f15e84739788c1d030eed8c110436aafdaa2f3fd"
+checksum = "edfa57a7f8d9c1d260a549e7224100f6c43d43f9103e06dd8b4095a9b2b43ce9"
 dependencies = [
  "form_urlencoded",
- "itoa",
+ "itoa 0.4.0",
  "ryu",
  "serde",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "serde_with"
-version = "3.11.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8e28bdad6db2b8340e449f7108f020b3b092e8583a9e3fb82713e1d4e71fe817"
-dependencies = [
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- "chrono",
- "hex",
- "indexmap 1.9.3",
- "indexmap 2.6.0",
- "serde",
- "serde_derive",
- "serde_json",
- "serde_with_macros",
- "time",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "serde_with_macros"
-version = "3.11.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9d846214a9854ef724f3da161b426242d8de7c1fc7de2f89bb1efcb154dca79d"
-dependencies = [
- "darling",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "sha1"
-version = "0.10.6"
+version = "0.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e3bf829a2d51ab4a5ddf1352d8470c140cadc8301b2ae1789db023f01cedd6ba"
+checksum = "c77f4e7f65455545c2153c1253d25056825e77ee2533f0e41deb65a93a34852f"
 dependencies = [
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  "cpufeatures",
@@ -3150,9 +1782,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sha2"
-version = "0.10.8"
+version = "0.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "793db75ad2bcafc3ffa7c68b215fee268f537982cd901d132f89c6343f3a3dc8"
+checksum = "99c3bd8169c58782adad9290a9af5939994036b76187f7b4f0e6de91dbbfc0ec"
 dependencies = [
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  "cpufeatures",
@@ -3161,96 +1793,53 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sharded-slab"
-version = "0.1.7"
+version = "0.1.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "f40ca3c46823713e0d4209592e8d6e826aa57e928f09752619fc696c499637f6"
+checksum = "900fba806f70c630b0a382d0d825e17a0f19fcd059a2ade1ff237bcddf446b31"
 dependencies = [
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 ]
 
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0fda2ff0d084019ba4d7c6f371c95d8fd75ce3524c3cb8fb653a3023f6323e64"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "signature"
-version = "2.2.0"
+version = "2.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "77549399552de45a898a580c1b41d445bf730df867cc44e6c0233bbc4b8329de"
+checksum = "8fe458c98333f9c8152221191a77e2a44e8325d0193484af2e9421a53019e57d"
 dependencies = [
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 ]
 
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
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-
-[[package]]
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "38b58827f4464d87d377d175e90bf58eb00fd8716ff0a62f80356b5e61555d0d"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "slab"
-version = "0.4.9"
+version = "0.4.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8f92a496fb766b417c996b9c5e57daf2f7ad3b0bebe1ccfca4856390e3d3bb67"
-dependencies = [
- "autocfg",
-]
+checksum = "c111b5bd5695e56cffe5129854aa230b39c93a305372fdbb2668ca2394eea9f8"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "smallvec"
-version = "1.13.2"
+version = "1.10.0"
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-checksum = "3c5e1a9a646d36c3599cd173a41282daf47c44583ad367b8e6837255952e5c67"
+checksum = "a507befe795404456341dfab10cef66ead4c041f62b8b11bbb92bffe5d0953e0"
 dependencies = [
  "serde",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "snafu"
-version = "0.7.5"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "e4de37ad025c587a29e8f3f5605c00f70b98715ef90b9061a815b9e59e9042d6"
-dependencies = [
- "doc-comment",
- "snafu-derive",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "snafu-derive"
-version = "0.7.5"
+name = "socket2"
+version = "0.5.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "990079665f075b699031e9c08fd3ab99be5029b96f3b78dc0709e8f77e4efebf"
+checksum = "2538b18701741680e0322a2302176d3253a35388e2e62f172f64f4f16605f877"
 dependencies = [
- "heck 0.4.1",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
+ "libc",
+ "windows-sys 0.48.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "snap"
-version = "1.1.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1b6b67fb9a61334225b5b790716f609cd58395f895b3fe8b328786812a40bc3b"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "socket2"
-version = "0.5.7"
+name = "spin"
+version = "0.4.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ce305eb0b4296696835b71df73eb912e0f1ffd2556a501fcede6e0c50349191c"
-dependencies = [
- "libc",
- "windows-sys 0.52.0",
-]
+checksum = "ceac490aa12c567115b40b7b7fceca03a6c9d53d5defea066123debc83c5dc1f"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spin"
@@ -3263,9 +1852,9 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "spki"
-version = "0.7.3"
+version = "0.7.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "d91ed6c858b01f942cd56b37a94b3e0a1798290327d1236e4d9cf4eaca44d29d"
+checksum = "37a5be806ab6f127c3da44b7378837ebf01dadca8510a0e572460216b228bd0e"
 dependencies = [
  "base64ct",
  "der",
@@ -3273,35 +1862,15 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sqlformat"
-version = "0.2.6"
+version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7bba3a93db0cc4f7bdece8bb09e77e2e785c20bfebf79eb8340ed80708048790"
+checksum = "f87e292b4291f154971a43c3774364e2cbcaec599d3f5bf6fa9d122885dbc38a"
 dependencies = [
+ "itertools 0.10.0",
  "nom",
  "unicode_categories",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "sqlparser"
-version = "0.38.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0272b7bb0a225320170c99901b4b5fb3a4384e255a7f2cc228f61e2ba3893e75"
-dependencies = [
- "log",
- "sqlparser_derive",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "sqlparser_derive"
-version = "0.1.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "55fe75cb4a364c7f7ae06c7dbbc8d84bddd85d6cdf9975963c3935bc1991761e"
-dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 1.0.109",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "sqlx"
 version = "0.8.2"
@@ -3335,10 +1904,10 @@ dependencies = [
  "futures-intrusive",
  "futures-io",
  "futures-util",
- "hashbrown 0.14.5",
+ "hashbrown",
  "hashlink",
  "hex",
- "indexmap 2.6.0",
+ "indexmap",
  "log",
  "memchr",
  "once_cell",
@@ -3352,7 +1921,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "sha2",
  "smallvec",
  "sqlformat",
- "thiserror",
+ "thiserror 1.0.35",
  "time",
  "tokio",
  "tokio-stream",
@@ -3408,9 +1977,9 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "64bb4714269afa44aef2755150a0fc19d756fb580a67db8885608cf02f47d06a"
 dependencies = [
  "atoi",
- "base64 0.22.1",
+ "base64 0.22.0",
  "bigdecimal",
- "bitflags 2.6.0",
+ "bitflags 2.4.0",
  "byteorder",
  "bytes",
  "chrono",
@@ -3426,7 +1995,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "hex",
  "hkdf",
  "hmac",
- "itoa",
+ "itoa 1.0.1",
  "log",
  "md-5",
  "memchr",
@@ -3441,7 +2010,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "smallvec",
  "sqlx-core",
  "stringprep",
- "thiserror",
+ "thiserror 1.0.35",
  "time",
  "tracing",
  "uuid",
@@ -3455,9 +2024,9 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6fa91a732d854c5d7726349bb4bb879bb9478993ceb764247660aee25f67c2f8"
 dependencies = [
  "atoi",
- "base64 0.22.1",
+ "base64 0.22.0",
  "bigdecimal",
- "bitflags 2.6.0",
+ "bitflags 2.4.0",
  "byteorder",
  "chrono",
  "crc",
@@ -3471,7 +2040,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "hkdf",
  "hmac",
  "home",
- "itoa",
+ "itoa 1.0.1",
  "log",
  "md-5",
  "memchr",
@@ -3485,7 +2054,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "smallvec",
  "sqlx-core",
  "stringprep",
- "thiserror",
+ "thiserror 1.0.35",
  "time",
  "tracing",
  "uuid",
@@ -3518,12 +2087,6 @@ dependencies = [
  "uuid",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "stable_deref_trait"
-version = "1.2.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "a8f112729512f8e442d81f95a8a7ddf2b7c6b8a1a6f509a95864142b30cab2d3"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "static_assertions"
 version = "1.1.0"
@@ -3532,73 +2095,37 @@ checksum = "a2eb9349b6444b326872e140eb1cf5e7c522154d69e7a0ffb0fb81c06b37543f"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "stringprep"
-version = "0.1.5"
+version = "0.1.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7b4df3d392d81bd458a8a621b8bffbd2302a12ffe288a9d931670948749463b1"
+checksum = "8ee348cb74b87454fff4b551cbf727025810a004f88aeacae7f85b87f4e9a1c1"
 dependencies = [
  "unicode-bidi",
  "unicode-normalization",
- "unicode-properties",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "strsim"
-version = "0.11.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7da8b5736845d9f2fcb837ea5d9e2628564b3b043a70948a3f0b778838c5fb4f"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "strum"
-version = "0.25.0"
+version = "0.10.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "290d54ea6f91c969195bdbcd7442c8c2a2ba87da8bf60a7ee86a235d4bc1e125"
-dependencies = [
- "strum_macros 0.25.3",
-]
+checksum = "73473c0e59e6d5812c5dfe2a064a6444949f089e20eec9a2e5506596494e4623"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "strum"
-version = "0.26.3"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8fec0f0aef304996cf250b31b5a10dee7980c85da9d759361292b8bca5a18f06"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "strum_macros"
-version = "0.25.3"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "23dc1fa9ac9c169a78ba62f0b841814b7abae11bdd047b9c58f893439e309ea0"
-dependencies = [
- "heck 0.4.1",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.87",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "strum_macros"
-version = "0.26.4"
+version = "0.26.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4c6bee85a5a24955dc440386795aa378cd9cf82acd5f764469152d2270e581be"
-dependencies = [
- "heck 0.5.0",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "rustversion",
- "syn 2.0.87",
-]
+checksum = "117c413ac8a6cc19c773939932477a341e416eff7f0e84db42f091d85d7c6e0e"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "subtle"
-version = "2.6.1"
+version = "2.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "13c2bddecc57b384dee18652358fb23172facb8a2c51ccc10d74c157bdea3292"
+checksum = "81cdd64d312baedb58e21336b31bc043b77e01cc99033ce76ef539f78e965ebc"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
-version = "1.0.109"
+version = "1.0.98"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "72b64191b275b66ffe2469e8af2c1cfe3bafa67b529ead792a6d0160888b4237"
+checksum = "c50aef8a904de4c23c788f104b7dddc7d6f79c647c7c8ce4cc8f73eb0ca773dd"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -3617,82 +2144,71 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "synstructure"
-version = "0.13.1"
+name = "syn-mid"
+version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c8af7666ab7b6390ab78131fb5b0fce11d6b7a6951602017c35fa82800708971"
+checksum = "7be3539f6c128a931cf19dcee741c1af532c7fd387baa739c03dd2e96479338a"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "tap"
-version = "1.0.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "55937e1799185b12863d447f42597ed69d9928686b8d88a1df17376a097d8369"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "tempfile"
-version = "3.14.0"
+version = "3.10.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "28cce251fcbc87fac86a866eeb0d6c2d536fc16d06f184bb61aeae11aa4cee0c"
+checksum = "85b77fafb263dd9d05cbeac119526425676db3784113aa9295c88498cbf8bff1"
 dependencies = [
  "cfg-if",
  "fastrand",
- "once_cell",
  "rustix",
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.52.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "test-case"
-version = "3.3.1"
+name = "termcolor"
+version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "eb2550dd13afcd286853192af8601920d959b14c401fcece38071d53bf0768a8"
+checksum = "a52c023823933499250b43960b272e25336c6e2ab8684672edc34489f049ccdd"
 dependencies = [
- "test-case-macros",
+ "wincolor",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "test-case-core"
-version = "3.3.1"
+name = "thiserror"
+version = "1.0.35"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "adcb7fd841cd518e279be3d5a3eb0636409487998a4aff22f3de87b81e88384f"
+checksum = "c53f98874615aea268107765aa1ed8f6116782501d18e53d08b471733bea6c85"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
+ "thiserror-impl 1.0.35",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "test-case-macros"
-version = "3.3.1"
+name = "thiserror"
+version = "2.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "5c89e72a01ed4c579669add59014b9a524d609c0c88c6a585ce37485879f6ffb"
+checksum = "15291287e9bff1bc6f9ff3409ed9af665bec7a5fc8ac079ea96be07bca0e2668"
 dependencies = [
- "proc-macro2",
- "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
- "test-case-core",
+ "thiserror-impl 2.0.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "thiserror"
-version = "1.0.69"
+name = "thiserror-impl"
+version = "1.0.35"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "b6aaf5339b578ea85b50e080feb250a3e8ae8cfcdff9a461c9ec2904bc923f52"
+checksum = "f8b463991b4eab2d801e724172285ec4195c650e8ec79b149e6c2a8e6dd3f783"
 dependencies = [
- "thiserror-impl",
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "thiserror-impl"
-version = "1.0.69"
+version = "2.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4fee6c4efc90059e10f81e6d42c60a18f76588c3d74cb83a0b242a2b6c7504c1"
+checksum = "22efd00f33f93fa62848a7cab956c3d38c8d43095efda1decfc2b3a5dc0b8972"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -3701,25 +2217,13 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "thread_local"
-version = "1.1.8"
+version = "1.1.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "8b9ef9bad013ada3808854ceac7b46812a6465ba368859a37e2100283d2d719c"
+checksum = "5516c27b78311c50bf42c071425c560ac799b11c30b31f87e3081965fe5e0180"
 dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
  "once_cell",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "thrift"
-version = "0.17.0"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "7e54bc85fc7faa8bc175c4bab5b92ba8d9a3ce893d0e9f42cc455c8ab16a9e09"
-dependencies = [
- "byteorder",
- "integer-encoding",
- "ordered-float 2.10.1",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "time"
 version = "0.3.36"
@@ -3727,86 +2231,52 @@ source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "5dfd88e563464686c916c7e46e623e520ddc6d79fa6641390f2e3fa86e83e885"
 dependencies = [
  "deranged",
- "itoa",
+ "itoa 1.0.1",
  "num-conv",
  "powerfmt",
- "serde",
- "time-core",
- "time-macros",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "time-core"
-version = "0.1.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "ef927ca75afb808a4d64dd374f00a2adf8d0fcff8e7b184af886c3c87ec4a3f3"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "time-macros"
-version = "0.2.18"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "3f252a68540fde3a3877aeea552b832b40ab9a69e318efd078774a01ddee1ccf"
-dependencies = [
- "num-conv",
- "time-core",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tiny-keccak"
-version = "2.0.2"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "2c9d3793400a45f954c52e73d068316d76b6f4e36977e3fcebb13a2721e80237"
-dependencies = [
- "crunchy",
+ "serde",
+ "time-core",
+ "time-macros",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tinystr"
-version = "0.7.6"
+name = "time-core"
+version = "0.1.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "9117f5d4db391c1cf6927e7bea3db74b9a1c1add8f7eda9ffd5364f40f57b82f"
-dependencies = [
- "displaydoc",
- "zerovec",
-]
+checksum = "ef927ca75afb808a4d64dd374f00a2adf8d0fcff8e7b184af886c3c87ec4a3f3"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "tinyvec"
-version = "1.8.0"
+name = "time-macros"
+version = "0.2.18"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "445e881f4f6d382d5f27c034e25eb92edd7c784ceab92a0937db7f2e9471b938"
+checksum = "3f252a68540fde3a3877aeea552b832b40ab9a69e318efd078774a01ddee1ccf"
 dependencies = [
- "tinyvec_macros",
+ "num-conv",
+ "time-core",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "tinyvec_macros"
-version = "0.1.1"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "1f3ccbac311fea05f86f61904b462b55fb3df8837a366dfc601a0161d0532f20"
-
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio"
-version = "1.41.1"
+version = "1.30.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "22cfb5bee7a6a52939ca9224d6ac897bb669134078daa8735560897f69de4d33"
+checksum = "2d3ce25f50619af8b0aec2eb23deebe84249e19e2ddd393a6e16e3300a6dadfd"
 dependencies = [
  "backtrace",
  "bytes",
  "libc",
  "mio",
- "parking_lot",
+ "num_cpus",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "socket2",
  "tokio-macros",
- "windows-sys 0.52.0",
+ "windows-sys 0.48.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-macros"
-version = "2.4.0"
+version = "2.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "693d596312e88961bc67d7f1f97af8a70227d9f90c31bba5806eec004978d752"
+checksum = "630bdcf245f78637c13ec01ffae6187cca34625e8c63150d424b59e55af2675e"
 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
@@ -3815,51 +2285,22 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tokio-stream"
-version = "0.1.16"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4f4e6ce100d0eb49a2734f8c0812bcd324cf357d21810932c5df6b96ef2b86f1"
-dependencies = [
- "futures-core",
- "pin-project-lite",
- "tokio",
-]
-
-[[package]]
-name = "tokio-util"
-version = "0.7.12"
+version = "0.1.8"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "61e7c3654c13bcd040d4a03abee2c75b1d14a37b423cf5a813ceae1cc903ec6a"
+checksum = "50145484efff8818b5ccd256697f36863f587da82cf8b409c53adf1e840798e3"
 dependencies = [
- "bytes",
  "futures-core",
- "futures-sink",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tokio",
 ]
 
-[[package]]
-name = "toml_datetime"
-version = "0.6.8"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0dd7358ecb8fc2f8d014bf86f6f638ce72ba252a2c3a2572f2a795f1d23efb41"
-
-[[package]]
-name = "toml_edit"
-version = "0.22.22"
-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "4ae48d6208a266e853d946088ed816055e556cc6028c5e8e2b84d9fa5dd7c7f5"
-dependencies = [
- "indexmap 2.6.0",
- "toml_datetime",
- "winnow",
-]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "tracing"
-version = "0.1.40"
+version = "0.1.37"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "c3523ab5a71916ccf420eebdf5521fcef02141234bbc0b8a49f2fdc4544364ef"
+checksum = "8ce8c33a8d48bd45d624a6e523445fd21ec13d3653cd51f681abf67418f54eb8"
 dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if",
  "log",
  "pin-project-lite",
  "tracing-attributes",
@@ -3868,29 +2309,29 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "tracing-attributes"
-version = "0.1.27"
+version = "0.1.23"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "34704c8d6ebcbc939824180af020566b01a7c01f80641264eba0999f6c2b6be7"
+checksum = "4017f8f45139870ca7e672686113917c71c7a6e02d4924eda67186083c03081a"
 dependencies = [
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  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
 ]
 
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+checksum = "24eb03ba0eab1fd845050058ce5e616558e8f8d8fca633e6b163fe25c797213a"
 dependencies = [
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 ]
 
 [[package]]
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@@ -3912,60 +2353,38 @@ dependencies = [
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-dependencies = [
- "cfg-if",
- "static_assertions",
-]
-
 [[package]]
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-
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-checksum = "5033c97c4262335cded6d6fc3e5c18ab755e1a3dc96376350f3d8e9f009ad956"
+checksum = "2560b941fdb9ea38301b9b708504d612fcdf9c91a8c31d82219bd74cb07d304d"
 dependencies = [
- "tinyvec",
+ "matches",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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+name = "unicode-ident"
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-checksum = "e70f2a8b45122e719eb623c01822704c4e0907e7e426a05927e1a1cfff5b75d0"
+checksum = "d22af068fba1eb5edcb4aea19d382b2a3deb4c8f9d475c589b6ada9e0fd493ee"
 
 [[package]]
-name = "unicode-segmentation"
-version = "1.12.0"
+name = "unicode-normalization"
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-checksum = "f6ccf251212114b54433ec949fd6a7841275f9ada20dddd2f29e9ceea4501493"
+checksum = "51ccda9ef9efa3f7ef5d91e8f9b83bbe6955f9bf86aec89d5cce2c874625920f"
 
 [[package]]
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+checksum = "bc85732b6d55a0d520aaf765536a188d9d993770c28633422f85bb646da61335"
 
 [[package]]
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@@ -3981,40 +2400,34 @@ checksum = "8ecb6da28b8a351d773b68d5825ac39017e680750f980f3a1a85cd8dd28a47c1"
 
 [[package]]
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-checksum = "8d157f1b96d14500ffdc1f10ba712e780825526c03d9a49b4d0324b0d9113ada"
+checksum = "a507c383b2d33b5fc35d1861e77e6b383d158b2da5e14fe51b83dfedf6fd578c"
 dependencies = [
  "form_urlencoded",
  "idna",
+ "matches",
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 ]
 
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-source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
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-
-[[package]]
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+checksum = "662fab6525a98beff2921d7f61a39e7d59e0b425ebc7d0d9e66d316e55124122"
 
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-checksum = "06abde3611657adf66d383f00b093d7faecc7fa57071cce2578660c9f1010821"
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 [[package]]
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+checksum = "dd6469f4314d5f1ffec476e05f17cc9a78bc7a27a6a857842170bdf8d6f98d2f"
 dependencies = [
- "getrandom",
  "serde",
 ]
 
@@ -4026,19 +2439,9 @@ checksum = "accd4ea62f7bb7a82fe23066fb0957d48ef677f6eeb8215f372f52e48bb32426"
 
 [[package]]
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-
-[[package]]
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-dependencies = [
- "same-file",
- "winapi-util",
-]
+checksum = "49874b5167b65d7193b8aba1567f5c7d93d001cafc34600cee003eda787e483f"
 
 [[package]]
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@@ -4046,43 +2449,36 @@ version = "0.11.0+wasi-snapshot-preview1"
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-
 [[package]]
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+checksum = "83240549659d187488f91f33c0f8547cbfef0b2088bc470c116d1d260ef623d9"
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- "once_cell",
  "wasm-bindgen-macro",
 ]
 
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-version = "0.2.95"
+version = "0.2.73"
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-checksum = "cb6dd4d3ca0ddffd1dd1c9c04f94b868c37ff5fac97c30b97cff2d74fce3a358"
+checksum = "ae70622411ca953215ca6d06d3ebeb1e915f0f6613e3b495122878d7ebec7dae"
 dependencies = [
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+ "lazy_static",
  "log",
- "once_cell",
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  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
+ "syn 1.0.98",
  "wasm-bindgen-shared",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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+checksum = "3e734d91443f177bfdb41969de821e15c516931c3c3db3d318fa1b68975d0f6f"
 dependencies = [
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@@ -4090,58 +2486,112 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
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 dependencies = [
  "proc-macro2",
  "quote",
- "syn 2.0.87",
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  "wasm-bindgen-shared",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "0.2.95"
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+checksum = "d9a543ae66aa233d14bb765ed9af4a33e81b8b58d1584cf1b47ff8cd0b9e4489"
+
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+checksum = "721c6263e2c66fd44501cc5efbfa2b7dfa775d13e4ea38c46299646ed1f9c70a"
+dependencies = [
+ "js-sys",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+]
 
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+checksum = "0de2cfda980f21be5a7ed2eadb3e6fe074d56022bea2cdeb1a62eb220fc04188"
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 [[package]]
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+checksum = "524b58fa5a20a2fb3014dd6358b70e6579692a56ef6fce928834e488f42f65e8"
 dependencies = [
- "redox_syscall",
- "wasite",
+ "wasm-bindgen",
+ "web-sys",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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+name = "winapi"
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+checksum = "b3ad91d846a4a5342c1fb7008d26124ee6cf94a3953751618577295373b32117"
 dependencies = [
- "windows-sys 0.59.0",
+ "winapi-i686-pc-windows-gnu",
+ "winapi-x86_64-pc-windows-gnu",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "windows-core"
-version = "0.52.0"
+name = "winapi-i686-pc-windows-gnu"
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+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "a16a8e2ebfc883e2b1771c6482b1fb3c6831eab289ba391619a2d93a7356220f"
+
+[[package]]
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+
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+checksum = "b9dc3aa9dcda98b5a16150c54619c1ead22e3d3a5d458778ae914be760aa981a"
+dependencies = [
+ "winapi",
+]
+
+[[package]]
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+checksum = "cdacb41e6a96a052c6cb63a144f24900236121c6f63f4f8219fef5977ecb0c25"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows-targets 0.42.2",
+]
+
+[[package]]
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+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ceb069ac8b2117d36924190469735767f0990833935ab430155e71a44bafe148"
+dependencies = [
+ "windows_aarch64_msvc 0.29.0",
+ "windows_i686_gnu 0.29.0",
+ "windows_i686_msvc 0.29.0",
+ "windows_x86_64_gnu 0.29.0",
+ "windows_x86_64_msvc 0.29.0",
+]
+
+[[package]]
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-checksum = "33ab640c8d7e35bf8ba19b884ba838ceb4fba93a4e8c65a9059d08afcfc683d9"
+checksum = "75283be5efb2831d37ea142365f009c02ec203cd29a3ebecbc093d52315b66d0"
 dependencies = [
- "windows-targets 0.52.6",
+ "windows-targets 0.42.2",
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 checksum = "677d2418bec65e3338edb076e806bc1ec15693c5d0104683f2efe857f61056a9"
 dependencies = [
- "windows-targets 0.48.5",
+ "windows-targets 0.48.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -4159,272 +2609,230 @@ version = "0.52.0"
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 dependencies = [
- "windows-targets 0.52.6",
+ "windows-targets 0.52.0",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
-name = "windows-sys"
-version = "0.59.0"
+name = "windows-targets"
+version = "0.42.2"
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-checksum = "1e38bc4d79ed67fd075bcc251a1c39b32a1776bbe92e5bef1f0bf1f8c531853b"
+checksum = "8e5180c00cd44c9b1c88adb3693291f1cd93605ded80c250a75d472756b4d071"
 dependencies = [
- "windows-targets 0.52.6",
+ "windows_aarch64_gnullvm 0.42.2",
+ "windows_aarch64_msvc 0.42.2",
+ "windows_i686_gnu 0.42.2",
+ "windows_i686_msvc 0.42.2",
+ "windows_x86_64_gnu 0.42.2",
+ "windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.42.2",
+ "windows_x86_64_msvc 0.42.2",
 ]
 
 [[package]]
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-version = "0.48.5"
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- "windows_x86_64_gnu 0.48.5",
- "windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.48.5",
- "windows_x86_64_msvc 0.48.5",
+ "windows_aarch64_gnullvm 0.48.0",
+ "windows_aarch64_msvc 0.48.0",
+ "windows_i686_gnu 0.48.0",
+ "windows_i686_msvc 0.48.0",
+ "windows_x86_64_gnu 0.48.0",
+ "windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.48.0",
+ "windows_x86_64_msvc 0.48.0",
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 [[package]]
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- "windows_x86_64_gnu 0.52.6",
- "windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.52.6",
- "windows_x86_64_msvc 0.52.6",
+ "windows_aarch64_gnullvm 0.52.0",
+ "windows_aarch64_msvc 0.52.0",
+ "windows_i686_gnu 0.52.0",
+ "windows_i686_msvc 0.52.0",
+ "windows_x86_64_gnu 0.52.0",
+ "windows_x86_64_gnullvm 0.52.0",
+ "windows_x86_64_msvc 0.52.0",
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 [[package]]
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 [[package]]
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-[[package]]
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 [[package]]
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diff --git a/optd-cost-model/Cargo.toml b/optd-cost-model/Cargo.toml
deleted file mode 100644
index 1812f8d..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/Cargo.toml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,26 +0,0 @@
-[package]
-name = "optd-cost-model"
-version = "0.1.0"
-edition = "2021"
-authors = ["Yuanxin Cao", "Lan Lou", "Kunle Li"]
-
-[dependencies]
-optd-persistent = { path = "../optd-persistent", version = "0.1" }
-serde = { version = "1.0", features = ["derive"] }
-serde_json = "1.0"
-serde_with = { version = "3.7.0", features = ["json"] }
-arrow-schema = "53.2.0"
-datafusion-expr = "32.0.0"
-datafusion = "32.0.0"
-ordered-float = "4.0"
-chrono = "0.4"
-itertools = "0.13"
-assert_approx_eq = "1.1.0"
-trait-variant = "0.1.2"
-tokio = { version = "1.0.1", features = ["macros", "rt-multi-thread"] }
-async-trait = "0.1"
-
-[dev-dependencies]
-crossbeam = "0.8"
-rand = "0.8"
-test-case = "3.3"
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/mod.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index ca5eb7e..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,5 +0,0 @@
-pub mod nodes;
-pub mod predicates;
-pub mod properties;
-pub mod types;
-pub mod values;
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/nodes.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/nodes.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 79a47f7..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/nodes.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,127 +0,0 @@
-use core::fmt;
-use std::{fmt::Display, sync::Arc};
-
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-
-use super::{
-    predicates::{
-        bin_op_pred::BinOpType, constant_pred::ConstantType, func_pred::FuncType,
-        log_op_pred::LogOpType, sort_order_pred::SortOrderType, un_op_pred::UnOpType,
-    },
-    values::Value,
-};
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
-pub enum JoinType {
-    Inner = 1,
-    FullOuter,
-    LeftOuter,
-    RightOuter,
-    Cross,
-    LeftSemi,
-    RightSemi,
-    LeftAnti,
-    RightAnti,
-}
-
-impl Display for JoinType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{:?}", self)
-    }
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
-pub enum PhysicalNodeType {
-    PhysicalProjection,
-    PhysicalFilter,
-    PhysicalScan,
-    PhysicalSort,
-    PhysicalAgg,
-    PhysicalHashJoin(JoinType),
-    PhysicalNestedLoopJoin(JoinType),
-    PhysicalEmptyRelation,
-    PhysicalLimit,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for PhysicalNodeType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{:?}", self)
-    }
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
-pub enum PredicateType {
-    List,
-    Constant(ConstantType),
-    AttrIndex,
-    UnOp(UnOpType),
-    BinOp(BinOpType),
-    LogOp(LogOpType),
-    Func(FuncType),
-    SortOrder(SortOrderType),
-    Between,
-    Cast,
-    Like,
-    DataType(DataType),
-    InList,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for PredicateType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{:?}", self)
-    }
-}
-
-pub type ArcPredicateNode = Arc<PredicateNode>;
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Hash, PartialEq, Eq)]
-pub struct PredicateNode {
-    /// A generic predicate node type
-    pub typ: PredicateType,
-    /// Child predicate nodes, always materialized
-    pub children: Vec<ArcPredicateNode>,
-    /// Data associated with the predicate, if any
-    pub data: Option<Value>,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for PredicateNode {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "({}", self.typ)?;
-        for child in &self.children {
-            write!(f, " {}", child)?;
-        }
-        if let Some(data) = &self.data {
-            write!(f, " {}", data)?;
-        }
-        write!(f, ")")
-    }
-}
-
-impl PredicateNode {
-    pub fn child(&self, idx: usize) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.children[idx].clone()
-    }
-
-    pub fn unwrap_data(&self) -> Value {
-        self.data.clone().unwrap()
-    }
-}
-pub trait ReprPredicateNode: 'static + Clone {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode;
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self>;
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for ArcPredicateNode {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        Some(pred_node)
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/attr_index_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/attr_index_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 412c7a3..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/attr_index_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,42 +0,0 @@
-use crate::common::{
-    nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-    values::Value,
-};
-
-/// [`AttributeIndexPred`] represents the position of an attribute in a schema or
-/// [`GroupAttrRefs`].
-///
-/// The `data` field holds the index of the attribute in the schema or [`GroupAttrRefs`].
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct AttrIndexPred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl AttrIndexPred {
-    pub fn new(attr_idx: u64) -> AttrIndexPred {
-        AttrIndexPred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::AttrIndex,
-                children: vec![],
-                data: Some(Value::UInt64(attr_idx)),
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    /// Gets the attribute index.
-    pub fn attr_index(&self) -> u64 {
-        self.0.data.as_ref().unwrap().as_u64()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for AttrIndexPred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if pred_node.typ != PredicateType::AttrIndex {
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(Self(pred_node))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/bin_op_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/bin_op_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 5c48688..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/bin_op_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,87 +0,0 @@
-use crate::common::nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode};
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug)]
-pub enum BinOpType {
-    // numerical
-    Add,
-    Sub,
-    Mul,
-    Div,
-    Mod,
-
-    // comparison
-    Eq,
-    Neq,
-    Gt,
-    Lt,
-    Geq,
-    Leq,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for BinOpType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{:?}", self)
-    }
-}
-
-impl BinOpType {
-    pub fn is_numerical(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(
-            self,
-            Self::Add | Self::Sub | Self::Mul | Self::Div | Self::Mod
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_comparison(&self) -> bool {
-        matches!(
-            self,
-            Self::Eq | Self::Neq | Self::Gt | Self::Lt | Self::Geq | Self::Leq
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct BinOpPred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl BinOpPred {
-    pub fn new(left: ArcPredicateNode, right: ArcPredicateNode, op_type: BinOpType) -> Self {
-        BinOpPred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::BinOp(op_type),
-                children: vec![left, right],
-                data: None,
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn left_child(&self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0.child(0)
-    }
-
-    pub fn right_child(&self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0.child(1)
-    }
-
-    pub fn op_type(&self) -> BinOpType {
-        if let PredicateType::BinOp(op_type) = self.0.typ {
-            op_type
-        } else {
-            panic!("not a bin op")
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for BinOpPred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if !matches!(pred_node.typ, PredicateType::BinOp(_)) {
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(Self(pred_node))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/cast_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/cast_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 2e1ef54..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/cast_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,49 +0,0 @@
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-
-use crate::common::nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode};
-
-use super::data_type_pred::DataTypePred;
-
-/// [`CastPred`] casts a column from one data type to another.
-///
-/// A [`CastPred`] has two children:
-/// 1. The original data to cast
-/// 2. The target data type to cast to
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct CastPred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl CastPred {
-    pub fn new(child: ArcPredicateNode, cast_to: DataType) -> Self {
-        CastPred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::Cast,
-                children: vec![child, DataTypePred::new(cast_to).into_pred_node()],
-                data: None,
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn child(&self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0.child(0)
-    }
-
-    pub fn cast_to(&self) -> DataType {
-        DataTypePred::from_pred_node(self.0.child(1))
-            .unwrap()
-            .data_type()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for CastPred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if !matches!(pred_node.typ, PredicateType::Cast) {
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(Self(pred_node))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/constant_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/constant_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 61285f7..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/constant_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,220 +0,0 @@
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use arrow_schema::{DataType, IntervalUnit};
-use optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::AttrType;
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-
-use crate::common::{
-    nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-    values::{SerializableOrderedF64, Value},
-};
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-pub enum ConstantType {
-    Bool,
-    Utf8String,
-    UInt8,
-    UInt16,
-    UInt32,
-    UInt64,
-    Int8,
-    Int16,
-    Int32,
-    Int64,
-    Float64,
-    Date,
-    IntervalMonthDateNano,
-    Decimal,
-    Binary,
-}
-
-impl ConstantType {
-    pub fn get_data_type_from_value(value: &Value) -> Self {
-        match value {
-            Value::Bool(_) => ConstantType::Bool,
-            Value::String(_) => ConstantType::Utf8String,
-            Value::UInt8(_) => ConstantType::UInt8,
-            Value::UInt16(_) => ConstantType::UInt16,
-            Value::UInt32(_) => ConstantType::UInt32,
-            Value::UInt64(_) => ConstantType::UInt64,
-            Value::Int8(_) => ConstantType::Int8,
-            Value::Int16(_) => ConstantType::Int16,
-            Value::Int32(_) => ConstantType::Int32,
-            Value::Int64(_) => ConstantType::Int64,
-            Value::Float(_) => ConstantType::Float64,
-            Value::Date32(_) => ConstantType::Date,
-            _ => unimplemented!("get_data_type_from_value() not implemented for value {value}"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    // TODO: current DataType and ConstantType are not 1 to 1 mapping
-    // optd schema stores constantType from data type in catalog.get
-    // for decimal128, the precision is lost
-    pub fn from_data_type(data_type: DataType) -> Self {
-        match data_type {
-            DataType::Binary => ConstantType::Binary,
-            DataType::Boolean => ConstantType::Bool,
-            DataType::UInt8 => ConstantType::UInt8,
-            DataType::UInt16 => ConstantType::UInt16,
-            DataType::UInt32 => ConstantType::UInt32,
-            DataType::UInt64 => ConstantType::UInt64,
-            DataType::Int8 => ConstantType::Int8,
-            DataType::Int16 => ConstantType::Int16,
-            DataType::Int32 => ConstantType::Int32,
-            DataType::Int64 => ConstantType::Int64,
-            DataType::Float64 => ConstantType::Float64,
-            DataType::Date32 => ConstantType::Date,
-            DataType::Interval(IntervalUnit::MonthDayNano) => ConstantType::IntervalMonthDateNano,
-            DataType::Utf8 => ConstantType::Utf8String,
-            DataType::Decimal128(_, _) => ConstantType::Decimal,
-            _ => unimplemented!("no conversion to ConstantType for DataType {data_type}"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn into_data_type(&self) -> DataType {
-        match self {
-            ConstantType::Binary => DataType::Binary,
-            ConstantType::Bool => DataType::Boolean,
-            ConstantType::UInt8 => DataType::UInt8,
-            ConstantType::UInt16 => DataType::UInt16,
-            ConstantType::UInt32 => DataType::UInt32,
-            ConstantType::UInt64 => DataType::UInt64,
-            ConstantType::Int8 => DataType::Int8,
-            ConstantType::Int16 => DataType::Int16,
-            ConstantType::Int32 => DataType::Int32,
-            ConstantType::Int64 => DataType::Int64,
-            ConstantType::Float64 => DataType::Float64,
-            ConstantType::Date => DataType::Date32,
-            ConstantType::IntervalMonthDateNano => DataType::Interval(IntervalUnit::MonthDayNano),
-            ConstantType::Decimal => DataType::Float64,
-            ConstantType::Utf8String => DataType::Utf8,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn from_persistent_attr_type(attr_type: AttrType) -> Self {
-        match attr_type {
-            AttrType::Integer => ConstantType::Int32,
-            AttrType::Float => ConstantType::Float64,
-            AttrType::Varchar => ConstantType::Utf8String,
-            AttrType::Boolean => ConstantType::Bool,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct ConstantPred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl ConstantPred {
-    pub fn new(value: Value) -> Self {
-        let typ = ConstantType::get_data_type_from_value(&value);
-        Self::new_with_type(value, typ)
-    }
-
-    pub fn new_with_type(value: Value, typ: ConstantType) -> Self {
-        ConstantPred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::Constant(typ),
-                children: vec![],
-                data: Some(value),
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn bool(value: bool) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::Bool(value), ConstantType::Bool)
-    }
-
-    pub fn string(value: impl AsRef<str>) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(
-            Value::String(value.as_ref().into()),
-            ConstantType::Utf8String,
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn uint8(value: u8) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::UInt8(value), ConstantType::UInt8)
-    }
-
-    pub fn uint16(value: u16) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::UInt16(value), ConstantType::UInt16)
-    }
-
-    pub fn uint32(value: u32) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::UInt32(value), ConstantType::UInt32)
-    }
-
-    pub fn uint64(value: u64) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::UInt64(value), ConstantType::UInt64)
-    }
-
-    pub fn int8(value: i8) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::Int8(value), ConstantType::Int8)
-    }
-
-    pub fn int16(value: i16) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::Int16(value), ConstantType::Int16)
-    }
-
-    pub fn int32(value: i32) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::Int32(value), ConstantType::Int32)
-    }
-
-    pub fn int64(value: i64) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::Int64(value), ConstantType::Int64)
-    }
-
-    pub fn interval_month_day_nano(value: i128) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::Int128(value), ConstantType::IntervalMonthDateNano)
-    }
-
-    pub fn float64(value: f64) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(
-            Value::Float(SerializableOrderedF64(value.into())),
-            ConstantType::Float64,
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn date(value: i64) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::Int64(value), ConstantType::Date)
-    }
-
-    pub fn decimal(value: f64) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(
-            Value::Float(SerializableOrderedF64(value.into())),
-            ConstantType::Decimal,
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn serialized(value: Arc<[u8]>) -> Self {
-        Self::new_with_type(Value::Serialized(value), ConstantType::Binary)
-    }
-
-    /// Gets the constant value.
-    pub fn value(&self) -> Value {
-        self.0.data.clone().unwrap()
-    }
-
-    pub fn constant_type(&self) -> ConstantType {
-        if let PredicateType::Constant(typ) = self.0.typ {
-            typ
-        } else {
-            panic!("not a constant")
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for ConstantPred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(rel_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if let PredicateType::Constant(_) = rel_node.typ {
-            Some(Self(rel_node))
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/data_type_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/data_type_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index fe29336..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/data_type_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,40 +0,0 @@
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-
-use crate::common::nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode};
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct DataTypePred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl DataTypePred {
-    pub fn new(typ: DataType) -> Self {
-        DataTypePred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::DataType(typ),
-                children: vec![],
-                data: None,
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn data_type(&self) -> DataType {
-        if let PredicateType::DataType(ref data_type) = self.0.typ {
-            data_type.clone()
-        } else {
-            panic!("not a data type")
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for DataTypePred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if !matches!(pred_node.typ, PredicateType::DataType(_)) {
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(Self(pred_node))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/func_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/func_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 7a5b84f..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/func_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,23 +0,0 @@
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug)]
-pub enum FuncType {
-    Scalar(datafusion_expr::BuiltinScalarFunction),
-    Agg(datafusion_expr::AggregateFunction),
-    Case,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for FuncType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{:?}", self)
-    }
-}
-
-impl FuncType {
-    pub fn new_scalar(func_id: datafusion_expr::BuiltinScalarFunction) -> Self {
-        FuncType::Scalar(func_id)
-    }
-
-    pub fn new_agg(func_id: datafusion_expr::AggregateFunction) -> Self {
-        FuncType::Agg(func_id)
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/in_list_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/in_list_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 8d3b511..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/in_list_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-use crate::common::{
-    nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-    values::Value,
-};
-
-use super::list_pred::ListPred;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct InListPred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl InListPred {
-    pub fn new(child: ArcPredicateNode, list: ListPred, negated: bool) -> Self {
-        InListPred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::InList,
-                children: vec![child, list.into_pred_node()],
-                data: Some(Value::Bool(negated)),
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn child(&self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0.child(0)
-    }
-
-    pub fn list(&self) -> ListPred {
-        ListPred::from_pred_node(self.0.child(1)).unwrap()
-    }
-
-    /// `true` for `NOT IN`.
-    pub fn negated(&self) -> bool {
-        self.0.data.as_ref().unwrap().as_bool()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for InListPred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if !matches!(pred_node.typ, PredicateType::InList) {
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(Self(pred_node))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/like_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/like_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index bf9fe31..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/like_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,66 +0,0 @@
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use crate::common::{
-    nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-    values::Value,
-};
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct LikePred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl LikePred {
-    pub fn new(
-        negated: bool,
-        case_insensitive: bool,
-        child: ArcPredicateNode,
-        pattern: ArcPredicateNode,
-    ) -> Self {
-        // TODO: support multiple values in data.
-        let negated = if negated { 1 } else { 0 };
-        let case_insensitive = if case_insensitive { 1 } else { 0 };
-        LikePred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::Like,
-                children: vec![child.into_pred_node(), pattern.into_pred_node()],
-                data: Some(Value::Serialized(Arc::new([negated, case_insensitive]))),
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn child(&self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0.child(0)
-    }
-
-    pub fn pattern(&self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0.child(1)
-    }
-
-    /// `true` for `NOT LIKE`.
-    pub fn negated(&self) -> bool {
-        match self.0.data.as_ref().unwrap() {
-            Value::Serialized(data) => data[0] != 0,
-            _ => panic!("not a serialized value"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn case_insensitive(&self) -> bool {
-        match self.0.data.as_ref().unwrap() {
-            Value::Serialized(data) => data[1] != 0,
-            _ => panic!("not a serialized value"),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for LikePred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if !matches!(pred_node.typ, PredicateType::Like) {
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(Self(pred_node))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/list_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/list_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 972598d..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/list_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,47 +0,0 @@
-use crate::common::nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode};
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct ListPred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl ListPred {
-    pub fn new(preds: Vec<ArcPredicateNode>) -> Self {
-        ListPred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::List,
-                children: preds,
-                data: None,
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    /// Gets number of expressions in the list
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.0.children.len()
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.0.children.is_empty()
-    }
-
-    pub fn child(&self, idx: usize) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0.child(idx)
-    }
-
-    pub fn to_vec(&self) -> Vec<ArcPredicateNode> {
-        self.0.children.clone()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for ListPred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if pred_node.typ != PredicateType::List {
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(Self(pred_node))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/log_op_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/log_op_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 1899cb1..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/log_op_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,85 +0,0 @@
-use std::fmt::Display;
-
-use crate::common::nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode};
-
-use super::list_pred::ListPred;
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug)]
-pub enum LogOpType {
-    And,
-    Or,
-}
-
-impl Display for LogOpType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{:?}", self)
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct LogOpPred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl LogOpPred {
-    pub fn new(op_type: LogOpType, preds: Vec<ArcPredicateNode>) -> Self {
-        LogOpPred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::LogOp(op_type),
-                children: preds,
-                data: None,
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    /// flatten_nested_logical is a helper function to flatten nested logical operators with same op
-    /// type eg. (a AND (b AND c)) => ExprList([a, b, c])
-    ///    (a OR (b OR c)) => ExprList([a, b, c])
-    /// It assume the children of the input expr_list are already flattened
-    ///  and can only be used in bottom up manner
-    pub fn new_flattened_nested_logical(op: LogOpType, expr_list: ListPred) -> Self {
-        // Since we assume that we are building the children bottom up,
-        // there is no need to call flatten_nested_logical recursively
-        let mut new_expr_list = Vec::new();
-        for child in expr_list.to_vec() {
-            if let PredicateType::LogOp(child_op) = child.typ {
-                if child_op == op {
-                    let child_log_op_expr = LogOpPred::from_pred_node(child).unwrap();
-                    new_expr_list.extend(child_log_op_expr.children().to_vec());
-                    continue;
-                }
-            }
-            new_expr_list.push(child.clone());
-        }
-        LogOpPred::new(op, new_expr_list)
-    }
-
-    pub fn children(&self) -> Vec<ArcPredicateNode> {
-        self.0.children.clone()
-    }
-
-    pub fn child(&self, idx: usize) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0.child(idx)
-    }
-
-    pub fn op_type(&self) -> LogOpType {
-        if let PredicateType::LogOp(op_type) = self.0.typ {
-            op_type
-        } else {
-            panic!("not a log op")
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for LogOpPred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if !matches!(pred_node.typ, PredicateType::LogOp(_)) {
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(Self(pred_node))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/mod.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 40c64cf..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,12 +0,0 @@
-pub mod attr_index_pred;
-pub mod bin_op_pred;
-pub mod cast_pred;
-pub mod constant_pred;
-pub mod data_type_pred;
-pub mod func_pred;
-pub mod in_list_pred;
-pub mod like_pred;
-pub mod list_pred;
-pub mod log_op_pred;
-pub mod sort_order_pred;
-pub mod un_op_pred;
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/sort_order_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/sort_order_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 46111f8..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/sort_order_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,14 +0,0 @@
-use std::fmt::Display;
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug)]
-pub enum SortOrderType {
-    Asc,
-    Desc,
-}
-
-impl Display for SortOrderType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{:?}", self)
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/un_op_pred.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/un_op_pred.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index a3fc270..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/predicates/un_op_pred.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,57 +0,0 @@
-use std::fmt::Display;
-
-use crate::common::nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode};
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug)]
-pub enum UnOpType {
-    Neg = 1,
-    Not,
-}
-
-impl Display for UnOpType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{:?}", self)
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct UnOpPred(pub ArcPredicateNode);
-
-impl UnOpPred {
-    pub fn new(child: ArcPredicateNode, op_type: UnOpType) -> Self {
-        UnOpPred(
-            PredicateNode {
-                typ: PredicateType::UnOp(op_type),
-                children: vec![child],
-                data: None,
-            }
-            .into(),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn child(&self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0.child(0)
-    }
-
-    pub fn op_type(&self) -> UnOpType {
-        if let PredicateType::UnOp(op_type) = self.0.typ {
-            op_type
-        } else {
-            panic!("not a un op")
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl ReprPredicateNode for UnOpPred {
-    fn into_pred_node(self) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    fn from_pred_node(pred_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> Option<Self> {
-        if !matches!(pred_node.typ, PredicateType::UnOp(_)) {
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(Self(pred_node))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/properties/attr_ref.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/properties/attr_ref.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index d6105b6..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/properties/attr_ref.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,249 +0,0 @@
-use std::collections::HashSet;
-
-use crate::{common::types::TableId, utils::DisjointSets};
-
-pub type AttrRefs = Vec<AttrRef>;
-
-/// [`BaseTableAttrRef`] represents a reference to an attribute in a base table,
-/// i.e. a table existing in the catalog.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, Eq, Hash, PartialEq)]
-pub struct BaseTableAttrRef {
-    pub table_id: TableId,
-    pub attr_idx: u64,
-}
-
-/// [`AttrRef`] represents a reference to an attribute in a query.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub enum AttrRef {
-    /// Reference to a base table attribute.
-    BaseTableAttrRef(BaseTableAttrRef),
-    /// Reference to a derived attribute (e.g. t.v1 + t.v2).
-    /// TODO: Better representation of derived attributes.
-    Derived,
-}
-
-impl AttrRef {
-    pub fn new_base_table_attr_ref(table_id: TableId, attr_idx: u64) -> Self {
-        AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(BaseTableAttrRef { table_id, attr_idx })
-    }
-
-    pub fn base_table_attr_ref(table_id: TableId, attr_idx: u64) -> Self {
-        AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(BaseTableAttrRef { table_id, attr_idx })
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<BaseTableAttrRef> for AttrRef {
-    fn from(attr: BaseTableAttrRef) -> Self {
-        AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(attr)
-    }
-}
-
-/// [`EqPredicate`] represents an equality predicate between two attributes.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, Hash, PartialEq)]
-pub struct EqPredicate {
-    pub left: BaseTableAttrRef,
-    pub right: BaseTableAttrRef,
-}
-
-impl EqPredicate {
-    pub fn new(left: BaseTableAttrRef, right: BaseTableAttrRef) -> Self {
-        Self { left, right }
-    }
-}
-
-/// [`SemanticCorrelation`] represents the semantic correlation between attributes in a
-/// query. "Semantic" means that the attributes are correlated based on the
-/// semantics of the query, not the statistics.
-///
-/// [`SemanticCorrelation`] contains equal attributes denoted by disjoint sets of base
-/// table attributes, e.g. {{ t1.c1 = t2.c1 = t3.c1 }, { t1.c2 = t2.c2 }}.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
-pub struct SemanticCorrelation {
-    /// A disjoint set of base table attributes with equal values in the same row.
-    disjoint_eq_attr_sets: DisjointSets<BaseTableAttrRef>,
-    /// The predicates that define the equalities.
-    eq_predicates: HashSet<EqPredicate>,
-}
-
-impl SemanticCorrelation {
-    pub fn new() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            disjoint_eq_attr_sets: DisjointSets::new(),
-            eq_predicates: HashSet::new(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn add_predicate(&mut self, predicate: EqPredicate) {
-        let left = &predicate.left;
-        let right = &predicate.right;
-
-        // Add the indices to the set if they do not exist.
-        if !self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets.contains(left) {
-            self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets
-                .make_set(left.clone())
-                .expect("just checked left attribute index does not exist");
-        }
-        if !self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets.contains(right) {
-            self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets
-                .make_set(right.clone())
-                .expect("just checked right attribute index does not exist");
-        }
-        // Union the attributes.
-        self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets
-            .union(left, right)
-            .expect("both attribute indices should exist");
-
-        // Keep track of the predicate.
-        self.eq_predicates.insert(predicate);
-    }
-
-    /// Determine if two attributes are in the same set.
-    pub fn is_eq(&mut self, left: &BaseTableAttrRef, right: &BaseTableAttrRef) -> bool {
-        self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets
-            .same_set(left, right)
-            .unwrap_or(false)
-    }
-
-    pub fn contains(&self, base_attr_ref: &BaseTableAttrRef) -> bool {
-        self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets.contains(base_attr_ref)
-    }
-
-    /// Get the number of attributes that are equal to `attr`, including `attr` itself.
-    pub fn num_eq_attributes(&mut self, attr: &BaseTableAttrRef) -> usize {
-        self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets.set_size(attr).unwrap()
-    }
-
-    /// Find the set of predicates that define the equality of the set of attributes `attr` belongs to.
-    pub fn find_predicates_for_eq_attr_set(&mut self, attr: &BaseTableAttrRef) -> Vec<EqPredicate> {
-        let mut predicates = Vec::new();
-        for predicate in &self.eq_predicates {
-            let left = &predicate.left;
-            let right = &predicate.right;
-            if (left != attr && self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets.same_set(attr, left).unwrap())
-                || (right != attr && self.disjoint_eq_attr_sets.same_set(attr, right).unwrap())
-            {
-                predicates.push(predicate.clone());
-            }
-        }
-        predicates
-    }
-
-    /// Find the set of attributes that define the equality of the set of attributes `attr` belongs to.
-    pub fn find_attrs_for_eq_attribute_set(
-        &mut self,
-        attr: &BaseTableAttrRef,
-    ) -> HashSet<BaseTableAttrRef> {
-        let predicates = self.find_predicates_for_eq_attr_set(attr);
-        predicates
-            .into_iter()
-            .flat_map(|predicate| vec![predicate.left, predicate.right])
-            .collect()
-    }
-
-    /// Union two `EqBaseTableattributesets` to produce a new disjoint sets.
-    pub fn union(x: Self, y: Self) -> Self {
-        let mut eq_attr_sets = Self::new();
-        for predicate in x
-            .eq_predicates
-            .into_iter()
-            .chain(y.eq_predicates.into_iter())
-        {
-            eq_attr_sets.add_predicate(predicate);
-        }
-        eq_attr_sets
-    }
-
-    pub fn merge(x: Option<Self>, y: Option<Self>) -> Option<Self> {
-        let eq_attr_sets = match (x, y) {
-            (Some(x), Some(y)) => Self::union(x, y),
-            (Some(x), None) => x.clone(),
-            (None, Some(y)) => y.clone(),
-            _ => return None,
-        };
-        Some(eq_attr_sets)
-    }
-}
-
-/// [`GroupAttrRefs`] represents the attributes of a group in a query.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
-pub struct GroupAttrRefs {
-    attr_refs: AttrRefs,
-    /// Correlation of the output attributes of the group.
-    output_correlation: Option<SemanticCorrelation>,
-}
-
-impl GroupAttrRefs {
-    pub fn new(attribute_refs: AttrRefs, output_correlation: Option<SemanticCorrelation>) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            attr_refs: attribute_refs,
-            output_correlation,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn attr_refs(&self) -> &AttrRefs {
-        &self.attr_refs
-    }
-
-    pub fn output_correlation(&self) -> Option<&SemanticCorrelation> {
-        self.output_correlation.as_ref()
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_eq_base_table_attribute_sets() {
-        let attr1 = BaseTableAttrRef {
-            table_id: TableId(1),
-            attr_idx: 1,
-        };
-        let attr2 = BaseTableAttrRef {
-            table_id: TableId(2),
-            attr_idx: 2,
-        };
-        let attr3 = BaseTableAttrRef {
-            table_id: TableId(3),
-            attr_idx: 3,
-        };
-        let attr4 = BaseTableAttrRef {
-            table_id: TableId(4),
-            attr_idx: 4,
-        };
-        let pred1 = EqPredicate::new(attr1.clone(), attr2.clone());
-        let pred2 = EqPredicate::new(attr3.clone(), attr4.clone());
-        let pred3 = EqPredicate::new(attr1.clone(), attr3.clone());
-
-        let mut eq_attr_sets = SemanticCorrelation::new();
-
-        // (1, 2)
-        eq_attr_sets.add_predicate(pred1.clone());
-        assert!(eq_attr_sets.is_eq(&attr1, &attr2));
-
-        // (1, 2), (3, 4)
-        eq_attr_sets.add_predicate(pred2.clone());
-        assert!(eq_attr_sets.is_eq(&attr3, &attr4));
-        assert!(!eq_attr_sets.is_eq(&attr2, &attr3));
-
-        let predicates = eq_attr_sets.find_predicates_for_eq_attr_set(&attr1);
-        assert_eq!(predicates.len(), 1);
-        assert!(predicates.contains(&pred1));
-
-        let predicates = eq_attr_sets.find_predicates_for_eq_attr_set(&attr3);
-        assert_eq!(predicates.len(), 1);
-        assert!(predicates.contains(&pred2));
-
-        // (1, 2, 3, 4)
-        eq_attr_sets.add_predicate(pred3.clone());
-        assert!(eq_attr_sets.is_eq(&attr1, &attr3));
-        assert!(eq_attr_sets.is_eq(&attr2, &attr4));
-        assert!(eq_attr_sets.is_eq(&attr1, &attr4));
-
-        let predicates = eq_attr_sets.find_predicates_for_eq_attr_set(&attr1);
-        assert_eq!(predicates.len(), 3);
-        assert!(predicates.contains(&pred1));
-        assert!(predicates.contains(&pred2));
-        assert!(predicates.contains(&pred3));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/properties/mod.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/properties/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index a90d634..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/properties/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,41 +0,0 @@
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-
-use super::predicates::constant_pred::ConstantType;
-
-pub mod attr_ref;
-pub mod schema;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-pub struct Attribute {
-    pub name: String,
-    pub typ: ConstantType,
-    pub nullable: bool,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for Attribute {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        if self.nullable {
-            write!(f, "{}:{:?}", self.name, self.typ)
-        } else {
-            write!(f, "{}:{:?}(non-null)", self.name, self.typ)
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl Attribute {
-    pub fn new(name: String, typ: ConstantType, nullable: bool) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            name,
-            typ,
-            nullable,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn new_non_null_int64(name: String) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            name,
-            typ: ConstantType::Int64,
-            nullable: false,
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/properties/schema.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/properties/schema.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index d25a23a..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/properties/schema.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,41 +0,0 @@
-use itertools::Itertools;
-
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-
-use super::Attribute;
-
-/// [`Schema`] represents the schema of a group in the memo. It contains a list of attributes.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-pub struct Schema {
-    pub attributes: Vec<Attribute>,
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for Schema {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(
-            f,
-            "[{}]",
-            self.attributes.iter().map(|x| x.to_string()).join(", ")
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl Schema {
-    pub fn new(attributes: Vec<Attribute>) -> Self {
-        Self { attributes }
-    }
-
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.attributes.len()
-    }
-
-    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
-        self.len() == 0
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<Vec<Attribute>> for Schema {
-    fn from(attributes: Vec<Attribute>) -> Self {
-        Self::new(attributes)
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/types.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/types.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index fecd143..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/types.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,84 +0,0 @@
-use std::fmt::Display;
-
-/// TODO: Implement from and to methods for the following types to enable conversion
-/// to and from their persistent counterparts.
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Debug, Default, Hash)]
-pub struct GroupId(pub u64);
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Debug, Default, Hash)]
-pub struct ExprId(pub u64);
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Debug, Default, Hash)]
-pub struct TableId(pub u64);
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Debug, Default, Hash)]
-pub struct AttrId(pub u64);
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Debug, Default, Hash)]
-pub struct EpochId(pub u64);
-
-impl Display for GroupId {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "!{}", self.0)
-    }
-}
-
-impl Display for ExprId {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{}", self.0)
-    }
-}
-
-impl Display for TableId {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "Table#{}", self.0)
-    }
-}
-
-impl Display for AttrId {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "Attr#{}", self.0)
-    }
-}
-
-impl Display for EpochId {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "Epoch#{}", self.0)
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<GroupId> for i32 {
-    fn from(id: GroupId) -> i32 {
-        id.0 as i32
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<ExprId> for i32 {
-    fn from(id: ExprId) -> i32 {
-        id.0 as i32
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<TableId> for i32 {
-    fn from(id: TableId) -> i32 {
-        id.0 as i32
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<AttrId> for i32 {
-    fn from(id: AttrId) -> i32 {
-        id.0 as i32
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<EpochId> for i32 {
-    fn from(id: EpochId) -> i32 {
-        id.0 as i32
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/common/values.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/common/values.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 7561f0b..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/common/values.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,205 +0,0 @@
-use arrow_schema::DataType;
-use chrono::NaiveDate;
-use ordered_float::OrderedFloat;
-use serde::{Deserialize, Deserializer, Serialize, Serializer};
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, PartialOrd, Ord)]
-pub struct SerializableOrderedF64(pub OrderedFloat<f64>);
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-impl Serialize for SerializableOrderedF64 {
-    fn serialize<S>(&self, serializer: S) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
-    where
-        S: Serializer,
-    {
-        // Directly serialize the inner f64 value of the OrderedFloat
-        self.0 .0.serialize(serializer)
-    }
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for SerializableOrderedF64 {
-    fn deserialize<D>(deserializer: D) -> Result<Self, D::Error>
-    where
-        D: Deserializer<'de>,
-    {
-        // Deserialize an f64 and wrap it in an OrderedFloat
-        let float = f64::deserialize(deserializer)?;
-        Ok(SerializableOrderedF64(OrderedFloat(float)))
-    }
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Serialize, Deserialize, PartialOrd, Ord)]
-pub enum Value {
-    UInt8(u8),
-    UInt16(u16),
-    UInt32(u32),
-    UInt64(u64),
-    Int8(i8),
-    Int16(i16),
-    Int32(i32),
-    Int64(i64),
-    Int128(i128),
-    Float(SerializableOrderedF64),
-    String(Arc<str>),
-    Bool(bool),
-    Date32(i32),
-    Decimal128(i128),
-    Serialized(Arc<[u8]>),
-}
-
-impl std::fmt::Display for Value {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        match self {
-            Self::UInt8(x) => write!(f, "{x}(u8)"),
-            Self::UInt16(x) => write!(f, "{x}(u16)"),
-            Self::UInt32(x) => write!(f, "{x}(u32)"),
-            Self::UInt64(x) => write!(f, "{x}(u64)"),
-            Self::Int8(x) => write!(f, "{x}(i8)"),
-            Self::Int16(x) => write!(f, "{x}(i16)"),
-            Self::Int32(x) => write!(f, "{x}(i32)"),
-            Self::Int64(x) => write!(f, "{x}(i64)"),
-            Self::Int128(x) => write!(f, "{x}(i128)"),
-            Self::Float(x) => write!(f, "{}(float)", x.0),
-            Self::String(x) => write!(f, "\"{x}\""),
-            Self::Bool(x) => write!(f, "{x}"),
-            Self::Date32(x) => write!(f, "{x}(date32)"),
-            Self::Decimal128(x) => write!(f, "{x}(decimal128)"),
-            Self::Serialized(x) => write!(f, "<len:{}>", x.len()),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-/// The `as_*()` functions do not perform conversions. This is *unlike* the `as`
-/// keyword in rust.
-///
-/// If you want to perform conversions, use the `to_*()` functions.
-impl Value {
-    pub fn as_u8(&self) -> u8 {
-        match self {
-            Value::UInt8(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an u8"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_u16(&self) -> u16 {
-        match self {
-            Value::UInt16(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an u16"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_u32(&self) -> u32 {
-        match self {
-            Value::UInt32(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an u32"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_u64(&self) -> u64 {
-        match self {
-            Value::UInt64(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an u64"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_i8(&self) -> i8 {
-        match self {
-            Value::Int8(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an i8"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_i16(&self) -> i16 {
-        match self {
-            Value::Int16(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an i16"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_i32(&self) -> i32 {
-        match self {
-            Value::Int32(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an i32"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_i64(&self) -> i64 {
-        match self {
-            Value::Int64(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an i64"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_i128(&self) -> i128 {
-        match self {
-            Value::Int128(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an i128"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_f64(&self) -> f64 {
-        match self {
-            Value::Float(i) => *i.0,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not an f64"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_bool(&self) -> bool {
-        match self {
-            Value::Bool(i) => *i,
-            _ => panic!("Value is not a bool"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_str(&self) -> Arc<str> {
-        match self {
-            Value::String(i) => i.clone(),
-            _ => panic!("Value is not a string"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_slice(&self) -> Arc<[u8]> {
-        match self {
-            Value::Serialized(i) => i.clone(),
-            _ => panic!("Value is not a serialized"),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn convert_to_type(&self, typ: DataType) -> Value {
-        match typ {
-            DataType::Int32 => Value::Int32(match self {
-                Value::Int32(i32) => *i32,
-                Value::Int64(i64) => (*i64).try_into().unwrap(),
-                _ => panic!("{self} could not be converted into an Int32"),
-            }),
-            DataType::Int64 => Value::Int64(match self {
-                Value::Int64(i64) => *i64,
-                Value::Int32(i32) => (*i32).into(),
-                _ => panic!("{self} could not be converted into an Int64"),
-            }),
-            DataType::UInt64 => Value::UInt64(match self {
-                Value::Int64(i64) => (*i64).try_into().unwrap(),
-                Value::UInt64(i64) => *i64,
-                Value::UInt32(i32) => (*i32).into(),
-                _ => panic!("{self} could not be converted into an UInt64"),
-            }),
-            DataType::Date32 => Value::Date32(match self {
-                Value::Date32(date32) => *date32,
-                Value::String(str) => {
-                    let date = NaiveDate::parse_from_str(str, "%Y-%m-%d").unwrap();
-                    let epoch = NaiveDate::from_ymd_opt(1970, 1, 1).unwrap();
-                    let duration_since_epoch = date.signed_duration_since(epoch);
-                    let days_since_epoch: i32 = duration_since_epoch.num_days() as i32;
-                    days_since_epoch
-                }
-                _ => panic!("{self} could not be converted into an Date32"),
-            }),
-            _ => unimplemented!("Have not implemented convert_to_type for DataType {typ}"),
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/agg.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/agg.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 62c88d3..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/agg.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,198 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-        predicates::{attr_index_pred::AttrIndexPred, list_pred::ListPred},
-        properties::attr_ref::{AttrRef, BaseTableAttrRef},
-        types::GroupId,
-    },
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    stats::DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT,
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult, EstimatedStatistic, SemanticError,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    pub async fn get_agg_row_cnt(
-        &self,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        group_by: ArcPredicateNode,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<EstimatedStatistic> {
-        let group_by = ListPred::from_pred_node(group_by).unwrap();
-        if group_by.is_empty() {
-            Ok(EstimatedStatistic(1.0))
-        } else {
-            // Multiply the n-distinct of all the group by columns.
-            // TODO: improve with multi-dimensional n-distinct
-            let mut row_cnt = 1;
-
-            for node in &group_by.0.children {
-                match node.typ {
-                    PredicateType::AttrIndex => {
-                        let attr_ref =
-                            AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(node.clone()).ok_or_else(|| {
-                                SemanticError::InvalidPredicate(
-                                    "Expected AttributeRef predicate".to_string(),
-                                )
-                            })?;
-                        if let AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(BaseTableAttrRef { table_id, attr_idx }) =
-                            self.memo.get_attribute_ref(group_id, attr_ref.attr_index())
-                        {
-                            // TODO: Only query ndistinct instead of all kinds of stats.
-                            let stats_option =
-                                self.get_attribute_comb_stats(table_id, &[attr_idx]).await?;
-
-                            let ndistinct = match stats_option {
-                                Some(stats) => stats.ndistinct,
-                                None => {
-                                    // The column type is not supported or stats are missing.
-                                    DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT
-                                }
-                            };
-                            row_cnt *= ndistinct;
-                        } else {
-                            // TOOD: Handle derived attributes.
-                            row_cnt *= DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT;
-                        }
-                    }
-                    _ => {
-                        // TODO: Consider the case where `GROUP BY 1`.
-                        panic!("GROUP BY must have attribute ref predicate");
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            Ok(EstimatedStatistic(row_cnt as f64))
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-
-    use crate::{
-        common::predicates::constant_pred::ConstantType,
-        stats::{utilities::simple_map::SimpleMap, MostCommonValues, DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT},
-        test_utils::tests::{
-            attr_index, create_mock_cost_model_with_attr_types, empty_list, list,
-            TestPerAttributeStats, TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX, TEST_ATTR2_BASE_INDEX,
-            TEST_ATTR3_BASE_INDEX, TEST_GROUP1_ID, TEST_TABLE1_ID,
-        },
-        EstimatedStatistic,
-    };
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_agg_no_stats() {
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model_with_attr_types(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![],
-            vec![HashMap::from([
-                (TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX, ConstantType::Int32),
-                (TEST_ATTR2_BASE_INDEX, ConstantType::Int32),
-            ])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        // Group by empty list should return 1.
-        let group_bys = empty_list();
-        assert_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_agg_row_cnt(TEST_GROUP1_ID, group_bys)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            EstimatedStatistic(1.0)
-        );
-
-        // Group by single column should return the default value since there are no stats.
-        let group_bys = list(vec![attr_index(0)]);
-        assert_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_agg_row_cnt(TEST_GROUP1_ID, group_bys)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            EstimatedStatistic(DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT as f64)
-        );
-
-        // Group by two columns should return the default value squared since there are no stats.
-        let group_bys = list(vec![attr_index(0), attr_index(1)]);
-        assert_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_agg_row_cnt(TEST_GROUP1_ID, group_bys)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            EstimatedStatistic((DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT * DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT) as f64)
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_agg_with_stats() {
-        let attr1_ndistinct = 12;
-        let attr2_ndistinct = 645;
-        let attr1_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::default()),
-            None,
-            attr1_ndistinct,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let attr2_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::default()),
-            None,
-            attr2_ndistinct,
-            0.0,
-        );
-
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model_with_attr_types(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([
-                (TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX, attr1_stats),
-                (TEST_ATTR2_BASE_INDEX, attr2_stats),
-            ])],
-            vec![HashMap::from([
-                (TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX, ConstantType::Int32),
-                (TEST_ATTR2_BASE_INDEX, ConstantType::Int32),
-                (TEST_ATTR3_BASE_INDEX, ConstantType::Int32),
-            ])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        // Group by empty list should return 1.
-        let group_bys = empty_list();
-        assert_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_agg_row_cnt(TEST_GROUP1_ID, group_bys)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            EstimatedStatistic(1.0)
-        );
-
-        // Group by single column should return the n-distinct of the column.
-        let group_bys = list(vec![attr_index(0)]);
-        assert_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_agg_row_cnt(TEST_GROUP1_ID, group_bys)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            EstimatedStatistic(attr1_ndistinct as f64)
-        );
-
-        // Group by two columns should return the product of the n-distinct of the columns.
-        let group_bys = list(vec![attr_index(0), attr_index(1)]);
-        assert_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_agg_row_cnt(TEST_GROUP1_ID, group_bys)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            EstimatedStatistic((attr1_ndistinct * attr2_ndistinct) as f64)
-        );
-
-        // Group by multiple columns should return the product of the n-distinct of the columns. If one of the columns
-        // does not have stats, it should use the default value instead.
-        let group_bys = list(vec![attr_index(0), attr_index(1), attr_index(2)]);
-        assert_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_agg_row_cnt(TEST_GROUP1_ID, group_bys)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            EstimatedStatistic((attr1_ndistinct * attr2_ndistinct * DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT) as f64)
-        );
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/attribute.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/attribute.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 68dd9a1..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/attribute.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,182 +0,0 @@
-use std::ops::Bound;
-
-use crate::{
-    common::{types::TableId, values::Value},
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    stats::{AttributeCombValue, AttributeCombValueStats, DEFAULT_EQ_SEL, DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL},
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    /// Get the selectivity of an expression of the form "attribute equals value" (or "value equals
-    /// attribute") Will handle the case of statistics missing
-    /// Equality predicates are handled entirely differently from range predicates so this is its
-    /// own function
-    /// Also, get_attribute_equality_selectivity is a subroutine when computing range selectivity,
-    /// which is another reason for separating these into two functions is_eq means whether it's == or !=
-    ///
-    /// Currently, we only support calculating the equality selectivity for an existed attribute,
-    /// not a derived attribute.
-    /// TODO: Support derived attributes.
-    pub(crate) async fn get_attribute_equality_selectivity(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attr_base_index: u64,
-        value: &Value,
-        is_eq: bool,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        let ret_sel = {
-            if let Some(attribute_stats) = self
-                .get_attribute_comb_stats(table_id, &[attr_base_index])
-                .await?
-            {
-                let eq_freq =
-                    if let Some(freq) = attribute_stats.mcvs.freq(&vec![Some(value.clone())]) {
-                        freq
-                    } else {
-                        let non_mcv_freq = 1.0 - attribute_stats.mcvs.total_freq();
-                        // always safe because usize is at least as large as i32
-                        let ndistinct_as_usize = attribute_stats.ndistinct as usize;
-                        let non_mcv_cnt = ndistinct_as_usize - attribute_stats.mcvs.cnt();
-                        if non_mcv_cnt == 0 {
-                            return Ok(0.0);
-                        }
-                        // note that nulls are not included in ndistinct so we don't need to do non_mcv_cnt
-                        // - 1 if null_frac > 0
-                        (non_mcv_freq - attribute_stats.null_frac) / (non_mcv_cnt as f64)
-                    };
-                if is_eq {
-                    eq_freq
-                } else {
-                    1.0 - eq_freq - attribute_stats.null_frac
-                }
-            } else {
-                #[allow(clippy::collapsible_else_if)]
-                if is_eq {
-                    DEFAULT_EQ_SEL
-                } else {
-                    1.0 - DEFAULT_EQ_SEL
-                }
-            }
-        };
-
-        assert!(
-            (0.0..=1.0).contains(&ret_sel),
-            "ret_sel ({}) should be in [0, 1]",
-            ret_sel
-        );
-        Ok(ret_sel)
-    }
-
-    /// Compute the frequency of values in a attribute less than or equal to the given value.
-    fn get_attribute_leq_value_freq(
-        per_attribute_stats: &AttributeCombValueStats,
-        value: &Value,
-    ) -> f64 {
-        // because distr does not include the values in MCVs, we need to compute the CDFs there as
-        // well because nulls return false in any comparison, they are never included when
-        // computing range selectivity
-        let distr_leq_freq = per_attribute_stats.distr.as_ref().unwrap().cdf(value);
-        let value = value.clone();
-        let pred = Box::new(move |val: &AttributeCombValue| *val[0].as_ref().unwrap() <= value);
-        let mcvs_leq_freq = per_attribute_stats.mcvs.freq_over_pred(pred);
-        let ret_freq = distr_leq_freq + mcvs_leq_freq;
-        assert!(
-            (0.0..=1.0).contains(&ret_freq),
-            "ret_freq ({}) should be in [0, 1]",
-            ret_freq
-        );
-        ret_freq
-    }
-
-    /// Compute the frequency of values in a attribute less than the given value.
-    ///
-    /// Currently, we only support calculating the equality selectivity for an existed attribute,
-    /// not a derived attribute.
-    /// TODO: Support derived attributes.
-    async fn get_attribute_lt_value_freq(
-        &self,
-        attribute_stats: &AttributeCombValueStats,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attr_base_index: u64,
-        value: &Value,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        // depending on whether value is in mcvs or not, we use different logic to turn total_lt_cdf
-        // into total_leq_cdf this logic just so happens to be the exact same logic as
-        // get_attribute_equality_selectivity implements
-        let ret_freq = Self::get_attribute_leq_value_freq(attribute_stats, value)
-            - self
-                .get_attribute_equality_selectivity(table_id, attr_base_index, value, true)
-                .await?;
-        assert!(
-            (0.0..=1.0).contains(&ret_freq),
-            "ret_freq ({}) should be in [0, 1]",
-            ret_freq
-        );
-        Ok(ret_freq)
-    }
-
-    /// Get the selectivity of an expression of the form "attribute </<=/>=/> value" (or "value
-    /// </<=/>=/> attribute"). Computes selectivity based off of statistics.
-    /// Range predicates are handled entirely differently from equality predicates so this is its
-    /// own function. If it is unable to find the statistics, it returns DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL.
-    /// The selectivity is computed as quantile of the right bound minus quantile of the left bound.
-    ///
-    /// Currently, we only support calculating the equality selectivity for an existed attribute,
-    /// not a derived attribute.
-    /// TODO: Support derived attributes.
-    pub(crate) async fn get_attribute_range_selectivity(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attr_base_index: u64,
-        start: Bound<&Value>,
-        end: Bound<&Value>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        // TODO: Consider attribute is a derived attribute
-        if let Some(attribute_stats) = self
-            .get_attribute_comb_stats(table_id, &[attr_base_index])
-            .await?
-        {
-            let left_quantile = match start {
-                Bound::Unbounded => 0.0,
-                Bound::Included(value) => {
-                    self.get_attribute_lt_value_freq(
-                        &attribute_stats,
-                        table_id,
-                        attr_base_index,
-                        value,
-                    )
-                    .await?
-                }
-                Bound::Excluded(value) => {
-                    Self::get_attribute_leq_value_freq(&attribute_stats, value)
-                }
-            };
-            let right_quantile = match end {
-                Bound::Unbounded => 1.0,
-                Bound::Included(value) => {
-                    Self::get_attribute_leq_value_freq(&attribute_stats, value)
-                }
-                Bound::Excluded(value) => {
-                    self.get_attribute_lt_value_freq(
-                        &attribute_stats,
-                        table_id,
-                        attr_base_index,
-                        value,
-                    )
-                    .await?
-                }
-            };
-            assert!(
-                left_quantile <= right_quantile,
-                "left_quantile ({}) should be <= right_quantile ({})",
-                left_quantile,
-                right_quantile
-            );
-            Ok(right_quantile - left_quantile)
-        } else {
-            Ok(DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL)
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/comp_op.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/comp_op.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 526c901..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/comp_op.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,280 +0,0 @@
-use std::ops::Bound;
-
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-        predicates::{
-            attr_index_pred::AttrIndexPred, bin_op_pred::BinOpType, cast_pred::CastPred,
-            constant_pred::ConstantPred,
-        },
-        properties::attr_ref::{AttrRef, BaseTableAttrRef},
-        types::GroupId,
-        values::Value,
-    },
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    stats::{DEFAULT_EQ_SEL, DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL, UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL},
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    /// Comparison operators are the base case for recursion in get_filter_selectivity()
-    pub(crate) async fn get_comp_op_selectivity(
-        &self,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        comp_bin_op_typ: BinOpType,
-        left: ArcPredicateNode,
-        right: ArcPredicateNode,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        assert!(comp_bin_op_typ.is_comparison());
-
-        // I intentionally performed moves on left and right. This way, we don't accidentally use
-        // them after this block
-        let semantic_res = self.get_semantic_nodes(group_id, left, right).await;
-        if semantic_res.is_err() {
-            return Ok(Self::get_default_comparison_op_selectivity(comp_bin_op_typ));
-        }
-        let (attr_ref_exprs, values, non_attr_ref_exprs, is_left_attr_ref) = semantic_res.unwrap();
-
-        // Handle the different cases of semantic nodes.
-        if attr_ref_exprs.is_empty() {
-            Ok(UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL)
-        } else if attr_ref_exprs.len() == 1 {
-            let attr_ref_expr = attr_ref_exprs
-                .first()
-                .expect("we just checked that attr_ref_exprs.len() == 1");
-            let attr_ref_idx = attr_ref_expr.attr_index();
-
-            if let AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(BaseTableAttrRef { table_id, attr_idx }) =
-                self.memo.get_attribute_ref(group_id, attr_ref_idx)
-            {
-                if values.len() == 1 {
-                    let value = values
-                        .first()
-                        .expect("we just checked that values.len() == 1");
-                    match comp_bin_op_typ {
-                        BinOpType::Eq => {
-                            self.get_attribute_equality_selectivity(table_id, attr_idx, value, true)
-                                .await
-                        }
-                        BinOpType::Neq => {
-                            self.get_attribute_equality_selectivity(
-                                table_id,
-                                attr_ref_idx,
-                                value,
-                                false,
-                            )
-                            .await
-                        }
-                        BinOpType::Lt | BinOpType::Leq | BinOpType::Gt | BinOpType::Geq => {
-                            let start = match (comp_bin_op_typ, is_left_attr_ref) {
-                                    (BinOpType::Lt, true) | (BinOpType::Geq, false) => Bound::Unbounded,
-                                    (BinOpType::Leq, true) | (BinOpType::Gt, false) => Bound::Unbounded,
-                                    (BinOpType::Gt, true) | (BinOpType::Leq, false) => Bound::Excluded(value),
-                                    (BinOpType::Geq, true) | (BinOpType::Lt, false) => Bound::Included(value),
-                                    _ => unreachable!("all comparison BinOpTypes were enumerated. this should be unreachable"),
-                                };
-                            let end = match (comp_bin_op_typ, is_left_attr_ref) {
-                                    (BinOpType::Lt, true) | (BinOpType::Geq, false) => Bound::Excluded(value),
-                                    (BinOpType::Leq, true) | (BinOpType::Gt, false) => Bound::Included(value),
-                                    (BinOpType::Gt, true) | (BinOpType::Leq, false) => Bound::Unbounded,
-                                    (BinOpType::Geq, true) | (BinOpType::Lt, false) => Bound::Unbounded,
-                                    _ => unreachable!("all comparison BinOpTypes were enumerated. this should be unreachable"),
-                                };
-                            self.get_attribute_range_selectivity(table_id, attr_ref_idx, start, end)
-                                .await
-                        }
-                        _ => unreachable!(
-                            "all comparison BinOpTypes were enumerated. this should be unreachable"
-                        ),
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    let non_attr_ref_expr = non_attr_ref_exprs.first().expect(
-                        "non_attr_ref_exprs should have a value since attr_ref_exprs.len() == 1",
-                    );
-
-                    match non_attr_ref_expr.as_ref().typ {
-                        PredicateType::BinOp(_) => {
-                            Ok(Self::get_default_comparison_op_selectivity(comp_bin_op_typ))
-                        }
-                        PredicateType::Cast => Ok(UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL),
-                        PredicateType::Constant(_) => {
-                            unreachable!(
-                                "we should have handled this in the values.len() == 1 branch"
-                            )
-                        }
-                        _ => unimplemented!(
-                            "unhandled case of comparing a attribute ref node to {}",
-                            non_attr_ref_expr.as_ref().typ
-                        ),
-                    }
-                }
-            } else {
-                // TODO: attribute is derived
-                Ok(Self::get_default_comparison_op_selectivity(comp_bin_op_typ))
-            }
-        } else if attr_ref_exprs.len() == 2 {
-            Ok(Self::get_default_comparison_op_selectivity(comp_bin_op_typ))
-        } else {
-            unreachable!("we could have at most pushed left and right into attr_ref_exprs")
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Convert the left and right child nodes of some operation to what they semantically are.
-    /// This is convenient to avoid repeating the same logic just with "left" and "right" swapped.
-    /// The last return value is true when the input node (left) is a AttributeRefPred.
-    #[allow(clippy::type_complexity)]
-    async fn get_semantic_nodes(
-        &self,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        left: ArcPredicateNode,
-        right: ArcPredicateNode,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<(Vec<AttrIndexPred>, Vec<Value>, Vec<ArcPredicateNode>, bool)> {
-        let mut attr_ref_exprs = vec![];
-        let mut values = vec![];
-        let mut non_attr_ref_exprs = vec![];
-        let is_left_attr_ref;
-
-        // Recursively unwrap casts as much as we can.
-        let mut uncasted_left = left;
-        let mut uncasted_right = right;
-        loop {
-            // println!("loop {}, uncasted_left={:?}, uncasted_right={:?}", Local::now(),
-            // uncasted_left, uncasted_right);
-            if uncasted_left.as_ref().typ == PredicateType::Cast
-                && uncasted_right.as_ref().typ == PredicateType::Cast
-            {
-                let left_cast_expr = CastPred::from_pred_node(uncasted_left)
-                    .expect("we already checked that the type is Cast");
-                let right_cast_expr = CastPred::from_pred_node(uncasted_right)
-                    .expect("we already checked that the type is Cast");
-                assert!(left_cast_expr.cast_to() == right_cast_expr.cast_to());
-                uncasted_left = left_cast_expr.child().into_pred_node();
-                uncasted_right = right_cast_expr.child().into_pred_node();
-            } else if uncasted_left.as_ref().typ == PredicateType::Cast
-                || uncasted_right.as_ref().typ == PredicateType::Cast
-            {
-                let is_left_cast = uncasted_left.as_ref().typ == PredicateType::Cast;
-                let (mut cast_node, mut non_cast_node) = if is_left_cast {
-                    (uncasted_left, uncasted_right)
-                } else {
-                    (uncasted_right, uncasted_left)
-                };
-
-                let cast_expr = CastPred::from_pred_node(cast_node)
-                    .expect("we already checked that the type is Cast");
-                let cast_expr_child = cast_expr.child().into_pred_node();
-                let cast_expr_cast_to = cast_expr.cast_to();
-
-                let should_break = match cast_expr_child.typ {
-                    PredicateType::Constant(_) => {
-                        cast_node = ConstantPred::new(
-                            ConstantPred::from_pred_node(cast_expr_child)
-                                .expect("we already checked that the type is Constant")
-                                .value()
-                                .convert_to_type(cast_expr_cast_to),
-                        )
-                        .into_pred_node();
-                        false
-                    }
-                    PredicateType::AttrIndex => {
-                        let attr_ref_expr = AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(cast_expr_child)
-                            .expect("we already checked that the type is AttributeRef");
-                        let attr_ref_idx = attr_ref_expr.attr_index();
-                        cast_node = attr_ref_expr.into_pred_node();
-                        // The "invert" cast is to invert the cast so that we're casting the
-                        // non_cast_node to the attribute's original type.
-                        let attribute_info = self.memo.get_attribute_info(group_id, attr_ref_idx);
-                        let invert_cast_data_type = &attribute_info.typ.into_data_type();
-
-                        match non_cast_node.typ {
-                            PredicateType::AttrIndex => {
-                                // In general, there's no way to remove the Cast here. We can't move
-                                // the Cast to the other AttributeRef
-                                // because that would lead to an infinite loop. Thus, we just leave
-                                // the cast where it is and break.
-                                true
-                            }
-                            _ => {
-                                non_cast_node =
-                                    CastPred::new(non_cast_node, invert_cast_data_type.clone())
-                                        .into_pred_node();
-                                false
-                            }
-                        }
-                    }
-                    _ => todo!(),
-                };
-
-                (uncasted_left, uncasted_right) = if is_left_cast {
-                    (cast_node, non_cast_node)
-                } else {
-                    (non_cast_node, cast_node)
-                };
-
-                if should_break {
-                    break;
-                }
-            } else {
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Sort nodes into attr_ref_exprs, values, and non_attr_ref_exprs
-        match uncasted_left.as_ref().typ {
-            PredicateType::AttrIndex => {
-                is_left_attr_ref = true;
-                attr_ref_exprs.push(
-                    AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(uncasted_left)
-                        .expect("we already checked that the type is AttributeRef"),
-                );
-            }
-            PredicateType::Constant(_) => {
-                is_left_attr_ref = false;
-                values.push(
-                    ConstantPred::from_pred_node(uncasted_left)
-                        .expect("we already checked that the type is Constant")
-                        .value(),
-                )
-            }
-            _ => {
-                is_left_attr_ref = false;
-                non_attr_ref_exprs.push(uncasted_left);
-            }
-        }
-        match uncasted_right.as_ref().typ {
-            PredicateType::AttrIndex => {
-                attr_ref_exprs.push(
-                    AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(uncasted_right)
-                        .expect("we already checked that the type is AttributeRef"),
-                );
-            }
-            PredicateType::Constant(_) => values.push(
-                ConstantPred::from_pred_node(uncasted_right)
-                    .expect("we already checked that the type is Constant")
-                    .value(),
-            ),
-            _ => {
-                non_attr_ref_exprs.push(uncasted_right);
-            }
-        }
-
-        assert!(attr_ref_exprs.len() + values.len() + non_attr_ref_exprs.len() == 2);
-        Ok((attr_ref_exprs, values, non_attr_ref_exprs, is_left_attr_ref))
-    }
-
-    /// The default selectivity of a comparison expression
-    /// Used when one side of the comparison is a attribute while the other side is something too
-    ///   complex/impossible to evaluate (subquery, UDF, another attribute, we have no stats, etc.)
-    fn get_default_comparison_op_selectivity(comp_bin_op_typ: BinOpType) -> f64 {
-        assert!(comp_bin_op_typ.is_comparison());
-        match comp_bin_op_typ {
-            BinOpType::Eq => DEFAULT_EQ_SEL,
-            BinOpType::Neq => 1.0 - DEFAULT_EQ_SEL,
-            BinOpType::Lt | BinOpType::Leq | BinOpType::Gt | BinOpType::Geq => DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL,
-            _ => unreachable!(
-                "all comparison BinOpTypes were enumerated. this should be unreachable"
-            ),
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/constant.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/constant.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index e131bde..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/constant.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,38 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateType},
-        predicates::constant_pred::ConstantType,
-        values::Value,
-    },
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    pub(crate) fn get_constant_selectivity(const_node: ArcPredicateNode) -> f64 {
-        if let PredicateType::Constant(const_typ) = const_node.typ {
-            if matches!(const_typ, ConstantType::Bool) {
-                let value = const_node
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .data
-                    .as_ref()
-                    .expect("constants should have data");
-                if let Value::Bool(bool_value) = value {
-                    if *bool_value {
-                        1.0
-                    } else {
-                        0.0
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    unreachable!(
-                        "if the typ is ConstantType::Bool, the value should be a Value::Bool"
-                    )
-                }
-            } else {
-                panic!("selectivity is not defined on constants which are not bools")
-            }
-        } else {
-            panic!("get_constant_selectivity must be called on a constant")
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/core.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/core.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 44651ed..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/core.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,872 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-        predicates::{in_list_pred::InListPred, like_pred::LikePred, un_op_pred::UnOpType},
-        types::GroupId,
-    },
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    stats::UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL,
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult, EstimatedStatistic,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    // TODO: is it a good design to pass table_id here? I think it needs to be refactored.
-    // Consider to remove table_id.
-    pub async fn get_filter_row_cnt(
-        &self,
-        child_row_cnt: EstimatedStatistic,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        cond: ArcPredicateNode,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<EstimatedStatistic> {
-        let selectivity = { self.get_filter_selectivity(group_id, cond).await? };
-        Ok(EstimatedStatistic((child_row_cnt.0 * selectivity).max(1.0)))
-    }
-
-    pub async fn get_filter_selectivity(
-        &self,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        expr_tree: ArcPredicateNode,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        Box::pin(async move {
-            match &expr_tree.typ {
-                PredicateType::Constant(_) => Ok(Self::get_constant_selectivity(expr_tree)),
-                PredicateType::AttrIndex => unimplemented!("check bool type or else panic"),
-                PredicateType::UnOp(un_op_typ) => {
-                    assert!(expr_tree.children.len() == 1);
-                    let child = expr_tree.child(0);
-                    match un_op_typ {
-                        // not doesn't care about nulls so there's no complex logic. it just reverses
-                        // the selectivity for instance, != _will not_ include nulls
-                        // but "NOT ==" _will_ include nulls
-                        UnOpType::Not => Ok(1.0 - self.get_filter_selectivity(group_id, child).await?),
-                        UnOpType::Neg => panic!(
-                            "the selectivity of operations that return numerical values is undefined"
-                        ),
-                    }
-                }
-                PredicateType::BinOp(bin_op_typ) => {
-                    assert!(expr_tree.children.len() == 2);
-                    let left_child = expr_tree.child(0);
-                    let right_child = expr_tree.child(1);
-
-                    if bin_op_typ.is_comparison() {
-                        self.get_comp_op_selectivity(group_id, *bin_op_typ, left_child, right_child).await
-                    } else if bin_op_typ.is_numerical() {
-                        panic!(
-                            "the selectivity of operations that return numerical values is undefined"
-                        )
-                    } else {
-                        unreachable!("all BinOpTypes should be true for at least one is_*() function")
-                    }
-                }
-                PredicateType::LogOp(log_op_typ) => {
-                    self.get_log_op_selectivity(group_id, *log_op_typ, &expr_tree.children).await
-                }
-                PredicateType::Func(_) => unimplemented!("check bool type or else panic"),
-                PredicateType::SortOrder(_) => {
-                    panic!("the selectivity of sort order expressions is undefined")
-                }
-                PredicateType::Between => Ok(UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL),
-                PredicateType::Cast => unimplemented!("check bool type or else panic"),
-                PredicateType::Like => {
-                    let like_expr = LikePred::from_pred_node(expr_tree).unwrap();
-                    self.get_like_selectivity(group_id, &like_expr).await
-                }
-                PredicateType::DataType(_) => {
-                    panic!("the selectivity of a data type is not defined")
-                }
-                PredicateType::InList => {
-                    let in_list_expr = InListPred::from_pred_node(expr_tree).unwrap();
-                    self.get_in_list_selectivity(group_id, &in_list_expr).await
-                }
-                _ => unreachable!(
-                    "all expression DfPredType were enumerated. this should be unreachable"
-                ),
-            }
-        }).await
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-
-    use crate::{
-        common::{
-            predicates::{
-                bin_op_pred::BinOpType, constant_pred::ConstantType, log_op_pred::LogOpType,
-                un_op_pred::UnOpType,
-            },
-            types::TableId,
-            values::Value,
-        },
-        stats::{utilities::simple_map::SimpleMap, Distribution, MostCommonValues, DEFAULT_EQ_SEL},
-        test_utils::tests::*,
-    };
-    use arrow_schema::DataType;
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_const() {
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TableId(0)],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(0, empty_per_attr_stats())])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, cnst(Value::Bool(true)))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, cnst(Value::Bool(false)))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.0
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_eq_constint_in_mcv() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))],
-                0.3,
-            )])),
-            None,
-            0,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let table_id = TableId(0);
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![table_id],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(0, per_attribute_stats)])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(
-            BinOpType::Eq,
-            attr_index(0), // TODO: Fix this
-            cnst(Value::Int32(1)),
-        );
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(
-            BinOpType::Eq,
-            cnst(Value::Int32(1)),
-            attr_index(0), // TODO: Fix this
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.3
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.3
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_eq_constint_not_in_mcv() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))], 0.2),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(3))], 0.44),
-            ])),
-            None,
-            5,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(2)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, cnst(Value::Int32(2)), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.12
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.12
-        );
-    }
-
-    /// I only have one test for NEQ since I'll assume that it uses the same underlying logic as EQ
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_neq_constint_in_mcv() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))],
-                0.3,
-            )])),
-            None,
-            0,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Neq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(1)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Neq, cnst(Value::Int32(1)), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0 - 0.3
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0 - 0.3
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_leq_constint_no_mcvs_in_range() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::default()),
-            Some(Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                Value::Int32(15),
-                0.7,
-            )]))),
-            10,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Leq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(15)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Gt, cnst(Value::Int32(15)), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.7
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.7
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_leq_constint_with_mcvs_in_range_not_at_border() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(6))], 0.05),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(10))], 0.1),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(17))], 0.08),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(25))], 0.07),
-            ])),
-            Some(Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                Value::Int32(15),
-                0.7,
-            )]))),
-            10,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Leq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(15)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Gt, cnst(Value::Int32(15)), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.85
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.85
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_leq_constint_with_mcv_at_border() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(6))], 0.05),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(10))], 0.1),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(15))], 0.08),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(25))], 0.07),
-            ])),
-            Some(Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                Value::Int32(15),
-                0.7,
-            )]))),
-            10,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Leq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(15)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Gt, cnst(Value::Int32(15)), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.93
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.93
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_lt_constint_no_mcvs_in_range() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::default()),
-            Some(Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                Value::Int32(15),
-                0.7,
-            )]))),
-            10,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Lt, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(15)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Geq, cnst(Value::Int32(15)), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.6
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.6
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ef_lt_constint_with_mcvs_in_range_not_at_border() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(6))], 0.05),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(10))], 0.1),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(17))], 0.08),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(25))], 0.07),
-            ])),
-            Some(Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                Value::Int32(15),
-                0.7,
-            )]))),
-            11, /* there are 4 MCVs which together add up to 0.3. With 11 total ndistinct, each
-                 * remaining value has freq 0.1 */
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Lt, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(15)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Geq, cnst(Value::Int32(15)), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.75
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.75
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_lt_constint_with_mcv_at_border() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(6))], 0.05),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(10))], 0.1),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(15))], 0.08),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(25))], 0.07),
-            ])),
-            Some(Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                Value::Int32(15),
-                0.7,
-            )]))),
-            11, /* there are 4 MCVs which together add up to 0.3. With 11 total ndistinct, each
-                 * remaining value has freq 0.1 */
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Lt, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(15)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Geq, cnst(Value::Int32(15)), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.85
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.85
-        );
-    }
-
-    /// I have fewer tests for GT since I'll assume that it uses the same underlying logic as LEQ
-    /// The only interesting thing to test is that if there are nulls, those aren't included in GT
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_gt_constint() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::default()),
-            Some(Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                Value::Int32(15),
-                0.7,
-            )]))),
-            10,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Gt, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(15)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Leq, cnst(Value::Int32(15)), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0 - 0.7
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0 - 0.7
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_geq_constint() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::default()),
-            Some(Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                Value::Int32(15),
-                0.7,
-            )]))),
-            10,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Geq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(15)));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Lt, cnst(Value::Int32(15)), attr_index(0));
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0 - 0.6
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0 - 0.6
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_and() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))], 0.3),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(5))], 0.5),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(8))], 0.2),
-            ])),
-            None,
-            0,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let eq1 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(1)));
-        let eq5 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(5)));
-        let eq8 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(8)));
-        let expr_tree = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq1.clone(), eq5.clone(), eq8.clone()]);
-        let expr_tree_shift1 = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq5.clone(), eq8.clone(), eq1.clone()]);
-        let expr_tree_shift2 = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq8.clone(), eq1.clone(), eq5.clone()]);
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.03
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_shift1)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.03
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_shift2)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.03
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_or() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))], 0.3),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(5))], 0.5),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(8))], 0.2),
-            ])),
-            None,
-            0,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let eq1 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(1)));
-        let eq5 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(5)));
-        let eq8 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(8)));
-        let expr_tree = log_op(LogOpType::Or, vec![eq1.clone(), eq5.clone(), eq8.clone()]);
-        let expr_tree_shift1 = log_op(LogOpType::Or, vec![eq5.clone(), eq8.clone(), eq1.clone()]);
-        let expr_tree_shift2 = log_op(LogOpType::Or, vec![eq8.clone(), eq1.clone(), eq5.clone()]);
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.72
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_shift1)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.72
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_shift2)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.72
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_not() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))],
-                0.3,
-            )])),
-            None,
-            0,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = un_op(
-            UnOpType::Not,
-            bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(1))),
-        );
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.7
-        );
-    }
-
-    // I didn't test any non-unique cases with filter. The non-unique tests without filter should
-    // cover that
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_attr_ref_eq_cast_value() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))],
-                0.3,
-            )])),
-            None,
-            0,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(
-            BinOpType::Eq,
-            attr_index(0),
-            cast(cnst(Value::Int64(1)), DataType::Int32),
-        );
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(
-            BinOpType::Eq,
-            cast(cnst(Value::Int64(1)), DataType::Int32),
-            attr_index(0),
-        );
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.3
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.3
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cast_attr_ref_eq_value() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![(
-                vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))],
-                0.3,
-            )])),
-            None,
-            0,
-            0.1,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model_with_attr_types(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                ConstantType::Int32,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(
-            BinOpType::Eq,
-            cast(attr_index(0), DataType::Int64), // TODO: Fix this
-            cnst(Value::Int64(1)),
-        );
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(
-            BinOpType::Eq,
-            cnst(Value::Int64(1)),
-            cast(attr_index(0), DataType::Int64), // TODO: Fix this
-        );
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.3
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.3
-        );
-    }
-
-    /// In this case, we should leave the Cast as is.
-    ///
-    /// Note that the test only checks the selectivity and thus doesn't explicitly test that the
-    /// Cast is indeed left as is. However, if get_filter_selectivity() doesn't crash, that's a
-    /// pretty good signal that the Cast was left as is.
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_cast_attr_ref_eq_attr_ref() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::default()),
-            None,
-            0,
-            0.0,
-        );
-
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model_with_attr_types(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![HashMap::from([
-                (TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX, ConstantType::Int32),
-                (TEST_ATTR2_BASE_INDEX, ConstantType::Int64),
-            ])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(
-            BinOpType::Eq,
-            cast(attr_index(0), DataType::Int64),
-            attr_index(1),
-        );
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(
-            BinOpType::Eq,
-            attr_index(1),
-            cast(attr_index(0), DataType::Int64),
-        );
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            DEFAULT_EQ_SEL
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_filter_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, expr_tree_rev)
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            DEFAULT_EQ_SEL
-        );
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/in_list.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/in_list.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index d8838a8..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/in_list.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,160 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-        predicates::{
-            attr_index_pred::AttrIndexPred, constant_pred::ConstantPred, in_list_pred::InListPred,
-        },
-        properties::attr_ref::{AttrRef, BaseTableAttrRef},
-        types::GroupId,
-    },
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    stats::UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL,
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    /// Only support attrA in (val1, val2, val3) where attrA is a attribute ref and
-    /// val1, val2, val3 are constants.
-    pub(crate) async fn get_in_list_selectivity(
-        &self,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        expr: &InListPred,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        let child = expr.child();
-
-        // Check child is a attribute ref.
-        if !matches!(child.typ, PredicateType::AttrIndex) {
-            return Ok(UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL);
-        }
-
-        // Check all expressions in the list are constants.
-        let list_exprs = expr.list().to_vec();
-        if list_exprs
-            .iter()
-            .any(|expr| !matches!(expr.typ, PredicateType::Constant(_)))
-        {
-            return Ok(UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL);
-        }
-
-        // Convert child and const expressions to concrete types.
-        let attr_ref_pred = AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(child).unwrap();
-        let attr_ref_idx = attr_ref_pred.attr_index();
-
-        let list_exprs = list_exprs
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|expr| {
-                ConstantPred::from_pred_node(expr)
-                    .expect("we already checked all list elements are constants")
-            })
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let negated = expr.negated();
-
-        if let AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(BaseTableAttrRef { table_id, attr_idx }) =
-            self.memo.get_attribute_ref(group_id, attr_ref_idx)
-        {
-            let mut in_sel = 0.0;
-            for expr in &list_exprs {
-                let selectivity = self
-                    .get_attribute_equality_selectivity(
-                        table_id,
-                        attr_idx,
-                        &expr.value(),
-                        /* is_equality */ true,
-                    )
-                    .await?;
-                in_sel += selectivity;
-            }
-            in_sel = in_sel.min(1.0);
-            if negated {
-                Ok(1.0 - in_sel)
-            } else {
-                Ok(in_sel)
-            }
-        } else {
-            // TODO: Child is a derived attribute.
-            Ok(UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL)
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-
-    use crate::{
-        common::values::Value,
-        stats::{utilities::simple_map::SimpleMap, MostCommonValues},
-        test_utils::tests::*,
-    };
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_in_list() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))], 0.8),
-                (vec![Some(Value::Int32(2))], 0.2),
-            ])),
-            None,
-            2,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_in_list_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, &in_list(0, vec![Value::Int32(1)], false))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.8
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_in_list_selectivity(
-                    TEST_GROUP1_ID,
-                    &in_list(0, vec![Value::Int32(1), Value::Int32(2)], false)
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_in_list_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, &in_list(0, vec![Value::Int32(3)], false))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.0
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_in_list_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, &in_list(0, vec![Value::Int32(1)], true))
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.2
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_in_list_selectivity(
-                    TEST_GROUP1_ID,
-                    &in_list(0, vec![Value::Int32(1), Value::Int32(2)], true)
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.0
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_in_list_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, &in_list(0, vec![Value::Int32(3)], true)) // TODO: Fix this
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0
-        );
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/like.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/like.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index ff56f44..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/like.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,207 +0,0 @@
-use datafusion::arrow::{array::StringArray, compute::like};
-
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-        predicates::{
-            attr_index_pred::AttrIndexPred, constant_pred::ConstantPred, like_pred::LikePred,
-        },
-        properties::attr_ref::{AttrRef, BaseTableAttrRef},
-        types::GroupId,
-    },
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    stats::{
-        AttributeCombValue, FIXED_CHAR_SEL_FACTOR, FULL_WILDCARD_SEL_FACTOR, UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL,
-    },
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    /// Compute the selectivity of a (NOT) LIKE expression.
-    ///
-    /// The logic is somewhat similar to Postgres but different. Postgres first estimates the
-    /// histogram part of the population and then add up data for any MCV values. If the
-    /// histogram is large enough, it just uses the number of matches in the histogram,
-    /// otherwise it estimates the fixed prefix and remainder of pattern separately and
-    /// combine them.
-    ///
-    /// Our approach is simpler and less selective. Firstly, we don't use histogram. The selectivity
-    /// is composed of MCV frequency and non-MCV selectivity. MCV frequency is computed by
-    /// adding up frequencies of MCVs that match the pattern. Non-MCV  selectivity is computed
-    /// in the same way that Postgres computes selectivity for the wildcard part of the pattern.
-    pub(crate) async fn get_like_selectivity(
-        &self,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        like_expr: &LikePred,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        let child = like_expr.child();
-
-        // Check child is a attribute ref.
-        if !matches!(child.typ, PredicateType::AttrIndex) {
-            return Ok(UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL);
-        }
-
-        // Check pattern is a constant.
-        let pattern = like_expr.pattern();
-        if !matches!(pattern.typ, PredicateType::Constant(_)) {
-            return Ok(UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL);
-        }
-
-        let attr_ref_pred = AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(child).unwrap();
-        let attr_ref_idx = attr_ref_pred.attr_index();
-
-        if let AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(BaseTableAttrRef { table_id, attr_idx }) =
-            self.memo.get_attribute_ref(group_id, attr_ref_idx)
-        {
-            let pattern = ConstantPred::from_pred_node(pattern)
-                .expect("we already checked pattern is a constant")
-                .value()
-                .as_str();
-
-            // Compute the selectivity exculuding MCVs.
-            // See Postgres `like_selectivity`.
-            let non_mcv_sel = pattern
-                .chars()
-                .fold(1.0, |acc, c| {
-                    if c == '%' {
-                        acc * FULL_WILDCARD_SEL_FACTOR
-                    } else {
-                        acc * FIXED_CHAR_SEL_FACTOR
-                    }
-                })
-                .min(1.0);
-
-            // Compute the selectivity in MCVs.
-            // TODO: Handle the case where `attribute_stats` is None.
-            let (mut mcv_freq, mut null_frac) = (0.0, 0.0);
-            if let Some(attribute_stats) =
-                self.get_attribute_comb_stats(table_id, &[attr_idx]).await?
-            {
-                (mcv_freq, null_frac) = {
-                    let pred = Box::new(move |val: &AttributeCombValue| {
-                        let string =
-                            StringArray::from(vec![val[0].as_ref().unwrap().as_str().as_ref()]);
-                        let pattern = StringArray::from(vec![pattern.as_ref()]);
-                        like(&string, &pattern).unwrap().value(0)
-                    });
-                    (
-                        attribute_stats.mcvs.freq_over_pred(pred),
-                        attribute_stats.null_frac,
-                    )
-                };
-            }
-            let result = non_mcv_sel + mcv_freq;
-
-            Ok(if like_expr.negated() {
-                1.0 - result - null_frac
-            } else {
-                result
-            }
-            // Postgres clamps the result after histogram and before MCV. See Postgres
-            // `patternsel_common`.
-            .clamp(0.0001, 0.9999))
-        } else {
-            // TOOD: derived attribute
-            Ok(UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL)
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-
-    use crate::{
-        common::values::Value,
-        stats::{
-            utilities::{counter::Counter, simple_map::SimpleMap},
-            MostCommonValues, FIXED_CHAR_SEL_FACTOR, FULL_WILDCARD_SEL_FACTOR,
-        },
-        test_utils::tests::*,
-    };
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_like_no_nulls() {
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![
-                (vec![Some(Value::String("abcd".into()))], 0.1),
-                (vec![Some(Value::String("abc".into()))], 0.1),
-            ])),
-            None,
-            2,
-            0.0,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_like_selectivity(
-                    TEST_GROUP1_ID,
-                    &like(TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX, "%abcd%", false)
-                ) // TODO: Fix this
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.1 + FULL_WILDCARD_SEL_FACTOR.powi(2) * FIXED_CHAR_SEL_FACTOR.powi(4)
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_like_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, &like(TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX, "%abc%", false)) // TODO: Fix this
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.1 + 0.1 + FULL_WILDCARD_SEL_FACTOR.powi(2) * FIXED_CHAR_SEL_FACTOR.powi(3)
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_like_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, &like(TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX, "%abc%", true)) // TODO: Fix this
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0 - (0.1 + 0.1 + FULL_WILDCARD_SEL_FACTOR.powi(2) * FIXED_CHAR_SEL_FACTOR.powi(3))
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_like_with_nulls() {
-        let null_frac = 0.5;
-        let mut mcvs_counts = HashMap::new();
-        mcvs_counts.insert(vec![Some(Value::String("abcd".into()))], 1);
-        let mcvs_total_count = 10;
-        let per_attribute_stats = TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::Counter(Counter::new_from_existing(mcvs_counts, mcvs_total_count)),
-            None,
-            2,
-            null_frac,
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(
-                TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX,
-                per_attribute_stats,
-            )])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_like_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, &like(0, "%abcd%", false)) // TODO: Fix this
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.1 + FULL_WILDCARD_SEL_FACTOR.powi(2) * FIXED_CHAR_SEL_FACTOR.powi(4)
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_like_selectivity(TEST_GROUP1_ID, &like(0, "%abcd%", true)) // TODO: Fix this
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0 - (0.1 + FULL_WILDCARD_SEL_FACTOR.powi(2) * FIXED_CHAR_SEL_FACTOR.powi(4))
-                - null_frac
-        );
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/log_op.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/log_op.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 381584d..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/log_op.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,34 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    common::{nodes::ArcPredicateNode, predicates::log_op_pred::LogOpType, types::GroupId},
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    pub(crate) async fn get_log_op_selectivity(
-        &self,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        log_op_typ: LogOpType,
-        children: &[ArcPredicateNode],
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        match log_op_typ {
-            LogOpType::And => {
-                let mut and_sel = 1.0;
-                for child in children {
-                    let selectivity = self.get_filter_selectivity(group_id, child.clone()).await?;
-                    and_sel *= selectivity;
-                }
-                Ok(and_sel)
-            }
-            LogOpType::Or => {
-                let mut or_sel_neg = 1.0;
-                for child in children {
-                    let selectivity = self.get_filter_selectivity(group_id, child.clone()).await?;
-                    or_sel_neg *= 1.0 - selectivity;
-                }
-                Ok(1.0 - or_sel_neg)
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/mod.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 00ea653..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/filter/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-pub mod attribute;
-pub mod comp_op;
-pub mod constant;
-pub mod core;
-pub mod in_list;
-pub mod like;
-pub mod log_op;
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/core.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/core.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 6d10fb9..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/core.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,1275 +0,0 @@
-use std::collections::HashSet;
-
-use itertools::Itertools;
-
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, JoinType, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-        predicates::{
-            attr_index_pred::AttrIndexPred,
-            list_pred::ListPred,
-            log_op_pred::{LogOpPred, LogOpType},
-        },
-        properties::attr_ref::{
-            AttrRef, AttrRefs, BaseTableAttrRef, EqPredicate, SemanticCorrelation,
-        },
-        types::GroupId,
-    },
-    cost::join::get_on_attr_ref_pair,
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    stats::DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT,
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    /// The expr_tree input must be a "mixed expression tree", just like with
-    /// `get_filter_selectivity`.
-    ///
-    /// This is a "wrapper" to separate the equality conditions from the filter conditions before
-    /// calling the "main" `get_join_selectivity_core` function.
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    pub(crate) async fn get_join_selectivity_from_expr_tree(
-        &self,
-        join_typ: JoinType,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        expr_tree: ArcPredicateNode,
-        attr_refs: &AttrRefs,
-        input_correlation: Option<SemanticCorrelation>,
-        left_row_cnt: f64,
-        right_row_cnt: f64,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        if expr_tree.typ == PredicateType::LogOp(LogOpType::And) {
-            let mut on_attr_ref_pairs = vec![];
-            let mut filter_expr_trees = vec![];
-            for child_expr_tree in &expr_tree.children {
-                if let Some(on_attr_ref_pair) =
-                    get_on_attr_ref_pair(child_expr_tree.clone(), attr_refs)
-                {
-                    on_attr_ref_pairs.push(on_attr_ref_pair)
-                } else {
-                    let child_expr = child_expr_tree.clone();
-                    filter_expr_trees.push(child_expr);
-                }
-            }
-            assert!(on_attr_ref_pairs.len() + filter_expr_trees.len() == expr_tree.children.len());
-            let filter_expr_tree = if filter_expr_trees.is_empty() {
-                None
-            } else {
-                Some(LogOpPred::new(LogOpType::And, filter_expr_trees).into_pred_node())
-            };
-            self.get_join_selectivity_core(
-                join_typ,
-                group_id,
-                on_attr_ref_pairs,
-                filter_expr_tree,
-                attr_refs,
-                input_correlation,
-                left_row_cnt,
-                right_row_cnt,
-                0,
-            )
-            .await
-        } else {
-            #[allow(clippy::collapsible_else_if)]
-            if let Some(on_attr_ref_pair) = get_on_attr_ref_pair(expr_tree.clone(), attr_refs) {
-                self.get_join_selectivity_core(
-                    join_typ,
-                    group_id,
-                    vec![on_attr_ref_pair],
-                    None,
-                    attr_refs,
-                    input_correlation,
-                    left_row_cnt,
-                    right_row_cnt,
-                    0,
-                )
-                .await
-            } else {
-                self.get_join_selectivity_core(
-                    join_typ,
-                    group_id,
-                    vec![],
-                    Some(expr_tree),
-                    attr_refs,
-                    input_correlation,
-                    left_row_cnt,
-                    right_row_cnt,
-                    0,
-                )
-                .await
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// A wrapper to convert the join keys to the format expected by get_join_selectivity_core()
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    pub(crate) async fn get_join_selectivity_from_keys(
-        &self,
-        join_typ: JoinType,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        left_keys: ListPred,
-        right_keys: ListPred,
-        attr_refs: &AttrRefs,
-        input_correlation: Option<SemanticCorrelation>,
-        left_row_cnt: f64,
-        right_row_cnt: f64,
-        left_attr_cnt: usize,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        assert!(left_keys.len() == right_keys.len());
-        // I assume that the keys are already in the right order
-        // s.t. the ith key of left_keys corresponds with the ith key of right_keys
-        let on_attr_ref_pairs = left_keys
-            .to_vec()
-            .into_iter()
-            .zip(right_keys.to_vec())
-            .map(|(left_key, right_key)| {
-                (
-                    AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(left_key).expect("keys should be AttrRefPreds"),
-                    AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(right_key).expect("keys should be AttrRefPreds"),
-                )
-            })
-            .collect_vec();
-        self.get_join_selectivity_core(
-            join_typ,
-            group_id,
-            on_attr_ref_pairs,
-            None,
-            attr_refs,
-            input_correlation,
-            left_row_cnt,
-            right_row_cnt,
-            left_attr_cnt,
-        )
-        .await
-    }
-
-    /// The core logic of join selectivity which assumes we've already separated the expression
-    /// into the on conditions and the filters.
-    ///
-    /// Hash join and NLJ reference right table attributes differently, hence the
-    /// `right_attr_ref_offset` parameter.
-    ///
-    /// For hash join, the right table attributes indices are with respect to the right table,
-    /// which means #0 is the first attribute of the right table.
-    ///
-    /// For NLJ, the right table attributes indices are with respect to the output of the join.
-    /// For example, if the left table has 3 attributes, the first attribute of the right table
-    /// is #3 instead of #0.
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    async fn get_join_selectivity_core(
-        &self,
-        join_typ: JoinType,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        on_attr_ref_pairs: Vec<(AttrIndexPred, AttrIndexPred)>,
-        filter_expr_tree: Option<ArcPredicateNode>,
-        attr_refs: &AttrRefs,
-        input_correlation: Option<SemanticCorrelation>,
-        left_row_cnt: f64,
-        right_row_cnt: f64,
-        right_attr_ref_offset: usize,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        let join_on_selectivity = self
-            .get_join_on_selectivity(
-                &on_attr_ref_pairs,
-                attr_refs,
-                input_correlation,
-                right_attr_ref_offset,
-            )
-            .await?;
-        // Currently, there is no difference in how we handle a join filter and a select filter,
-        // so we use the same function.
-        //
-        // One difference (that we *don't* care about right now) is that join filters can contain
-        // expressions from multiple different tables. Currently, this doesn't affect the
-        // get_filter_selectivity() function, but this may change in the future.
-        let join_filter_selectivity = match filter_expr_tree {
-            Some(filter_expr_tree) => {
-                self.get_filter_selectivity(group_id, filter_expr_tree)
-                    .await?
-            }
-            None => 1.0,
-        };
-        let inner_join_selectivity = join_on_selectivity * join_filter_selectivity;
-
-        Ok(match join_typ {
-            JoinType::Inner => inner_join_selectivity,
-            JoinType::LeftOuter => f64::max(inner_join_selectivity, 1.0 / right_row_cnt),
-            JoinType::RightOuter => f64::max(inner_join_selectivity, 1.0 / left_row_cnt),
-            JoinType::Cross => {
-                assert!(
-                    on_attr_ref_pairs.is_empty(),
-                    "Cross joins should not have on attributes"
-                );
-                join_filter_selectivity
-            }
-            _ => unimplemented!("join_typ={} is not implemented", join_typ),
-        })
-    }
-
-    /// Get the selectivity of one attribute eq predicate, e.g. attrA = attrB.
-    async fn get_join_selectivity_from_on_attr_ref_pair(
-        &self,
-        left: &AttrRef,
-        right: &AttrRef,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        // the formula for each pair is min(1 / ndistinct1, 1 / ndistinct2)
-        // (see https://postgrespro.com/blog/pgsql/5969618)
-        let mut ndistincts = vec![];
-        for attr_ref in [left, right] {
-            let ndistinct = match attr_ref {
-                AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(base_attr_ref) => {
-                    match self
-                        .get_attribute_comb_stats(base_attr_ref.table_id, &[base_attr_ref.attr_idx])
-                        .await?
-                    {
-                        Some(per_attr_stats) => per_attr_stats.ndistinct,
-                        None => DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT,
-                    }
-                }
-                AttrRef::Derived => DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT,
-            };
-            ndistincts.push(ndistinct);
-        }
-
-        // using reduce(f64::min) is the idiomatic workaround to min() because
-        // f64 does not implement Ord due to NaN
-        let selectivity = ndistincts.into_iter().map(|ndistinct| 1.0 / ndistinct as f64).reduce(f64::min).expect("reduce() only returns None if the iterator is empty, which is impossible since attr_ref_exprs.len() == 2");
-        assert!(
-            !selectivity.is_nan(),
-            "it should be impossible for selectivity to be NaN since n-distinct is never 0"
-        );
-        Ok(selectivity)
-    }
-
-    /// Given a set of N attributes involved in a multi-equality, find the total selectivity
-    /// of the multi-equality.
-    ///
-    /// This is a generalization of get_join_selectivity_from_on_attr_ref_pair().
-    async fn get_join_selectivity_from_most_selective_attrs(
-        &self,
-        base_attr_refs: HashSet<BaseTableAttrRef>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        assert!(base_attr_refs.len() > 1);
-        let num_base_attr_refs = base_attr_refs.len();
-
-        let mut ndistincts = vec![];
-        for base_attr_ref in base_attr_refs.iter() {
-            let ndistinct = match self
-                .get_attribute_comb_stats(base_attr_ref.table_id, &[base_attr_ref.attr_idx])
-                .await?
-            {
-                Some(per_attr_stats) => per_attr_stats.ndistinct,
-                None => DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT,
-            };
-            ndistincts.push(ndistinct);
-        }
-
-        Ok(ndistincts
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|ndistinct| 1.0 / ndistinct as f64)
-            .sorted_by(|a, b| {
-                a.partial_cmp(b)
-                    .expect("No floats should be NaN since n-distinct is never 0")
-            })
-            .take(num_base_attr_refs - 1)
-            .product())
-    }
-
-    /// A predicate set defines a "multi-equality graph", which is an unweighted undirected graph.
-    /// The nodes are attributes while edges are predicates. The old graph is defined by
-    /// `past_eq_attrs` while the `predicate` is the new addition to this graph. This
-    /// unweighted undirected graph consists of a number of connected components, where each
-    /// connected component represents attributes that are set to be equal to each other. Single
-    /// nodes not connected to anything are considered standalone connected components.
-    ///
-    /// The selectivity of each connected component of N nodes is equal to the product of
-    /// 1/ndistinct of the N-1 nodes with the highest ndistinct values. You can see this if you
-    /// imagine that all attributes being joined are unique attributes and that they follow the
-    /// inclusion principle (every element of the smaller tables is present in the larger
-    /// tables). When these assumptions are not true, the selectivity may not be completely
-    /// accurate. However, it is still fairly accurate.
-    ///
-    /// However, we cannot simply add `predicate` to the multi-equality graph and compute the
-    /// selectivity of the entire connected component, because this would be "double counting" a
-    /// lot of nodes. The join(s) before this join would already have a selectivity value. Thus,
-    /// we compute the selectivity of the join(s) before this join (the first block of the
-    /// function) and then the selectivity of the connected component after this join. The
-    /// quotient is the "adjustment" factor.
-    ///
-    /// NOTE: This function modifies `past_eq_attrs` by adding `predicate` to it.
-    async fn get_join_selectivity_adjustment_when_adding_to_multi_equality_graph(
-        &self,
-        predicate: &EqPredicate,
-        past_eq_attrs: &mut SemanticCorrelation,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        if predicate.left == predicate.right {
-            // self-join, TODO: is this correct?
-            return Ok(1.0);
-        }
-        // To find the adjustment, we need to know the selectivity of the graph before `predicate`
-        // is added.
-        //
-        // There are two cases: (1) adding `predicate` does not change the # of connected
-        // components, and (2) adding `predicate` reduces the # of connected by 1. Note that
-        // attributes not involved in any predicates are considered a part of the graph and are
-        // a connected component on their own.
-        let children_pred_sel = {
-            if past_eq_attrs.is_eq(&predicate.left, &predicate.right) {
-                self.get_join_selectivity_from_most_selective_attrs(
-                    past_eq_attrs.find_attrs_for_eq_attribute_set(&predicate.left),
-                )
-                .await?
-            } else {
-                let left_sel = if past_eq_attrs.contains(&predicate.left) {
-                    self.get_join_selectivity_from_most_selective_attrs(
-                        past_eq_attrs.find_attrs_for_eq_attribute_set(&predicate.left),
-                    )
-                    .await?
-                } else {
-                    1.0
-                };
-                let right_sel = if past_eq_attrs.contains(&predicate.right) {
-                    self.get_join_selectivity_from_most_selective_attrs(
-                        past_eq_attrs.find_attrs_for_eq_attribute_set(&predicate.right),
-                    )
-                    .await?
-                } else {
-                    1.0
-                };
-                left_sel * right_sel
-            }
-        };
-
-        // Add predicate to past_eq_attrs and compute the selectivity of the connected component
-        // it creates.
-        past_eq_attrs.add_predicate(predicate.clone());
-        let new_pred_sel = {
-            let attrs = past_eq_attrs.find_attrs_for_eq_attribute_set(&predicate.left);
-            self.get_join_selectivity_from_most_selective_attrs(attrs)
-        }
-        .await?;
-
-        // Compute the adjustment factor.
-        Ok(new_pred_sel / children_pred_sel)
-    }
-
-    /// Get the selectivity of the on conditions.
-    ///
-    /// Note that the selectivity of the on conditions does not depend on join type.
-    /// Join type is accounted for separately in get_join_selectivity_core().
-    ///
-    /// We also check if each predicate is correlated with any of the previous predicates.
-    ///
-    /// More specifically, we are checking if the predicate can be expressed with other existing
-    /// predicates. E.g. if we have a predicate like A = B and B = C is equivalent to A = C.
-    //
-    /// However, we don't just throw away A = C, because we want to pick the most selective
-    /// predicates. For details on how we do this, see
-    /// `get_join_selectivity_from_redundant_predicates`.
-    async fn get_join_on_selectivity(
-        &self,
-        on_attr_ref_pairs: &[(AttrIndexPred, AttrIndexPred)],
-        attr_refs: &AttrRefs,
-        input_correlation: Option<SemanticCorrelation>,
-        right_attr_ref_offset: usize,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<f64> {
-        let mut past_eq_attrs = input_correlation.unwrap_or_default();
-
-        // Multiply the selectivities of all individual conditions together
-        let mut selectivity = 1.0;
-        for on_attr_ref_pair in on_attr_ref_pairs {
-            let left_attr_ref = &attr_refs[on_attr_ref_pair.0.attr_index() as usize];
-            let right_attr_ref =
-                &attr_refs[on_attr_ref_pair.1.attr_index() as usize + right_attr_ref_offset];
-
-            selectivity *=
-                if let (AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(left), AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(right)) =
-                    (left_attr_ref, right_attr_ref)
-                {
-                    let predicate = EqPredicate::new(left.clone(), right.clone());
-                    self.get_join_selectivity_adjustment_when_adding_to_multi_equality_graph(
-                        &predicate,
-                        &mut past_eq_attrs,
-                    )
-                    .await?
-                } else {
-                    self.get_join_selectivity_from_on_attr_ref_pair(left_attr_ref, right_attr_ref)
-                        .await?
-                };
-        }
-
-        Ok(selectivity)
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-
-    use attr_ref::GroupAttrRefs;
-
-    use crate::{
-        common::{
-            predicates::bin_op_pred::BinOpType,
-            properties::{attr_ref, Attribute},
-            values::Value,
-        },
-        stats::DEFAULT_EQ_SEL,
-        test_utils::tests::MemoGroupInfo,
-        test_utils::tests::{
-            attr_index, bin_op, cnst, create_four_table_mock_cost_model, create_mock_cost_model,
-            create_three_table_mock_cost_model, create_two_table_mock_cost_model,
-            create_two_table_mock_cost_model_custom_row_cnts, empty_per_attr_stats, log_op,
-            per_attr_stats_with_dist_and_ndistinct, per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct,
-            TestOptCostModelMock, TEST_ATTR1_NAME, TEST_ATTR2_NAME, TEST_TABLE1_ID, TEST_TABLE2_ID,
-            TEST_TABLE3_ID, TEST_TABLE4_ID,
-        },
-    };
-
-    use super::*;
-
-    const JOIN_GROUP_ID: GroupId = GroupId(10);
-
-    /// A wrapper around get_join_selectivity_from_expr_tree that extracts the
-    /// table row counts from the cost model.
-    async fn test_get_join_selectivity(
-        cost_model: &TestOptCostModelMock,
-        reverse_tables: bool,
-        join_typ: JoinType,
-        expr_tree: ArcPredicateNode,
-        attr_refs: &AttrRefs,
-        input_correlation: Option<SemanticCorrelation>,
-    ) -> f64 {
-        let table1_row_cnt = cost_model.get_row_count(TEST_TABLE1_ID) as f64;
-        let table2_row_cnt = cost_model.get_row_count(TEST_TABLE2_ID) as f64;
-
-        if !reverse_tables {
-            cost_model
-                .get_join_selectivity_from_expr_tree(
-                    join_typ,
-                    JOIN_GROUP_ID,
-                    expr_tree,
-                    attr_refs,
-                    input_correlation,
-                    table1_row_cnt,
-                    table2_row_cnt,
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-        } else {
-            cost_model
-                .get_join_selectivity_from_expr_tree(
-                    join_typ,
-                    JOIN_GROUP_ID,
-                    expr_tree,
-                    attr_refs,
-                    input_correlation,
-                    table2_row_cnt,
-                    table1_row_cnt,
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap()
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inner_const() {
-        let cost_model = create_mock_cost_model(
-            vec![TEST_TABLE1_ID],
-            vec![HashMap::from([(0, empty_per_attr_stats())])],
-            vec![None],
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_join_selectivity_from_expr_tree(
-                    JoinType::Inner,
-                    JOIN_GROUP_ID,
-                    cnst(Value::Bool(true)),
-                    &vec![],
-                    None,
-                    f64::NAN,
-                    f64::NAN
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            1.0
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            cost_model
-                .get_join_selectivity_from_expr_tree(
-                    JoinType::Inner,
-                    JOIN_GROUP_ID,
-                    cnst(Value::Bool(false)),
-                    &vec![],
-                    None,
-                    f64::NAN,
-                    f64::NAN
-                )
-                .await
-                .unwrap(),
-            0.0
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inner_oncond() {
-        let cost_model = create_two_table_mock_cost_model(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(5),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-            None,
-        );
-
-        let attr_refs = vec![
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-        ];
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(1));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), attr_index(0));
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree,
-                &attr_refs,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await,
-            0.2
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree_rev,
-                &attr_refs,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await,
-            0.2
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inner_and_of_onconds() {
-        let cost_model = create_two_table_mock_cost_model(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(5),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-            None,
-        );
-
-        let attr_refs = vec![
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-        ];
-        let eq0and1 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(1));
-        let eq1and0 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), attr_index(0));
-        let expr_tree = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq0and1.clone(), eq1and0.clone()]);
-        let expr_tree_rev = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq1and0.clone(), eq0and1.clone()]);
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree,
-                &attr_refs,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await,
-            0.2
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree_rev,
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            0.2
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inner_and_of_oncond_and_filter() {
-        let join_memo = HashMap::from([(
-            JOIN_GROUP_ID,
-            MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                vec![
-                    Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR1_NAME.to_string()),
-                    Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR2_NAME.to_string()),
-                ]
-                .into(),
-                GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                    vec![
-                        AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-                        AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-                    ],
-                    None,
-                ),
-            ),
-        )]);
-        let cost_model = create_two_table_mock_cost_model(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(5),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-            Some(join_memo),
-        );
-
-        let attr_refs = vec![
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-        ];
-        let eq0and1 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(1));
-        let eq100 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), cnst(Value::Int32(100)));
-        let expr_tree = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq0and1.clone(), eq100.clone()]);
-        let expr_tree_rev = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq100.clone(), eq0and1.clone()]);
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree,
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            0.05
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree_rev,
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            0.05
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inner_and_of_filters() {
-        let join_memo = HashMap::from([(
-            JOIN_GROUP_ID,
-            MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                vec![
-                    Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR1_NAME.to_string()),
-                    Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR2_NAME.to_string()),
-                ]
-                .into(),
-                GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                    vec![
-                        AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-                        AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-                    ],
-                    None,
-                ),
-            ),
-        )]);
-        let cost_model = create_two_table_mock_cost_model(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(5),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-            Some(join_memo),
-        );
-
-        let attr_refs = vec![
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-        ];
-        let neq12 = bin_op(BinOpType::Neq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(12)));
-        let eq100 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), cnst(Value::Int32(100)));
-        let expr_tree = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![neq12.clone(), eq100.clone()]);
-        let expr_tree_rev = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq100.clone(), neq12.clone()]);
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree,
-                &attr_refs,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await,
-            0.2
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree_rev,
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            0.2
-        );
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_inner_colref_eq_colref_same_table_is_not_oncond() {
-        let cost_model = create_two_table_mock_cost_model(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(5),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-            None,
-        );
-
-        let attr_refs = vec![
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-        ];
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(0));
-
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree,
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            DEFAULT_EQ_SEL
-        );
-    }
-
-    // We don't test joinsel or with oncond because if there is an oncond (on condition), the
-    // top-level operator must be an AND
-
-    /// I made this helper function to avoid copying all eight lines over and over
-    async fn assert_outer_selectivities(
-        cost_model: &TestOptCostModelMock,
-        expr_tree: ArcPredicateNode,
-        expr_tree_rev: ArcPredicateNode,
-        attr_refs: &AttrRefs,
-        expected_table1_outer_sel: f64,
-        expected_table2_outer_sel: f64,
-    ) {
-        // all table 1 outer combinations
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::LeftOuter,
-                expr_tree.clone(),
-                attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_table1_outer_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::LeftOuter,
-                expr_tree_rev.clone(),
-                attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_table1_outer_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                cost_model,
-                true,
-                JoinType::RightOuter,
-                expr_tree.clone(),
-                attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_table1_outer_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                cost_model,
-                true,
-                JoinType::RightOuter,
-                expr_tree_rev.clone(),
-                attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_table1_outer_sel
-        );
-        // all table 2 outer combinations
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                cost_model,
-                true,
-                JoinType::LeftOuter,
-                expr_tree.clone(),
-                attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_table2_outer_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                cost_model,
-                true,
-                JoinType::LeftOuter,
-                expr_tree_rev.clone(),
-                attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_table2_outer_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::RightOuter,
-                expr_tree.clone(),
-                attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_table2_outer_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::RightOuter,
-                expr_tree_rev.clone(),
-                attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_table2_outer_sel
-        );
-    }
-
-    /// Unique oncond means an oncondition on columns which are unique in both tables
-    /// There's only one case if both columns are unique and have different row counts: the inner
-    /// will be < 1 / row count   of one table and = 1 / row count of another
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_outer_unique_oncond() {
-        let cost_model = create_two_table_mock_cost_model_custom_row_cnts(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(5),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-            5,
-            4,
-            None,
-        );
-
-        let attr_refs = vec![
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-        ];
-        // the left/right of the join refers to the tables, not the order of columns in the
-        // predicate
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(1));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), attr_index(0));
-
-        // sanity check the expected inner sel
-        let expected_inner_sel = 0.2;
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree.clone(),
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_inner_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree_rev.clone(),
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_inner_sel
-        );
-        // check the outer sels
-        assert_outer_selectivities(&cost_model, expr_tree, expr_tree_rev, &attr_refs, 0.25, 0.2)
-            .await;
-    }
-
-    /// Non-unique oncond means the column is not unique in either table
-    /// Inner always >= row count means that the inner join result is >= 1 / the row count of both
-    /// tables
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_outer_nonunique_oncond_inner_always_geq_rowcnt() {
-        let cost_model = create_two_table_mock_cost_model_custom_row_cnts(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(5),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-            10,
-            8,
-            None,
-        );
-
-        let attr_refs = vec![
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-        ];
-        // the left/right of the join refers to the tables, not the order of columns in the
-        // predicate
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(1));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), attr_index(0));
-
-        // sanity check the expected inner sel
-        let expected_inner_sel = 0.2;
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree.clone(),
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_inner_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree_rev.clone(),
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_inner_sel
-        );
-        // check the outer sels
-        assert_outer_selectivities(&cost_model, expr_tree, expr_tree_rev, &attr_refs, 0.2, 0.2)
-            .await;
-    }
-
-    /// Non-unique oncond means the column is not unique in either table
-    /// Inner sometimes < row count means that the inner join result < 1 / the row count of exactly
-    /// one table.   Note that without a join filter, it's impossible to be less than the row
-    /// count of both tables
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_outer_nonunique_oncond_inner_sometimes_lt_rowcnt() {
-        let cost_model = create_two_table_mock_cost_model_custom_row_cnts(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(10),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(2),
-            20,
-            4,
-            None,
-        );
-
-        let attr_refs = vec![
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-        ];
-        // the left/right of the join refers to the tables, not the order of columns in the
-        // predicate
-        let expr_tree = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(1));
-        let expr_tree_rev = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), attr_index(0));
-
-        // sanity check the expected inner sel
-        let expected_inner_sel = 0.1;
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree.clone(),
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_inner_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree_rev.clone(),
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_inner_sel
-        );
-        // check the outer sels
-        assert_outer_selectivities(&cost_model, expr_tree, expr_tree_rev, &attr_refs, 0.25, 0.1)
-            .await;
-    }
-
-    /// Unique oncond means an oncondition on columns which are unique in both tables
-    /// Filter means we're adding a join filter
-    /// There's only one case if both columns are unique and there's a filter:
-    /// the inner will be < 1 / row count of both tables
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_outer_unique_oncond_filter() {
-        let join_memo = HashMap::from([(
-            JOIN_GROUP_ID,
-            MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                vec![
-                    Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR1_NAME.to_string()),
-                    Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR2_NAME.to_string()),
-                ]
-                .into(),
-                GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                    vec![
-                        AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-                        AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-                    ],
-                    None,
-                ),
-            ),
-        )]);
-        let cost_model = create_two_table_mock_cost_model_custom_row_cnts(
-            per_attr_stats_with_dist_and_ndistinct(vec![(Value::Int32(128), 0.4)], 50),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-            50,
-            4,
-            Some(join_memo),
-        );
-
-        let attr_refs = vec![
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0),
-            AttrRef::base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0),
-        ];
-        // the left/right of the join refers to the tables, not the order of columns in the
-        // predicate
-        let eq0and1 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(1));
-        let eq1and0 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), attr_index(0));
-        let filter = bin_op(BinOpType::Leq, attr_index(0), cnst(Value::Int32(128)));
-        let expr_tree = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq0and1, filter.clone()]);
-        // inner rev means its the inner expr (the eq op) whose children are being reversed, as
-        // opposed to the and op
-        let expr_tree_inner_rev = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq1and0, filter.clone()]);
-
-        // sanity check the expected inner sel
-        let expected_inner_sel = 0.008;
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree.clone(),
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_inner_sel
-        );
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(
-            test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                expr_tree_inner_rev.clone(),
-                &attr_refs,
-                None
-            )
-            .await,
-            expected_inner_sel
-        );
-        // check the outer sels
-        assert_outer_selectivities(
-            &cost_model,
-            expr_tree,
-            expr_tree_inner_rev,
-            &attr_refs,
-            0.25,
-            0.02,
-        )
-        .await;
-    }
-
-    /// Test all possible permutations of three-table joins.
-    /// A three-table join consists of at least two joins. `join1_on_cond` is the condition of the
-    /// first join. There can only be one condition because only two tables are involved at
-    /// the time of the first join.
-    #[tokio::test]
-    #[test_case::test_case(&[(0, 1)])]
-    #[test_case::test_case(&[(0, 2)])]
-    #[test_case::test_case(&[(1, 2)])]
-    #[test_case::test_case(&[(0, 1), (0, 2)])]
-    #[test_case::test_case(&[(0, 1), (1, 2)])]
-    #[test_case::test_case(&[(0, 2), (1, 2)])]
-    #[test_case::test_case(&[(0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 2)])]
-    async fn test_three_table_join_for_initial_join_on_conds(
-        initial_join_on_conds: &[(usize, usize)],
-    ) {
-        assert!(
-            !initial_join_on_conds.is_empty(),
-            "initial_join_on_conds should be non-empty"
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            initial_join_on_conds.len(),
-            initial_join_on_conds.iter().collect::<HashSet<_>>().len(),
-            "initial_join_on_conds shouldn't contain duplicates"
-        );
-        let cost_model = create_three_table_mock_cost_model(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(2),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(3),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-        );
-
-        let base_attr_refs = vec![
-            BaseTableAttrRef {
-                table_id: TEST_TABLE1_ID,
-                attr_idx: 0,
-            },
-            BaseTableAttrRef {
-                table_id: TEST_TABLE2_ID,
-                attr_idx: 0,
-            },
-            BaseTableAttrRef {
-                table_id: TEST_TABLE3_ID,
-                attr_idx: 0,
-            },
-        ];
-        let attr_refs = base_attr_refs
-            .clone()
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef)
-            .collect();
-
-        let mut eq_columns = SemanticCorrelation::new();
-        for initial_join_on_cond in initial_join_on_conds {
-            eq_columns.add_predicate(EqPredicate::new(
-                base_attr_refs[initial_join_on_cond.0].clone(),
-                base_attr_refs[initial_join_on_cond.1].clone(),
-            ));
-        }
-        let initial_selectivity = {
-            if initial_join_on_conds.len() == 1 {
-                let initial_join_on_cond = initial_join_on_conds.first().unwrap();
-                if initial_join_on_cond == &(0, 1) {
-                    1.0 / 3.0
-                } else if initial_join_on_cond == &(0, 2) || initial_join_on_cond == &(1, 2) {
-                    1.0 / 4.0
-                } else {
-                    panic!();
-                }
-            } else {
-                1.0 / 12.0
-            }
-        };
-
-        let input_correlation = Some(eq_columns);
-
-        // Try all join conditions of the final join which would lead to all three tables being
-        // joined.
-        let eq0and1 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(1));
-        let eq0and2 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(0), attr_index(2));
-        let eq1and2 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), attr_index(2));
-        let and_01_02 = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq0and1.clone(), eq0and2.clone()]);
-        let and_01_12 = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq0and1.clone(), eq1and2.clone()]);
-        let and_02_12 = log_op(LogOpType::And, vec![eq0and2.clone(), eq1and2.clone()]);
-        let and_01_02_12 = log_op(
-            LogOpType::And,
-            vec![eq0and1.clone(), eq0and2.clone(), eq1and2.clone()],
-        );
-        let mut join2_expr_trees = vec![and_01_02, and_01_12, and_02_12, and_01_02_12];
-        if initial_join_on_conds.len() == 1 {
-            let initial_join_on_cond = initial_join_on_conds.first().unwrap();
-            if initial_join_on_cond == &(0, 1) {
-                join2_expr_trees.push(eq0and2);
-                join2_expr_trees.push(eq1and2);
-            } else if initial_join_on_cond == &(0, 2) {
-                join2_expr_trees.push(eq0and1);
-                join2_expr_trees.push(eq1and2);
-            } else if initial_join_on_cond == &(1, 2) {
-                join2_expr_trees.push(eq0and1);
-                join2_expr_trees.push(eq0and2);
-            } else {
-                panic!();
-            }
-        }
-        for expr_tree in join2_expr_trees {
-            let overall_selectivity = initial_selectivity
-                * test_get_join_selectivity(
-                    &cost_model,
-                    false,
-                    JoinType::Inner,
-                    expr_tree.clone(),
-                    &attr_refs,
-                    input_correlation.clone(),
-                )
-                .await;
-            assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(overall_selectivity, 1.0 / 12.0);
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_join_which_connects_two_components_together() {
-        let cost_model = create_four_table_mock_cost_model(
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(2),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(3),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(4),
-            per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(5),
-        );
-        let base_attr_refs = vec![
-            BaseTableAttrRef {
-                table_id: TEST_TABLE1_ID,
-                attr_idx: 0,
-            },
-            BaseTableAttrRef {
-                table_id: TEST_TABLE2_ID,
-                attr_idx: 0,
-            },
-            BaseTableAttrRef {
-                table_id: TEST_TABLE3_ID,
-                attr_idx: 0,
-            },
-            BaseTableAttrRef {
-                table_id: TEST_TABLE4_ID,
-                attr_idx: 0,
-            },
-        ];
-        let attr_refs = base_attr_refs
-            .clone()
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef)
-            .collect();
-
-        let mut eq_columns = SemanticCorrelation::new();
-        eq_columns.add_predicate(EqPredicate::new(
-            base_attr_refs[0].clone(),
-            base_attr_refs[1].clone(),
-        ));
-        eq_columns.add_predicate(EqPredicate::new(
-            base_attr_refs[2].clone(),
-            base_attr_refs[3].clone(),
-        ));
-        let initial_selectivity = 1.0 / (3.0 * 5.0);
-        let input_correlation = Some(eq_columns);
-
-        let eq1and2 = bin_op(BinOpType::Eq, attr_index(1), attr_index(2));
-        let overall_selectivity = initial_selectivity
-            * test_get_join_selectivity(
-                &cost_model,
-                false,
-                JoinType::Inner,
-                eq1and2.clone(),
-                &attr_refs,
-                input_correlation,
-            )
-            .await;
-        assert_approx_eq::assert_approx_eq!(overall_selectivity, 1.0 / (3.0 * 4.0 * 5.0));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/hash_join.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/hash_join.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index f92f247..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/hash_join.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    common::{nodes::JoinType, predicates::list_pred::ListPred, types::GroupId},
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult, EstimatedStatistic,
-};
-
-use super::get_input_correlation;
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    pub async fn get_hash_join_row_cnt(
-        &self,
-        join_typ: JoinType,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        left_row_cnt: EstimatedStatistic,
-        right_row_cnt: EstimatedStatistic,
-        left_group_id: GroupId,
-        right_group_id: GroupId,
-        left_keys: ListPred,
-        right_keys: ListPred,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<EstimatedStatistic> {
-        let selectivity = {
-            let output_attr_refs = self.memo.get_attribute_refs(group_id);
-            let left_attr_refs = self.memo.get_attribute_refs(left_group_id);
-            let right_attr_refs = self.memo.get_attribute_refs(right_group_id);
-            let left_attr_cnt = left_attr_refs.attr_refs().len();
-            // there may be more than one expression tree in a group.
-            // see comment in PredicateType::PhysicalFilter(_) for more information
-            let input_correlation = get_input_correlation(left_attr_refs, right_attr_refs);
-            self.get_join_selectivity_from_keys(
-                join_typ,
-                group_id,
-                left_keys,
-                right_keys,
-                output_attr_refs.attr_refs(),
-                input_correlation,
-                left_row_cnt.0,
-                right_row_cnt.0,
-                left_attr_cnt,
-            )
-            .await?
-        };
-        Ok(EstimatedStatistic(
-            (left_row_cnt.0 * right_row_cnt.0 * selectivity).max(1.0),
-        ))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/mod.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 71b991b..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,72 +0,0 @@
-use crate::common::{
-    nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PredicateType, ReprPredicateNode},
-    predicates::{attr_index_pred::AttrIndexPred, bin_op_pred::BinOpType},
-    properties::attr_ref::{
-        AttrRef, AttrRefs, BaseTableAttrRef, GroupAttrRefs, SemanticCorrelation,
-    },
-};
-
-pub mod core;
-pub mod hash_join;
-pub mod nested_loop_join;
-
-pub(crate) fn get_input_correlation(
-    left_prop: GroupAttrRefs,
-    right_prop: GroupAttrRefs,
-) -> Option<SemanticCorrelation> {
-    SemanticCorrelation::merge(
-        left_prop.output_correlation().cloned(),
-        right_prop.output_correlation().cloned(),
-    )
-}
-
-/// Check if an expr_tree is a join condition, returning the join on attr ref pair if it is.
-/// The reason the check and the info are in the same function is because their code is almost
-/// identical. It only picks out equality conditions between two attribute refs on different
-/// tables
-pub(crate) fn get_on_attr_ref_pair(
-    expr_tree: ArcPredicateNode,
-    attr_refs: &AttrRefs,
-) -> Option<(AttrIndexPred, AttrIndexPred)> {
-    // 1. Check that it's equality
-    if expr_tree.typ == PredicateType::BinOp(BinOpType::Eq) {
-        let left_child = expr_tree.child(0);
-        let right_child = expr_tree.child(1);
-        // 2. Check that both sides are attribute refs
-        if left_child.typ == PredicateType::AttrIndex && right_child.typ == PredicateType::AttrIndex
-        {
-            // 3. Check that both sides don't belong to the same table (if we don't know, that
-            //    means they don't belong)
-            let left_attr_ref_expr = AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(left_child)
-                .expect("we already checked that the type is AttrRef");
-            let right_attr_ref_expr = AttrIndexPred::from_pred_node(right_child)
-                .expect("we already checked that the type is AttrRef");
-            let left_attr_ref = &attr_refs[left_attr_ref_expr.attr_index() as usize];
-            let right_attr_ref = &attr_refs[right_attr_ref_expr.attr_index() as usize];
-            let is_same_table = if let (
-                AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(BaseTableAttrRef {
-                    table_id: left_table_id,
-                    ..
-                }),
-                AttrRef::BaseTableAttrRef(BaseTableAttrRef {
-                    table_id: right_table_id,
-                    ..
-                }),
-            ) = (left_attr_ref, right_attr_ref)
-            {
-                left_table_id == right_table_id
-            } else {
-                false
-            };
-            if !is_same_table {
-                Some((left_attr_ref_expr, right_attr_ref_expr))
-            } else {
-                None
-            }
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
-    } else {
-        None
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/nested_loop_join.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/nested_loop_join.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index ff6a2b1..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/join/nested_loop_join.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, JoinType},
-        types::GroupId,
-    },
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult, EstimatedStatistic,
-};
-
-use super::get_input_correlation;
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
-    pub async fn get_nlj_row_cnt(
-        &self,
-        join_typ: JoinType,
-        group_id: GroupId,
-        left_row_cnt: EstimatedStatistic,
-        right_row_cnt: EstimatedStatistic,
-        left_group_id: GroupId,
-        right_group_id: GroupId,
-        join_cond: ArcPredicateNode,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<EstimatedStatistic> {
-        let selectivity = {
-            let output_attr_refs = self.memo.get_attribute_refs(group_id);
-            let left_attr_refs = self.memo.get_attribute_refs(left_group_id);
-            let right_attr_refs = self.memo.get_attribute_refs(right_group_id);
-            let input_correlation = get_input_correlation(left_attr_refs, right_attr_refs);
-
-            self.get_join_selectivity_from_expr_tree(
-                join_typ,
-                group_id,
-                join_cond,
-                output_attr_refs.attr_refs(),
-                input_correlation,
-                left_row_cnt.0,
-                right_row_cnt.0,
-            )
-            .await?
-        };
-        Ok(EstimatedStatistic(
-            (left_row_cnt.0 * right_row_cnt.0 * selectivity).max(1.0),
-        ))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/limit.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/limit.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index c63c0e0..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/limit.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,28 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, ReprPredicateNode},
-        predicates::constant_pred::ConstantPred,
-    },
-    cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-    storage::CostModelStorageManager,
-    CostModelResult, EstimatedStatistic,
-};
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    pub(crate) fn get_limit_row_cnt(
-        &self,
-        child_row_cnt: EstimatedStatistic,
-        fetch_expr: ArcPredicateNode,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<EstimatedStatistic> {
-        let fetch = ConstantPred::from_pred_node(fetch_expr)
-            .unwrap()
-            .value()
-            .as_u64();
-        // u64::MAX represents None
-        if fetch == u64::MAX {
-            Ok(child_row_cnt)
-        } else {
-            Ok(EstimatedStatistic(child_row_cnt.0.min(fetch as f64)))
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/mod.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index b55d449..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
-pub mod agg;
-pub mod filter;
-pub mod join;
-pub mod limit;
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/cost_model.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/cost_model.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 38957f9..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/cost_model.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,268 +0,0 @@
-#![allow(dead_code, unused_imports, unused_variables)]
-
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use optd_persistent::{
-    cost_model::interface::{CatalogSource, Stat, StatType},
-    CostModelStorageLayer,
-};
-
-use crate::{
-    common::{
-        nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PhysicalNodeType, ReprPredicateNode},
-        predicates::list_pred::ListPred,
-        types::{AttrId, EpochId, ExprId, TableId},
-    },
-    memo_ext::MemoExt,
-    stats::AttributeCombValueStats,
-    storage::{self, CostModelStorageManager},
-    ComputeCostContext, Cost, CostModel, CostModelResult, EstimatedStatistic, StatValue,
-};
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-pub struct CostModelImpl<S: CostModelStorageManager> {
-    pub storage_manager: S,
-    pub default_catalog_source: CatalogSource,
-    pub memo: Arc<dyn MemoExt>,
-}
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    pub fn new(
-        storage_manager: S,
-        default_catalog_source: CatalogSource,
-        memo: Arc<dyn MemoExt>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            storage_manager,
-            default_catalog_source,
-            memo,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager + Send + Sync + 'static> CostModel for CostModelImpl<S> {
-    /// TODO: should we add epoch_id?
-    async fn compute_operation_cost(
-        &self,
-        node: PhysicalNodeType,
-        predicates: &[ArcPredicateNode],
-        children_costs: &[Cost],
-        children_stats: &[EstimatedStatistic],
-        context: ComputeCostContext,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Cost> {
-        let res = self.storage_manager.get_cost(context.expr_id).await;
-        if let Ok((Some(cost), _)) = res {
-            return Ok(cost);
-        };
-        let mut output_statistic = None;
-        if let Ok((_, Some(statistic))) = res {
-            output_statistic = Some(statistic);
-        };
-        let output_cost = match node {
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalScan => {
-                let output_statistic_data = output_statistic.unwrap_or(
-                    self.derive_statistics(
-                        node,
-                        predicates,
-                        children_stats,
-                        context.clone(),
-                        false,
-                    )
-                    .await?,
-                );
-                output_statistic = Some(output_statistic_data.clone());
-                Cost {
-                    compute_cost: 0.0,
-                    io_cost: output_statistic_data.0,
-                }
-            }
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalEmptyRelation => Cost {
-                compute_cost: 0.1,
-                io_cost: 0.0,
-            },
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalLimit => Cost {
-                compute_cost: children_costs[0].compute_cost,
-                io_cost: 0.0,
-            },
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalFilter => Cost {
-                // TODO: now this equation is specific to optd, and try to make this equation more general
-                compute_cost: children_costs[1].compute_cost * children_stats[0].0,
-                io_cost: 0.0,
-            },
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalNestedLoopJoin(join_typ) => {
-                let child_compute_cost = children_costs[2].compute_cost;
-                Cost {
-                    compute_cost: children_stats[0].0 * children_stats[1].0 * child_compute_cost
-                        + children_stats[0].0,
-                    io_cost: 0.0,
-                }
-            }
-            // TODO: we should document that the first child is the left table, which is used to build
-            // the hash table.
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalHashJoin(join_typ) => Cost {
-                compute_cost: children_stats[0].0 * 2.0 + children_stats[1].0,
-                io_cost: 0.0,
-            },
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalAgg => Cost {
-                compute_cost: children_stats[0].0
-                    * (children_costs[1].compute_cost + children_costs[2].compute_cost),
-                io_cost: 0.0,
-            },
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalProjection => Cost {
-                compute_cost: children_stats[0].0 * children_costs[1].compute_cost,
-                io_cost: 0.0,
-            },
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalSort => Cost {
-                compute_cost: children_stats[0].0 * children_stats[0].0.ln_1p().max(1.0),
-                io_cost: 0.0,
-            },
-        };
-        let res = self
-            .storage_manager
-            .store_cost(
-                context.expr_id,
-                Some(output_cost.clone()),
-                output_statistic,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await;
-        if res.is_err() {
-            eprintln!("Failed to store output cost");
-        }
-        Ok(output_cost)
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: should we add epoch_id?
-    async fn derive_statistics(
-        &self,
-        node: PhysicalNodeType,
-        predicates: &[ArcPredicateNode],
-        children_statistics: &[EstimatedStatistic],
-        context: ComputeCostContext,
-        store_output_statistic: bool,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<EstimatedStatistic> {
-        let res = self.storage_manager.get_cost(context.expr_id).await;
-        if let Ok((_, Some(statistic))) = res {
-            return Ok(statistic);
-        }
-        let output_statistic = match node {
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalScan => {
-                let table_id = TableId(predicates[0].data.as_ref().unwrap().as_u64());
-                let row_cnt = self
-                    .storage_manager
-                    .get_table_row_count(table_id)
-                    .await?
-                    .unwrap_or(1) as f64;
-                Ok(EstimatedStatistic(row_cnt))
-            }
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalEmptyRelation => Ok(EstimatedStatistic(0.01)),
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalLimit => {
-                self.get_limit_row_cnt(children_statistics[0].clone(), predicates[1].clone())
-            }
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalFilter => {
-                self.get_filter_row_cnt(
-                    children_statistics[0].clone(),
-                    context.group_id,
-                    predicates[0].clone(),
-                )
-                .await
-            }
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalNestedLoopJoin(join_typ) => {
-                self.get_nlj_row_cnt(
-                    join_typ,
-                    context.group_id,
-                    children_statistics[0].clone(),
-                    children_statistics[1].clone(),
-                    context.children_group_ids[0],
-                    context.children_group_ids[1],
-                    predicates[0].clone(),
-                )
-                .await
-            }
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalHashJoin(join_typ) => {
-                self.get_hash_join_row_cnt(
-                    join_typ,
-                    context.group_id,
-                    children_statistics[0].clone(),
-                    children_statistics[1].clone(),
-                    context.children_group_ids[0],
-                    context.children_group_ids[1],
-                    ListPred::from_pred_node(predicates[0].clone()).unwrap(),
-                    ListPred::from_pred_node(predicates[1].clone()).unwrap(),
-                )
-                .await
-            }
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalAgg => {
-                self.get_agg_row_cnt(context.group_id, predicates[1].clone())
-                    .await
-            }
-            PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalSort | PhysicalNodeType::PhysicalProjection => {
-                Ok(children_statistics[0].clone())
-            }
-        }?;
-        if store_output_statistic {
-            let res = self
-                .storage_manager
-                .store_cost(context.expr_id, None, Some(output_statistic.clone()), None)
-                .await;
-            if res.is_err() {
-                eprintln!("Failed to store output statistic");
-            }
-        };
-        Ok(output_statistic)
-    }
-
-    async fn update_statistics(
-        &self,
-        stats: Vec<Stat>,
-        source: String,
-        data: String,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<()> {
-        todo!()
-    }
-
-    async fn get_table_statistic_for_analysis(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<StatValue>> {
-        todo!()
-    }
-
-    async fn get_attribute_statistic_for_analysis(
-        &self,
-        attr_ids: Vec<AttrId>,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<StatValue>> {
-        todo!()
-    }
-
-    async fn get_cost_for_analysis(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<crate::Cost>> {
-        todo!()
-    }
-}
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageManager> CostModelImpl<S> {
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    /// TODO: if we have memory cache,
-    /// we should add the reference. (&AttributeCombValueStats)
-    pub(crate) async fn get_attribute_comb_stats(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attr_comb: &[u64],
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<AttributeCombValueStats>> {
-        self.storage_manager
-            .get_attributes_comb_statistics(table_id, attr_comb)
-            .await
-    }
-}
-
-// TODO: Add tests for `derive_statistic`` and `compute_operation_cost`.
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/lib.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/lib.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 4b65038..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/lib.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,191 +0,0 @@
-use common::{
-    nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, PhysicalNodeType},
-    types::{AttrId, EpochId, ExprId, GroupId, TableId},
-};
-use optd_persistent::{
-    cost_model::interface::{Stat, StatType},
-    BackendError,
-};
-
-pub mod common;
-pub mod cost;
-pub mod cost_model;
-pub mod memo_ext;
-pub mod stats;
-pub mod storage;
-pub mod test_utils;
-pub mod utils;
-
-pub enum StatValue {
-    Int(i64),
-    Float(f64),
-    String(String),
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Debug, Default, Hash)]
-pub struct ComputeCostContext {
-    pub group_id: GroupId,
-    pub expr_id: ExprId,
-    pub children_group_ids: Vec<GroupId>,
-}
-
-#[derive(Default, Clone, Debug, PartialOrd, PartialEq)]
-pub struct Cost {
-    pub compute_cost: f64,
-    pub io_cost: f64,
-}
-
-impl From<Cost> for optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::Cost {
-    fn from(c: Cost) -> optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::Cost {
-        Self {
-            compute_cost: c.compute_cost,
-            io_cost: c.io_cost,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::Cost> for Cost {
-    fn from(c: optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::Cost) -> Cost {
-        Self {
-            compute_cost: c.compute_cost,
-            io_cost: c.io_cost,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Estimated statistic calculated by the cost model.
-/// It is the estimated output row count of the targeted expression.
-#[derive(PartialEq, PartialOrd, Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct EstimatedStatistic(pub f64);
-
-impl From<EstimatedStatistic> for f32 {
-    fn from(e: EstimatedStatistic) -> f32 {
-        e.0 as f32
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<EstimatedStatistic> for f64 {
-    fn from(e: EstimatedStatistic) -> f64 {
-        e.0
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<f32> for EstimatedStatistic {
-    fn from(f: f32) -> EstimatedStatistic {
-        Self(f as f64)
-    }
-}
-
-pub type CostModelResult<T> = Result<T, CostModelError>;
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub enum SemanticError {
-    // TODO: Add more error types
-    UnknownStatisticType,
-    VersionedStatisticNotFound,
-    AttributeNotFound(TableId, u64), // (table_id, attribute_base_index)
-    // FIXME: not sure if this should be put here
-    InvalidPredicate(String),
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub enum CostModelError {
-    ORMError(BackendError),
-    SemanticError(SemanticError),
-    SerdeError(serde_json::Error),
-}
-
-impl From<BackendError> for CostModelError {
-    fn from(err: BackendError) -> Self {
-        CostModelError::ORMError(err)
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<SemanticError> for CostModelError {
-    fn from(err: SemanticError) -> Self {
-        CostModelError::SemanticError(err)
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<serde_json::Error> for CostModelError {
-    fn from(err: serde_json::Error) -> Self {
-        CostModelError::SerdeError(err)
-    }
-}
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-pub trait CostModel: 'static + Send + Sync {
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn compute_operation_cost(
-        &self,
-        node: PhysicalNodeType,
-        predicates: &[ArcPredicateNode],
-        children_costs: &[Cost],
-        children_stats: &[EstimatedStatistic],
-        context: ComputeCostContext,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Cost>;
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    /// It is for cardinality estimation. The output should be the estimated
-    /// statistic calculated by the cost model.
-    /// If this method is called by `compute_operation_cost`, please set
-    /// `store_output_statistic` to `false`; if it is called by the optimizer,
-    /// please set `store_output_statistic` to `true`. Since we can store the
-    /// estimated statistic and cost by calling the ORM method once.
-    ///
-    /// TODO: I am not sure whether to introduce `store_output_statistic`, since
-    /// it add complexity to the interface, considering currently only Scan needs
-    /// the output row count to calculate the costs. So updating the database twice
-    /// seems cheap. But in the future, maybe more cost computations rely on the output
-    /// row count. (Of course, it should be removed if we separate the cost and
-    /// estimated_statistic into 2 tables.)
-    ///
-    /// TODO: Consider make it a helper function, so we can store Cost in the
-    /// ORM more easily.
-    ///
-    /// TODO: I would suggest to rename this method to `derive_row_count`, since
-    /// statistic is easily to be confused with the real statistic.
-    /// Also we need to update other places to use estimated statistic to row count,
-    /// either in this crate or in optd-persistent.
-    async fn derive_statistics(
-        &self,
-        node: PhysicalNodeType,
-        predicates: &[ArcPredicateNode],
-        children_stats: &[EstimatedStatistic],
-        context: ComputeCostContext,
-        store_output_statistic: bool,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<EstimatedStatistic>;
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    /// It is for **REAL** statistic updates, not for estimated statistics.
-    /// TODO: Change data from String to other types.
-    async fn update_statistics(
-        &self,
-        stats: Vec<Stat>,
-        source: String,
-        data: String,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<()>;
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn get_table_statistic_for_analysis(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<StatValue>>;
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn get_attribute_statistic_for_analysis(
-        &self,
-        attr_ids: Vec<AttrId>,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<StatValue>>;
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn get_cost_for_analysis(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<Cost>>;
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/memo_ext.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/memo_ext.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 78d4225..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/memo_ext.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,28 +0,0 @@
-use crate::common::{
-    properties::{
-        attr_ref::{AttrRef, GroupAttrRefs},
-        schema::Schema,
-        Attribute,
-    },
-    types::GroupId,
-};
-
-/// [`MemoExt`] is a trait that provides methods to access the schema, column reference, and attribute
-/// information of a group in the memo. The information are used by the cost model to compute the cost of
-/// an expression.
-///
-/// [`MemoExt`] should be implemented by the optimizer core to provide the necessary information to the cost
-/// model. All information required here is already present in the memo, so the optimizer core should be able
-/// to implement this trait without additional work.
-pub trait MemoExt: Send + Sync + 'static {
-    /// Get the schema of a group in the memo.
-    fn get_schema(&self, group_id: GroupId) -> Schema;
-    /// Get the attribute info of a given attribute in a group in the memo.
-    fn get_attribute_info(&self, group_id: GroupId, attr_ref_idx: u64) -> Attribute;
-    /// Get the attribute reference of a group in the memo.
-    fn get_attribute_refs(&self, group_id: GroupId) -> GroupAttrRefs;
-    /// Get the attribute reference of a given attribute in a group in the memo.
-    fn get_attribute_ref(&self, group_id: GroupId, attr_ref_idx: u64) -> AttrRef;
-
-    // TODO: Figure out what other information is needed to compute the cost...
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/arith_encoder.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/stats/arith_encoder.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 730fcdb..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/arith_encoder.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,69 +0,0 @@
-//! This module provides an encoder that converts alpha-numeric strings
-//! into f64 values, designed to maintain the natural ordering of strings.
-//!
-//! While the encoding is theoretically lossless, in practice, it may suffer
-//! from precision loss due to floating-point errors.
-//!
-//! Non-alpha-numeric characters are relegated to the end of the encoded value,
-//! rendering them indistinguishable from one another in this context.
-
-use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::LazyLock};
-
-// The alphanumerical ordering.
-const ALPHANUMERIC_ORDER: [char; 95] = [
-    ' ', '!', '"', '#', '$', '%', '&', '\'', '(', ')', '*', '+', ',', '-', '.', '/', ':', ';', '<',
-    '=', '>', '?', '@', '[', '\\', ']', '^', '_', '`', '{', '|', '}', '~', '0', '1', '2', '3', '4',
-    '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F', 'G', 'H', 'I', 'J', 'K', 'L', 'M', 'N',
-    'O', 'P', 'Q', 'R', 'S', 'T', 'U', 'V', 'W', 'X', 'Y', 'Z', 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g',
-    'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l', 'm', 'n', 'o', 'p', 'q', 'r', 's', 't', 'u', 'v', 'w', 'x', 'y', 'z',
-];
-
-const PMF: f64 = 1.0 / (ALPHANUMERIC_ORDER.len() as f64);
-
-static CDF: LazyLock<HashMap<char, f64>> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    let length = ALPHANUMERIC_ORDER.len() + 1; // To account for non-alpha-numeric characters.
-    let mut cdf = HashMap::with_capacity(length);
-    for (index, &char) in ALPHANUMERIC_ORDER.iter().enumerate() {
-        cdf.insert(char, (index as f64) / (length as f64));
-    }
-    cdf
-});
-
-pub fn encode(string: &str) -> f64 {
-    let mut left = 0.0;
-    // 10_000.0 is fairly arbitrary. don't make it f64::MAX though because it causes overflow in
-    // other places of the code
-    let mut right = 10_000.0;
-
-    for char in string.chars() {
-        let cdf = CDF.get(&char).unwrap_or(&1.0);
-        let distance = right - left;
-        right = left + distance * (cdf + PMF);
-        left += distance * cdf;
-    }
-
-    left
-}
-
-// Start of unit testing section.
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::encode;
-
-    #[test]
-    fn encode_tests() {
-        assert!(encode("") < encode("abc"));
-        assert!(encode("abc") < encode("bcd"));
-
-        assert!(encode("a") < encode("aaa"));
-        assert!(encode("!a") < encode("a!"));
-        assert!(encode("Alexis") < encode("Schlomer"));
-
-        assert!(encode("Gungnir Rules!") < encode("Schlomer"));
-        assert!(encode("Gungnir Rules!") < encode("Schlomer"));
-
-        assert_eq!(encode(" "), encode(" "));
-        assert_eq!(encode("Same"), encode("Same"));
-        assert!(encode("Nicolas  ") < encode("Nicolas💰💼"));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/mod.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/stats/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 7ec2510..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,211 +0,0 @@
-#![allow(unused)]
-
-mod arith_encoder;
-pub mod utilities;
-
-use crate::common::values::Value;
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use utilities::counter::Counter;
-use utilities::{
-    simple_map::{self, SimpleMap},
-    tdigest::TDigest,
-};
-
-// Default n-distinct estimate for derived columns or columns lacking statistics
-pub const DEFAULT_NUM_DISTINCT: u64 = 200;
-// A placeholder for unimplemented!() for codepaths which are accessed by plannertest
-pub const UNIMPLEMENTED_SEL: f64 = 0.01;
-// Default statistics. All are from selfuncs.h in Postgres unless specified otherwise
-// Default selectivity estimate for equalities such as "A = b"
-pub const DEFAULT_EQ_SEL: f64 = 0.005;
-// Default selectivity estimate for inequalities such as "A < b"
-pub const DEFAULT_INEQ_SEL: f64 = 0.3333333333333333;
-// Used for estimating pattern selectivity character-by-character. These numbers
-// are not used on their own. Depending on the characters in the pattern, the
-// selectivity is multiplied by these factors.
-//
-// See `FULL_WILDCARD_SEL` and `FIXED_CHAR_SEL` in Postgres.
-pub const FULL_WILDCARD_SEL_FACTOR: f64 = 5.0;
-pub const FIXED_CHAR_SEL_FACTOR: f64 = 0.2;
-
-pub type AttributeCombValue = Vec<Option<Value>>;
-
-// TODO: remove the clone, see the comment in the [`AttributeCombValueStats`]
-#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug, Clone)]
-#[serde(tag = "type")]
-pub enum MostCommonValues {
-    Counter(Counter<AttributeCombValue>),
-    SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap<AttributeCombValue>),
-    // Add more types here...
-}
-
-impl MostCommonValues {
-    // it is true that we could just expose freq_over_pred() and use that for freq() and
-    // total_freq() however, freq() and total_freq() each have potential optimizations (freq()
-    // is O(1) instead of     O(n) and total_freq() can be cached)
-    // additionally, it makes sense to return an Option<f64> for freq() instead of just 0 if value
-    // doesn't exist thus, I expose three different functions
-    pub fn freq(&self, value: &AttributeCombValue) -> Option<f64> {
-        match self {
-            MostCommonValues::Counter(counter) => counter.frequencies().get(value).copied(),
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(simple_map) => simple_map.m.get(value).copied(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn total_freq(&self) -> f64 {
-        match self {
-            MostCommonValues::Counter(counter) => counter.frequencies().values().sum(),
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(simple_map) => simple_map.m.values().sum(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn freq_over_pred(&self, pred: Box<dyn Fn(&AttributeCombValue) -> bool>) -> f64 {
-        match self {
-            MostCommonValues::Counter(counter) => counter
-                .frequencies()
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|(val, _)| pred(val))
-                .map(|(_, freq)| freq)
-                .sum(),
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(simple_map) => simple_map
-                .m
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|(val, _)| pred(val))
-                .map(|(_, freq)| freq)
-                .sum(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    // returns the # of entries (i.e. value + freq) in the most common values structure
-    pub fn cnt(&self) -> usize {
-        match self {
-            MostCommonValues::Counter(counter) => counter.frequencies().len(),
-            MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(simple_map) => simple_map.m.len(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn empty() -> Self {
-        MostCommonValues::SimpleFrequency(SimpleMap::new(vec![]))
-    }
-}
-
-// TODO: remove the clone, see the comment in the [`AttributeCombValueStats`]
-#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug, Clone)]
-#[serde(tag = "type")]
-pub enum Distribution {
-    TDigest(TDigest<Value>),
-    SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap<Value>),
-    // Add more types here...
-}
-
-impl Distribution {
-    pub fn cdf(&self, value: &Value) -> f64 {
-        match self {
-            Distribution::TDigest(tdigest) => {
-                let nb_rows = tdigest.norm_weight;
-                if nb_rows == 0 {
-                    tdigest.cdf(value)
-                } else {
-                    tdigest.centroids.len() as f64 * tdigest.cdf(value) / nb_rows as f64
-                }
-            }
-            Distribution::SimpleDistribution(simple_distribution) => {
-                *simple_distribution.m.get(value).unwrap_or(&0.0)
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn empty() -> Self {
-        Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(vec![]))
-    }
-}
-
-// TODO: Remove the clone. Now I have to add this because
-// persistent.rs doesn't have a memory cache, so we have to
-// return AttributeCombValueStats rather than &AttributeCombValueStats.
-// But this poses a problem for mock.rs when testing, since mock storage
-// only has memory hash map, so we need to return a clone of AttributeCombValueStats.
-// Later, if memory cache is added, we should change this to return a reference.
-// **and** remove the clone.
-#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct AttributeCombValueStats {
-    pub mcvs: MostCommonValues,      // Does NOT contain full nulls.
-    pub distr: Option<Distribution>, // Does NOT contain mcvs; optional.
-    pub ndistinct: u64,              // Does NOT contain full nulls.
-    pub null_frac: f64,              // % of full nulls.
-}
-
-impl AttributeCombValueStats {
-    pub fn new(
-        mcvs: MostCommonValues,
-        distr: Option<Distribution>,
-        ndistinct: u64,
-        null_frac: f64,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            mcvs,
-            ndistinct,
-            null_frac,
-            distr,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::{Counter, MostCommonValues};
-    use crate::{common::values::Value, stats::AttributeCombValue};
-    use serde_json::json;
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_most_common_values() {
-        let elem1 = vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))];
-        let elem2 = vec![Some(Value::Int32(2))];
-        let mut counter = Counter::new(&[elem1.clone(), elem2.clone()]);
-
-        let elems = vec![elem2.clone(), elem1.clone(), elem2.clone(), elem2.clone()];
-        counter.aggregate(&elems);
-
-        let mcvs = MostCommonValues::Counter(counter);
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.freq(&elem1), Some(0.25));
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.freq(&elem2), Some(0.75));
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.total_freq(), 1.0);
-
-        let elem1_cloned = elem1.clone();
-        let pred1 = Box::new(move |x: &AttributeCombValue| x == &elem1_cloned);
-        let pred2 = Box::new(move |x: &AttributeCombValue| x != &elem1);
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.freq_over_pred(pred1), 0.25);
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.freq_over_pred(pred2), 0.75);
-
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.cnt(), 2);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn test_most_common_values_serde() {
-        let elem1 = vec![Some(Value::Int32(1))];
-        let elem2 = vec![Some(Value::Int32(2))];
-        let mut counter = Counter::new(&[elem1.clone(), elem2.clone()]);
-
-        let elems = vec![elem2.clone(), elem1.clone(), elem2.clone(), elem2.clone()];
-        counter.aggregate(&elems);
-
-        let mcvs = MostCommonValues::Counter(counter);
-        let serialized = serde_json::to_value(&mcvs).unwrap();
-        println!("serialized: {:?}", serialized);
-
-        let deserialized: MostCommonValues = serde_json::from_value(serialized).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.freq(&elem1), Some(0.25));
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.freq(&elem2), Some(0.75));
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.total_freq(), 1.0);
-
-        let elem1_cloned = elem1.clone();
-        let pred1 = Box::new(move |x: &AttributeCombValue| x == &elem1_cloned);
-        let pred2 = Box::new(move |x: &AttributeCombValue| x != &elem1);
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.freq_over_pred(pred1), 0.25);
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.freq_over_pred(pred2), 0.75);
-
-        assert_eq!(mcvs.cnt(), 2);
-    }
-
-    // TODO: Add tests for Distribution
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/counter.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/counter.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 368700c..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/counter.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,204 +0,0 @@
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::hash::Hash;
-
-use serde::de::DeserializeOwned;
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-
-/// The Counter structure to track exact frequencies of fixed elements.
-/// TODO: remove the clone, see the comment in the [`AttributeCombValueStats`]
-#[serde_with::serde_as]
-#[derive(Default, Serialize, Deserialize, Debug, Clone)]
-pub struct Counter<T: PartialEq + Eq + Hash + Clone + Serialize + DeserializeOwned> {
-    #[serde_as(as = "HashMap<serde_with::json::JsonString, _>")]
-    counts: HashMap<T, i32>, // The exact counts of an element T.
-    total_count: i32, // The total number of elements.
-}
-
-// Self-contained implementation of the Counter data structure.
-impl<T> Counter<T>
-where
-    T: PartialEq + Eq + Hash + Clone + Serialize + DeserializeOwned,
-{
-    /// Creates and initializes a new empty Counter with the frequency map sized
-    /// based on the number of unique elements in `to_track`.
-    pub fn new(to_track: &[T]) -> Self {
-        let mut counts: HashMap<T, i32> = HashMap::with_capacity(to_track.len());
-        for item in to_track {
-            counts.insert(item.clone(), 0);
-        }
-
-        Counter::<T> {
-            counts,
-            total_count: 0,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn new_from_existing(counts: HashMap<T, i32>, total_count: i32) -> Self {
-        Counter::<T> {
-            counts,
-            total_count,
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Inserts an element in the Counter if it is being tracked.
-    fn insert_element(&mut self, elem: T, occ: i32) {
-        if let Some(frequency) = self.counts.get_mut(&elem) {
-            *frequency += occ;
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Digests an array of data into the Counter structure.
-    pub fn aggregate(&mut self, data: &[T]) {
-        data.iter()
-            .for_each(|key| self.insert_element(key.clone(), 1));
-        self.total_count += data.len() as i32;
-    }
-
-    /// Merges another Counter into the current one.
-    /// Particularly useful for parallel execution.
-    pub fn merge(&mut self, other: &Counter<T>) {
-        other
-            .counts
-            .iter()
-            .for_each(|(key, occ)| self.insert_element(key.clone(), *occ));
-        self.total_count += other.total_count;
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the frequencies of the most common values.
-    pub fn frequencies(&self) -> HashMap<T, f64> {
-        self.counts
-            .iter()
-            .map(|(key, &value)| (key.clone(), value as f64 / self.total_count as f64))
-            .collect()
-    }
-
-    /// Whether the counter tracks the given key.
-    pub fn is_tracking(&self, key: &T) -> bool {
-        self.counts.contains_key(key)
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use std::collections::HashMap;
-    use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
-
-    use crossbeam::thread;
-    use rand::rngs::StdRng;
-    use rand::seq::SliceRandom;
-    use rand::SeedableRng;
-
-    use super::Counter;
-
-    // Generates hardcoded frequencies and returns them,
-    // along with a flattened randomized array containing those frequencies.
-    fn generate_frequencies() -> (HashMap<i32, i32>, Vec<i32>) {
-        let mut frequencies = HashMap::new();
-
-        frequencies.insert(0, 2);
-        frequencies.insert(1, 4);
-        frequencies.insert(2, 9);
-        frequencies.insert(3, 8);
-        frequencies.insert(4, 50);
-        frequencies.insert(5, 6);
-
-        let mut flattened = Vec::new();
-        for (key, &value) in &frequencies {
-            for _ in 0..value {
-                flattened.push(*key);
-            }
-        }
-
-        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0);
-        flattened.shuffle(&mut rng);
-
-        (frequencies, flattened)
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn aggregate() {
-        let to_track = vec![0, 1, 2, 3];
-        let mut mcv = Counter::<i32>::new(&to_track);
-
-        let (frequencies, flattened) = generate_frequencies();
-
-        mcv.aggregate(&flattened);
-
-        let mcv_freq = mcv.frequencies();
-        assert_eq!(mcv_freq.len(), to_track.len());
-
-        to_track.iter().for_each(|item| {
-            assert!(mcv_freq.contains_key(item));
-            assert_eq!(
-                mcv_freq.get(item),
-                frequencies
-                    .get(item)
-                    .map(|e| (*e as f64 / flattened.len() as f64))
-                    .as_ref()
-            );
-        });
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn merge() {
-        let to_track = vec![0, 1, 2, 3];
-        let n_jobs = 16;
-
-        let total_frequencies = Arc::new(Mutex::new(HashMap::<i32, i32>::new()));
-        let total_count = Arc::new(Mutex::new(0));
-        let result_mcv = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Counter::<i32>::new(&to_track)));
-        thread::scope(|s| {
-            for _ in 0..n_jobs {
-                s.spawn(|_| {
-                    let mut local_mcv = Counter::<i32>::new(&to_track);
-
-                    let (local_frequencies, flattened) = generate_frequencies();
-                    let mut total_frequencies = total_frequencies.lock().unwrap();
-                    let mut total_count = total_count.lock().unwrap();
-                    for (&key, &value) in &local_frequencies {
-                        *total_frequencies.entry(key).or_insert(0) += value;
-                        *total_count += value;
-                    }
-
-                    local_mcv.aggregate(&flattened);
-
-                    let mcv_local_freq = local_mcv.frequencies();
-                    assert_eq!(mcv_local_freq.len(), to_track.len());
-
-                    to_track.iter().for_each(|item| {
-                        assert!(mcv_local_freq.contains_key(item));
-                        assert_eq!(
-                            mcv_local_freq.get(item),
-                            local_frequencies
-                                .get(item)
-                                .map(|e| (*e as f64 / flattened.len() as f64))
-                                .as_ref()
-                        );
-                    });
-
-                    let mut result = result_mcv.lock().unwrap();
-                    result.merge(&local_mcv);
-                });
-            }
-        })
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let mcv = result_mcv.lock().unwrap();
-        let total_count = total_count.lock().unwrap();
-        let mcv_freq = mcv.frequencies();
-
-        assert_eq!(*total_count, mcv.total_count);
-        to_track.iter().for_each(|item| {
-            assert!(mcv_freq.contains_key(item));
-            assert_eq!(
-                mcv_freq.get(item),
-                total_frequencies
-                    .lock()
-                    .unwrap()
-                    .get(item)
-                    .map(|e| (*e as f64 / *total_count as f64))
-                    .as_ref()
-            );
-        });
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/mod.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 0a7903b..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,3 +0,0 @@
-pub mod counter;
-pub mod simple_map;
-pub mod tdigest;
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/simple_map.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/simple_map.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index d04439e..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/simple_map.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,21 +0,0 @@
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-use std::hash::Hash;
-
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-
-use crate::common::values::Value;
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-/// Now it is mainly for testing purposes.
-#[derive(Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, Debug, Default)]
-pub struct SimpleMap<K: Eq + Hash + Clone> {
-    pub(crate) m: HashMap<K, f64>,
-}
-
-impl<K: Eq + Hash + Clone> SimpleMap<K> {
-    pub fn new(v: Vec<(K, f64)>) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            m: v.into_iter().collect(),
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/tdigest.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/tdigest.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 96a2269..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/stats/utilities/tdigest.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,393 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright (c) 2023-2024 CMU Database Group
-//
-// Use of this source code is governed by an MIT-style license that can be found in the LICENSE file or at
-// https://opensource.org/licenses/MIT.
-
-//! Simplified implementation of the TDigest data structure as described in
-//! Ted Dunning's paper:
-//! "Computing Extremely Accurate Quantiles Using t-Digests" (2019).
-//! For more details, refer to: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1902.04023.pdf
-
-use std::f64::consts::PI;
-use std::hash::Hash;
-use std::marker::PhantomData;
-
-use itertools::Itertools;
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-
-use crate::{common::values::Value, stats::arith_encoder};
-
-pub const DEFAULT_COMPRESSION: f64 = 200.0;
-
-/// Trait to transform any object into a stream of bytes.
-pub trait IntoFloat {
-    fn to_float(&self) -> f64;
-}
-
-/// The TDigest structure for the statistical aggregator to query quantiles.
-#[derive(Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
-pub struct TDigest<T: IntoFloat + Eq + Hash + Clone> {
-    /// A sorted array of Centroids, according to their mean.
-    pub centroids: Vec<Centroid>, /* TODO(Alexis): Temporary fix to normalize the stats in
-                                   * stats.rs [pub]. */
-    /// Compression factor: higher is more precise, but has higher memory requirements.
-    compression: f64,
-    /// Number of values in the TDigest (sum of all centroids).
-    total_weight: usize,
-
-    // TODO(Alexis): Temporary fix to normalize the stats in stats.rs [field].
-    pub norm_weight: usize,
-
-    data_type: PhantomData<T>, // For type checker.
-}
-
-/// A Centroid is a cluster of aggregated data points.
-#[derive(PartialEq, PartialOrd, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
-pub struct Centroid {
-    // TODO(Alexis): Temporary fix to normalize the stats in stats.rs [pub].
-    /// Mean of all aggregated points in this cluster.
-    mean: f64,
-    /// The number of points in this cluster.
-    weight: usize,
-}
-
-// Utility functions defined on a Centroid.
-impl Centroid {
-    // Merges an existing Centroid into itself.
-    fn merge(&mut self, other: &Centroid) {
-        let weight = self.weight + other.weight;
-        self.mean =
-            ((self.mean * self.weight as f64) + (other.mean * other.weight as f64)) / weight as f64;
-        self.weight = weight;
-    }
-}
-
-// IntoFloat implementation of optd's Value.
-impl IntoFloat for Value {
-    fn to_float(&self) -> f64 {
-        match self {
-            Value::UInt8(v) => *v as f64,
-            Value::UInt16(v) => *v as f64,
-            Value::UInt32(v) => *v as f64,
-            Value::UInt64(v) => *v as f64,
-            Value::Int8(v) => *v as f64,
-            Value::Int16(v) => *v as f64,
-            Value::Int32(v) => *v as f64,
-            Value::Int64(v) => *v as f64,
-            Value::Float(v) => *v.0,
-            Value::Bool(v) => *v as i64 as f64,
-            Value::String(v) => arith_encoder::encode(v),
-            Value::Date32(v) => *v as f64,
-            _ => unreachable!(),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-// Self-contained implementation of the TDigest data structure.
-impl<T> TDigest<T>
-where
-    T: IntoFloat + Eq + Hash + Clone,
-{
-    /// Creates and initializes a new empty TDigest.
-    pub fn new(compression: f64) -> Self {
-        TDigest {
-            centroids: Vec::new(),
-            compression,
-            total_weight: 0,
-
-            norm_weight: 0,
-            data_type: PhantomData,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Ingests an array of non-NaN f64 values into the TDigest.
-    pub fn merge_values(&mut self, values: &[T]) {
-        let centroids = values
-            .iter()
-            .map(|val| val.to_float())
-            .sorted_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap())
-            .map(|v| Centroid { mean: v, weight: 1 })
-            .collect_vec();
-        let compression = self.compression;
-        let total_weight = centroids.len();
-
-        // Create an ephemeral TDigest to reuse the same interface.
-        self.merge(&TDigest {
-            centroids,
-            compression,
-            total_weight,
-
-            norm_weight: 0,
-            data_type: PhantomData,
-        });
-    }
-
-    /// Merges two TDigests together and returns a new one.
-    /// Particularly useful for parallel execution.
-    /// Note: self to_ignore set is *NOT* updated.
-    pub fn merge(&mut self, other: &TDigest<T>) {
-        let mut sorted_centroids = self.centroids.iter().merge(other.centroids.iter());
-
-        let mut new_centroids = Vec::new();
-        let total_weight = self.total_weight + other.total_weight;
-
-        // Initialize the greedy merging (copy first Centroid as a starting point).
-        let mut q_curr = 0.0;
-        let mut q_limit = self.k_rev_scale(self.k_scale(q_curr) + 1.0);
-
-        let mut tmp_centroid = match sorted_centroids.next() {
-            Some(centroid) => centroid.clone(),
-            None => {
-                return;
-            }
-        };
-
-        // Iterate over ordered and merged Centroids (starting from index 1).
-        for centroid in sorted_centroids {
-            let q_new = (tmp_centroid.weight + centroid.weight) as f64 / total_weight as f64;
-            if (q_curr + q_new) <= q_limit {
-                tmp_centroid.merge(centroid)
-            } else {
-                q_curr += tmp_centroid.weight as f64 / total_weight as f64;
-                q_limit = self.k_rev_scale(self.k_scale(q_curr) + 1.0);
-                new_centroids.push(tmp_centroid);
-                tmp_centroid = centroid.clone();
-            }
-        }
-        new_centroids.push(tmp_centroid);
-
-        self.centroids = new_centroids;
-        self.total_weight += other.total_weight;
-    }
-
-    /// Obtains a given quantile from the TDigest.
-    /// Returns 0.0 if TDigest is empty.
-    /// Performs a linear interpollation between two neighboring Centroids if needed.
-    /// Note: This is *not* normalized with nb_ignored.
-    pub fn quantile(&self, q: f64) -> f64 {
-        let target_cum = q * (self.total_weight as f64);
-        let pos_cum = self // Finds the centroid whose *cumulative weight* exceeds or equals the quantile.
-            .centroids
-            .iter()
-            .map(|c| c.weight)
-            .scan(0, |acc, weight| {
-                *acc += weight;
-                Some(*acc)
-            })
-            .enumerate()
-            .find(|&(_, cum)| target_cum < (cum as f64));
-
-        match pos_cum {
-            Some((pos, cum)) => {
-                // TODO: We ignore edge-cases where Centroid's weights are 1.
-                if (pos == 0) || (pos == self.centroids.len() - 1) {
-                    self.centroids[pos].mean
-                } else {
-                    // Quantile is somewhere between in (prev+curr)/2 and (curr+next)/2 means.
-                    let (prev, curr, next) = (
-                        &self.centroids[pos - 1],
-                        &self.centroids[pos],
-                        &self.centroids[pos + 1],
-                    );
-                    let (min_q, max_q) =
-                        ((prev.mean + curr.mean) / 2.0, (curr.mean + next.mean) / 2.0);
-                    lerp(
-                        min_q,
-                        max_q,
-                        ((cum as f64) - target_cum) / (curr.weight as f64),
-                    )
-                }
-            }
-            None => self.centroids.last().map(|c| c.mean).unwrap_or(0.0),
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Obtains the CDF corresponding to a given value.
-    /// Returns 0.0 if the TDigest is empty.
-    /// Note: This *is* normalized with nb_ignored.
-    pub fn cdf(&self, v: &T) -> f64 {
-        let mut cum_sum = 0;
-        let pos_cum = self // Finds the centroid whose *mean* exceeds or equals the given value.
-            .centroids
-            .iter()
-            .enumerate()
-            .find(|(_, c)| {
-                cum_sum += c.weight; // Get the cum_sum as a side effect.
-                v.to_float() < c.mean
-            })
-            .map(|(pos, _)| (pos, cum_sum));
-
-        let nb_total = self.total_weight as f64;
-        match pos_cum {
-            Some((_pos, cum)) => {
-                // TODO: Can do better with 2 lerps, left as future work.
-                // TODO: We ignore edge-cases where Centroid's weights are 1.
-                (cum as f64) / nb_total
-            }
-            None => self.centroids.last().map(|_| 1.0).unwrap_or(0.0),
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Obtains the k-distance for a given quantile.
-    // Note: The scaling function implemented is k1 in Ted Dunning's paper.
-    fn k_scale(&self, quantile: f64) -> f64 {
-        (self.compression / (2.0 * PI)) * (2.0 * quantile - 1.0).asin()
-    }
-
-    // Obtains the quantile associated to a k-distance.
-    // There are probably numerical optimizations to flatten the nested
-    // k_scale(k_rev_scale()) calls. But let's keep it simple.
-    fn k_rev_scale(&self, k_distance: f64) -> f64 {
-        ((2.0 * PI * k_distance / self.compression).sin() + 1.0) / 2.0
-    }
-}
-
-// Performs the linear interpolation between a and b, given a fraction f.
-fn lerp(a: f64, b: f64, f: f64) -> f64 {
-    (a * (1.0 - f)) + (b * f)
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
-
-    use crossbeam::thread;
-    use ordered_float::OrderedFloat;
-    use rand::distributions::{Distribution, Uniform, WeightedIndex};
-    use rand::rngs::StdRng;
-    use rand::SeedableRng;
-
-    use super::{IntoFloat, TDigest};
-
-    impl IntoFloat for OrderedFloat<f64> {
-        fn to_float(&self) -> f64 {
-            self.0
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Whether obtained = expected +/- error
-    fn is_close(obtained: f64, expected: f64, error: f64) -> bool {
-        ((expected - error) < obtained) && (obtained < (expected + error))
-    }
-
-    // Checks whether the tdigest follows a uniform distribution.
-    fn check_tdigest_uniform(
-        tdigest: &TDigest<OrderedFloat<f64>>,
-        buckets: i32,
-        max: f64,
-        min: f64,
-        error: f64,
-    ) {
-        for k in 0..buckets {
-            let expected_cdf = (k as f64) / (buckets as f64);
-            let expected_quantile = (max - min) * expected_cdf + min;
-
-            let obtained_cdf = tdigest.cdf(&OrderedFloat(expected_quantile));
-            let obtained_quantile = tdigest.quantile(expected_cdf);
-
-            assert!(is_close(obtained_cdf, expected_cdf, error));
-            assert!(is_close(
-                obtained_quantile,
-                expected_quantile,
-                (max - min) * error,
-            ));
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn uniform_merge_sequential() {
-        let buckets = 200;
-        let error = 0.03; // 3% absolute error on each quantile; error gets worse near the median.
-        let mut tdigest = TDigest::new(buckets as f64);
-
-        let (min, max) = (-1000.0, 1000.0);
-        let uniform_distr = Uniform::new(min, max);
-        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0);
-
-        let batch_size = 1024;
-        let batch_numbers = 64;
-
-        for _ in 0..batch_numbers {
-            let mut random_numbers = Vec::with_capacity(batch_size);
-            for _ in 0..batch_size {
-                let num: f64 = uniform_distr.sample(&mut rng);
-                random_numbers.push(OrderedFloat(num));
-            }
-            tdigest.merge_values(&random_numbers);
-        }
-
-        check_tdigest_uniform(&tdigest, buckets, max, min, error);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn uniform_merge_parallel() {
-        let buckets = 200;
-        let error = 0.03; // 3% absolute error on each quantile, note error is worse near the median.
-
-        let (min, max) = (-1000.0, 1000.0);
-
-        let batch_size = 65536;
-        let batch_numbers = 64;
-
-        let result_tdigest = Arc::new(Mutex::new(TDigest::new(buckets as f64)));
-        thread::scope(|s| {
-            for _ in 0..batch_numbers {
-                s.spawn(|_| {
-                    let mut local_tdigest = TDigest::new(buckets as f64);
-
-                    let mut random_numbers = Vec::with_capacity(batch_size);
-                    let uniform_distr = Uniform::new(min, max);
-                    let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0);
-
-                    for _ in 0..batch_size {
-                        let num: f64 = uniform_distr.sample(&mut rng);
-                        random_numbers.push(OrderedFloat(num));
-                    }
-                    local_tdigest.merge_values(&random_numbers);
-
-                    let mut result = result_tdigest.lock().unwrap();
-                    result.merge(&local_tdigest);
-                });
-            }
-        })
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let tdigest = result_tdigest.lock().unwrap();
-        check_tdigest_uniform(&tdigest, buckets, max, min, error);
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn weighted_merge() {
-        let buckets = 200;
-        let error = 0.05; // 5% absolute error on each quantile, note error is worse near the median.
-
-        let mut tdigest = TDigest::new(buckets as f64);
-
-        let choices = [9.0, 900.0, 990.0, 9990.0, 190000.0, 990000.0];
-        let weights = [1, 2, 1, 3, 4, 5]; // Total of 16.
-        let total_weight: i32 = weights.iter().sum();
-
-        let weighted_distr = WeightedIndex::new(weights).unwrap();
-        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0);
-
-        let batch_size = 128;
-        let batch_numbers = 16;
-
-        for _ in 0..batch_numbers {
-            let mut random_numbers = Vec::with_capacity(batch_size);
-            for _ in 0..batch_size {
-                let num: f64 = choices[weighted_distr.sample(&mut rng)];
-                random_numbers.push(OrderedFloat(num));
-            }
-            tdigest.merge_values(&random_numbers);
-        }
-
-        let mut curr_weight = 0;
-        for (c, w) in choices.iter().zip(weights) {
-            curr_weight += w;
-            let estimate_cdf = tdigest.cdf(&OrderedFloat(*c));
-            let obtained_cdf = (curr_weight as f64) / (total_weight as f64);
-            assert!(is_close(obtained_cdf, estimate_cdf, error));
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/storage/mock.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/storage/mock.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index f20c417..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/storage/mock.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,89 +0,0 @@
-#![allow(unused_variables, dead_code)]
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-
-use crate::{
-    common::types::{EpochId, ExprId, TableId},
-    stats::AttributeCombValueStats,
-    Cost, CostModelResult, EstimatedStatistic,
-};
-
-use super::CostModelStorageManager;
-
-pub type AttrIndices = Vec<u64>;
-
-#[serde_with::serde_as]
-#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
-pub struct TableStats {
-    pub row_cnt: u64,
-    #[serde_as(as = "HashMap<serde_with::json::JsonString, _>")]
-    pub column_comb_stats: HashMap<AttrIndices, AttributeCombValueStats>,
-}
-
-impl TableStats {
-    pub fn new(
-        row_cnt: u64,
-        column_comb_stats: HashMap<AttrIndices, AttributeCombValueStats>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            row_cnt,
-            column_comb_stats,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-pub type BaseTableStats = HashMap<TableId, TableStats>;
-
-pub struct CostModelStorageMockManagerImpl {
-    pub(crate) per_table_stats_map: BaseTableStats,
-}
-
-impl CostModelStorageMockManagerImpl {
-    pub fn new(per_table_stats_map: BaseTableStats) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            per_table_stats_map,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl CostModelStorageManager for CostModelStorageMockManagerImpl {
-    async fn get_attributes_comb_statistics(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attr_base_indices: &[u64],
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<AttributeCombValueStats>> {
-        let table_stats = self.per_table_stats_map.get(&table_id);
-        match table_stats {
-            None => Ok(None),
-            Some(table_stats) => match table_stats.column_comb_stats.get(attr_base_indices) {
-                None => Ok(None),
-                Some(stats) => Ok(Some(stats.clone())),
-            },
-        }
-    }
-
-    async fn get_table_row_count(&self, table_id: TableId) -> CostModelResult<Option<u64>> {
-        let table_stats = self.per_table_stats_map.get(&table_id);
-        Ok(table_stats.map(|stats| stats.row_cnt))
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: finish this when implementing the cost get/store tests
-    async fn get_cost(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<(Option<crate::Cost>, Option<EstimatedStatistic>)> {
-        todo!()
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: finish this when implementing the cost get/store tests
-    async fn store_cost(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        cost: Option<Cost>,
-        estimated_statistic: Option<EstimatedStatistic>,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<()> {
-        todo!()
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/storage/mod.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/storage/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 14cccd6..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/storage/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,32 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    common::types::{EpochId, ExprId, TableId},
-    stats::AttributeCombValueStats,
-    Cost, CostModelResult, EstimatedStatistic,
-};
-
-pub mod mock;
-pub mod persistent;
-
-#[trait_variant::make(Send)]
-pub trait CostModelStorageManager {
-    async fn get_attributes_comb_statistics(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attr_base_indices: &[u64],
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<AttributeCombValueStats>>;
-
-    async fn get_table_row_count(&self, table_id: TableId) -> CostModelResult<Option<u64>>;
-
-    async fn get_cost(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<(Option<Cost>, Option<EstimatedStatistic>)>;
-
-    async fn store_cost(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        cost: Option<Cost>,
-        estimated_statistic: Option<EstimatedStatistic>,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<()>;
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/storage/persistent.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/storage/persistent.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index b3078a6..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/storage/persistent.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,166 +0,0 @@
-#![allow(unused_variables)]
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-use optd_persistent::{cost_model::interface::StatType, CostModelStorageLayer};
-
-use crate::{
-    common::types::{EpochId, ExprId, TableId},
-    stats::{utilities::counter::Counter, AttributeCombValueStats, Distribution, MostCommonValues},
-    Cost, CostModelResult, EstimatedStatistic,
-};
-
-use super::CostModelStorageManager;
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-pub struct CostModelStorageManagerImpl<S: CostModelStorageLayer + Send + Sync> {
-    pub backend_manager: Arc<S>,
-    // TODO: in-memory cache
-}
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageLayer + Send + Sync> CostModelStorageManagerImpl<S> {
-    pub fn new(backend_manager: Arc<S>) -> Self {
-        Self { backend_manager }
-    }
-}
-
-impl<S: CostModelStorageLayer + Send + Sync> CostModelStorageManager
-    for CostModelStorageManagerImpl<S>
-{
-    /// Gets the latest statistics for a given table. Currently we only support base table
-    /// statistic retrieval.
-    ///
-    /// TODO: Currently, in `AttributeCombValueStats`, only `Distribution` is optional.
-    /// This poses a question about the behavior of the system if there is no corresponding
-    /// `MostCommonValues`, `ndistinct`, or other statistics. We should have a clear
-    /// specification about the behavior of the system in the presence of missing statistics.
-    ///
-    /// TODO: if we have memory cache,
-    /// we should add the reference. (&AttributeCombValueStats)
-    ///
-    /// TODO: Shall we pass in an epoch here to make sure that the statistics are from the same
-    /// epoch?
-    async fn get_attributes_comb_statistics(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attr_base_indices: &[u64],
-    ) -> CostModelResult<Option<AttributeCombValueStats>> {
-        let dist: Option<Distribution> = self
-            .backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(
-                table_id.into(),
-                attr_base_indices.iter().map(|&x| x as i32).collect(),
-                StatType::Distribution,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await?
-            .map(|json| serde_json::from_value(json).unwrap());
-
-        let mcvs = self
-            .backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(
-                table_id.into(),
-                attr_base_indices.iter().map(|&x| x as i32).collect(),
-                StatType::MostCommonValues,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await?
-            .map(|json| serde_json::from_value(json).unwrap())
-            .unwrap_or_else(|| MostCommonValues::Counter(Counter::default()));
-
-        let ndistinct = self
-            .backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(
-                table_id.into(),
-                attr_base_indices.iter().map(|&x| x as i32).collect(),
-                StatType::Cardinality,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await?
-            .map(|json| serde_json::from_value(json).unwrap())
-            .unwrap_or(0);
-
-        let table_row_count = self
-            .backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(
-                table_id.into(),
-                attr_base_indices.iter().map(|&x| x as i32).collect(),
-                StatType::TableRowCount,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await?
-            .map(|json| serde_json::from_value(json).unwrap())
-            .unwrap_or(0);
-        let non_null_count = self
-            .backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(
-                table_id.into(),
-                attr_base_indices.iter().map(|&x| x as i32).collect(),
-                StatType::NonNullCount,
-                None,
-            )
-            .await?
-            .map(|json| serde_json::from_value(json).unwrap())
-            .unwrap_or(0);
-
-        // FIXME: Only minimal checks for invalid values is conducted here. We should have
-        // much clear specification about the behavior of the system in the presence of
-        // invalid statistics.
-        let null_frac = if table_row_count == 0 {
-            0.0
-        } else {
-            1.0 - (non_null_count as f64 / table_row_count as f64)
-        };
-
-        Ok(Some(AttributeCombValueStats::new(
-            mcvs, dist, ndistinct, null_frac,
-        )))
-    }
-
-    async fn get_table_row_count(&self, table_id: TableId) -> CostModelResult<Option<u64>> {
-        Ok(self
-            .backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_table(table_id.into(), StatType::TableRowCount, None)
-            .await?
-            .map(serde_json::from_value)
-            .transpose()?)
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: The name is misleading, since we can also get the estimated statistic. We should
-    /// rename it.
-    ///
-    /// TODO: Add retry logic here.
-    async fn get_cost(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<(Option<Cost>, Option<EstimatedStatistic>)> {
-        let (cost, estimated_statistic) = self.backend_manager.get_cost(expr_id.into()).await?;
-        Ok((
-            cost.map(|c| c.into()),
-            estimated_statistic.map(|x| x.into()),
-        ))
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: The name is misleading, since we can also get the estimated statistic. We should
-    /// rename it.
-    ///
-    /// TODO: Add retry logic here.
-    async fn store_cost(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        cost: Option<Cost>,
-        estimated_statistic: Option<EstimatedStatistic>,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> CostModelResult<()> {
-        self.backend_manager
-            .store_cost(
-                expr_id.into(),
-                cost.map(|c| c.into()),
-                estimated_statistic.map(|x| x.into()),
-                epoch_id.map(|id| id.into()),
-            )
-            .await?;
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    // TODO: Support querying for a specific type of statistics.
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/test_utils.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/test_utils.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 60db90f..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/test_utils.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,565 +0,0 @@
-/// I thought about using the system's own parser and planner to generate these expression trees,
-/// but this is not currently feasible because it would create a cyclic dependency between
-/// optd-datafusion-bridge and optd-datafusion-repr
-#[cfg(test)]
-pub mod tests {
-    use itertools::Itertools;
-    use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
-
-    use arrow_schema::DataType;
-    use optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::CatalogSource;
-
-    use crate::{
-        common::{
-            nodes::{ArcPredicateNode, ReprPredicateNode},
-            predicates::{
-                attr_index_pred::AttrIndexPred,
-                bin_op_pred::{BinOpPred, BinOpType},
-                cast_pred::CastPred,
-                constant_pred::{ConstantPred, ConstantType},
-                in_list_pred::InListPred,
-                like_pred::LikePred,
-                list_pred::ListPred,
-                log_op_pred::{LogOpPred, LogOpType},
-                un_op_pred::{UnOpPred, UnOpType},
-            },
-            properties::{
-                attr_ref::{AttrRef, GroupAttrRefs},
-                schema::Schema,
-                Attribute,
-            },
-            types::{GroupId, TableId},
-            values::Value,
-        },
-        cost_model::CostModelImpl,
-        memo_ext::MemoExt,
-        stats::{
-            utilities::simple_map::SimpleMap, AttributeCombValueStats, Distribution,
-            MostCommonValues,
-        },
-        storage::mock::{CostModelStorageMockManagerImpl, TableStats},
-    };
-
-    pub struct MemoGroupInfo {
-        pub schema: Schema,
-        pub attr_refs: GroupAttrRefs,
-    }
-
-    impl MemoGroupInfo {
-        pub fn new(schema: Schema, attr_refs: GroupAttrRefs) -> Self {
-            Self { schema, attr_refs }
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[derive(Default)]
-    pub struct MockMemoExtImpl {
-        memo: HashMap<GroupId, MemoGroupInfo>,
-    }
-
-    impl MockMemoExtImpl {
-        pub fn add_group_info(
-            &mut self,
-            group_id: GroupId,
-            schema: Schema,
-            attr_ref: GroupAttrRefs,
-        ) {
-            self.memo
-                .insert(group_id, MemoGroupInfo::new(schema, attr_ref));
-        }
-    }
-
-    impl MemoExt for MockMemoExtImpl {
-        fn get_schema(&self, group_id: GroupId) -> Schema {
-            self.memo.get(&group_id).unwrap().schema.clone()
-        }
-
-        fn get_attribute_info(&self, group_id: GroupId, attr_ref_idx: u64) -> Attribute {
-            self.memo.get(&group_id).unwrap().schema.attributes[attr_ref_idx as usize].clone()
-        }
-
-        fn get_attribute_refs(&self, group_id: GroupId) -> GroupAttrRefs {
-            self.memo.get(&group_id).unwrap().attr_refs.clone()
-        }
-
-        fn get_attribute_ref(&self, group_id: GroupId, attr_ref_idx: u64) -> AttrRef {
-            self.memo.get(&group_id).unwrap().attr_refs.attr_refs()[attr_ref_idx as usize].clone()
-        }
-    }
-
-    impl From<HashMap<GroupId, MemoGroupInfo>> for MockMemoExtImpl {
-        fn from(memo: HashMap<GroupId, MemoGroupInfo>) -> Self {
-            Self { memo }
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub const TEST_TABLE1_ID: TableId = TableId(0);
-    pub const TEST_TABLE2_ID: TableId = TableId(1);
-    pub const TEST_TABLE3_ID: TableId = TableId(2);
-    pub const TEST_TABLE4_ID: TableId = TableId(3);
-
-    pub const TEST_GROUP1_ID: GroupId = GroupId(0);
-    pub const TEST_GROUP2_ID: GroupId = GroupId(1);
-    pub const TEST_GROUP3_ID: GroupId = GroupId(2);
-    pub const TEST_GROUP4_ID: GroupId = GroupId(3);
-
-    // This is base index rather than ref index.
-    pub const TEST_ATTR1_BASE_INDEX: u64 = 0;
-    pub const TEST_ATTR2_BASE_INDEX: u64 = 1;
-    pub const TEST_ATTR3_BASE_INDEX: u64 = 2;
-
-    pub const TEST_ATTR1_NAME: &str = "attr1";
-    pub const TEST_ATTR2_NAME: &str = "attr2";
-    pub const TEST_ATTR3_NAME: &str = "attr3";
-    pub const TEST_ATTR4_NAME: &str = "attr4";
-
-    pub type TestPerAttributeStats = AttributeCombValueStats;
-    // TODO: add tests for non-mock storage manager
-    pub type TestOptCostModelMock = CostModelImpl<CostModelStorageMockManagerImpl>;
-
-    // Use this method, we only create one group `TEST_GROUP1_ID` in the memo.
-    // We put the first attribute in the first table as the ref index 0 in the group.
-    // And put the second attribute in the first table as the ref index 1 in the group.
-    // etc.
-    // The orders of attributes and tables are defined by the order of their ids (smaller first).
-    pub fn create_mock_cost_model(
-        table_id: Vec<TableId>,
-        // u64 should be base attribute index.
-        per_attribute_stats: Vec<HashMap<u64, TestPerAttributeStats>>,
-        row_counts: Vec<Option<u64>>,
-    ) -> TestOptCostModelMock {
-        let attr_ids: Vec<(TableId, u64, Option<ConstantType>)> = per_attribute_stats
-            .iter()
-            .enumerate()
-            .map(|(idx, m)| (table_id[idx], m))
-            .flat_map(|(table_id, m)| {
-                m.iter()
-                    .map(|(attr_idx, _)| (table_id, *attr_idx, None))
-                    .collect_vec()
-            })
-            .sorted_by_key(|(table_id, attr_idx, _)| (*table_id, *attr_idx))
-            .collect();
-        create_mock_cost_model_with_memo(
-            table_id.clone(),
-            per_attribute_stats,
-            row_counts,
-            create_one_group_all_base_attributes_mock_memo(attr_ids),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn create_mock_cost_model_with_attr_types(
-        table_id: Vec<TableId>,
-        // u64 should be base attribute index.
-        per_attribute_stats: Vec<HashMap<u64, TestPerAttributeStats>>,
-        attributes: Vec<HashMap<u64, ConstantType>>,
-        row_counts: Vec<Option<u64>>,
-    ) -> TestOptCostModelMock {
-        let attr_ids: Vec<(TableId, u64, Option<ConstantType>)> = attributes
-            .iter()
-            .enumerate()
-            .map(|(idx, m)| (table_id[idx], m))
-            .flat_map(|(table_id, m)| {
-                m.iter()
-                    .map(|(attr_idx, typ)| (table_id, *attr_idx, Some(*typ)))
-                    .collect_vec()
-            })
-            .sorted_by_key(|(table_id, attr_idx, _)| (*table_id, *attr_idx))
-            .collect();
-        create_mock_cost_model_with_memo(
-            table_id.clone(),
-            per_attribute_stats,
-            row_counts,
-            create_one_group_all_base_attributes_mock_memo(attr_ids),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn create_mock_cost_model_with_memo(
-        table_id: Vec<TableId>,
-        per_attribute_stats: Vec<HashMap<u64, TestPerAttributeStats>>,
-        row_counts: Vec<Option<u64>>,
-        memo: MockMemoExtImpl,
-    ) -> TestOptCostModelMock {
-        let storage_manager = CostModelStorageMockManagerImpl::new(
-            table_id
-                .into_iter()
-                .zip(per_attribute_stats)
-                .zip(row_counts)
-                .map(|((table_id, per_attr_stats), row_count)| {
-                    (
-                        table_id,
-                        TableStats::new(
-                            row_count.unwrap_or(100),
-                            per_attr_stats
-                                .into_iter()
-                                .map(|(attr_idx, stats)| (vec![attr_idx], stats))
-                                .collect(),
-                        ),
-                    )
-                })
-                .collect(),
-        );
-        CostModelImpl::new(storage_manager, CatalogSource::Mock, Arc::new(memo))
-    }
-
-    // attributes: Vec<(TableId, AttrBaseIndex)>
-    pub fn create_one_group_all_base_attributes_mock_memo(
-        attr_ids: Vec<(TableId, u64, Option<ConstantType>)>,
-    ) -> MockMemoExtImpl {
-        let group_info = MemoGroupInfo::new(
-            Schema::new(
-                attr_ids
-                    .clone()
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|(_, _, typ)| Attribute {
-                        name: "attr".to_string(),
-                        typ: typ.unwrap_or(ConstantType::Int64),
-                        nullable: false,
-                    })
-                    .collect(),
-            ),
-            GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                attr_ids
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|(table_id, attr_base_index, _)| {
-                        AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(table_id, attr_base_index)
-                    })
-                    .collect(),
-                None,
-            ),
-        );
-        MockMemoExtImpl::from(HashMap::from([(TEST_GROUP1_ID, group_info)]))
-    }
-
-    /// Create a cost model two tables, each with one attribute. Each attribute has 100 values.
-    pub fn create_two_table_mock_cost_model(
-        tbl1_per_attr_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-        tbl2_per_attr_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-        additional_memo: Option<HashMap<GroupId, MemoGroupInfo>>,
-    ) -> TestOptCostModelMock {
-        create_two_table_mock_cost_model_custom_row_cnts(
-            tbl1_per_attr_stats,
-            tbl2_per_attr_stats,
-            100,
-            100,
-            additional_memo,
-        )
-    }
-
-    /// Create a cost model three tables, each with one attribute. Each attribute has 100 values.
-    pub fn create_three_table_mock_cost_model(
-        tbl1_per_column_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-        tbl2_per_column_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-        tbl3_per_column_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-    ) -> TestOptCostModelMock {
-        let storage_manager = CostModelStorageMockManagerImpl::new(
-            vec![
-                (
-                    TEST_TABLE1_ID,
-                    TableStats::new(
-                        100,
-                        vec![(vec![0], tbl1_per_column_stats)].into_iter().collect(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-                (
-                    TEST_TABLE2_ID,
-                    TableStats::new(
-                        100,
-                        vec![(vec![0], tbl2_per_column_stats)].into_iter().collect(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-                (
-                    TEST_TABLE3_ID,
-                    TableStats::new(
-                        100,
-                        vec![(vec![0], tbl3_per_column_stats)].into_iter().collect(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ]
-            .into_iter()
-            .collect(),
-        );
-        let memo = HashMap::from([
-            (
-                TEST_GROUP1_ID,
-                MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                    vec![Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR1_NAME.to_string())].into(),
-                    GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                        vec![AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0)],
-                        None,
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            (
-                TEST_GROUP2_ID,
-                MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                    vec![Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR2_NAME.to_string())].into(),
-                    GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                        vec![AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0)],
-                        None,
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            (
-                TEST_GROUP3_ID,
-                MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                    vec![Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR3_NAME.to_string())].into(),
-                    GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                        vec![AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE3_ID, 0)],
-                        None,
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-        ]);
-        CostModelImpl::new(
-            storage_manager,
-            CatalogSource::Mock,
-            Arc::new(MockMemoExtImpl::from(memo)),
-        )
-    }
-
-    /// Create a cost model four tables, each with one attribute. Each attribute has 100 values.
-    pub fn create_four_table_mock_cost_model(
-        tbl1_per_column_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-        tbl2_per_column_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-        tbl3_per_column_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-        tbl4_per_column_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-    ) -> TestOptCostModelMock {
-        let storage_manager = CostModelStorageMockManagerImpl::new(
-            vec![
-                (
-                    TEST_TABLE1_ID,
-                    TableStats::new(
-                        100,
-                        vec![(vec![0], tbl1_per_column_stats)].into_iter().collect(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-                (
-                    TEST_TABLE2_ID,
-                    TableStats::new(
-                        100,
-                        vec![(vec![0], tbl2_per_column_stats)].into_iter().collect(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-                (
-                    TEST_TABLE3_ID,
-                    TableStats::new(
-                        100,
-                        vec![(vec![0], tbl3_per_column_stats)].into_iter().collect(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-                (
-                    TEST_TABLE4_ID,
-                    TableStats::new(
-                        100,
-                        vec![(vec![0], tbl4_per_column_stats)].into_iter().collect(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ]
-            .into_iter()
-            .collect(),
-        );
-        let memo = HashMap::from([
-            (
-                TEST_GROUP1_ID,
-                MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                    vec![Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR1_NAME.to_string())].into(),
-                    GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                        vec![AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0)],
-                        None,
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            (
-                TEST_GROUP2_ID,
-                MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                    vec![Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR2_NAME.to_string())].into(),
-                    GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                        vec![AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0)],
-                        None,
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            (
-                TEST_GROUP3_ID,
-                MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                    vec![Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR3_NAME.to_string())].into(),
-                    GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                        vec![AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE3_ID, 0)],
-                        None,
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            (
-                TEST_GROUP4_ID,
-                MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                    vec![Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR4_NAME.to_string())].into(),
-                    GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                        vec![AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE4_ID, 0)],
-                        None,
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-        ]);
-        CostModelImpl::new(
-            storage_manager,
-            CatalogSource::Mock,
-            Arc::new(MockMemoExtImpl::from(memo)),
-        )
-    }
-
-    /// We need custom row counts because some join algorithms rely on the row cnt
-    pub fn create_two_table_mock_cost_model_custom_row_cnts(
-        tbl1_per_column_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-        tbl2_per_column_stats: TestPerAttributeStats,
-        tbl1_row_cnt: u64,
-        tbl2_row_cnt: u64,
-        additional_memo: Option<HashMap<GroupId, MemoGroupInfo>>,
-    ) -> TestOptCostModelMock {
-        let storage_manager = CostModelStorageMockManagerImpl::new(
-            vec![
-                (
-                    TEST_TABLE1_ID,
-                    TableStats::new(
-                        tbl1_row_cnt,
-                        vec![(vec![0], tbl1_per_column_stats)].into_iter().collect(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-                (
-                    TEST_TABLE2_ID,
-                    TableStats::new(
-                        tbl2_row_cnt,
-                        vec![(vec![0], tbl2_per_column_stats)].into_iter().collect(),
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ]
-            .into_iter()
-            .collect(),
-        );
-        let mut memo = HashMap::from([
-            (
-                TEST_GROUP1_ID,
-                MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                    vec![Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR1_NAME.to_string())].into(),
-                    GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                        vec![AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE1_ID, 0)],
-                        None,
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-            (
-                TEST_GROUP2_ID,
-                MemoGroupInfo::new(
-                    vec![Attribute::new_non_null_int64(TEST_ATTR2_NAME.to_string())].into(),
-                    GroupAttrRefs::new(
-                        vec![AttrRef::new_base_table_attr_ref(TEST_TABLE2_ID, 0)],
-                        None,
-                    ),
-                ),
-            ),
-        ]);
-        if let Some(additional_memo) = additional_memo {
-            memo.extend(additional_memo);
-        }
-        CostModelImpl::new(
-            storage_manager,
-            CatalogSource::Mock,
-            Arc::new(MockMemoExtImpl::from(memo)),
-        )
-    }
-
-    impl TestOptCostModelMock {
-        pub fn get_row_count(&self, table_id: TableId) -> u64 {
-            self.storage_manager
-                .per_table_stats_map
-                .get(&table_id)
-                .map(|stats| stats.row_cnt)
-                .unwrap_or(0)
-        }
-
-        pub fn get_attr_refs(&self, group_id: GroupId) -> GroupAttrRefs {
-            self.memo.get_attribute_refs(group_id)
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn attr_index(attr_index: u64) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        AttrIndexPred::new(attr_index).into_pred_node()
-    }
-
-    pub fn cnst(value: Value) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        ConstantPred::new(value).into_pred_node()
-    }
-
-    pub fn cast(child: ArcPredicateNode, cast_type: DataType) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        CastPred::new(child, cast_type).into_pred_node()
-    }
-
-    pub fn bin_op(
-        op_type: BinOpType,
-        left: ArcPredicateNode,
-        right: ArcPredicateNode,
-    ) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        BinOpPred::new(left, right, op_type).into_pred_node()
-    }
-
-    pub fn log_op(op_type: LogOpType, children: Vec<ArcPredicateNode>) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        LogOpPred::new(op_type, children).into_pred_node()
-    }
-
-    pub fn un_op(op_type: UnOpType, child: ArcPredicateNode) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        UnOpPred::new(child, op_type).into_pred_node()
-    }
-
-    pub fn empty_list() -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        ListPred::new(vec![]).into_pred_node()
-    }
-
-    pub fn list(children: Vec<ArcPredicateNode>) -> ArcPredicateNode {
-        ListPred::new(children).into_pred_node()
-    }
-
-    pub fn in_list(attr_idx: u64, list: Vec<Value>, negated: bool) -> InListPred {
-        InListPred::new(
-            attr_index(attr_idx),
-            ListPred::new(list.into_iter().map(cnst).collect_vec()),
-            negated,
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub fn like(attr_idx: u64, pattern: &str, negated: bool) -> LikePred {
-        LikePred::new(
-            negated,
-            false,
-            attr_index(attr_idx),
-            cnst(Value::String(pattern.into())),
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) fn empty_per_attr_stats() -> TestPerAttributeStats {
-        TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::empty(),
-            Some(Distribution::empty()),
-            0,
-            0.0,
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) fn per_attr_stats_with_ndistinct(ndistinct: u64) -> TestPerAttributeStats {
-        TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::empty(),
-            Some(Distribution::empty()),
-            ndistinct,
-            0.0,
-        )
-    }
-
-    pub(crate) fn per_attr_stats_with_dist_and_ndistinct(
-        dist: Vec<(Value, f64)>,
-        ndistinct: u64,
-    ) -> TestPerAttributeStats {
-        TestPerAttributeStats::new(
-            MostCommonValues::empty(),
-            Some(Distribution::SimpleDistribution(SimpleMap::new(dist))),
-            ndistinct,
-            0.0,
-        )
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-cost-model/src/utils.rs b/optd-cost-model/src/utils.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 125c499..0000000
--- a/optd-cost-model/src/utils.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,118 +0,0 @@
-//! optd's implementation of disjoint sets (union finds). It's send + sync + serializable.
-
-use std::{collections::HashMap, hash::Hash};
-#[derive(Clone, Default)]
-pub struct DisjointSets<T: Clone> {
-    data_idx: HashMap<T, usize>,
-    parents: Vec<usize>,
-}
-
-impl<T: Clone> std::fmt::Debug for DisjointSets<T> {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "DisjointSets")
-    }
-}
-
-impl<T: Clone + Eq + PartialEq + Hash> DisjointSets<T> {
-    pub fn new() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            data_idx: HashMap::new(),
-            parents: Vec::new(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn contains(&self, data: &T) -> bool {
-        self.data_idx.contains_key(data)
-    }
-
-    #[must_use]
-    pub fn make_set(&mut self, data: T) -> Option<()> {
-        if self.data_idx.contains_key(&data) {
-            return None;
-        }
-        let idx = self.parents.len();
-        self.data_idx.insert(data.clone(), idx);
-        self.parents.push(idx);
-        Some(())
-    }
-
-    fn find(&mut self, mut idx: usize) -> usize {
-        while self.parents[idx] != idx {
-            self.parents[idx] = self.parents[self.parents[idx]];
-            idx = self.parents[idx];
-        }
-        idx
-    }
-
-    fn find_const(&self, mut idx: usize) -> usize {
-        while self.parents[idx] != idx {
-            idx = self.parents[idx];
-        }
-        idx
-    }
-
-    #[must_use]
-    pub fn union(&mut self, data1: &T, data2: &T) -> Option<()> {
-        let idx1 = *self.data_idx.get(data1)?;
-        let idx2 = *self.data_idx.get(data2)?;
-        let parent1 = self.find(idx1);
-        let parent2 = self.find(idx2);
-        if parent1 != parent2 {
-            self.parents[parent1] = parent2;
-        }
-        Some(())
-    }
-
-    pub fn same_set(&self, data1: &T, data2: &T) -> Option<bool> {
-        let idx1 = *self.data_idx.get(data1)?;
-        let idx2 = *self.data_idx.get(data2)?;
-        Some(self.find_const(idx1) == self.find_const(idx2))
-    }
-
-    pub fn set_size(&self, data: &T) -> Option<usize> {
-        let idx = *self.data_idx.get(data)?;
-        let parent = self.find_const(idx);
-        Some(
-            self.parents
-                .iter()
-                .filter(|&&x| self.find_const(x) == parent)
-                .count(),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use super::*;
-    #[test]
-    fn test_union_find() {
-        let mut set = DisjointSets::new();
-        set.make_set("a").unwrap();
-        set.make_set("b").unwrap();
-        set.make_set("c").unwrap();
-        set.make_set("d").unwrap();
-        set.make_set("e").unwrap();
-        assert!(set.same_set(&"a", &"a").unwrap());
-        assert!(!set.same_set(&"a", &"b").unwrap());
-        assert_eq!(set.set_size(&"a").unwrap(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(set.set_size(&"c").unwrap(), 1);
-        set.union(&"a", &"b").unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(set.set_size(&"a").unwrap(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(set.set_size(&"c").unwrap(), 1);
-        assert!(set.same_set(&"a", &"b").unwrap());
-        assert!(!set.same_set(&"a", &"c").unwrap());
-        set.union(&"b", &"c").unwrap();
-        assert!(set.same_set(&"a", &"c").unwrap());
-        assert!(!set.same_set(&"a", &"d").unwrap());
-        assert_eq!(set.set_size(&"a").unwrap(), 3);
-        assert_eq!(set.set_size(&"d").unwrap(), 1);
-        set.union(&"d", &"e").unwrap();
-        assert!(set.same_set(&"d", &"e").unwrap());
-        assert!(!set.same_set(&"a", &"d").unwrap());
-        assert_eq!(set.set_size(&"a").unwrap(), 3);
-        assert_eq!(set.set_size(&"d").unwrap(), 2);
-        set.union(&"c", &"e").unwrap();
-        assert!(set.same_set(&"a", &"e").unwrap());
-        assert_eq!(set.set_size(&"d").unwrap(), 5);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-mvp/Cargo.toml b/optd-mvp/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4a3a62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+[package]
+name = "optd-mvp"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2021"
+authors = ["Connor Tsui"]
+
+[dependencies]
+
+# `VARIANTS` constant made public in "1.1.1".
+sea-orm = { version = "1.1.1", features = [
+    "sqlx-sqlite",
+    "runtime-tokio-rustls",
+    "macros",
+    "debug-print",
+    "with-json",
+] }
+sea-orm-migration = "1.0"
+serde = "1.0"
+serde_json = "1.0.118" # Support `Hash` on `serde_json::Value` in "1.0.118".
+tokio = { version = "1.0", features = ["macros", "rt-multi-thread"] }
+trait-variant = "0.1.2" # Support `make(Send)` syntax in "0.1.2".
+thiserror = "2.0"
+fxhash = "0.2"
+
+# Pin more recent versions for `-Zminimal-versions`.
+async-trait = "0.1.43" # Remove lifetime parameter from "0.1.42".
+async-stream = "0.3.1"  # Fix unsatisfied trait bound from "0.3.0".
+strum = "0.26.0" # Fix `std::marker::Sized` from "0.25.0".
+
diff --git a/optd-mvp/DESIGN.md b/optd-mvp/DESIGN.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d1863d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/DESIGN.md
@@ -0,0 +1,214 @@
+# Duplicate Elimination Memo Table
+
+_Connor Tsui, December 2024_
+
+Note that most of the details are in `src/memo/persistent/implementation.rs`.
+
+For this document, we are assuming that the memo table is backed by a database / ORM. Both the
+problems and the features detailed in this document are unique to this design, and likely do not
+apply to an in-memory memo table.
+
+## Group Merging
+
+During logical exploration, there will be rules that create cycles between groups. The easy solution
+for this is to immediately merge two groups together when the engine determines that adding an
+expression would result in a duplicate expression from another group.
+
+However, if we want to support parallel exploration, this could be prone to high contention. By
+definition, merging group 1 into group 2 would mean that _every expression_ that has a child of
+group 1 with would need to be rewritten to point to group 2 instead.
+
+This is prohibitive in a parallel setting, as that would mean every single task that gets affected
+would need to either wait for the rewrites to happen before resuming work, or potentially need to
+abort their work because data has changed underneath them.
+
+So immediate / eager group merging is not a great idea for parallel exploration. However, if we
+don't merge two groups that are equivalent, we are subject to doing duplicate work for every
+duplicate expression in the memo table during physical optimization.
+
+Instead of merging groups together immediately, we can instead maintain an auxiliary data structure
+that records the groups that _eventually_ need to get merged, and "lazily" merge those groups
+together once every group has finished exploration. We will refer to merging groups as the act of
+recording that the groups should eventually be merged together after exploration is finished.
+
+## Union-Find Group Sets
+
+We use the well-known Union-Find algorithm and corresponding data structure as the auxiliary data
+structure that tracks the to-be-merged groups.
+
+Union-Find supports `Union` and `Find` operations, where `Union` merges sets and `Find` searches for
+a "canonical" or "root" element that is shared between all elements in a given set. Note that we
+will also support an iteration operation that iterates over all elements in a given set. We will
+need this for [duplicate detection](#fingerprinting--group-merge), which is explained below.
+
+For more information about Union-Find, see these
+[15-451 lecture notes](https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~15451-f24/lectures/lecture08-union-find.pdf). We will
+use the exact same data structure, but add an additional `next` pointer for each node that embeds
+a circular linked list for each set.
+
+Here, we make the elements the groups themselves (really the group IDs), which allows us to merge
+group sets together and also determine a "root group" that all groups in a set can agree on.
+
+When every group in a group set has finished exploration, we can safely begin to merge them
+together by moving all expressions from every group in the group set into a single large group.
+Other than making sure that any reference to an old group in the group set points to this new large
+group, exploration of all groups is done and physical optimization can start.
+
+Note that since we are now waiting for exploration of all groups to finish, this algorithm is much
+closer to the Volcano framework than the Cascades' incremental search. However, since we eventually
+will want to store trails / breadcrumbs of decisions made to skip work in the future, and since we
+essentially have unlimited space due to the memo table being backed by a DBMS, this is not as much
+of a problem.
+
+## Duplicate Detection
+
+Deciding that we will merge groups lazily does not solve all of our problems. We have to know _when_
+we want to merge these groups.
+
+A naive approach is to simply loop over every expression in the memo table and check if we are about
+to insert a duplicate. This, of course, is bad for performance.
+
+We will use a fingerprinting / hashing method to detect when a duplicate expression might be
+inserted into the memo table (returning an error instead of inserting), and we will use that to
+trigger group merges.
+
+For every logical expression we insert into the memo table, we will create a fingerprint that
+contains both the kind of expression / relation (Scan, Filter, Join) and a hash of all
+information that makes that expression unique. For example:
+
+-   The fingerprint of a Scan should probably contain a hash of the table name and the pushdown
+    predicate.
+-   The fingerprint of a Filter should probably contain a hash of its child group ID and predicate.
+-   The fingerprint of a Join should probably contain a hash of the left group ID and the right group
+    ID, as well as the join predicate.
+
+Note that the above descriptions are slightly inaccurate, and we'll explain why in a later
+[section](#fingerprinting--group-merge).
+
+Also, if we have duplicate detection for logical expression, and we do not start physical
+optimization until after full plan enumeration, then we do not actually need to do duplicate
+detection of physical expressions, since they are derivative of the deduplicated logical
+expressions.
+
+### Fingerprint Matching Algorithm
+
+When an expression is added to the memo table, it will first calculate the fingerprint of the
+expression. The memo table will compare this fingerprint with every fingerprint in the memo table to
+check if we have seen this expression before (in any group). While this is effectively a scan
+through every expression, supporting the fingerprint table with an B+tree index will speed up this
+operation dramatically (since these fingerprints can be sorted by expression / relation kind).
+
+If there are no identical fingerprints, then there is no duplicate expression, and we can safely
+add the expression into the memo table. However, if there are matching fingerprints, we need to
+further check for false positives due to hash collisions.
+
+We do full exact match equality checks with every expression that had a fingerprint match. If there
+are no exact matches, then we can safely add the expression into the memo table. However, if we find
+an exact match (note that there can be at most one exact match since we have an invariant that there
+cannot be duplicate expressions), then we know that the expression we are trying to add already
+exists in the memo table.
+
+### Fingerprinting + Group Merge
+
+There is a slight problem with the algorithm described above. It does not account for when a child
+group has merged into another group.
+
+For example, let's say we have groups 1, 2, and 3. We insert an expression Join(1, 2) into the
+memo table with its fingerprint calculated with groups 1 and 2. It is possible that we find out that
+groups 2 and 3 need to merged. This means that Join(1, 2) and Join (1, 3) are actually identical
+expressions, and the fingerprinting strategies for expressions described above do not handle this.
+
+We will solve this problem by adding allowing multiple fingerprints to reference the same logical
+expression, and we will generate a new fingerprint for every expression that is affected by a group
+merge / every expression who's parent group now has a new root group.
+
+In the above scenario, we will find every expression in the memo table that has group 2 as a child.
+For each expression, we will generate another fingerprint with group 2 "rewritten" as group 3 in the
+hash. Note that we _do not_ modify the original expression, we are simply adding another fingerprint
+into the memo table.
+
+Finally, we need to handle when multiple groups in a group set are merged into another group set.
+For example, if a left group set { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } with root 1 needs to be merged into a right group
+set { 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 } with root 6, then we need to generate a new fingerprint for every expression
+in groups 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 with group 1 "rewritten" as group 6.
+
+More formally, we are maintaining this invariant:
+**For every expression, there exists a fingerprint that maps back to the expression that uses the**
+**root groups of their children to calculate the hash.**
+
+For example, if we have a group set { 1, 3, 5 } with root group 1 and group set { 2, 4, 6 } with
+root group 2, the fingerprint of Join(5, 4) should really be a fingerprint of Join(1, 2).
+
+This invariant means that when we are checking if some expression already exists, we should use the
+root groups of the child groups in our expression to calculate the fingerprint, and we can guarantee
+that no fingerprint matches implies no duplicates.
+
+A further implication of this invariant means that new fingerprints need to be generated every time
+we merge groups. If we have a left group set { 1, 3, 5 } with root group 1 and right group set
+{ 2, 4, 6 } with root group 2, and we merge the first group set into the second, then every
+expression that has a child group of 1, 3, or 5 now has a stale fingerprint that uses root group 1
+instead of root group 2.
+
+Thus, when we merge the left group into the right group, we need to do the following:
+
+1. Gather the group set, i.e. every single group that has root group 1 (iterate)
+2. Retrieve every single expression that has a child group in the group set (via junction table)
+3. Generate a new fingerprint for each expression and add it into the memo table
+
+The speed of steps 2 and 3 above are largely dependent on the backing DBMS. However, we can support
+step 1 directly in the union find data structure by maintain a circular linked list for every set.
+Each group now tracks both a `parent` pointer and a `next` pointer. When merging / unioning a set
+into another set, we swap the `next` pointers of the two roots to maintain the circular linked list.
+This allows us to do step 1 in linear time relative to the size of the group set.
+
+### Discovered Duplicates
+
+The above algorithm has one more problem: merging groups can cause the memo table to "discover" that
+there are duplicate expressions in the memo table.
+
+Here is an example: let's say we have the following groups, each with one expression (note that the
+example will work even with multiple expressions):
+
+1. `Scan(1)`
+2. `Scan(2)`
+3. `Filter(1)`
+4. `Filter(2)`
+5. `Filter(4)`
+6. `Join(3, 4)`
+7. `Join(3, 5)`
+8. `Sort(6)`
+9. `Sort(7)`
+
+Note how groups 5 is just a second filter on top of group 2. Suppose that we find out that
+`(Filter(4) = Filter(Filter(2))) == Filter(2)`. In that case, we need to merge groups 4 and 5. The
+problem here is that groups 6 and 7 are considered separate groups, but we have now discovered that
+they are actually the same. The same is true for groups 8 and 9. In this scenario, the merging of
+groups has "generated" a duplicate expression.
+
+However, this is not as big of a problem as it might seem. The issue we want to avoid is lots of
+duplicate work or even an infinite loop of rule application. Observe that if we apply a rule to both
+the expression in group 6 and group 7 that we will get the same exact expression.
+
+For example, if we apply join commutativity to the expression in group 6 (`Join(3, 4)`), we would
+add `Join(4, 3)` into group 6. When we apply join commutativity to the expression in group 7
+(`Join(3, 5)`), we would get back `Join(5, 3)`. However, the memo table will detect this as a
+duplicate because it will use the root group of 4 and 5 to generate the fingerprint and see that
+`Join(4, 3)` already exists. Again, similar logic applies for groups 8 and 9.
+
+At a high level, almost all of our operations are lazy. Work does not need to be done unless it is
+absolutely necessary for correctness. By allowing some amount of duplicates, we get some nice
+properties with respect to parallelizing memo table access.
+
+## Efficiency and Parallelism
+
+Fingerprinting by itself is very efficient, as creating a fingerprint and looking up a fingerprint
+can be made quite efficient with indexes. The real concern here is that merging two groups is very,
+very expensive. Depending on the workload, it is both possible that the amortized cost is low or
+that group merging takes a majority of the work.
+
+However, we must remember that we want to parallelize access to the memo table. The above algorithms
+are notably **read and append only**. There is never a point where we need to update an expression
+to maintain invariants. This is important, as it means that we can add and lookup expression and
+groups _without having to take any locks_. If we enforce a serializable isolation level, then every
+method on the memo table can be done in parallel with relatively low contention due to there being
+zero write-write conflicts.
diff --git a/optd-persistent/README.md b/optd-mvp/entities.md
similarity index 81%
rename from optd-persistent/README.md
rename to optd-mvp/entities.md
index 4a44127..fc13a39 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/README.md
+++ b/optd-mvp/entities.md
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ This assumes that you already have the `sqlite3` binary installed. First, make s
 $ cargo install sea-orm-cli
 ```
 
-Make sure your working directory is in the crate root:
+Make sure your working directory is in the crate root (not workspace):
 
 ```sh
-$ cd optd-persistent
+$ cd optd-mvp
 ```
 
 If you have not generate the `sqlite.db` file yet, you will need to run this command which will generate the `sqlite.db` file and run all of the migrations:
@@ -22,14 +22,6 @@ $ cargo run --bin migrate
 
 Finally, run this command to generate / overwrite the `entities` module in the `src` directory.
 
-```
-$ sea-orm-cli generate entity -u sqlite:./sqlite.db -o src/entities
-```
-
-# Demo
-
-To run the demo, run the root binary crate:
-
 ```sh
-$ cargo run --bin optd-persistent
+$ sea-orm-cli generate entity -u sqlite:./sqlite.db -o src/entities
 ```
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/bin/migrate.rs b/optd-mvp/src/bin/migrate.rs
similarity index 62%
rename from optd-persistent/src/bin/migrate.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/bin/migrate.rs
index d6a36a6..0634f23 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/bin/migrate.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/bin/migrate.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,7 @@
-use optd_persistent::{migrate, DATABASE_FILENAME, DATABASE_URL};
+//! A simple script that generates the database file needed for `sea-orm-cli` to extract the schemas
+//! from and generate the `entities` module.
+
+use optd_mvp::{migrate, DATABASE_FILENAME, DATABASE_URL};
 use sea_orm::*;
 use sea_orm_migration::prelude::*;
 
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/logical_property.rs b/optd-mvp/src/entities/fingerprint.rs
similarity index 53%
rename from optd-persistent/src/entities/logical_property.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/entities/fingerprint.rs
index 755575c..2ab6a7f 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/logical_property.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/entities/fingerprint.rs
@@ -3,30 +3,30 @@
 use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
 
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "logical_property")]
+#[sea_orm(table_name = "fingerprint")]
 pub struct Model {
     #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
     pub id: i32,
-    pub group_id: i32,
-    pub variant_tag: i16,
-    pub data: Json,
+    pub logical_expression_id: i32,
+    pub kind: i16,
+    pub hash: i64,
 }
 
 #[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
 pub enum Relation {
     #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::cascades_group::Entity",
-        from = "Column::GroupId",
-        to = "super::cascades_group::Column::Id",
+        belongs_to = "super::logical_expression::Entity",
+        from = "Column::LogicalExpressionId",
+        to = "super::logical_expression::Column::Id",
         on_update = "Cascade",
         on_delete = "Cascade"
     )]
-    CascadesGroup,
+    LogicalExpression,
 }
 
-impl Related<super::cascades_group::Entity> for Entity {
+impl Related<super::logical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
     fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::CascadesGroup.def()
+        Relation::LogicalExpression.def()
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/cascades_group.rs b/optd-mvp/src/entities/group.rs
similarity index 65%
rename from optd-persistent/src/entities/cascades_group.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/entities/group.rs
index 9ea79d1..333ab05 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/cascades_group.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/entities/group.rs
@@ -3,30 +3,44 @@
 use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
 
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "cascades_group")]
+#[sea_orm(table_name = "group")]
 pub struct Model {
     #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
     pub id: i32,
-    pub latest_winner: Option<i32>,
-    pub in_progress: bool,
-    pub is_optimized: bool,
+    pub status: i8,
+    pub winner: Option<i32>,
+    pub cost: Option<i64>,
+    pub parent_id: Option<i32>,
+    pub next_id: Option<i32>,
 }
 
 #[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
 pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::group_winner::Entity")]
-    GroupWinner,
+    #[sea_orm(
+        belongs_to = "Entity",
+        from = "Column::NextId",
+        to = "Column::Id",
+        on_update = "Cascade",
+        on_delete = "SetNull"
+    )]
+    SelfRef2,
+    #[sea_orm(
+        belongs_to = "Entity",
+        from = "Column::ParentId",
+        to = "Column::Id",
+        on_update = "Cascade",
+        on_delete = "SetNull"
+    )]
+    SelfRef1,
     #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::logical_children::Entity")]
     LogicalChildren,
     #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::logical_expression::Entity")]
     LogicalExpression,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::logical_property::Entity")]
-    LogicalProperty,
     #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::physical_children::Entity")]
     PhysicalChildren,
     #[sea_orm(
         belongs_to = "super::physical_expression::Entity",
-        from = "Column::LatestWinner",
+        from = "Column::Winner",
         to = "super::physical_expression::Column::Id",
         on_update = "Cascade",
         on_delete = "SetNull"
@@ -34,24 +48,12 @@ pub enum Relation {
     PhysicalExpression,
 }
 
-impl Related<super::group_winner::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::GroupWinner.def()
-    }
-}
-
 impl Related<super::logical_children::Entity> for Entity {
     fn to() -> RelationDef {
         Relation::LogicalChildren.def()
     }
 }
 
-impl Related<super::logical_property::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::LogicalProperty.def()
-    }
-}
-
 impl Related<super::physical_children::Entity> for Entity {
     fn to() -> RelationDef {
         Relation::PhysicalChildren.def()
@@ -63,7 +65,7 @@ impl Related<super::logical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
         super::logical_children::Relation::LogicalExpression.def()
     }
     fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
-        Some(super::logical_children::Relation::CascadesGroup.def().rev())
+        Some(super::logical_children::Relation::Group.def().rev())
     }
 }
 
@@ -72,11 +74,7 @@ impl Related<super::physical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
         super::physical_children::Relation::PhysicalExpression.def()
     }
     fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
-        Some(
-            super::physical_children::Relation::CascadesGroup
-                .def()
-                .rev(),
-        )
+        Some(super::physical_children::Relation::Group.def().rev())
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/logical_children.rs b/optd-mvp/src/entities/logical_children.rs
similarity index 80%
rename from optd-persistent/src/entities/logical_children.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/entities/logical_children.rs
index 120641f..a0ac39c 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/logical_children.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/entities/logical_children.rs
@@ -14,16 +14,16 @@ pub struct Model {
 #[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
 pub enum Relation {
     #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::cascades_group::Entity",
+        belongs_to = "super::group::Entity",
         from = "Column::GroupId",
-        to = "super::cascades_group::Column::Id",
+        to = "super::group::Column::Id",
         on_update = "Cascade",
         on_delete = "Cascade"
     )]
-    CascadesGroup,
+    Group,
     #[sea_orm(
         belongs_to = "super::logical_expression::Entity",
-        from = "Column::GroupId",
+        from = "Column::LogicalExpressionId",
         to = "super::logical_expression::Column::Id",
         on_update = "Cascade",
         on_delete = "Cascade"
@@ -31,9 +31,9 @@ pub enum Relation {
     LogicalExpression,
 }
 
-impl Related<super::cascades_group::Entity> for Entity {
+impl Related<super::group::Entity> for Entity {
     fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::CascadesGroup.def()
+        Relation::Group.def()
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/logical_expression.rs b/optd-mvp/src/entities/logical_expression.rs
similarity index 70%
rename from optd-persistent/src/entities/logical_expression.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/entities/logical_expression.rs
index 6beff04..82d938f 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/logical_expression.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/entities/logical_expression.rs
@@ -8,34 +8,41 @@ pub struct Model {
     #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
     pub id: i32,
     pub group_id: i32,
-    pub fingerprint: i64,
-    pub variant_tag: i16,
+    pub kind: i16,
     pub data: Json,
 }
 
 #[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
 pub enum Relation {
+    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::fingerprint::Entity")]
+    Fingerprint,
     #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::cascades_group::Entity",
+        belongs_to = "super::group::Entity",
         from = "Column::GroupId",
-        to = "super::cascades_group::Column::Id",
+        to = "super::group::Column::Id",
         on_update = "Cascade",
         on_delete = "Cascade"
     )]
-    CascadesGroup,
+    Group,
     #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::logical_children::Entity")]
     LogicalChildren,
 }
 
+impl Related<super::fingerprint::Entity> for Entity {
+    fn to() -> RelationDef {
+        Relation::Fingerprint.def()
+    }
+}
+
 impl Related<super::logical_children::Entity> for Entity {
     fn to() -> RelationDef {
         Relation::LogicalChildren.def()
     }
 }
 
-impl Related<super::cascades_group::Entity> for Entity {
+impl Related<super::group::Entity> for Entity {
     fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        super::logical_children::Relation::CascadesGroup.def()
+        super::logical_children::Relation::Group.def()
     }
     fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
         Some(
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/entities/mod.rs b/optd-mvp/src/entities/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3abd379
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/entities/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
+
+pub mod prelude;
+
+pub mod fingerprint;
+pub mod group;
+pub mod logical_children;
+pub mod logical_expression;
+pub mod physical_children;
+pub mod physical_expression;
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_children.rs b/optd-mvp/src/entities/physical_children.rs
similarity index 83%
rename from optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_children.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/entities/physical_children.rs
index d8f9db0..e58e9ca 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_children.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/entities/physical_children.rs
@@ -14,13 +14,13 @@ pub struct Model {
 #[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
 pub enum Relation {
     #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::cascades_group::Entity",
+        belongs_to = "super::group::Entity",
         from = "Column::GroupId",
-        to = "super::cascades_group::Column::Id",
+        to = "super::group::Column::Id",
         on_update = "Cascade",
         on_delete = "Cascade"
     )]
-    CascadesGroup,
+    Group,
     #[sea_orm(
         belongs_to = "super::physical_expression::Entity",
         from = "Column::PhysicalExpressionId",
@@ -31,9 +31,9 @@ pub enum Relation {
     PhysicalExpression,
 }
 
-impl Related<super::cascades_group::Entity> for Entity {
+impl Related<super::group::Entity> for Entity {
     fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::CascadesGroup.def()
+        Relation::Group.def()
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/entities/physical_expression.rs b/optd-mvp/src/entities/physical_expression.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fba71e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/entities/physical_expression.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
+
+use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
+#[sea_orm(table_name = "physical_expression")]
+pub struct Model {
+    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
+    pub id: i32,
+    pub group_id: i32,
+    pub kind: i16,
+    pub data: Json,
+}
+
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
+pub enum Relation {
+    #[sea_orm(
+        belongs_to = "super::group::Entity",
+        from = "Column::GroupId",
+        to = "super::group::Column::Id",
+        on_update = "Cascade",
+        on_delete = "Cascade"
+    )]
+    Group,
+    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::physical_children::Entity")]
+    PhysicalChildren,
+}
+
+impl Related<super::physical_children::Entity> for Entity {
+    fn to() -> RelationDef {
+        Relation::PhysicalChildren.def()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Related<super::group::Entity> for Entity {
+    fn to() -> RelationDef {
+        super::physical_children::Relation::Group.def()
+    }
+    fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
+        Some(
+            super::physical_children::Relation::PhysicalExpression
+                .def()
+                .rev(),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/entities/prelude.rs b/optd-mvp/src/entities/prelude.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e8deaa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/entities/prelude.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
+
+#![allow(unused_imports)]
+
+pub use super::fingerprint::Entity as Fingerprint;
+pub use super::group::Entity as Group;
+pub use super::logical_children::Entity as LogicalChildren;
+pub use super::logical_expression::Entity as LogicalExpression;
+pub use super::physical_children::Entity as PhysicalChildren;
+pub use super::physical_expression::Entity as PhysicalExpression;
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/expression/logical_expression.rs b/optd-mvp/src/expression/logical_expression.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ddf46e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/expression/logical_expression.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
+//! Definition of logical expressions / relations in our query optimization framework.
+//!
+//! FIXME: All fields are placeholders.
+//!
+//! TODO Figure out if each relation should be in a different submodule.
+//! TODO This entire file is a WIP.
+
+use crate::{entities::*, memo::GroupId};
+use fxhash::hash;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub enum LogicalExpression {
+    Scan(Scan),
+    Filter(Filter),
+    Join(Join),
+}
+
+impl LogicalExpression {
+    pub fn kind(&self) -> i16 {
+        match self {
+            LogicalExpression::Scan(_) => 0,
+            LogicalExpression::Filter(_) => 1,
+            LogicalExpression::Join(_) => 2,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Calculates the fingerprint of a given expression, but replaces all of the children group IDs
+    /// with a new group ID if it is listed in the input `rewrites` list.
+    ///
+    /// TODO Allow each expression to implement a trait that does this.
+    pub fn fingerprint_with_rewrite(&self, rewrites: &[(GroupId, GroupId)]) -> i64 {
+        // Closure that rewrites a group ID if needed.
+        let rewrite = |x: GroupId| {
+            if rewrites.is_empty() {
+                return x;
+            }
+
+            if let Some(i) = rewrites.iter().position(|(curr, _new)| &x == curr) {
+                assert_eq!(rewrites[i].0, x);
+                rewrites[i].1
+            } else {
+                x
+            }
+        };
+
+        let kind = self.kind() as u16 as usize;
+        let hash = match self {
+            LogicalExpression::Scan(scan) => hash(scan.table.as_str()),
+            LogicalExpression::Filter(filter) => {
+                hash(&rewrite(filter.child).0) ^ hash(filter.expression.as_str())
+            }
+            LogicalExpression::Join(join) => {
+                // Make sure that there is a difference between `Join(A, B)` and `Join(B, A)`.
+                hash(&(rewrite(join.left).0 + 1))
+                    ^ hash(&(rewrite(join.right).0 + 2))
+                    ^ hash(join.expression.as_str())
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Mask out the bottom 16 bits of `hash` and replace them with `kind`.
+        ((hash & !0xFFFF) | kind) as i64
+    }
+
+    /// Checks equality between two expressions, with both expression rewriting their child group
+    /// IDs according to the input `rewrites` list.
+    pub fn eq_with_rewrite(&self, other: &Self, rewrites: &[(GroupId, GroupId)]) -> bool {
+        // Closure that rewrites a group ID if needed.
+        let rewrite = |x: GroupId| {
+            if rewrites.is_empty() {
+                return x;
+            }
+
+            if let Some(i) = rewrites.iter().position(|(curr, _new)| &x == curr) {
+                assert_eq!(rewrites[i].0, x);
+                rewrites[i].1
+            } else {
+                x
+            }
+        };
+
+        match (self, other) {
+            (LogicalExpression::Scan(scan_left), LogicalExpression::Scan(scan_right)) => {
+                scan_left.table == scan_right.table
+            }
+            (LogicalExpression::Filter(filter_left), LogicalExpression::Filter(filter_right)) => {
+                rewrite(filter_left.child) == rewrite(filter_right.child)
+                    && filter_left.expression == filter_right.expression
+            }
+            (LogicalExpression::Join(join_left), LogicalExpression::Join(join_right)) => {
+                rewrite(join_left.left) == rewrite(join_right.left)
+                    && rewrite(join_left.right) == rewrite(join_right.right)
+                    && join_left.expression == join_right.expression
+            }
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn children(&self) -> Vec<GroupId> {
+        match self {
+            LogicalExpression::Scan(_) => vec![],
+            LogicalExpression::Filter(filter) => vec![filter.child],
+            LogicalExpression::Join(join) => vec![join.left, join.right],
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct Scan {
+    table: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct Filter {
+    child: GroupId,
+    expression: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct Join {
+    left: GroupId,
+    right: GroupId,
+    expression: String,
+}
+
+/// TODO Use a macro.
+impl From<logical_expression::Model> for LogicalExpression {
+    fn from(value: logical_expression::Model) -> Self {
+        match value.kind {
+            0 => Self::Scan(
+                serde_json::from_value(value.data)
+                    .expect("unable to deserialize data into a logical `Scan`"),
+            ),
+            1 => Self::Filter(
+                serde_json::from_value(value.data)
+                    .expect("Unable to deserialize data into a logical `Filter`"),
+            ),
+            2 => Self::Join(
+                serde_json::from_value(value.data)
+                    .expect("Unable to deserialize data into a logical `Join`"),
+            ),
+            _ => panic!(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// TODO Use a macro.
+impl From<LogicalExpression> for logical_expression::Model {
+    fn from(value: LogicalExpression) -> logical_expression::Model {
+        fn create_logical_expression(
+            kind: i16,
+            data: serde_json::Value,
+        ) -> logical_expression::Model {
+            logical_expression::Model {
+                id: -1,
+                group_id: -1,
+                kind,
+                data,
+            }
+        }
+
+        let kind = value.kind();
+        match value {
+            LogicalExpression::Scan(scan) => create_logical_expression(
+                kind,
+                serde_json::to_value(scan).expect("unable to serialize logical `Scan`"),
+            ),
+            LogicalExpression::Filter(filter) => create_logical_expression(
+                kind,
+                serde_json::to_value(filter).expect("unable to serialize logical `Filter`"),
+            ),
+            LogicalExpression::Join(join) => create_logical_expression(
+                kind,
+                serde_json::to_value(join).expect("unable to serialize logical `Join`"),
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub use build::*;
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod build {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::expression::LogicalExpression;
+
+    pub fn scan(table_schema: String) -> LogicalExpression {
+        LogicalExpression::Scan(Scan {
+            table: table_schema,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn filter(child_group: GroupId, expression: String) -> LogicalExpression {
+        LogicalExpression::Filter(Filter {
+            child: child_group,
+            expression,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn join(
+        left_group: GroupId,
+        right_group: GroupId,
+        expression: String,
+    ) -> LogicalExpression {
+        LogicalExpression::Join(Join {
+            left: left_group,
+            right: right_group,
+            expression,
+        })
+    }
+}
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/expression/mod.rs b/optd-mvp/src/expression/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b6d7cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/expression/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+//! In-memory representation of logical and physical expression / operators / relations.
+//!
+//! TODO more docs.
+
+mod logical_expression;
+pub use logical_expression::*;
+
+mod physical_expression;
+pub use physical_expression::*;
+
+/// The representation of an expression.
+///
+/// TODO more docs.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub enum Expression {
+    Logical(LogicalExpression),
+    Physical(PhysicalExpression),
+}
+
+/// Converts the database / JSON representation of a logical expression into an in-memory one.
+impl From<crate::entities::logical_expression::Model> for Expression {
+    fn from(value: crate::entities::logical_expression::Model) -> Self {
+        Self::Logical(value.into())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Converts the in-memory representation of a logical expression into the database / JSON version.
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// This will panic if the [`Expression`] is [`Expression::Physical`].
+impl From<Expression> for crate::entities::logical_expression::Model {
+    fn from(value: Expression) -> Self {
+        let Expression::Logical(expr) = value else {
+            panic!("Attempted to convert an in-memory physical expression into a logical database / JSON expression");
+        };
+
+        expr.into()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Converts the database / JSON representation of a physical expression into an in-memory one.
+impl From<crate::entities::physical_expression::Model> for Expression {
+    fn from(value: crate::entities::physical_expression::Model) -> Self {
+        Self::Physical(value.into())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Converts the in-memory representation of a physical expression into the database / JSON version.
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// This will panic if the [`Expression`] is [`Expression::Physical`].
+impl From<Expression> for crate::entities::physical_expression::Model {
+    fn from(value: Expression) -> Self {
+        let Expression::Physical(expr) = value else {
+            panic!("Attempted to convert an in-memory logical expression into a physical database / JSON expression");
+        };
+
+        expr.into()
+    }
+}
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/expression/physical_expression.rs b/optd-mvp/src/expression/physical_expression.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c451b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/expression/physical_expression.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+//! Definition of physical expressions / operators in our query optimization framework.
+//!
+//! FIXME: All fields are placeholders.
+//!
+//! TODO Figure out if each operator should be in a different submodule.
+//! TODO This entire file is a WIP.
+
+use crate::{entities::*, memo::GroupId};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum PhysicalExpression {
+    TableScan(TableScan),
+    Filter(PhysicalFilter),
+    HashJoin(HashJoin),
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct TableScan {
+    table_schema: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct PhysicalFilter {
+    child: GroupId,
+    expression: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct HashJoin {
+    left: GroupId,
+    right: GroupId,
+    expression: String,
+}
+
+/// TODO Use a macro.
+impl From<physical_expression::Model> for PhysicalExpression {
+    fn from(value: physical_expression::Model) -> Self {
+        match value.kind {
+            0 => Self::TableScan(
+                serde_json::from_value(value.data)
+                    .expect("unable to deserialize data into a physical `TableScan`"),
+            ),
+            1 => Self::Filter(
+                serde_json::from_value(value.data)
+                    .expect("Unable to deserialize data into a physical `Filter`"),
+            ),
+            2 => Self::HashJoin(
+                serde_json::from_value(value.data)
+                    .expect("Unable to deserialize data into a physical `HashJoin`"),
+            ),
+            _ => panic!(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// TODO Use a macro.
+impl From<PhysicalExpression> for physical_expression::Model {
+    fn from(value: PhysicalExpression) -> physical_expression::Model {
+        fn create_physical_expression(
+            kind: i16,
+            data: serde_json::Value,
+        ) -> physical_expression::Model {
+            physical_expression::Model {
+                id: -1,
+                group_id: -1,
+                kind,
+                data,
+            }
+        }
+
+        match value {
+            PhysicalExpression::TableScan(scan) => create_physical_expression(
+                0,
+                serde_json::to_value(scan).expect("unable to serialize physical `TableScan`"),
+            ),
+            PhysicalExpression::Filter(filter) => create_physical_expression(
+                1,
+                serde_json::to_value(filter).expect("unable to serialize physical `Filter`"),
+            ),
+            PhysicalExpression::HashJoin(join) => create_physical_expression(
+                2,
+                serde_json::to_value(join).expect("unable to serialize physical `HashJoin`"),
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub use build::*;
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod build {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::expression::PhysicalExpression;
+
+    pub fn table_scan(table_schema: String) -> PhysicalExpression {
+        PhysicalExpression::TableScan(TableScan { table_schema })
+    }
+}
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/lib.rs b/optd-mvp/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..48a4c78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+use sea_orm::*;
+use sea_orm_migration::prelude::*;
+use thiserror::Error;
+
+mod migrator;
+use migrator::Migrator;
+
+mod entities;
+
+mod memo;
+use memo::MemoError;
+
+mod expression;
+
+/// The filename of the SQLite database for migration.
+pub const DATABASE_FILENAME: &str = "sqlite.db";
+/// The URL of the SQLite database for migration.
+pub const DATABASE_URL: &str = "sqlite:./sqlite.db?mode=rwc";
+
+/// An error type wrapping all the different kinds of error the optimizer might raise.
+#[derive(Error, Debug)]
+pub enum OptimizerError {
+    #[error("SeaORM error")]
+    Database(#[from] sea_orm::error::DbErr),
+    #[error("Memo table logical error")]
+    Memo(#[from] MemoError),
+    #[error("unknown error")]
+    Unknown,
+}
+
+/// Shorthand for a [`Result`] with an error type [`OptimizerError`].
+pub type OptimizerResult<T> = Result<T, OptimizerError>;
+
+/// Applies all migrations.
+pub async fn migrate(db: &DatabaseConnection) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
+    Migrator::refresh(db).await
+}
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/main.rs b/optd-mvp/src/main.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e7a11a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/main.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+fn main() {
+    println!("Hello, world!");
+}
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/memo/mod.rs b/optd-mvp/src/memo/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5147fe1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/memo/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+//! This module contains items related to the memo table.
+//!
+//! TODO more docs.
+
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use thiserror::Error;
+
+/// A new type of an integer identifying a unique group.
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[serde(transparent)]
+pub struct GroupId(pub(crate) i32);
+
+/// A new type of an integer identifying a root group / canonical group ID of a group set.
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[serde(transparent)]
+pub struct RootGroupId(pub(crate) i32);
+
+/// A [`RootGroupId`] is always [`GroupId`], but not vice versa.
+impl From<RootGroupId> for GroupId {
+    fn from(value: RootGroupId) -> Self {
+        Self(value.0)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A new type of an integer identifying a unique logical expression.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct LogicalExpressionId(i32);
+
+/// A new type of an integer identifying a unique physical expression.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct PhysicalExpressionId(i32);
+
+/// A status enum representing the different states a group can be during query optimization.
+#[repr(u8)]
+pub enum GroupStatus {
+    InProgress = 0,
+    Explored = 1,
+    Optimized = 2,
+}
+
+/// The different kinds of errors that might occur while running operations on a memo table.
+#[derive(Error, Debug)]
+pub enum MemoError {
+    #[error("unknown group ID {0:?}")]
+    UnknownGroup(GroupId),
+    #[error("unknown logical expression ID {0:?}")]
+    UnknownLogicalExpression(LogicalExpressionId),
+    #[error("unknown physical expression ID {0:?}")]
+    UnknownPhysicalExpression(PhysicalExpressionId),
+    #[error("invalid expression encountered")]
+    InvalidExpression,
+}
+
+mod persistent;
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/memo/persistent/implementation.rs b/optd-mvp/src/memo/persistent/implementation.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..293bd50
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/memo/persistent/implementation.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,636 @@
+//! This module contains the implementation of [`PersistentMemo`].
+//!
+//! TODO For parallelism, almost all of these methods need to be under transactions.
+//! TODO Write more docs.
+//! TODO Remove dead code.
+
+#![allow(dead_code)]
+
+use super::PersistentMemo;
+use crate::{
+    entities::*,
+    expression::{LogicalExpression, PhysicalExpression},
+    memo::{
+        GroupId, GroupStatus, LogicalExpressionId, MemoError, PhysicalExpressionId, RootGroupId,
+    },
+    OptimizerResult, DATABASE_URL,
+};
+use sea_orm::{
+    entity::prelude::*,
+    entity::{IntoActiveModel, NotSet, Set},
+    Database,
+};
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+impl PersistentMemo {
+    /// Creates a new `PersistentMemo` struct by connecting to a database defined at
+    /// [`DATABASE_URL`].
+    pub async fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            db: Database::connect(DATABASE_URL).await.unwrap(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Deletes all objects in the backing database.
+    ///
+    /// Since there is no asynchronous drop yet in Rust, in order to drop all objects in the
+    /// database, the user must call this manually.
+    pub async fn cleanup(&self) {
+        macro_rules! delete_all {
+            ($($module: ident),+ $(,)?) => {
+                $(
+                    $module::Entity::delete_many()
+                        .exec(&self.db)
+                        .await
+                        .unwrap();
+                )+
+            };
+        }
+
+        delete_all! {
+            group,
+            fingerprint,
+            logical_expression,
+            logical_children,
+            physical_expression,
+            physical_children
+        };
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves a [`group::Model`] given its ID.
+    ///
+    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
+    ///
+    /// FIXME: use an in-memory representation of a group instead.
+    pub async fn get_group(&self, group_id: GroupId) -> OptimizerResult<group::Model> {
+        Ok(group::Entity::find_by_id(group_id.0)
+            .one(&self.db)
+            .await?
+            .ok_or(MemoError::UnknownGroup(group_id))?)
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves the root / canonical group ID of the given group ID.
+    ///
+    /// The groups form a union find / disjoint set parent pointer forest, where group merging
+    /// causes two trees to merge.
+    ///
+    /// This function uses the path compression optimization, which amortizes the cost to a single
+    /// lookup (theoretically in constant time, but we must be wary of the I/O roundtrip).
+    pub async fn get_root_group(&self, group_id: GroupId) -> OptimizerResult<RootGroupId> {
+        let curr_group = self.get_group(group_id).await?;
+
+        // If we have no parent, then we are at the root.
+        let Some(parent_id) = curr_group.parent_id else {
+            return Ok(RootGroupId(curr_group.id));
+        };
+
+        // Recursively find the root group ID.
+        let root_id = Box::pin(self.get_root_group(GroupId(parent_id))).await?;
+
+        // Path Compression Optimization:
+        // For every group along the path that we walked, set their parent id pointer to the root.
+        // This allows for an amortized O(1) cost for `get_root_group`.
+        let mut active_group = curr_group.into_active_model();
+
+        // Update the group to point to the new parent.
+        active_group.parent_id = Set(Some(root_id.0));
+        active_group.update(&self.db).await?;
+
+        Ok(RootGroupId(root_id.0))
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves every group ID of groups that share the same root group with the input group.
+    ///
+    /// If a group does not exist in the cycle, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
+    ///
+    /// The group records form a union-find data structure that also maintains a circular linked
+    /// list in every set that allows us to iterate over all elements in a set in linear time.
+    pub async fn get_group_set(&self, group_id: GroupId) -> OptimizerResult<Vec<GroupId>> {
+        // Iterate over the circular linked list until we reach ourselves again.
+        let base_group = self.get_group(group_id).await?;
+
+        // The only case when `next_id` is set to `None` is if the current group is a root, which
+        // means that this group is the only group in the set.
+        if base_group.next_id.is_none() {
+            assert!(base_group.parent_id.is_none());
+            return Ok(vec![group_id]);
+        }
+
+        // Iterate over the circular linked list until we see ourselves again, collecting nodes
+        // along the way.
+        let mut set = vec![group_id];
+        let mut next_id = base_group
+            .next_id
+            .expect("next pointer cannot be null if it is in a cycle");
+        loop {
+            let curr_group = self.get_group(GroupId(next_id)).await?;
+
+            if curr_group.id == group_id.0 {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            set.push(GroupId(curr_group.id));
+            next_id = curr_group
+                .next_id
+                .expect("next pointer cannot be null if it is in a cycle");
+        }
+
+        Ok(set)
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves a [`physical_expression::Model`] given a [`PhysicalExpressionId`].
+    ///
+    /// If the physical expression does not exist, returns a
+    /// [`MemoError::UnknownPhysicalExpression`] error.
+    pub async fn get_physical_expression(
+        &self,
+        physical_expression_id: PhysicalExpressionId,
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<(GroupId, PhysicalExpression)> {
+        // Lookup the entity in the database via the unique expression ID.
+        let model = physical_expression::Entity::find_by_id(physical_expression_id.0)
+            .one(&self.db)
+            .await?
+            .ok_or(MemoError::UnknownPhysicalExpression(physical_expression_id))?;
+
+        let group_id = GroupId(model.group_id);
+        let expr = model.into();
+
+        Ok((group_id, expr))
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves a [`logical_expression::Model`] given its [`LogicalExpressionId`].
+    ///
+    /// If the logical expression does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownLogicalExpression`]
+    /// error.
+    pub async fn get_logical_expression(
+        &self,
+        logical_expression_id: LogicalExpressionId,
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<(GroupId, LogicalExpression)> {
+        // Lookup the entity in the database via the unique expression ID.
+        let model = logical_expression::Entity::find_by_id(logical_expression_id.0)
+            .one(&self.db)
+            .await?
+            .ok_or(MemoError::UnknownLogicalExpression(logical_expression_id))?;
+
+        let group_id = GroupId(model.group_id);
+        let expr = model.into();
+
+        Ok((group_id, expr))
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves all of the logical expression "children" IDs of a group.
+    ///
+    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
+    ///
+    /// FIXME: `find_related` does not work for some reason, have to use manual `filter`.
+    pub async fn get_logical_children(
+        &self,
+        group_id: GroupId,
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<Vec<LogicalExpressionId>> {
+        // Search for expressions that have the given parent group ID.
+        let children = logical_expression::Entity::find()
+            .filter(logical_expression::Column::GroupId.eq(group_id.0))
+            .all(&self.db)
+            .await?
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|m| LogicalExpressionId(m.id))
+            .collect();
+
+        Ok(children)
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieves all of the physical expression "children" IDs of a group.
+    ///
+    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
+    pub async fn get_physical_children(
+        &self,
+        group_id: GroupId,
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<Vec<PhysicalExpressionId>> {
+        // Search for expressions that have the given parent group ID.
+        let children = physical_expression::Entity::find()
+            .filter(physical_expression::Column::GroupId.eq(group_id.0))
+            .all(&self.db)
+            .await?
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|m| PhysicalExpressionId(m.id))
+            .collect();
+
+        Ok(children)
+    }
+
+    /// Updates / replaces a group's status. Returns the previous group status.
+    ///
+    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
+    pub async fn update_group_status(
+        &self,
+        group_id: GroupId,
+        status: GroupStatus,
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<GroupStatus> {
+        // First retrieve the group record.
+        let mut group = self.get_group(group_id).await?.into_active_model();
+
+        // Update the group's status.
+        let old_status = group.status;
+        group.status = Set(status as u8 as i8);
+        group.update(&self.db).await?;
+
+        let old_status = match old_status.unwrap() {
+            0 => GroupStatus::InProgress,
+            1 => GroupStatus::Explored,
+            2 => GroupStatus::Optimized,
+            _ => panic!("encountered an invalid group status"),
+        };
+
+        Ok(old_status)
+    }
+
+    /// Updates / replaces a group set's best physical plan (winner). Optionally returns the
+    /// previous winner's physical expression ID.
+    ///
+    /// Note that we want to update the root group and not a child group that has been merged into
+    /// a different group.
+    ///
+    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
+    ///
+    /// FIXME: In the future, this should first check that we aren't overwriting a winner that was
+    /// updated from another thread by comparing against the cost of the plan.
+    pub async fn update_group_winner(
+        &self,
+        root_group_id: RootGroupId,
+        physical_expression_id: PhysicalExpressionId,
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<Option<PhysicalExpressionId>> {
+        // First retrieve the group record.
+        let mut group = self.get_group(root_group_id.into()).await?.into_active_model();
+
+        // Update the group to point to the new winner.
+        let old_id = group.winner;
+        group.winner = Set(Some(physical_expression_id.0));
+        group.update(&self.db).await?;
+
+        // Note that the `unwrap` here is unwrapping the `ActiveValue`, not the `Option`.
+        let old_id = old_id.unwrap().map(PhysicalExpressionId);
+        Ok(old_id)
+    }
+
+    /// Adds a logical expression to an existing group via its ID.
+    ///
+    /// The caller is required to pass in a slice of [`GroupId`] that represent the child groups of
+    /// the input expression.
+    ///
+    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
+    ///
+    /// If the memo table detects that the input logical expression is a duplicate expression, this
+    /// function will **not** insert the expression into the memo table. Instead, it will return an
+    /// `Ok(Err(expression_id))`, which is a unique identifier of the expression that the input is a
+    /// duplicate of. The caller can use this ID to retrieve the group the original belongs to.
+    ///
+    /// If the memo table detects that the input is unique, it will insert the expression into the
+    /// input group and return an `Ok(Ok(expression_id))`.
+    pub async fn add_logical_expression_to_group(
+        &self,
+        group_id: GroupId,
+        logical_expression: LogicalExpression,
+        children: &[GroupId],
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<Result<LogicalExpressionId, (GroupId, LogicalExpressionId)>> {
+        // Check if the expression already exists anywhere in the memo table.
+        if let Some(existing_id) = self
+            .is_duplicate_logical_expression(&logical_expression, children)
+            .await?
+        {
+            return Ok(Err(existing_id));
+        }
+
+        // Check if the group actually exists.
+        let _ = self.get_group(group_id).await?;
+
+        // Insert the expression.
+        let model: logical_expression::Model = logical_expression.into();
+        let mut active_model = model.into_active_model();
+        active_model.group_id = Set(group_id.0);
+        active_model.id = NotSet;
+        let new_model = active_model.insert(&self.db).await?;
+
+        let expr_id = new_model.id;
+
+        // Insert the child groups of the expression into the junction / children table.
+        logical_children::Entity::insert_many(children.iter().copied().map(|child_id| {
+            logical_children::ActiveModel {
+                logical_expression_id: Set(expr_id),
+                group_id: Set(child_id.0),
+            }
+        }))
+        .on_empty_do_nothing()
+        .exec(&self.db)
+        .await?;
+
+        // Finally, insert the fingerprint of the logical expression as well.
+        let new_expr: LogicalExpression = new_model.into();
+        let kind = new_expr.kind();
+
+        // In order to calculate a correct fingerprint, we will want to use the IDs of the root
+        // groups of the children instead of the child ID themselves.
+        let mut rewrites = vec![];
+        for &child_id in children {
+            let root_id = self.get_root_group(child_id).await?;
+            rewrites.push((child_id, root_id.into()));
+        }
+        let hash = new_expr.fingerprint_with_rewrite(&rewrites);
+
+        let fingerprint = fingerprint::ActiveModel {
+            id: NotSet,
+            logical_expression_id: Set(expr_id),
+            kind: Set(kind),
+            hash: Set(hash),
+        };
+        fingerprint::Entity::insert(fingerprint)
+            .exec(&self.db)
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(Ok(LogicalExpressionId(expr_id)))
+    }
+
+    /// Adds a physical expression to an existing group via its ID.
+    ///
+    /// The caller is required to pass in a slice of [`GroupId`] that represent the child groups of
+    /// the input expression.
+    ///
+    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
+    ///
+    /// On successful insertion, returns the ID of the physical expression.
+    pub async fn add_physical_expression_to_group(
+        &self,
+        group_id: GroupId,
+        physical_expression: PhysicalExpression,
+        children: &[GroupId],
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<PhysicalExpressionId> {
+        // Check if the group actually exists.
+        let _ = self.get_group(group_id).await?;
+
+        // Insert the expression.
+        let model: physical_expression::Model = physical_expression.into();
+        let mut active_model = model.into_active_model();
+        active_model.group_id = Set(group_id.0);
+        active_model.id = NotSet;
+        let new_model = active_model.insert(&self.db).await?;
+
+        // Insert the child groups of the expression into the junction / children table.
+        physical_children::Entity::insert_many(children.iter().copied().map(|child_id| {
+            physical_children::ActiveModel {
+                physical_expression_id: Set(new_model.id),
+                group_id: Set(child_id.0),
+            }
+        }))
+        .on_empty_do_nothing()
+        .exec(&self.db)
+        .await?;
+
+        Ok(PhysicalExpressionId(new_model.id))
+    }
+
+    /// Checks if the given logical expression is a duplicate / already exists in the memo table.
+    ///
+    /// In order to prevent a large amount of duplicate work, the memo table must support duplicate
+    /// expression detection.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `Some((group_id, expression_id))` if the memo table detects that the expression
+    /// already exists, and `None` otherwise.
+    ///
+    /// This function assumes that the child groups of the expression are currently roots of their
+    /// group sets. For example, if G1 and G2 should be merged, and G1 is the root, then the input
+    /// expression should _not_ have G2 as a child, and should be replaced with G1.
+    pub async fn is_duplicate_logical_expression(
+        &self,
+        logical_expression: &LogicalExpression,
+        children: &[GroupId],
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<Option<(GroupId, LogicalExpressionId)>> {
+        let model: logical_expression::Model = logical_expression.clone().into();
+
+        // Lookup all expressions that have the same fingerprint and kind. There may be false
+        // positives, but we will check for those next.
+        let kind = model.kind;
+
+        // In order to calculate a correct fingerprint, we will want to use the IDs of the root
+        // groups of the children instead of the child ID themselves.
+        let mut rewrites = vec![];
+        for &child_id in children {
+            let root_id = self.get_root_group(child_id).await?;
+            rewrites.push((child_id, root_id.into()));
+        }
+        let fingerprint = logical_expression.fingerprint_with_rewrite(&rewrites);
+
+        // Filter first by the fingerprint, and then the kind.
+        // FIXME: The kind is already embedded into the fingerprint, so we may not actually need the
+        // second filter?
+        let potential_matches = fingerprint::Entity::find()
+            .filter(fingerprint::Column::Hash.eq(fingerprint))
+            .filter(fingerprint::Column::Kind.eq(kind))
+            .all(&self.db)
+            .await?;
+
+        if potential_matches.is_empty() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+
+        // Now that we have all of the expressions that match the given fingerprint, we need to
+        // filter out all of the expressions that might have had the same fingerprint but are not
+        // actually equivalent (hash collisions).
+        let mut match_id = None;
+        for potential_match in potential_matches {
+            let expr_id = LogicalExpressionId(potential_match.logical_expression_id);
+            let (group_id, expr) = self.get_logical_expression(expr_id).await?;
+
+            // We need to add the root groups of the new expression to the rewrites vector.
+            // TODO make this much more efficient by making rewrites a hash map, potentially im::HashMap.
+            let mut rewrites = rewrites.clone();
+            for child_id in expr.children() {
+                let root_id = self.get_root_group(child_id).await?;
+                rewrites.push((child_id, root_id.into()));
+            }
+
+            // Check for an exact match after rewrites.
+            if logical_expression.eq_with_rewrite(&expr, &rewrites) {
+                match_id = Some((group_id, expr_id));
+
+                // There should be at most one duplicate expression, so we can break here.
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(match_id)
+    }
+
+    /// Adds a new group into the memo table via a logical expression, creating a new group if the
+    /// logical expression does not already exist.
+    ///
+    /// The caller is required to pass in a slice of [`GroupId`] that represent the child groups of
+    /// the input expression.
+    ///
+    /// If the expression already exists, then this function will return the [`GroupId`] of the
+    /// parent group and the corresponding (already existing) [`LogicalExpressionId`]. It will also
+    /// completely ignore the group ID field of the input expression as well as ignore the input
+    /// slice of child groups.
+    ///
+    /// If the expression does not exist, this function will create a new group and a new
+    /// expression, returning brand new IDs for both.
+    pub async fn add_group(
+        &self,
+        logical_expression: LogicalExpression,
+        children: &[GroupId],
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<Result<(GroupId, LogicalExpressionId), (GroupId, LogicalExpressionId)>>
+    {
+        // Check if the expression already exists in the memo table.
+        if let Some((group_id, existing_id)) = self
+            .is_duplicate_logical_expression(&logical_expression, children)
+            .await?
+        {
+            return Ok(Err((group_id, existing_id)));
+        }
+
+        // The expression does not exist yet, so we need to create a new group and new expression.
+        let group = group::ActiveModel {
+            status: Set(0), // `GroupStatus::InProgress` status.
+            ..Default::default()
+        };
+
+        // Create the new group.
+        let group_res = group::Entity::insert(group).exec(&self.db).await?;
+        let group_id = group_res.last_insert_id;
+
+        // Insert the input expression into the newly created group.
+        let expression: logical_expression::Model = logical_expression.clone().into();
+        let mut active_expression = expression.into_active_model();
+        active_expression.group_id = Set(group_id);
+        active_expression.id = NotSet;
+        let new_expression = active_expression.insert(&self.db).await?;
+
+        let group_id = new_expression.group_id;
+        let expr_id = new_expression.id;
+
+        // Insert the child groups of the expression into the junction / children table.
+        logical_children::Entity::insert_many(children.iter().copied().map(|child_id| {
+            logical_children::ActiveModel {
+                logical_expression_id: Set(new_expression.id),
+                group_id: Set(child_id.0),
+            }
+        }))
+        .on_empty_do_nothing()
+        .exec(&self.db)
+        .await?;
+
+        // Finally, insert the fingerprint of the logical expression as well.
+        let new_logical_expression: LogicalExpression = new_expression.into();
+        let kind = new_logical_expression.kind();
+
+        // In order to calculate a correct fingerprint, we will want to use the IDs of the root
+        // groups of the children instead of the child ID themselves.
+        let mut rewrites = vec![];
+        for &child_id in children {
+            let root_id = self.get_root_group(child_id).await?;
+            rewrites.push((child_id, root_id.into()));
+        }
+        let hash = new_logical_expression.fingerprint_with_rewrite(&rewrites);
+
+        let fingerprint = fingerprint::ActiveModel {
+            id: NotSet,
+            logical_expression_id: Set(expr_id),
+            kind: Set(kind),
+            hash: Set(hash),
+        };
+        fingerprint::Entity::insert(fingerprint)
+            .exec(&self.db)
+            .await?;
+
+        Ok(Ok((GroupId(group_id), LogicalExpressionId(expr_id))))
+    }
+
+    /// Merges two groups sets together.
+    ///
+    /// If either of the input groups do not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
+    ///
+    /// TODO write docs.
+    /// TODO highly inefficient, need to understand metrics and performance testing.
+    /// TODO Optimization: add rank / size into data structure
+    pub async fn merge_groups(
+        &self,
+        left_group_id: GroupId,
+        right_group_id: GroupId,
+    ) -> OptimizerResult<RootGroupId> {
+        // Without a rank / size field, we have no way of determining which set is better to merge
+        // into the other. So we will arbitrarily choose to merge the left group into the right
+        // group here. If rank is added in the future, then merge the smaller set into the larger.
+
+        let left_root_id = self.get_root_group(left_group_id).await?;
+        let left_root = self.get_group(left_root_id.into()).await?;
+        // A `None` next pointer means it should technically be pointing to itself.
+        let left_next = left_root.next_id.unwrap_or(left_root_id.0);
+        let mut active_left_root = left_root.into_active_model();
+
+        let right_root_id = self.get_root_group(right_group_id).await?;
+        let right_root = self.get_group(right_root_id.into()).await?;
+        // A `None` next pointer means it should technically be pointing to itself.
+        let right_next = right_root.next_id.unwrap_or(right_root_id.0);
+        let mut active_right_root = right_root.into_active_model();
+
+        // Before we actually update the group records, We first need to generate new fingerprints
+        // for every single expression that has a child group in the left set.
+        // TODO make this more efficient, this code is doing double work from `get_group_set`.
+        let group_set_ids = self.get_group_set(left_group_id).await?;
+        let mut left_group_models = Vec::with_capacity(group_set_ids.len());
+        for &group_id in &group_set_ids {
+            left_group_models.push(self.get_group(group_id).await?);
+        }
+
+        // Retrieve every single expression that has a child group in the left set.
+        let left_group_expressions: Vec<Vec<logical_expression::Model>> = left_group_models
+            .load_many_to_many(
+                logical_expression::Entity,
+                logical_children::Entity,
+                &self.db,
+            )
+            .await?;
+
+        // Need to replace every single occurrence of groups in the set with the new root.
+        let rewrites: Vec<(GroupId, GroupId)> = group_set_ids
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&group_id| (group_id, right_root_id.into()))
+            .collect();
+
+        // For each expression, generate a new fingerprint.
+        let mut seen = HashSet::new();
+        for model in left_group_expressions.into_iter().flatten() {
+            let expr_id = model.id;
+
+            // There may be duplicates in the expressions list.
+            if seen.contains(&expr_id) {
+                continue;
+            } else {
+                seen.insert(expr_id);
+            }
+
+            let logical_expression: LogicalExpression = model.into();
+            let hash = logical_expression.fingerprint_with_rewrite(&rewrites);
+
+            let fingerprint = fingerprint::ActiveModel {
+                id: NotSet,
+                logical_expression_id: Set(expr_id),
+                kind: Set(logical_expression.kind()),
+                hash: Set(hash),
+            };
+            fingerprint::Entity::insert(fingerprint)
+                .exec(&self.db)
+                .await?;
+        }
+
+        // Update the left group root to point to the right group root.
+        active_left_root.parent_id = Set(Some(right_root_id.0));
+
+        // Swap the next pointers of each root to maintain the circular linked list.
+        active_left_root.next_id = Set(Some(right_next));
+        active_right_root.next_id = Set(Some(left_next));
+
+        active_left_root.update(&self.db).await?;
+        active_right_root.update(&self.db).await?;
+
+        Ok(right_root_id)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/memo/persistent/mod.rs b/optd-mvp/src/memo/persistent/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed64fc5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/memo/persistent/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+//! This module contains the definition and implementation of the [`PersistentMemo`] type, which
+//! implements the `Memo` trait and supports memo table operations necessary for query optimization.
+
+use sea_orm::DatabaseConnection;
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests;
+
+/// A persistent memo table, backed by a database on disk.
+///
+/// TODO more docs.
+pub struct PersistentMemo {
+    /// This `PersistentMemo` is reliant on the SeaORM [`DatabaseConnection`] that stores all of the
+    /// objects needed for query optimization.
+    db: DatabaseConnection,
+}
+
+mod implementation;
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/memo/persistent/tests.rs b/optd-mvp/src/memo/persistent/tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..be3115c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/memo/persistent/tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,471 @@
+use crate::{expression::*, memo::persistent::PersistentMemo};
+
+/// Tests that exact expression matches are detected and handled by the memo table.
+#[ignore]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_simple_logical_duplicates() {
+    let memo = PersistentMemo::new().await;
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+
+    let scan = scan("t1".to_string());
+    let scan1a = scan.clone();
+    let scan1b = scan.clone();
+    let scan2a = scan.clone();
+    let scan2b = scan.clone();
+
+    // Insert a new group and its corresponding expression.
+    let (group_id, logical_expression_id) = memo.add_group(scan, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    // Test `add_logical_expression`.
+    {
+        // Attempting to create a new group with a duplicate expression should fail every time.
+        let (group_id_1a, logical_expression_id_1a) =
+            memo.add_group(scan1a, &[]).await.unwrap().err().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(group_id, group_id_1a);
+        assert_eq!(logical_expression_id, logical_expression_id_1a);
+
+        // Try again just in case...
+        let (group_id_1b, logical_expression_id_1b) =
+            memo.add_group(scan1b, &[]).await.unwrap().err().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(group_id, group_id_1b);
+        assert_eq!(logical_expression_id, logical_expression_id_1b);
+    }
+
+    // Test `add_logical_expression_to_group`.
+    {
+        // Attempting to add a duplicate expression into the same group should also fail every time.
+        let (group_id_2a, logical_expression_id_2a) = memo
+            .add_logical_expression_to_group(group_id, scan2a, &[])
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(group_id, group_id_2a);
+        assert_eq!(logical_expression_id, logical_expression_id_2a);
+
+        let (group_id_2b, logical_expression_id_2b) = memo
+            .add_logical_expression_to_group(group_id, scan2b, &[])
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(group_id, group_id_2b);
+        assert_eq!(logical_expression_id, logical_expression_id_2b);
+    }
+
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+}
+
+/// Tests that physical expression are _not_ subject to duplicate detection and elimination.
+///
+/// !!! Important !!! Note that this behavior should not actually be seen during query optimization,
+/// since if logical expression have been deduplicated, there should not be any duplicate physical
+/// expressions as they are derivative of the deduplicated logical expressions.
+#[ignore]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_simple_add_physical_expression() {
+    let memo = PersistentMemo::new().await;
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+
+    // Insert a new group and its corresponding expression.
+    let scan = scan("t1".to_string());
+    let (group_id, _) = memo.add_group(scan, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    // Insert two identical physical expressions into the _same_ group.
+    let table_scan_1 = table_scan("t1".to_string());
+    let table_scan_2 = table_scan_1.clone();
+
+    let physical_expression_id_1 = memo
+        .add_physical_expression_to_group(group_id, table_scan_1, &[])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let physical_expression_id_2 = memo
+        .add_physical_expression_to_group(group_id, table_scan_2, &[])
+        .await
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Since physical expressions do not need duplicate detection,
+    assert_ne!(physical_expression_id_1, physical_expression_id_2);
+
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+}
+
+/// Tests if the memo tables able to correctly retrieve a group's expressions.
+#[ignore]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_simple_tree() {
+    let memo = PersistentMemo::new().await;
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+
+    // Create two scan groups.
+    let scan1: LogicalExpression = scan("t1".to_string());
+    let scan2 = scan("t2".to_string());
+    let (scan_id_1, scan_expr_id_1) = memo.add_group(scan1, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+    let (scan_id_2, scan_expr_id_2) = memo.add_group(scan2, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        memo.get_logical_children(scan_id_1).await.unwrap(),
+        &[scan_expr_id_1]
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        memo.get_logical_children(scan_id_2).await.unwrap(),
+        &[scan_expr_id_2]
+    );
+
+    // Create two join expression that should be in the same group.
+    let join1 = join(scan_id_1, scan_id_2, "t1.a = t2.b".to_string());
+    let join2 = join(scan_id_2, scan_id_1, "t1.a = t2.b".to_string());
+
+    // Create the group, adding the first expression.
+    let (join_id, join_expr_id_1) = memo
+        .add_group(join1, &[scan_id_1, scan_id_2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    // Add the second expression.
+    let join_expr_id_2 = memo
+        .add_logical_expression_to_group(join_id, join2, &[scan_id_2, scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_ne!(join_expr_id_1, join_expr_id_2);
+    assert_eq!(
+        memo.get_logical_children(join_id).await.unwrap(),
+        &[join_expr_id_1, join_expr_id_2]
+    );
+
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+}
+
+/// Tests a single group merge. See comments in the test itself for more information.
+#[ignore]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_simple_group_link() {
+    let memo = PersistentMemo::new().await;
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+
+    // Create two scan groups.
+    let scan1 = scan("t1".to_string());
+    let scan2 = scan("t2".to_string());
+    let (scan_id_1, _) = memo.add_group(scan1, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+    let (scan_id_2, _) = memo.add_group(scan2, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    // Create two join expression that should be in the same group.
+    // Even though these are obviously the same expression (to humans), the fingerprints will be
+    // different, and so they will be put into different groups.
+    let join1 = join(scan_id_1, scan_id_2, "t1.a = t2.b".to_string());
+    let join2 = join(scan_id_2, scan_id_1, "t2.b = t1.a".to_string());
+    let join_unknown = join2.clone();
+
+    let (join_group_1, _) = memo
+        .add_group(join1, &[scan_id_1, scan_id_2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (join_group_2, join_expr_2) = memo
+        .add_group(join2, &[scan_id_2, scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_ne!(join_group_1, join_group_2);
+
+    // Assume that some rule was applied to `join1`, and it outputs something like `join_unknown`.
+    // The memo table will tell us that `join_unknown == join2`.
+    // Take note here that `join_unknown` is a clone of `join2`, not `join1`.
+    let (existing_group, not_actually_new_expr_id) = memo
+        .add_logical_expression_to_group(join_group_1, join_unknown, &[scan_id_2, scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .err()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(existing_group, join_group_2);
+    assert_eq!(not_actually_new_expr_id, join_expr_2);
+
+    // The above tells the application that the expression already exists in the memo, specifically
+    // under `existing_group`. Thus, we should link these two groups together.
+    memo.merge_groups(join_group_1, join_group_2).await.unwrap();
+
+    let test_root_1 = memo.get_root_group(join_group_1).await.unwrap();
+    let test_root_2 = memo.get_root_group(join_group_2).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(test_root_1, test_root_2);
+
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+}
+
+#[ignore]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_group_merge_ladder() {
+    let memo = PersistentMemo::new().await;
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+
+    // Build up a tree of true filters that should be collapsed into a single table scan.
+    let scan_base = scan("t1".to_string());
+    let (scan_id, _) = memo.add_group(scan_base, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    let filter0 = filter(scan_id, "true".to_string());
+    let (filter_id_0, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter0, &[scan_id])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let filter1 = filter(filter_id_0, "true".to_string());
+    let (filter_id_1, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter1, &[scan_id])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let filter2 = filter(filter_id_1, "true".to_string());
+    let (filter_id_2, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter2, &[scan_id])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let filter3 = filter(filter_id_2, "true".to_string());
+    let (filter_id_3, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter3, &[scan_id])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let mut groups = vec![scan_id, filter_id_0, filter_id_1, filter_id_2, filter_id_3];
+
+    let m0 = memo.merge_groups(filter_id_3, filter_id_2).await.unwrap();
+    let m1 = memo.merge_groups(filter_id_2, filter_id_1).await.unwrap();
+    let m2 = memo.merge_groups(filter_id_1, filter_id_0).await.unwrap();
+    let root = memo.merge_groups(filter_id_0, scan_id).await.unwrap();
+    groups.extend_from_slice(&[m0, m1, m2, root]);
+
+    for group_id in groups {
+        assert_eq!(root, memo.get_root_group(group_id).await.unwrap());
+    }
+
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+}
+
+/// Tests merging a bunch of groups together in order to prevent duplicates from being added.
+#[ignore]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_group_merge() {
+    let memo = PersistentMemo::new().await;
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+
+    // Create a base group.
+    let scan1 = scan("t1".to_string());
+    let (scan_id_1, _) = memo.add_group(scan1, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    // Create a bunch of equivalent groups.
+    let filter0 = filter(scan_id_1, "true".to_string());
+    let filter1 = filter(scan_id_1, "1 < 2".to_string());
+    let filter2 = filter(scan_id_1, "2 > 1".to_string());
+    let filter3 = filter(scan_id_1, "42 != 100".to_string());
+    let filter4 = filter(scan_id_1, "10000 > 0".to_string());
+    let filter5 = filter(scan_id_1, "1 + 2 = 3".to_string());
+    let filter6 = filter(scan_id_1, "true OR false".to_string());
+    let filter7 = filter(scan_id_1, "(1 + 1 > -1 AND true) OR false".to_string());
+    let (filter_id_0, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter0, &[scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (filter_id_1, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter1, &[scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (filter_id_2, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter2, &[scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (filter_id_3, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter3, &[scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (filter_id_4, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter4, &[scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (filter_id_5, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter5, &[scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (filter_id_6, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter6, &[scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let (filter_id_7, _) = memo
+        .add_group(filter7, &[scan_id_1])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let filters = vec![
+        filter_id_0,
+        filter_id_1,
+        filter_id_2,
+        filter_id_3,
+        filter_id_4,
+        filter_id_5,
+        filter_id_6,
+        filter_id_7,
+    ];
+
+    // Merge them all together.
+    let quarter_0 = memo.merge_groups(filters[0], filters[1]).await.unwrap();
+    let quarter_1 = memo.merge_groups(filters[2], filters[3]).await.unwrap();
+    let quarter_2 = memo.merge_groups(filters[4], filters[5]).await.unwrap();
+    let quarter_3 = memo.merge_groups(filters[6], filters[7]).await.unwrap();
+    let semi_0 = memo.merge_groups(quarter_0, quarter_1).await.unwrap();
+    let semi_1 = memo.merge_groups(quarter_2, quarter_3).await.unwrap();
+    let final_id = memo.merge_groups(semi_0, semi_1).await.unwrap();
+
+    // Check that the group set is properly representative.
+    {
+        let set = memo.get_group_set(final_id).await.unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(set.len(), 8);
+        for id in set {
+            assert!(filters.contains(&id));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Create another base group.
+    let scan2 = scan("t2".to_string());
+    let (scan_id_2, _) = memo.add_group(scan2, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    // Add a join group.
+    let join0 = join(filter_id_0, scan_id_2, "t1.a = t2.a".to_string());
+    let (join_group_id, join_expr_id) = memo
+        .add_group(join0, &[filter_id_0, scan_id_2])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Adding the duplicate join expressions should return a duplication error containing the IDs of
+    // the already existing group and expression.
+    for filter_id in filters {
+        let join_test = join(filter_id, scan_id_2, "t1.a = t2.a".to_string());
+        let (join_group_id_test, join_expr_id_test) = memo
+            .add_group(join_test, &[filter_id, scan_id_2])
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+            .err()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(join_group_id, join_group_id_test);
+        assert_eq!(join_expr_id, join_expr_id_test);
+    }
+
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+}
+
+/// Tests the exact same scenario as in the "Discovered Duplicates" section in `DESIGN.md`.
+#[ignore]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn test_cascading_merge() {
+    let memo = PersistentMemo::new().await;
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+
+    // Create the base groups.
+    let scan1 = scan("t1".to_string());
+    let (g1, _) = memo.add_group(scan1, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+    let scan2 = scan("t2".to_string());
+    let (g2, _) = memo.add_group(scan2, &[]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    let filter1 = filter(g1, "x > 1000".to_string());
+    let (g3, _) = memo.add_group(filter1, &[g1]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    // Create two groups that will need to be merged.
+    let filter2a = filter(g2, "a < 42".to_string());
+    let (g4, _) = memo.add_group(filter2a, &[g2]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+    let filter2b = filter(g4, "a < 42 AND 1 = 1".to_string());
+    let (g5, _) = memo.add_group(filter2b, &[g4]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    // Create groups that are dependent on the to-be-merged groups.
+    let join1 = join(g3, g4, "t1.x = t2.a".to_string());
+    let (g6, _) = memo
+        .add_group(join1, &[g3, g4])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+    let join2 = join(g3, g5, "t1.x = t2.a".to_string());
+    let (g7, _) = memo
+        .add_group(join2, &[g3, g5])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Create more groups that are dependent on the to-be-merged groups.
+    // TODO actually use a sort expression instead of a `filter` placeholder.
+    let sort1 = filter(g6, "ORDER BY a".to_string());
+    let (g8, _) = memo.add_group(sort1, &[g6]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    let sort2 = filter(g7, "ORDER BY a".to_string());
+    let (g9, _) = memo.add_group(sort2, &[g7]).await.unwrap().ok().unwrap();
+
+    // Now that everything is set up, we can merge groups 4 and 5 to begin the cascading process.
+    let filter_root = memo.merge_groups(g4, g5).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(memo.get_root_group(g4).await.unwrap(), filter_root);
+    assert_eq!(memo.get_root_group(g5).await.unwrap(), filter_root);
+
+    // After merging, the join groups (6 and 7) are technically identical, but we have not merged
+    // them together yet. However, applying rules will reveal that they are identical, and we will
+    // know that they need to get merged.
+    let join1_commute = join(g4, g3, "t1.x = t2.a".to_string());
+    let join1_commute_id = memo
+        .add_logical_expression_to_group(g6, join1_commute, &[g4, g3])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .ok()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Adding this expression should now result in a duplication error and return the above ID.
+    let join2_commute = join(g5, g3, "t1.x = t2.a".to_string());
+    let (existing_g6, existing_id) = memo
+        .add_logical_expression_to_group(g7, join2_commute, &[g5, g3])
+        .await
+        .unwrap()
+        .err()
+        .unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(existing_g6, g6);
+    assert_eq!(existing_id, join1_commute_id);
+
+    // Since the memo table has told us these are duplicates, we can now merge groups 6 and 7.
+    let join_root = memo.merge_groups(g6, g7).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(memo.get_root_group(g6).await.unwrap(), join_root);
+    assert_eq!(memo.get_root_group(g7).await.unwrap(), join_root);
+
+    // Do a similar thing for the sort groups. We'll skip the expression adding for now and just
+    // merge them immediately, but remember that the application should observe a duplicate
+    // somewhere in the memo table before deciding to merge groups.
+    let sort_root = memo.merge_groups(g8, g9).await.unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(memo.get_root_group(g8).await.unwrap(), sort_root);
+    assert_eq!(memo.get_root_group(g9).await.unwrap(), sort_root);
+
+    memo.cleanup().await;
+}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_namespace_metadata.rs b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_fingerprint.rs
similarity index 50%
rename from optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_namespace_metadata.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_fingerprint.rs
index 684621c..e153b9e 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_namespace_metadata.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_fingerprint.rs
@@ -1,13 +1,17 @@
-use crate::migrator::catalog::database_metadata::DatabaseMetadata;
+//! An entity representing a logical expression fingerprint.
+//!
+//! TODO write docs.
+
+use crate::migrator::memo::logical_expression::LogicalExpression;
 use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
 
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum NamespaceMetadata {
+#[derive(DeriveIden)]
+pub enum Fingerprint {
     Table,
     Id,
-    Name,
-    DatabaseId,
-    CreationTime,
+    LogicalExpressionId,
+    Kind,
+    Hash,
 }
 
 #[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
@@ -19,19 +23,19 @@ impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
         manager
             .create_table(
                 Table::create()
-                    .table(NamespaceMetadata::Table)
+                    .table(Fingerprint::Table)
                     .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(NamespaceMetadata::Id))
-                    .col(string(NamespaceMetadata::Name))
-                    .col(integer(NamespaceMetadata::DatabaseId))
+                    .col(pk_auto(Fingerprint::Id))
+                    .col(integer(Fingerprint::LogicalExpressionId))
                     .foreign_key(
                         ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(NamespaceMetadata::Table, NamespaceMetadata::DatabaseId)
-                            .to(DatabaseMetadata::Table, DatabaseMetadata::Id)
+                            .from(Fingerprint::Table, Fingerprint::LogicalExpressionId)
+                            .to(LogicalExpression::Table, LogicalExpression::Id)
                             .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
                             .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
                     )
-                    .col(timestamp(NamespaceMetadata::CreationTime))
+                    .col(small_integer(Fingerprint::Kind))
+                    .col(big_integer(Fingerprint::Hash))
                     .to_owned(),
             )
             .await
@@ -39,7 +43,7 @@ impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
 
     async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
         manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(NamespaceMetadata::Table).to_owned())
+            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(Fingerprint::Table).to_owned())
             .await
     }
 }
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_cascades_group.rs b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_group.rs
similarity index 58%
rename from optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_cascades_group.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_group.rs
index 1700772..59b5a09 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_cascades_group.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_group.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+//! FIXME We aren't really following the cascades framework anymore...
+//!
 //! An entity representing a group / equivalence class in the Cascades framework.
 //!
 //! Quoted from the Microsoft article _Extensible query optimizers in practice_:
@@ -17,65 +19,72 @@
 //! # Columns
 //!
 //! Each group is assigned a monotonically-increasing (unique) ID. This ID will be important since
-//! there are many foreign key references from other tables to `cascades_group`.
+//! there are many foreign key references from other tables to `group`.
+//!
+//! We store an `status` enumeration encoded as an 8-bit integer that is used for quickly
+//! determining the state of optimization for this group during the dynamic programming search.
 //!
-//! We additionally store a `latest_winner` foreign key reference to a physical expression. See
-//! the [section](#best-physical-plan-winner) below for more details.
+//! We additionally store a `winner` foreign key reference to a physical expression paired with a
+//! `cost` foreign key reference to a cost record (FIXME). See the
+//! [section](#best-physical-plan-winner) below for more details.
 //!
-//! Finally, we store `in_progress` and `is_optimized` flags that are used for quickly determining
-//! the state of optimization for this group during the dynamic programming search.
+//! Finally, we maintain a union-find graph structure embedded in the group records. See the
+//! `DESIGN.md` document for more information.
 //!
 //! # Entity Relationships
 //!
 //! ### Child Expressions (Logical and Physical)
 //!
-//! To retrieve all of a `cascades_group`'s equivalent expressions, you must query the
+//! To retrieve all of a `group`'s equivalent expressions, you must query the
 //! [`logical_expression`] or the [`physical_expression`] entities via their foreign keys to
-//! `cascades_group`. The relationship between [`logical_expression`] and `cascades_group` is
+//! `group`. The relationship between [`logical_expression`] and `group` is
 //! many-to-one, and the exact same many-to-one relationship is held for [`physical_expression`] to
-//! `cascades_group`.
+//! `group`.
 //!
 //! ### Parent Expressions (Logical and Physical)
 //!
-//! Additionally, each logical or physical expression can have any number of `cascades_group`s as
-//! children, and a group can be a child of any expression. Thus, `cascades_group` additionally has
+//! Additionally, each logical or physical expression can have any number of `group`s as
+//! children, and a group can be a child of any expression. Thus, `group` additionally has
 //! a many-to-many relationship with [`logical_expression`] and [`physical_expression`] via the
 //! [`logical_children`] and [`physical_children`] entities.
 //!
-//! To reiterate, `cascades_group` has **both** a one-to-many **and** a many-to-many relationship
+//! To reiterate, `group` has **both** a one-to-many **and** a many-to-many relationship
 //! with both [`logical_expression`] and [`physical_expression`]. This is due to groups being both
 //! parents and children of expressions.
 //!
 //! ### Best Physical Plan (Winner)
 //!
-//! The `cascades_group` entity also stores a `latest_winner` _nullable_ foreign key reference to
+//! The `group` entity also stores a `winner` _nullable_ foreign key reference to
 //! a physical expression. This represents the most recent best query plan we have computed. The
 //! reason it is nullable is because we may not have come up with any best query plan yet.
 //!
 //! ### Logical Properties
 //!
-//! Lastly, each `cascades_group` record will have a set of logical properties store in the
-//! [`logical_property`] entity, where there is an many-to-one relationship from
-//! [`logical_property`] to `cascades_group`. Note that we do not store physical properties directly
-//! on the `cascades_group`, but rather we store them for each [`physical_expression`] record.
+//! FIXME: Add a logical properties table.
+//!
+//! Lastly, each `group` record will have a set of logical properties store in the
+//! `logical_property` entity, where there is an many-to-one relationship from
+//! `logical_property` to `group`. Note that we do not store physical properties directly
+//! on the `group`, but rather we store them for each [`physical_expression`] record.
 //!
 //! [`logical_expression`]: super::logical_expression
 //! [`physical_expression`]: super::physical_expression
 //! [`logical_children`]: super::logical_children
 //! [`physical_children`]: super::physical_children
-//! [`logical_property`]: super::logical_property
+//! `logical_property`: super::logical_property
 
 use crate::migrator::memo::physical_expression::PhysicalExpression;
 use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
 
 #[derive(DeriveIden)]
-pub enum CascadesGroup {
+pub enum Group {
     Table,
     Id,
-    LatestWinner,
-    InProgress,
-    IsOptimized,
+    Status,
+    Winner,
+    Cost,
     ParentId,
+    NextId,
 }
 
 #[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
@@ -87,24 +96,32 @@ impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
         manager
             .create_table(
                 Table::create()
-                    .table(CascadesGroup::Table)
+                    .table(Group::Table)
                     .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(CascadesGroup::Id))
-                    .col(integer_null(CascadesGroup::LatestWinner))
+                    .col(pk_auto(Group::Id))
+                    .col(tiny_integer(Group::Status))
+                    .col(integer_null(Group::Winner))
+                    .col(big_integer_null(Group::Cost))
                     .foreign_key(
                         ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(CascadesGroup::Table, CascadesGroup::LatestWinner)
+                            .from(Group::Table, Group::Winner)
                             .to(PhysicalExpression::Table, PhysicalExpression::Id)
                             .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::SetNull)
                             .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
                     )
-                    .col(boolean(CascadesGroup::InProgress))
-                    .col(boolean(CascadesGroup::IsOptimized))
-                    .col(integer_null(CascadesGroup::ParentId))
+                    .col(integer_null(Group::ParentId))
+                    .foreign_key(
+                        ForeignKey::create()
+                            .from(Group::Table, Group::ParentId)
+                            .to(Group::Table, Group::Id)
+                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::SetNull)
+                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
+                    )
+                    .col(integer_null(Group::NextId))
                     .foreign_key(
                         ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(CascadesGroup::Table, CascadesGroup::ParentId)
-                            .to(CascadesGroup::Table, CascadesGroup::Id)
+                            .from(Group::Table, Group::NextId)
+                            .to(Group::Table, Group::Id)
                             .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::SetNull)
                             .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
                     )
@@ -115,7 +132,7 @@ impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
 
     async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
         manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(CascadesGroup::Table).to_owned())
+            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(Group::Table).to_owned())
             .await
     }
 }
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_logical_children.rs b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_logical_children.rs
similarity index 81%
rename from optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_logical_children.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_logical_children.rs
index d0835f4..12b5aa6 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_logical_children.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_logical_children.rs
@@ -1,16 +1,16 @@
-//! An entity representing the [`cascades_group`] children of every [`logical_expression`].
+//! An entity representing the [`group`] children of every [`logical_expression`].
 //!
 //! Formally, this entity is a junction which allows us to represent a many-to-many relationship
-//! between [`logical_expression`] and [`cascades_group`]. Expressions can have any number of child
+//! between [`logical_expression`] and [`group`]. Expressions can have any number of child
 //! groups, and every group can be a child of many different expressions, hence the many-to-many
 //! relationship.
 //!
-//! See [`cascades_group`] for more details.
+//! See [`group`] for more details.
 //!
-//! [`cascades_group`]: super::cascades_group
+//! [`group`]: super::group
 //! [`logical_expression`]: super::logical_expression
 
-use crate::migrator::memo::{cascades_group::CascadesGroup, logical_expression::LogicalExpression};
+use crate::migrator::memo::{group::Group, logical_expression::LogicalExpression};
 use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
 
 #[derive(DeriveIden)]
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
                     )
                     .foreign_key(
                         ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(LogicalChildren::Table, LogicalChildren::GroupId)
+                            .from(LogicalChildren::Table, LogicalChildren::LogicalExpressionId)
                             .to(LogicalExpression::Table, LogicalExpression::Id)
                             .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
                             .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
                     .foreign_key(
                         ForeignKey::create()
                             .from(LogicalChildren::Table, LogicalChildren::GroupId)
-                            .to(CascadesGroup::Table, CascadesGroup::Id)
+                            .to(Group::Table, Group::Id)
                             .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
                             .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
                     )
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_logical_expression.rs b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_logical_expression.rs
similarity index 68%
rename from optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_logical_expression.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_logical_expression.rs
index 71e28d3..9b5eefc 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_logical_expression.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_logical_expression.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-//! An entity representing a logical plan expression in the Cascades framework.
+//! An entity representing a logical relational expression.
 //!
 //! Quoted from the Microsoft article _Extensible query optimizers in practice_:
 //!
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 //! > relational algebraic expression.
 //!
 //! In the Cascades query optimization framework, the memo table stores equivalence classes of
-//! expressions (see [`cascades_group`]). These equivalence classes, or "groups", store both
+//! expressions (see [`group`]). These equivalence classes, or "groups", store both
 //! `logical_expression`s and [`physical_expression`]s.
 //!
 //! Optimization starts by "exploring" equivalent logical expressions within a group. For example,
@@ -19,23 +19,25 @@
 //! Each `logical_expression` has a unique primary key ID, but it holds little importance other than
 //! helping distinguish between two different expressions.
 //!
-//! The more interesting column is the `fingerprint` column, in which we store a hashed fingerprint
-//! value that can be used to efficiently check equality between two potentially equivalent logical
-//! expressions (hash-consing). See ???TODO??? for more information on expression fingerprints.
-//!
 //! Finally, since there are many different types of operators, we store a variant tag and a data
 //! column as JSON to represent the semi-structured data fields of logical operators.
 //!
 //! # Entity Relationships
 //!
-//! The only relationship that `logical_expression` has is to [`cascades_group`]. It has **both** a
-//! one-to-many **and** a many-to-many relationship with [`cascades_group`], and you can see more
-//! details about this in the module-level documentation for [`cascades_group`].
+//! The main relationship that `logical_expression` has is to [`group`]. It has **both** a
+//! one-to-many **and** a many-to-many relationship with [`group`], and you can see more
+//! details about this in the module-level documentation for [`group`].
+//!
+//! The other relationship that `logical_expression` has is to [`fingerprint`]. This table stores
+//! 1 or more fingerprints for every (unique) logical expression. The reason we have multiple
+//! fingerprints is that an expression can belong to multiple groups during the exploration phase
+//! before the merging of groups.
 //!
-//! [`cascades_group`]: super::cascades_group
+//! [`group`]: super::group
 //! [`physical_expression`]: super::physical_expression
+//! [`fingerprint`]: super::fingerprint
 
-use crate::migrator::memo::cascades_group::CascadesGroup;
+use crate::migrator::memo::group::Group;
 use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
 
 #[derive(DeriveIden)]
@@ -43,8 +45,8 @@ pub enum LogicalExpression {
     Table,
     Id,
     GroupId,
-    Fingerprint,
-    VariantTag,
+    Kind,
+    Data,
 }
 
 #[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
@@ -63,12 +65,12 @@ impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
                     .foreign_key(
                         ForeignKey::create()
                             .from(LogicalExpression::Table, LogicalExpression::GroupId)
-                            .to(CascadesGroup::Table, CascadesGroup::Id)
+                            .to(Group::Table, Group::Id)
                             .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
                             .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
                     )
-                    .col(big_unsigned(LogicalExpression::Fingerprint))
-                    .col(small_integer(LogicalExpression::VariantTag))
+                    .col(small_integer(LogicalExpression::Kind))
+                    .col(json(LogicalExpression::Data))
                     .to_owned(),
             )
             .await
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_physical_children.rs b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_physical_children.rs
similarity index 82%
rename from optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_physical_children.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_physical_children.rs
index 3983f0c..06ce259 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_physical_children.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_physical_children.rs
@@ -1,18 +1,16 @@
-//! An entity representing the [`cascades_group`] children of every [`physical_expression`].
+//! An entity representing the [`group`] children of every [`physical_expression`].
 //!
 //! Formally, this entity is a junction which allows us to represent a many-to-many relationship
-//! between [`physical_expression`] and [`cascades_group`]. Expressions can have any number of child
+//! between [`physical_expression`] and [`group`]. Expressions can have any number of child
 //! groups, and every group can be a child of many different expressions, hence the many-to-many
 //! relationship.
 //!
-//! See [`cascades_group`] for more details.
+//! See [`group`] for more details.
 //!
-//! [`cascades_group`]: super::cascades_group
+//! [`group`]: super::group
 //! [`physical_expression`]: super::physical_expression
 
-use crate::migrator::memo::{
-    cascades_group::CascadesGroup, physical_expression::PhysicalExpression,
-};
+use crate::migrator::memo::{group::Group, physical_expression::PhysicalExpression};
 use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
 
 #[derive(DeriveIden)]
@@ -53,7 +51,7 @@ impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
                     .foreign_key(
                         ForeignKey::create()
                             .from(PhysicalChildren::Table, PhysicalChildren::GroupId)
-                            .to(CascadesGroup::Table, CascadesGroup::Id)
+                            .to(Group::Table, Group::Id)
                             .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
                             .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
                     )
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_physical_expression.rs b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_physical_expression.rs
similarity index 70%
rename from optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_physical_expression.rs
rename to optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_physical_expression.rs
index 8f7cb96..88cd63b 100644
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_physical_expression.rs
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/m20241127_000001_physical_expression.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-//! An entity representing a logical plan expression in the Cascades framework.
+//! An entity representing a physical plan expression.
 //!
 //! Quoted from the Microsoft article _Extensible query optimizers in practice_:
 //!
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 //! > _physical plan_ or simply _plan_.
 //!
 //! In the Cascades query optimization framework, the memo table stores equivalence classes of
-//! expressions (see [`cascades_group`]). These equivalence classes, or "groups", store both
+//! expressions (see [`group`]). These equivalence classes, or "groups", store both
 //! [`logical_expression`]s and `physical_expression`s.
 //!
 //! Optimization starts by exploring equivalent logical expressions within a group, and then it
@@ -20,23 +20,24 @@
 //! Each `physical_expression` has a unique primary key ID, and other tables will store a foreign
 //! key reference to a specific `physical_expression`s.
 //!
-//! The more interesting column is the `fingerprint` column, in which we store a hashed fingerprint
-//! value that can be used to efficiently check equality between two potentially equivalent physical
-//! expressions (hash-consing). See ???TODO??? for more information on expression fingerprints.
+//! Note that `physical_expression` does **not** store a fingerprint. Remember that we want to
+//! detect duplicates in the logical exploration phase. If there are no duplicate logical
+//! expressions in the memo table, then there cannot be any duplicate physical expressions, which
+//! are derived from said deduplicated logical expressions.
 //!
 //! Finally, since there are many different types of operators, we store a variant tag and a data
 //! column as JSON to represent the semi-structured data fields of logical operators.
 //!
 //! # Entity Relationships
 //!
-//! The only relationship that `physical_expression` has is to [`cascades_group`]. It has **both** a
-//! one-to-many **and** a many-to-many relationship with [`cascades_group`], and you can see more
-//! details about this in the module-level documentation for [`cascades_group`].
+//! The only relationship that `physical_expression` has is to [`group`]. It has **both** a
+//! one-to-many **and** a many-to-many relationship with [`group`], and you can see more
+//! details about this in the module-level documentation for [`group`].
 //!
-//! [`cascades_group`]: super::cascades_group
+//! [`group`]: super::group
 //! [`logical_expression`]: super::logical_expression
 
-use crate::migrator::memo::cascades_group::CascadesGroup;
+use crate::migrator::memo::group::Group;
 use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
 
 #[derive(DeriveIden)]
@@ -44,8 +45,8 @@ pub enum PhysicalExpression {
     Table,
     Id,
     GroupId,
-    Fingerprint,
-    VariantTag,
+    Kind,
+    Data,
 }
 
 #[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
@@ -64,12 +65,12 @@ impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
                     .foreign_key(
                         ForeignKey::create()
                             .from(PhysicalExpression::Table, PhysicalExpression::GroupId)
-                            .to(CascadesGroup::Table, CascadesGroup::Id)
+                            .to(Group::Table, Group::Id)
                             .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
                             .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
                     )
-                    .col(big_unsigned(PhysicalExpression::Fingerprint))
-                    .col(small_integer(PhysicalExpression::VariantTag))
+                    .col(small_integer(PhysicalExpression::Kind))
+                    .col(json(PhysicalExpression::Data))
                     .to_owned(),
             )
             .await
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/mod.rs b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a419189
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/memo/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+//! Entities related to the memo table used for dynamic programming in the our query optimization
+//! framework.
+
+pub(crate) mod m20241127_000001_fingerprint;
+pub(crate) mod m20241127_000001_group;
+pub(crate) mod m20241127_000001_logical_children;
+pub(crate) mod m20241127_000001_logical_expression;
+pub(crate) mod m20241127_000001_physical_children;
+pub(crate) mod m20241127_000001_physical_expression;
+
+pub(crate) use m20241127_000001_fingerprint as fingerprint;
+pub(crate) use m20241127_000001_group as group;
+pub(crate) use m20241127_000001_logical_children as logical_children;
+pub(crate) use m20241127_000001_logical_expression as logical_expression;
+pub(crate) use m20241127_000001_physical_children as physical_children;
+pub(crate) use m20241127_000001_physical_expression as physical_expression;
diff --git a/optd-mvp/src/migrator/mod.rs b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cbc39ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/optd-mvp/src/migrator/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+use sea_orm_migration::prelude::*;
+
+mod memo;
+
+pub struct Migrator;
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl MigratorTrait for Migrator {
+    fn migrations() -> Vec<Box<dyn MigrationTrait>> {
+        vec![
+            Box::new(memo::group::Migration),
+            Box::new(memo::fingerprint::Migration),
+            Box::new(memo::logical_expression::Migration),
+            Box::new(memo::logical_children::Migration),
+            Box::new(memo::physical_expression::Migration),
+            Box::new(memo::physical_children::Migration),
+        ]
+    }
+}
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diff --git a/optd-persistent/Cargo.toml b/optd-persistent/Cargo.toml
deleted file mode 100644
index 50af728..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/Cargo.toml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,24 +0,0 @@
-[package]
-name = "optd-persistent"
-version = "0.1.0"
-edition = "2021"
-authors = ["Sarvesh Tandon", "Connor Tsui"]
-
-[dependencies]
-sea-orm = { version = "1.1.1", features = [
-    "sqlx-sqlite",
-    "runtime-tokio-rustls",
-    "macros",
-    "debug-print",
-    "with-json",
-] }
-sea-orm-migration = "1.0.0"
-serde_json = "1.0.118" # Hash implementation on serde_json::Value
-tokio = { version = "1.0.1", features = ["macros", "rt-multi-thread"] }
-trait-variant = "0.1.2"
-
-# Pin more recent versions for -Zminimal-versions
-async-trait = "0.1.43"
-async-stream = "0.3.1"
-strum = "0.26.1"
-num_enum = "0.7.3"
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/bin/init.rs b/optd-persistent/src/bin/init.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index a0b6b25..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/bin/init.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,404 +0,0 @@
-use optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::AttrType;
-use optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::ConstraintType;
-use optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::IndexType;
-use optd_persistent::cost_model::interface::StatType;
-use optd_persistent::entities::*;
-use optd_persistent::migrate;
-use optd_persistent::TEST_DATABASE_FILENAME;
-use optd_persistent::TEST_DATABASE_URL;
-use sea_orm::sqlx::types::chrono::Utc;
-use sea_orm::*;
-use serde_json::json;
-
-async fn init_all_tables() -> Result<(), sea_orm::error::DbErr> {
-    let _ = std::fs::remove_file(TEST_DATABASE_FILENAME);
-
-    let db = Database::connect(TEST_DATABASE_URL.clone())
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to connect to the database");
-
-    migrate(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Something went wrong during migration");
-
-    // Inserting into database_metadata
-    let database_metadata = database_metadata::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        name: Set("database1".to_owned()),
-        creation_time: Set(Utc::now()),
-    };
-    database_metadata::Entity::insert(database_metadata)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert database metadata");
-
-    // Inserting into namespace_metadata
-    let namespace_metadata = namespace_metadata::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        database_id: Set(1),
-        name: Set("default".to_owned()),
-        creation_time: Set(Utc::now()),
-    };
-    namespace_metadata::Entity::insert(namespace_metadata)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert namespace metadata");
-
-    // Inserting into table_metadata
-    let table_metadata = table_metadata::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        namespace_id: Set(1),
-        name: Set("users".to_owned()),
-        creation_time: Set(Utc::now()),
-    };
-    table_metadata::Entity::insert(table_metadata)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert table metadata");
-
-    // Inserting into attribute
-    let attribute1 = attribute::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        table_id: Set(1),
-        name: Set("user_id".to_owned()),
-        compression_method: Set("N".to_owned()),
-        variant_tag: Set(AttrType::Integer as i32),
-        base_attribute_number: Set(0),
-        is_not_null: Set(true),
-    };
-    let attribute2 = attribute::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(2),
-        table_id: Set(1),
-        name: Set("username".to_owned()),
-        compression_method: Set("N".to_owned()),
-        variant_tag: Set(AttrType::Varchar as i32),
-        base_attribute_number: Set(1),
-        is_not_null: Set(true),
-    };
-    attribute::Entity::insert(attribute1)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert attribute");
-    attribute::Entity::insert(attribute2)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert attribute");
-
-    // Inserting into event
-    let event = event::ActiveModel {
-        epoch_id: Set(1),
-        source_variant: Set("execution_engine".to_owned()),
-        timestamp: Set(Utc::now()),
-        data: Set(json!({"dba": "parpulse"})),
-    };
-    event::Entity::insert(event)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert event");
-
-    // Inserting into statistic
-
-    // Table statistic
-    let table_statistic = statistic::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        name: Set("row_count".to_owned()),
-        table_id: Set(Some(1)),
-        creation_time: Set(Utc::now()),
-        number_of_attributes: Set(0),
-        variant_tag: Set(StatType::TableRowCount as i32),
-        description: Set("".to_owned()),
-    };
-    let table_versioned_statistic = versioned_statistic::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        epoch_id: Set(1),
-        statistic_id: Set(1),
-        statistic_value: Set(json!(0)),
-    };
-    statistic::Entity::insert(table_statistic)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert statistic");
-    versioned_statistic::Entity::insert(table_versioned_statistic)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert versioned statistic");
-
-    // Single-column attribute statistic
-    let single_column_attribute_statistic = statistic::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(2),
-        name: Set("cardinality".to_owned()),
-        table_id: Set(Some(1)),
-        creation_time: Set(Utc::now()),
-        number_of_attributes: Set(1),
-        variant_tag: Set(StatType::Cardinality as i32),
-        description: Set("1".to_owned()),
-    };
-    let single_column_attribute_versioned_statistic = versioned_statistic::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(2),
-        epoch_id: Set(1),
-        statistic_id: Set(2),
-        statistic_value: Set(json!(0)),
-    };
-    statistic::Entity::insert(single_column_attribute_statistic)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert statistic");
-    versioned_statistic::Entity::insert(single_column_attribute_versioned_statistic)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert versioned statistic");
-
-    let single_column_statistic_to_attribute_junction =
-        statistic_to_attribute_junction::ActiveModel {
-            statistic_id: Set(2), // cardinality
-            attribute_id: Set(1), // user_id
-        };
-    statistic_to_attribute_junction::Entity::insert(single_column_statistic_to_attribute_junction)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert statistic_to_attribute_junction");
-
-    // Multi-column attribute statistic
-    let multi_column_attribute_statistic = statistic::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(3),
-        name: Set("joint_cardinality".to_owned()),
-        table_id: Set(Some(1)),
-        creation_time: Set(Utc::now()),
-        number_of_attributes: Set(2),
-        variant_tag: Set(StatType::Cardinality as i32),
-        description: Set("1,2".to_owned()),
-    };
-    let multi_column_attribute_versioned_statistic = versioned_statistic::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(3),
-        epoch_id: Set(1),
-        statistic_id: Set(3),
-        statistic_value: Set(json!(0)),
-    };
-    statistic::Entity::insert(multi_column_attribute_statistic)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert statistic");
-    versioned_statistic::Entity::insert(multi_column_attribute_versioned_statistic)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert versioned statistic");
-
-    let multi_column_statistic_to_attribute_junction1 =
-        statistic_to_attribute_junction::ActiveModel {
-            statistic_id: Set(3), // joint cardinality
-            attribute_id: Set(1), // user_id
-        };
-    let multi_column_statistic_to_attribute_junction2 =
-        statistic_to_attribute_junction::ActiveModel {
-            statistic_id: Set(3), // joint cardinality
-            attribute_id: Set(2), // username
-        };
-    statistic_to_attribute_junction::Entity::insert(multi_column_statistic_to_attribute_junction1)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert statistic_to_attribute_junction");
-    statistic_to_attribute_junction::Entity::insert(multi_column_statistic_to_attribute_junction2)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert statistic_to_attribute_junction");
-
-    // Inserting into index_metadata
-    let index_metadata = index_metadata::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        name: Set("user_id_index".to_owned()),
-        table_id: Set(1),
-        is_unique: Set(true),
-        nulls_not_distinct: Set(false),
-        is_primary: Set(true),
-        is_clustered: Set(false),
-        is_exclusion: Set(false),
-        variant_tag: Set(IndexType::Hash as i32),
-        number_of_attributes: Set(1),
-        description: Set("1".to_owned()),
-    };
-    index_metadata::Entity::insert(index_metadata)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert index metadata");
-
-    // Inserting into trigger
-    let trigger = trigger::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        name: Set("after_insert_user".to_owned()),
-        table_id: Set(1),
-        parent_trigger_id: Set(1),
-        function: Set(json!(r#"{"function": "insert"}"#)),
-    };
-    trigger::Entity::insert(trigger)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert trigger");
-
-    // Inserting into constraint_metadata
-    let constraint_metadata = constraint_metadata::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        name: Set("pk_user_id".to_owned()),
-        variant_tag: Set(ConstraintType::PrimaryKey as i32),
-        table_id: Set(Some(1)),
-        index_id: Set(Some(1)),
-        foreign_ref_id: Set(None),
-        check_src: Set("hello".to_owned()),
-    };
-    constraint_metadata::Entity::insert(constraint_metadata)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert constraint metadata");
-
-    // Inserting into attribute_constraint_junction
-    let attribute_constraint_junction = attribute_constraint_junction::ActiveModel {
-        attribute_id: Set(1),
-        constraint_id: Set(1),
-    };
-    attribute_constraint_junction::Entity::insert(attribute_constraint_junction)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert attribute_constraint_junction");
-
-    // Inserting into attribute_foreign_constraint_junction
-    let attribute_foreign_constraint_junction =
-        attribute_foreign_constraint_junction::ActiveModel {
-            attribute_id: Set(1),
-            constraint_id: Set(1),
-        };
-    attribute_foreign_constraint_junction::Entity::insert(attribute_foreign_constraint_junction)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert attribute_foreign_constraint_junction");
-
-    // Inserting into cascades_group
-    let cascades_group = cascades_group::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        latest_winner: Set(None),
-        in_progress: Set(true),
-        is_optimized: Set(false),
-    };
-    cascades_group::Entity::insert(cascades_group)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert cascades group");
-
-    // Inserting into logical_expression
-    let logical_expression = logical_expression::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        group_id: Set(1),
-        fingerprint: Set(12345),
-        variant_tag: Set(0),
-        data: Set(json!(r#"{"expr": "index_scan"}"#)),
-    };
-    logical_expression::Entity::insert(logical_expression)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert logical expression");
-
-    // Inserting into physical_expression
-    let physical_expression = physical_expression::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        group_id: Set(1),
-        fingerprint: Set(12345),
-        variant_tag: Set(0),
-        data: Set(json!(r#"{"expr": "index_scan"}"#)),
-    };
-    physical_expression::Entity::insert(physical_expression)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert physical expression");
-
-    // Inserting into physical_property
-    let physical_property = physical_property::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        physical_expression_id: Set(1),
-        variant_tag: Set(0),
-        data: Set(json!(r#"{"property": "indexed"}"#)),
-    };
-    physical_property::Entity::insert(physical_property)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert physical property");
-
-    // Inserting into logical_property
-    let logical_property = logical_property::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        group_id: Set(1),
-        variant_tag: Set(0),
-        data: Set(json!(r#"{"property": "indexed"}"#)),
-    };
-    logical_property::Entity::insert(logical_property)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert logical property");
-
-    let logical_children = logical_children::ActiveModel {
-        logical_expression_id: Set(1),
-        group_id: Set(1),
-    };
-    logical_children::Entity::insert(logical_children)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert logical children");
-
-    let physical_children = physical_children::ActiveModel {
-        physical_expression_id: Set(1),
-        group_id: Set(1),
-    };
-    physical_children::Entity::insert(physical_children)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert physical children");
-
-    // Inserting into plan_cost
-    let plan_cost = plan_cost::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        physical_expression_id: Set(1),
-        epoch_id: Set(1),
-        cost: Set(Some(json!({"compute_cost":10, "io_cost":10}))),
-        estimated_statistic: Set(Some(10.0)),
-        is_valid: Set(true),
-    };
-    plan_cost::Entity::insert(plan_cost)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert plan cost");
-
-    // Inserting into physical_expression_to_statistic_junction
-    let physical_expression_to_statistic_junction =
-        physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::ActiveModel {
-            physical_expression_id: Set(1),
-            statistic_id: Set(1),
-        };
-    physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Entity::insert(
-        physical_expression_to_statistic_junction,
-    )
-    .exec(&db)
-    .await
-    .expect("Unable to insert physical_expression_to_statistic_junction");
-
-    // Inserting into group_winner
-    let group_winner = group_winner::ActiveModel {
-        id: Set(1),
-        group_id: Set(1),
-        physical_expression_id: Set(1),
-        cost_id: Set(1),
-        epoch_id: Set(1),
-    };
-    group_winner::Entity::insert(group_winner)
-        .exec(&db)
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to insert group winner");
-
-    Ok(())
-}
-
-#[tokio::main]
-async fn main() {
-    if let Err(e) = init_all_tables().await {
-        eprintln!("Error initializing database: {}", e);
-        std::process::exit(1);
-    }
-
-    println!("Database initialized successfully");
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/catalog/mock_catalog.rs b/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/catalog/mock_catalog.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 5b2e28e..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/catalog/mock_catalog.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,165 +0,0 @@
-use sea_orm::prelude::Json;
-use serde_json::json;
-
-use crate::cost_model::interface::{AttrType, IndexType, StatType};
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-pub struct MockDatabaseMetadata {
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-}
-
-pub struct MockNamespaceMetadata {
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub database_id: i32,
-}
-
-pub struct MockTableMetadata {
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub namespace_id: i32,
-}
-
-pub struct MockAttribute {
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub attr_index: i32,
-    pub table_id: i32,
-    pub compression_method: char,
-    pub attr_type: i32,
-    pub is_not_null: bool,
-}
-
-pub struct MockStatistic {
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub stat_type: i32,
-    pub stat_value: Json,
-    pub attr_ids: Vec<i32>,
-    pub table_id: Option<i32>,
-    pub name: String,
-}
-
-pub struct MockIndex {
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub table_id: i32,
-    pub number_of_attributes: i32,
-    pub index_type: i32,
-    pub is_unique: bool,
-    pub nulls_not_distinct: bool,
-    pub is_primary: bool,
-    pub is_clustered: bool,
-    pub is_exclusion: bool,
-    pub attr_ids: Vec<i32>,
-}
-
-pub struct MockTrigger {
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub table_id: i32,
-    pub parent_trigger_id: i32,
-    pub function: String,
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Default)]
-pub struct MockCatalog {
-    pub databases: Vec<MockDatabaseMetadata>,
-    pub namespaces: Vec<MockNamespaceMetadata>,
-    pub tables: Vec<MockTableMetadata>,
-    pub attributes: Vec<MockAttribute>,
-    pub statistics: Vec<MockStatistic>,
-    pub indexes: Vec<MockIndex>,
-    pub triggers: Vec<MockTrigger>,
-    // TODO: constraints
-}
-
-impl MockCatalog {
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    pub fn new() -> Self {
-        let databases: Vec<MockDatabaseMetadata> = vec![MockDatabaseMetadata {
-            id: 1,
-            name: "db1".to_string(),
-        }];
-        let namespaces: Vec<MockNamespaceMetadata> = vec![MockNamespaceMetadata {
-            id: 1,
-            name: "ns1".to_string(),
-            database_id: 1,
-        }];
-        let tables: Vec<MockTableMetadata> = vec![MockTableMetadata {
-            id: 1,
-            name: "table1".to_string(),
-            namespace_id: 1,
-        }];
-        let attributes: Vec<MockAttribute> = vec![
-            MockAttribute {
-                id: 1,
-                name: "attr1".to_string(),
-                attr_index: 1,
-                table_id: 1,
-                compression_method: 'n',
-                attr_type: AttrType::Integer as i32,
-                is_not_null: true,
-            },
-            MockAttribute {
-                id: 2,
-                name: "attr2".to_string(),
-                attr_index: 2,
-                table_id: 1,
-                compression_method: 'n',
-                attr_type: AttrType::Integer as i32,
-                is_not_null: false,
-            },
-        ];
-        let statistics: Vec<MockStatistic> = vec![
-            MockStatistic {
-                id: 1,
-                stat_type: StatType::NonNullCount as i32,
-                stat_value: json!(100),
-                attr_ids: vec![1],
-                table_id: None,
-                name: "CountAttr1".to_string(),
-            },
-            MockStatistic {
-                id: 2,
-                stat_type: StatType::NonNullCount as i32,
-                stat_value: json!(200),
-                attr_ids: vec![2],
-                table_id: None,
-                name: "CountAttr2".to_string(),
-            },
-            MockStatistic {
-                id: 3,
-                stat_type: StatType::TableRowCount as i32,
-                stat_value: json!(300),
-                attr_ids: vec![],
-                table_id: Some(1),
-                name: "Table1Count".to_string(),
-            },
-        ];
-        let indexes: Vec<MockIndex> = vec![MockIndex {
-            id: 1,
-            name: "index1".to_string(),
-            table_id: 1,
-            number_of_attributes: 1,
-            index_type: IndexType::Hash as i32,
-            is_unique: false,
-            nulls_not_distinct: false,
-            is_primary: true,
-            is_clustered: false,
-            is_exclusion: false,
-            attr_ids: vec![1],
-        }];
-
-        MockCatalog {
-            databases,
-            namespaces,
-            tables,
-            attributes,
-            statistics,
-            indexes,
-            triggers: vec![],
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/catalog/mod.rs b/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/catalog/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 4df69d8..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/catalog/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-pub mod mock_catalog;
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/interface.rs b/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/interface.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index e4e4ceb..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/interface.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,177 +0,0 @@
-#![allow(dead_code, unused_imports)]
-
-use crate::entities::cascades_group;
-use crate::entities::logical_expression;
-use crate::entities::physical_expression;
-use crate::StorageResult;
-use num_enum::{IntoPrimitive, TryFromPrimitive};
-use sea_orm::prelude::Json;
-use sea_orm::*;
-use sea_orm_migration::prelude::*;
-use serde_json::json;
-use std::sync::Arc;
-
-pub type GroupId = i32;
-pub type TableId = i32;
-pub type AttrId = i32;
-pub type ExprId = i32;
-pub type EpochId = i32;
-pub type StatId = i32;
-pub type AttrIndex = i32;
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-pub enum CatalogSource {
-    Iceberg(),
-    Mock,
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[repr(i32)]
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, PartialEq, IntoPrimitive, TryFromPrimitive)]
-pub enum AttrType {
-    Integer = 1,
-    Float,
-    Varchar,
-    Boolean,
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-pub enum IndexType {
-    BTree,
-    Hash,
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-pub enum ConstraintType {
-    PrimaryKey,
-    ForeignKey,
-    Unique,
-    Check,
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
-pub enum StatType {
-    /// The row count in a table. `TableRowCount` only applies to table statistics.
-    TableRowCount,
-    /// The number of non-null values in a column.
-    NonNullCount,
-    /// The number of distinct values in a column.
-    Cardinality,
-    /// The minimum value in a column.
-    Min,
-    /// The maximum value in a column.
-    Max,
-    /// The frequency of each value in a column.
-    MostCommonValues,
-    /// The distribution of values in a column.
-    Distribution,
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(PartialEq)]
-pub enum EpochOption {
-    // TODO(lanlou): Could I make i32 -> EpochId?
-    Existed(i32),
-    New(String, String),
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct Stat {
-    pub stat_type: StatType,
-    pub stat_value: Json,
-    pub attr_ids: Vec<i32>,
-    pub table_id: Option<i32>,
-    pub name: String,
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
-pub struct Cost {
-    pub compute_cost: f64,
-    pub io_cost: f64,
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct Attr {
-    pub table_id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub compression_method: String,
-    pub attr_type: AttrType,
-    pub base_index: i32,
-    pub nullable: bool,
-}
-
-/// TODO: documentation
-#[trait_variant::make(Send)]
-pub trait CostModelStorageLayer {
-    async fn create_new_epoch(&self, source: String, data: String) -> StorageResult<EpochId>;
-
-    async fn update_stats_from_catalog(&self, c: CatalogSource) -> StorageResult<EpochId>;
-
-    async fn update_stats(
-        &self,
-        stat: Stat,
-        epoch_option: EpochOption,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<EpochId>>;
-
-    async fn store_cost(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        cost: Option<Cost>,
-        estimated_statistic: Option<f32>,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<()>;
-
-    async fn store_expr_stats_mappings(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        stat_ids: Vec<StatId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<()>;
-
-    /// Get the statistics for a given table.
-    ///
-    /// If `epoch_id` is None, it will return the latest statistics.
-    async fn get_stats_for_table(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Json>>;
-
-    /// Get the (joint) statistics for one or more attributes.
-    ///
-    /// If `epoch_id` is None, it will return the latest statistics.
-    async fn get_stats_for_attr(
-        &self,
-        attr_ids: Vec<AttrId>,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Json>>;
-
-    /// Get the (joint) statistics for one or more attributes based on attribute base indices.
-    ///
-    /// If `epoch_id` is None, it will return the latest statistics.
-    async fn get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attr_base_indices: Vec<AttrIndex>,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Json>>;
-
-    async fn get_cost_analysis(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        epoch_id: EpochId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<(Option<Cost>, Option<f32>)>;
-
-    async fn get_cost(&self, expr_id: ExprId) -> StorageResult<(Option<Cost>, Option<f32>)>;
-
-    async fn get_attribute(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attribute_base_index: AttrIndex,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Attr>>;
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/mod.rs b/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 46514a1..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
-pub mod catalog;
-
-pub mod interface;
-pub mod orm;
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/orm.rs b/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/orm.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 74c03f1..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/cost_model/orm.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,1478 +0,0 @@
-#![allow(dead_code, unused_imports, unused_variables)]
-
-use crate::cost_model::interface::Cost;
-use crate::entities::{prelude::*, *};
-use crate::{BackendError, BackendManager, CostModelStorageLayer, StorageResult};
-use sea_orm::prelude::{Expr, Json};
-use sea_orm::sea_query::{ExprTrait, Query};
-use sea_orm::{sqlx::types::chrono::Utc, EntityTrait};
-use sea_orm::{
-    ActiveModelTrait, ColumnTrait, Condition, DbBackend, DbErr, DeleteResult, EntityOrSelect,
-    ModelTrait, QueryFilter, QueryOrder, QuerySelect, QueryTrait, RuntimeErr, TransactionTrait,
-};
-use serde_json::json;
-
-use super::catalog::mock_catalog::{self, MockCatalog};
-use super::interface::{
-    Attr, AttrId, AttrIndex, AttrType, CatalogSource, EpochId, EpochOption, ExprId, Stat, StatId,
-    StatType, TableId,
-};
-
-impl BackendManager {
-    /// The description is to concat `attr_ids` using commas
-    /// Note that `attr_ids` should be sorted before concatenation
-    /// e.g. [1, 2, 3] -> "1,2,3"
-    fn get_description_from_attr_ids(&self, mut attr_ids: Vec<AttrId>) -> String {
-        attr_ids.sort();
-        attr_ids
-            .iter()
-            .map(|id| id.to_string())
-            .collect::<Vec<String>>()
-            .join(",")
-    }
-}
-
-impl CostModelStorageLayer for BackendManager {
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn create_new_epoch(&self, source: String, data: String) -> StorageResult<EpochId> {
-        let new_event = event::ActiveModel {
-            source_variant: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(source),
-            timestamp: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-            data: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(sea_orm::JsonValue::String(data)),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let insert_res = Event::insert(new_event).exec(&self.db).await?;
-        Ok(insert_res.last_insert_id)
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn update_stats_from_catalog(&self, c: CatalogSource) -> StorageResult<EpochId> {
-        let transaction = self.db.begin().await?;
-        let source = match c {
-            CatalogSource::Mock => "Mock",
-            CatalogSource::Iceberg() => "Iceberg",
-        };
-        let new_event = event::ActiveModel {
-            source_variant: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(source.to_string()),
-            timestamp: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-            data: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(sea_orm::JsonValue::String(
-                "Update stats from catalog".to_string(),
-            )),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let epoch_id = Event::insert(new_event)
-            .exec(&transaction)
-            .await?
-            .last_insert_id;
-        match c {
-            CatalogSource::Mock => {
-                let mock_catalog = MockCatalog::new();
-                DatabaseMetadata::insert_many(mock_catalog.databases.iter().map(|database| {
-                    database_metadata::ActiveModel {
-                        name: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(database.name.clone()),
-                        creation_time: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    }
-                }))
-                .exec(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-                NamespaceMetadata::insert_many(mock_catalog.namespaces.iter().map(|namespace| {
-                    namespace_metadata::ActiveModel {
-                        name: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(namespace.name.clone()),
-                        database_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(namespace.database_id),
-                        creation_time: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    }
-                }))
-                .exec(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-                TableMetadata::insert_many(mock_catalog.tables.iter().map(|table| {
-                    table_metadata::ActiveModel {
-                        name: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(table.name.clone()),
-                        namespace_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(table.namespace_id),
-                        creation_time: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    }
-                }))
-                .exec(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-                Attribute::insert_many(mock_catalog.attributes.iter().map(|attr| {
-                    attribute::ActiveModel {
-                        table_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(attr.table_id),
-                        name: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(attr.name.clone()),
-                        compression_method: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(
-                            attr.compression_method.to_string(),
-                        ),
-                        variant_tag: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(attr.attr_type),
-                        base_attribute_number: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(attr.attr_index),
-                        is_not_null: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(attr.is_not_null),
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    }
-                }))
-                .exec(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-                Statistic::insert_many(mock_catalog.statistics.iter().map(|stat| {
-                    statistic::ActiveModel {
-                        name: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.name.clone()),
-                        table_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.table_id),
-                        number_of_attributes: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.attr_ids.len() as i32),
-                        creation_time: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-                        variant_tag: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.stat_type),
-                        description: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(
-                            self.get_description_from_attr_ids(stat.attr_ids.clone()),
-                        ),
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    }
-                }))
-                .exec(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-                VersionedStatistic::insert_many(mock_catalog.statistics.iter().map(|stat| {
-                    versioned_statistic::ActiveModel {
-                        epoch_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(epoch_id),
-                        statistic_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.id),
-                        statistic_value: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.stat_value.clone()),
-                        ..Default::default()
-                    }
-                }))
-                .exec(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-                StatisticToAttributeJunction::insert_many(mock_catalog.statistics.iter().flat_map(
-                    |stat| {
-                        stat.attr_ids.iter().map(move |attr_id| {
-                            statistic_to_attribute_junction::ActiveModel {
-                                statistic_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.id),
-                                attribute_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(*attr_id),
-                            }
-                        })
-                    },
-                ))
-                .exec(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-                IndexMetadata::insert_many(
-                    mock_catalog
-                        .indexes
-                        .iter()
-                        .map(|index| index_metadata::ActiveModel {
-                            name: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(index.name.clone()),
-                            table_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(index.table_id),
-                            number_of_attributes: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(
-                                index.attr_ids.len() as i32
-                            ),
-                            variant_tag: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(index.index_type),
-                            is_unique: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(index.is_unique),
-                            nulls_not_distinct: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(index.nulls_not_distinct),
-                            is_primary: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(index.is_primary),
-                            is_clustered: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(index.is_clustered),
-                            is_exclusion: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(index.is_exclusion),
-                            description: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(
-                                self.get_description_from_attr_ids(index.attr_ids.clone()),
-                            ),
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        }),
-                )
-                .exec(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-                // TODO: initialize constraints
-            }
-            CatalogSource::Iceberg() => todo!(),
-        }
-        transaction.commit().await?;
-        Ok(epoch_id)
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: improve the documentation
-    /* Update the statistics in the database.
-     * The statistic can be newly inserted or updated. If the statistic value
-     * is the same as the latest existing one, the update will be ignored, and
-     * the return value will be None.
-     * If `epoch_option` is `EpochOption::Existed(epoch_id)`, the new statistic
-     * will be associated with the given epoch_id. If `epoch_option` is
-     * `EpochOption::New(source, data)`, a new epoch will be created with the
-     * given source and data, and the new statistic will be associated with the
-     * new epoch. And return the new epoch_id.
-     * If the statistic value is the same as the latest existing one, this function
-     * won't create a new epoch.
-     *
-     * For batch updates, the caller can directly call this function with
-     * New epoch option at the first time, and if the epoch_id is returned, the
-     * caller can use the returned epoch_id for the rest of the updates.
-     * But if the epoch_id is not returned, the caller should continue using
-     * the New epoch option for the next statistic update.
-     */
-    async fn update_stats(
-        &self,
-        stat: Stat,
-        epoch_option: EpochOption,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<EpochId>> {
-        let transaction = self.db.begin().await?;
-        // 0. Check if the stat already exists. If exists, get stat_id, else insert into statistic table.
-        let stat_id = match stat.table_id {
-            Some(table_id) => {
-                // TODO: only select needed fields
-                let res = Statistic::find()
-                    .filter(statistic::Column::TableId.eq(table_id))
-                    .inner_join(versioned_statistic::Entity)
-                    .select_also(versioned_statistic::Entity)
-                    .order_by_desc(versioned_statistic::Column::EpochId)
-                    .one(&transaction)
-                    .await?;
-                match res {
-                    Some(stat_data) => {
-                        if stat_data.1.unwrap().statistic_value == stat.stat_value {
-                            return Ok(None);
-                        }
-                        stat_data.0.id
-                    }
-                    None => {
-                        let new_stat = statistic::ActiveModel {
-                            name: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.name.clone()),
-                            table_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Some(table_id)),
-                            number_of_attributes: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(
-                                stat.attr_ids.len() as i32
-                            ),
-                            creation_time: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-                            variant_tag: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.stat_type as i32),
-                            description: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set("".to_string()),
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        };
-                        let res = Statistic::insert(new_stat).exec(&transaction).await;
-                        match res {
-                            Ok(insert_res) => insert_res.last_insert_id,
-                            Err(_) => {
-                                return Err(BackendError::CostModel(
-                                    format!(
-                                        "failed to insert statistic {:?} into statistic table",
-                                        stat
-                                    )
-                                    .into(),
-                                ))
-                            }
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            None => {
-                let description = self.get_description_from_attr_ids(stat.attr_ids.clone());
-                let res = Statistic::find()
-                    .filter(statistic::Column::NumberOfAttributes.eq(stat.attr_ids.len() as i32))
-                    .filter(statistic::Column::Description.eq(description.clone()))
-                    .filter(statistic::Column::VariantTag.eq(stat.stat_type as i32))
-                    .inner_join(versioned_statistic::Entity)
-                    .select_also(versioned_statistic::Entity)
-                    .order_by_desc(versioned_statistic::Column::EpochId)
-                    .one(&transaction)
-                    .await?;
-                match res {
-                    Some(stat_data) => {
-                        if stat_data.1.unwrap().statistic_value == stat.stat_value {
-                            return Ok(None);
-                        }
-                        stat_data.0.id
-                    }
-                    None => {
-                        let new_stat = statistic::ActiveModel {
-                            name: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.name.clone()),
-                            number_of_attributes: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(
-                                stat.attr_ids.len() as i32
-                            ),
-                            creation_time: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-                            variant_tag: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.stat_type as i32),
-                            description: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(description),
-                            ..Default::default()
-                        };
-                        // TODO(lanlou): we should not clone here maybe...
-                        let insert_res = Statistic::insert(new_stat.clone())
-                            .exec(&transaction)
-                            .await?;
-                        for attr_id in stat.attr_ids {
-                            let new_junction = statistic_to_attribute_junction::ActiveModel {
-                                statistic_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(insert_res.last_insert_id),
-                                attribute_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(attr_id),
-                            };
-                            let res = StatisticToAttributeJunction::insert(new_junction)
-                                .exec(&transaction)
-                                .await?;
-                        }
-                        insert_res.last_insert_id
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        };
-        // 1. Insert into attr_stats and related junction tables.
-        let epoch_id = match epoch_option {
-            EpochOption::Existed(e) => e,
-            EpochOption::New(source, data) => {
-                let new_event = event::ActiveModel {
-                    source_variant: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(source),
-                    timestamp: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-                    data: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(sea_orm::JsonValue::String(data)),
-                    ..Default::default()
-                };
-                let insert_res = Event::insert(new_event).exec(&transaction).await?;
-                insert_res.last_insert_id
-            }
-        };
-        let new_stats = versioned_statistic::ActiveModel {
-            epoch_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(epoch_id),
-            statistic_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat_id),
-            statistic_value: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat.stat_value),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-        let _ = VersionedStatistic::insert(new_stats)
-            .exec(&transaction)
-            .await?;
-
-        // 2. Invalidate all the related cost.
-        let _ = plan_cost::Entity::update_many()
-            .col_expr(plan_cost::Column::IsValid, Expr::value(false))
-            .filter(plan_cost::Column::IsValid.eq(true))
-            .filter(plan_cost::Column::EpochId.lt(epoch_id))
-            .filter(
-                plan_cost::Column::PhysicalExpressionId.in_subquery(
-                    Query::select()
-                        .column(
-                            physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Column::PhysicalExpressionId,
-                        )
-                        .from(physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Entity)
-                        .cond_where(
-                            physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Column::StatisticId
-                                .eq(stat_id),
-                        )
-                        .to_owned(),
-                ),
-            )
-            .exec(&transaction)
-            .await?;
-
-        transaction.commit().await?;
-        Ok(Some(epoch_id))
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn store_expr_stats_mappings(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        stat_ids: Vec<StatId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<()> {
-        let to_insert_mappings = stat_ids
-            .iter()
-            .map(
-                |stat_id| physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::ActiveModel {
-                    physical_expression_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(expr_id),
-                    statistic_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(*stat_id),
-                },
-            )
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        let _ = PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::insert_many(to_insert_mappings)
-            .exec(&self.db)
-            .await?;
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn get_stats_for_table(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Json>> {
-        match epoch_id {
-            Some(epoch_id) => Ok(VersionedStatistic::find()
-                .filter(versioned_statistic::Column::EpochId.eq(epoch_id))
-                .inner_join(statistic::Entity)
-                .filter(statistic::Column::TableId.eq(table_id))
-                .filter(statistic::Column::VariantTag.eq(stat_type as i32))
-                .one(&self.db)
-                .await?
-                .map(|stat| stat.statistic_value)),
-
-            None => Ok(VersionedStatistic::find()
-                .inner_join(statistic::Entity)
-                .filter(statistic::Column::TableId.eq(table_id))
-                .filter(statistic::Column::VariantTag.eq(stat_type as i32))
-                .order_by_desc(versioned_statistic::Column::EpochId)
-                .one(&self.db)
-                .await?
-                .map(|stat| stat.statistic_value)),
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn get_stats_for_attr(
-        &self,
-        mut attr_ids: Vec<AttrId>,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Json>> {
-        let attr_num = attr_ids.len() as i32;
-        attr_ids.sort();
-        let description = self.get_description_from_attr_ids(attr_ids);
-
-        // We don't join with junction table here for faster lookup.
-        match epoch_id {
-            Some(epoch_id) => Ok(VersionedStatistic::find()
-                .filter(versioned_statistic::Column::EpochId.eq(epoch_id))
-                .inner_join(statistic::Entity)
-                .filter(statistic::Column::NumberOfAttributes.eq(attr_num))
-                .filter(statistic::Column::Description.eq(description))
-                .filter(statistic::Column::VariantTag.eq(stat_type as i32))
-                .one(&self.db)
-                .await?
-                .map(|stat| stat.statistic_value)),
-
-            None => Ok(VersionedStatistic::find()
-                .inner_join(statistic::Entity)
-                .filter(statistic::Column::NumberOfAttributes.eq(attr_num))
-                .filter(statistic::Column::Description.eq(description))
-                .filter(statistic::Column::VariantTag.eq(stat_type as i32))
-                .order_by_desc(versioned_statistic::Column::EpochId)
-                .one(&self.db)
-                .await?
-                .map(|stat| stat.statistic_value)),
-        }
-    }
-
-    async fn get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attr_base_indices: Vec<AttrIndex>,
-        stat_type: StatType,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Json>> {
-        // Get the attribute ids based on table id and attribute base indices
-        let mut condition = Condition::any();
-        for attr_base_index in &attr_base_indices {
-            condition = condition.add(attribute::Column::BaseAttributeNumber.eq(*attr_base_index));
-        }
-        let attr_ids = Attribute::find()
-            .filter(attribute::Column::TableId.eq(table_id))
-            .filter(condition)
-            .all(&self.db)
-            .await?
-            .iter()
-            .map(|attr| attr.id)
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-
-        if attr_ids.len() != attr_base_indices.len() {
-            return Err(BackendError::CostModel(
-                format!(
-                    "Not all attributes found for table_id {} and base indices {:?}",
-                    table_id, attr_base_indices
-                )
-                .into(),
-            ));
-        }
-
-        self.get_stats_for_attr(attr_ids, stat_type, epoch_id).await
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    /// Each record in the `plan_cost` table can contain either the cost or the estimated statistic
-    /// or both, but never neither.
-    /// The name can be misleading, since it can also return the estimated statistic.
-    async fn get_cost_analysis(
-        &self,
-        expr_id: ExprId,
-        epoch_id: EpochId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<(Option<Cost>, Option<f32>)> {
-        let cost = PlanCost::find()
-            .filter(plan_cost::Column::PhysicalExpressionId.eq(expr_id))
-            .filter(plan_cost::Column::EpochId.eq(epoch_id))
-            .one(&self.db)
-            .await?;
-        // When this cost is not found, we should return None
-        if cost.is_none() {
-            return Ok((None, None));
-        }
-
-        let real_cost = cost.as_ref().and_then(|c| c.cost.as_ref()).map(|c| Cost {
-            compute_cost: c.get("compute_cost").unwrap().as_f64().unwrap(),
-            io_cost: c.get("io_cost").unwrap().as_f64().unwrap(),
-        });
-
-        Ok((real_cost, cost.unwrap().estimated_statistic))
-    }
-
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    /// It returns the cost and estimated statistic if applicable.
-    /// Each record in the `plan_cost` table can contain either the cost or the estimated statistic
-    /// or both, but never neither.
-    /// The name can be misleading, since it can also return the estimated statistic.
-    async fn get_cost(&self, expr_id: ExprId) -> StorageResult<(Option<Cost>, Option<f32>)> {
-        let cost = PlanCost::find()
-            .filter(plan_cost::Column::PhysicalExpressionId.eq(expr_id))
-            .order_by_desc(plan_cost::Column::EpochId)
-            .one(&self.db)
-            .await?;
-        // When this cost is invalid or not found, we should return None
-        if cost.is_none() || !cost.clone().unwrap().is_valid {
-            return Ok((None, None));
-        }
-
-        let real_cost = cost.as_ref().and_then(|c| c.cost.as_ref()).map(|c| Cost {
-            compute_cost: c.get("compute_cost").unwrap().as_f64().unwrap(),
-            io_cost: c.get("io_cost").unwrap().as_f64().unwrap(),
-        });
-
-        Ok((real_cost, cost.unwrap().estimated_statistic))
-    }
-
-    /// This method should handle the case when the cost is already stored.
-    /// The name maybe misleading, since it can also store the estimated statistic.
-    /// If epoch_id is none, we pick the latest epoch_id.
-    ///
-    /// TODO: consider whether we need to pass the epoch_id here. When the epoch is
-    /// stale because someone else updates the stats while we're still computing cost,
-    /// what is the expected behavior?
-    ///
-    /// TODO: documentation
-    async fn store_cost(
-        &self,
-        physical_expression_id: ExprId,
-        cost: Option<Cost>,
-        estimated_statistic: Option<f32>,
-        epoch_id: Option<EpochId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<()> {
-        assert!(cost.is_some() || estimated_statistic.is_some());
-        // TODO: we shouldn't do the following checks in the production environment.
-        let expr_exists = PhysicalExpression::find_by_id(physical_expression_id)
-            .one(&self.db)
-            .await?;
-        if expr_exists.is_none() {
-            return Err(BackendError::CostModel(
-                format!(
-                    "physical expression id {} not found when storing cost",
-                    physical_expression_id
-                )
-                .into(),
-            ));
-        }
-        // Check if epoch_id exists in Event table
-        if epoch_id.is_some() {
-            let epoch_exists = Event::find()
-                .filter(event::Column::EpochId.eq(epoch_id.unwrap()))
-                .one(&self.db)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-            if epoch_exists.is_none() {
-                return Err(BackendError::CostModel(
-                    format!("epoch id {} not found when storing cost", epoch_id.unwrap()).into(),
-                ));
-            }
-        }
-
-        let transaction = self.db.begin().await?;
-
-        /*
-        The `store_cost` logic is as follows:
-        1. If the epoch_id is provided, we should update the cost with the corresponding epoch_id,
-        or insert a new record if it doesn't exist.
-        2. If the epoch_id is not provided, we cannot directly use the latest epoch_id, since in the
-        plan_cost table, for the current physical expression, there may be a valid cost with a lower
-        epoch_id, since the update_stats function updates unrelated stats. So we need to handle the
-        epoch_id in following logics:
-            1) If a valid cost is already in the plan_cost table, we use the same epoch_id.
-            2) If there is no valid cost in the plan_cost table, or there is no record, we use the
-               latest epoch_id.
-         */
-        // TODO: We should add some integration tests to fully test the above logic
-        let epoch_id_data;
-        let existed_cost;
-        if let Some(epoch_id) = epoch_id {
-            epoch_id_data = epoch_id;
-            existed_cost = PlanCost::find()
-                .filter(plan_cost::Column::PhysicalExpressionId.eq(physical_expression_id))
-                .filter(plan_cost::Column::EpochId.eq(epoch_id))
-                .one(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-        } else {
-            existed_cost = PlanCost::find()
-                .filter(plan_cost::Column::PhysicalExpressionId.eq(physical_expression_id))
-                .filter(plan_cost::Column::IsValid.eq(true))
-                .order_by_desc(plan_cost::Column::EpochId)
-                .one(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-            if existed_cost.is_none() {
-                epoch_id_data = {
-                    // When init, please make sure there is at least one epoch in the Event table.
-                    let latest_epoch_id = Event::find()
-                        .order_by_desc(event::Column::EpochId)
-                        .one(&self.db)
-                        .await?
-                        .unwrap();
-                    latest_epoch_id.epoch_id
-                }
-            } else {
-                epoch_id_data = existed_cost.clone().unwrap().epoch_id;
-            }
-        }
-
-        if existed_cost.is_some() {
-            let mut new_cost: plan_cost::ActiveModel = existed_cost.unwrap().into();
-            let mut update = false;
-            if cost.is_some() {
-                let input_cost = sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Some(json!({
-                    "compute_cost": cost.clone().unwrap().compute_cost,
-                    "io_cost": cost.clone().unwrap().io_cost
-                })));
-                if new_cost.cost != input_cost {
-                    update = true;
-                    new_cost.cost = input_cost;
-                }
-            }
-            if estimated_statistic.is_some() {
-                let input_estimated_statistic = sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(estimated_statistic);
-                if new_cost.estimated_statistic != input_estimated_statistic {
-                    update = true;
-                    new_cost.estimated_statistic = input_estimated_statistic;
-                }
-            }
-            if update {
-                assert!(new_cost.epoch_id.is_unchanged());
-                let _ = PlanCost::update(new_cost).exec(&transaction).await?;
-            }
-        } else {
-            // TODO: we shouldn't do the following checks in the production environment.
-            // This check may be easy to violate, so consider removing epoch_id input parameter.
-            let latest_cost = PlanCost::find()
-                .filter(plan_cost::Column::PhysicalExpressionId.eq(physical_expression_id))
-                .order_by_desc(plan_cost::Column::EpochId)
-                .one(&transaction)
-                .await?;
-            if latest_cost.is_some() {
-                assert!(latest_cost.clone().unwrap().epoch_id < epoch_id_data);
-                assert!(!latest_cost.clone().unwrap().is_valid);
-            }
-
-            let new_cost = plan_cost::ActiveModel {
-                physical_expression_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(physical_expression_id),
-                epoch_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(epoch_id_data),
-                cost: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(
-                    cost.map(|c| json!({"compute_cost": c.compute_cost, "io_cost": c.io_cost})),
-                ),
-                estimated_statistic: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(estimated_statistic),
-                is_valid: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(true),
-                ..Default::default()
-            };
-            let _ = PlanCost::insert(new_cost).exec(&transaction).await?;
-        }
-
-        transaction.commit().await?;
-        Ok(())
-    }
-
-    async fn get_attribute(
-        &self,
-        table_id: TableId,
-        attribute_base_index: AttrIndex,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Attr>> {
-        let attr_res = Attribute::find()
-            .filter(attribute::Column::TableId.eq(table_id))
-            .filter(attribute::Column::BaseAttributeNumber.eq(attribute_base_index))
-            .one(&self.db)
-            .await?;
-        match attr_res {
-            Some(attr) => match AttrType::try_from(attr.variant_tag) {
-                Ok(attr_type) => Ok(Some(Attr {
-                    table_id: attr.table_id,
-                    name: attr.name,
-                    compression_method: attr.compression_method,
-                    attr_type,
-                    base_index: attr.base_attribute_number,
-                    nullable: attr.is_not_null,
-                })),
-                Err(_) => Err(BackendError::BackendError(format!(
-                    "Failed to convert variant tag {} to AttrType",
-                    attr.variant_tag
-                ))),
-            },
-            None => Ok(None),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-// TODO: add integration tests
-#[cfg(test)]
-mod tests {
-    use crate::cost_model::interface::{Cost, EpochOption, StatType};
-    use crate::{cost_model::interface::Stat, migrate, CostModelStorageLayer};
-    use crate::{get_sqlite_url, TEST_DATABASE_FILE};
-    use sea_orm::sqlx::database;
-    use sea_orm::sqlx::types::chrono::Utc;
-    use sea_orm::Statement;
-    use sea_orm::{
-        ColumnTrait, ConnectionTrait, Database, DbBackend, EntityTrait, ModelTrait, QueryFilter,
-        QuerySelect, QueryTrait,
-    };
-    use sea_orm_migration::schema::json;
-    use serde_json::{de, json};
-
-    use crate::entities::{prelude::*, *};
-
-    async fn run_migration(db_file: &str) -> String {
-        let database_url = get_sqlite_url(http://github.com/db_file);
-        remove_db_file(db_file);
-
-        let db = Database::connect(database_url.clone())
-            .await
-            .expect("Unable to connect to the database");
-
-        migrate(&db)
-            .await
-            .expect("Something went wrong during migration");
-
-        db.execute(sea_orm::Statement::from_string(
-            sea_orm::DatabaseBackend::Sqlite,
-            "PRAGMA foreign_keys = ON;".to_owned(),
-        ))
-        .await
-        .expect("Unable to enable foreign keys");
-        database_url.clone()
-    }
-
-    fn remove_db_file(db_file: &str) {
-        let database_file = format!("./{}", db_file);
-        let _ = std::fs::remove_file(database_file);
-    }
-
-    async fn copy_init_db(db_file: &str) -> String {
-        let _ = std::fs::copy(TEST_DATABASE_FILE.clone(), db_file);
-        get_sqlite_url(http://github.com/db_file)
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_create_new_epoch() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_create_new_epoch.db";
-        let database_url = run_migration(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .create_new_epoch("source".to_string(), "data".to_string())
-            .await;
-        println!("{:?}", res);
-        assert!(res.is_ok());
-        let inserted_id = res.unwrap();
-        let lookup_res = Event::find_by_id(inserted_id)
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        println!("{:?}", lookup_res);
-        assert_eq!(lookup_res.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(lookup_res[0].source_variant, "source");
-        assert_eq!(
-            lookup_res[0].data,
-            serde_json::Value::String("data".to_string())
-        );
-        assert_eq!(lookup_res[0].epoch_id, inserted_id);
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_update_stats_from_catalog() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_update_stats_from_catalog.db";
-        let database_url = run_migration(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .update_stats_from_catalog(super::CatalogSource::Mock)
-            .await;
-        println!("{:?}", res);
-        assert!(res.is_ok());
-        let epoch_id = res.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(epoch_id, 1);
-
-        let lookup_res = Statistic::find().all(&backend_manager.db).await.unwrap();
-        println!("{:?}", lookup_res);
-        assert_eq!(lookup_res.len(), 3);
-
-        let stat_res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_table(1, StatType::TableRowCount, Some(epoch_id))
-            .await;
-        assert!(stat_res.is_ok());
-        assert_eq!(stat_res.unwrap().unwrap(), json!(300));
-        let stat_res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr([2].to_vec(), StatType::NonNullCount, None)
-            .await;
-        assert!(stat_res.is_ok());
-        assert_eq!(stat_res.unwrap().unwrap(), json!(200));
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_update_attr_stats() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_update_attr_stats.db";
-        let database_url = copy_init_db(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        // 1. Update non-existed stat
-        let epoch_id1 = backend_manager
-            .create_new_epoch("test".to_string(), "test_update_attr_stats".to_string())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let stat = Stat {
-            stat_type: StatType::NonNullCount,
-            stat_value: json!(100),
-            attr_ids: vec![1],
-            table_id: None,
-            name: "countattr1".to_string(),
-        };
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .update_stats(stat, EpochOption::Existed(epoch_id1))
-            .await;
-        assert!(res.is_ok());
-        let stat_res = Statistic::find()
-            .filter(statistic::Column::Name.eq("countattr1"))
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stat_res.len(), 1);
-        println!("{:?}", stat_res);
-        assert_eq!(stat_res[0].number_of_attributes, 1);
-        assert_eq!(stat_res[0].description, "1".to_string());
-        assert_eq!(stat_res[0].variant_tag, StatType::NonNullCount as i32);
-        let stat_attr_res = StatisticToAttributeJunction::find()
-            .filter(statistic_to_attribute_junction::Column::StatisticId.eq(stat_res[0].id))
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stat_attr_res.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(stat_attr_res[0].attribute_id, 1);
-        let versioned_stat_res = VersionedStatistic::find()
-            .filter(versioned_statistic::Column::StatisticId.eq(stat_res[0].id))
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[0].statistic_value, json!(100));
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[0].epoch_id, epoch_id1);
-
-        // 2. Normal update
-        // 2.1 Insert some costs
-        let res = PhysicalExpression::insert(physical_expression::ActiveModel {
-            group_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(1),
-            fingerprint: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(12346),
-            variant_tag: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(1),
-            data: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(serde_json::Value::String("data".to_string())),
-            ..Default::default()
-        });
-        let expr_id = res.exec(&backend_manager.db).await.unwrap().last_insert_id;
-        let res = PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::insert(
-            physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::ActiveModel {
-                physical_expression_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(expr_id),
-                statistic_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(stat_res[0].id),
-            },
-        )
-        .exec(&backend_manager.db)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-        backend_manager
-            .store_cost(
-                expr_id,
-                Some(Cost {
-                    compute_cost: 42.0,
-                    io_cost: 42.0,
-                }),
-                Some(42.0),
-                Some(versioned_stat_res[0].epoch_id),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let cost_res = PlanCost::find()
-            .filter(plan_cost::Column::PhysicalExpressionId.eq(expr_id))
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(cost_res.len(), 1);
-        assert!(cost_res[0].is_valid);
-        // 2.2 Normal update
-        let epoch_id2 = backend_manager
-            .create_new_epoch("test".to_string(), "test_update_attr_stats".to_string())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let stat2 = Stat {
-            stat_type: StatType::NonNullCount,
-            stat_value: json!(200),
-            attr_ids: vec![1],
-            table_id: None,
-            name: "countattr1".to_string(),
-        };
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .update_stats(stat2, EpochOption::Existed(epoch_id2))
-            .await;
-        assert!(res.is_ok());
-        // 2.3 Check statistic table
-        let stat_res = Statistic::find()
-            .filter(statistic::Column::Name.eq("countattr1"))
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stat_res.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(stat_res[0].description, "1".to_string());
-        // 2.4 Check statistic_to_attribute_junction table
-        let stat_attr_res = StatisticToAttributeJunction::find()
-            .filter(statistic_to_attribute_junction::Column::StatisticId.eq(stat_res[0].id))
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(stat_attr_res.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(stat_attr_res[0].attribute_id, 1);
-        // 2.5 Check versioned_statistic table
-        let versioned_stat_res = VersionedStatistic::find()
-            .filter(versioned_statistic::Column::StatisticId.eq(stat_res[0].id))
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[0].statistic_value, json!(100));
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[0].epoch_id, epoch_id1);
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[0].statistic_id, stat_res[0].id);
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[1].statistic_value, json!(200));
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[1].epoch_id, epoch_id2);
-        assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[1].statistic_id, stat_res[0].id);
-        assert!(epoch_id1 < epoch_id2);
-        // 2.6 Check plan_cost table (cost invalidation)
-        let cost_res = PlanCost::find()
-            .filter(plan_cost::Column::PhysicalExpressionId.eq(expr_id))
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(cost_res.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(
-            cost_res[0].cost,
-            Some(json!({"compute_cost": 42.0, "io_cost": 42.0}))
-        );
-        assert_eq!(cost_res[0].epoch_id, epoch_id1);
-        assert!(!cost_res[0].is_valid);
-
-        // 3. Update existed stat with the same value
-        let epoch_num = Event::find().all(&backend_manager.db).await.unwrap().len();
-        let stat3 = Stat {
-            stat_type: StatType::NonNullCount,
-            stat_value: json!(200),
-            attr_ids: vec![1],
-            table_id: None,
-            name: "CountAttr1".to_string(),
-        };
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .update_stats(
-                stat3,
-                EpochOption::New("source".to_string(), "data".to_string()),
-            )
-            .await;
-        assert!(res.is_ok());
-        assert!(res.unwrap().is_none());
-        let epoch_num2 = Event::find().all(&backend_manager.db).await.unwrap().len();
-        assert_eq!(epoch_num, epoch_num2);
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_update_table_stats() {
-        // Simulate batch updates, first insert an existed same stat with none epoch_id,
-        // then insert some non-existed or different stats with New epoch_option.
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_update_table_stats.db";
-        let database_url = copy_init_db(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-
-        let table_inserted_res = TableMetadata::insert(table_metadata::ActiveModel {
-            name: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set("Table2".to_string()),
-            namespace_id: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(1),
-            creation_time: sea_orm::ActiveValue::Set(Utc::now()),
-            ..Default::default()
-        })
-        .exec(&backend_manager.db)
-        .await
-        .unwrap();
-
-        let statistics: Vec<Stat> = vec![
-            Stat {
-                stat_type: StatType::TableRowCount,
-                stat_value: json!(0),
-                attr_ids: vec![],
-                table_id: Some(1),
-                name: "row_count".to_string(),
-            },
-            Stat {
-                stat_type: StatType::TableRowCount,
-                stat_value: json!(20),
-                attr_ids: vec![],
-                table_id: Some(1),
-                name: "row_count".to_string(),
-            },
-            Stat {
-                stat_type: StatType::TableRowCount,
-                stat_value: json!(100),
-                attr_ids: vec![],
-                table_id: Some(table_inserted_res.last_insert_id),
-                name: "Table2Count1".to_string(),
-            },
-        ];
-
-        let mut epoch_id: Option<i32> = None;
-        for stat in statistics {
-            match epoch_id {
-                Some(e) => {
-                    let res = backend_manager
-                        .update_stats(stat.clone(), EpochOption::Existed(e))
-                        .await;
-                    assert!(res.is_ok());
-                    assert!(stat.name == "Table2Count1");
-                    let res = res.unwrap();
-                    assert!(res.is_some());
-                    assert!(res.unwrap() == e);
-                    let stat_res = Statistic::find()
-                        .filter(statistic::Column::Name.eq(stat.name.clone()))
-                        .all(&backend_manager.db)
-                        .await
-                        .unwrap();
-                    assert_eq!(stat_res.len(), 1);
-                    let versioned_stat_res = VersionedStatistic::find()
-                        .filter(versioned_statistic::Column::StatisticId.eq(stat_res[0].id))
-                        .all(&backend_manager.db)
-                        .await
-                        .unwrap();
-                    assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res.len(), 1);
-                    assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[0].statistic_value, stat.stat_value);
-                    assert_eq!(versioned_stat_res[0].epoch_id, e);
-                }
-                None => {
-                    let res = backend_manager
-                        .update_stats(
-                            stat.clone(),
-                            EpochOption::New("source".to_string(), "data".to_string()),
-                        )
-                        .await;
-                    assert!(res.is_ok());
-                    if stat.stat_value == json!(0) {
-                        assert!(res.unwrap().is_none());
-                    } else {
-                        assert!(stat.stat_value == json!(20));
-                        let res = res.unwrap();
-                        assert!(res.is_some());
-                        epoch_id = Some(res.unwrap());
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_store_cost() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_store_cost.db";
-        let database_url = copy_init_db(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        let epoch_id = backend_manager
-            .create_new_epoch("source".to_string(), "data".to_string())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let stat = Stat {
-            stat_type: StatType::TableRowCount,
-            stat_value: json!(10),
-            attr_ids: vec![],
-            table_id: Some(1),
-            name: "row_count".to_owned(),
-        };
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .update_stats(stat, EpochOption::Existed(epoch_id))
-            .await;
-        assert!(res.is_ok());
-
-        let physical_expression_id = 1;
-        let cost = Cost {
-            compute_cost: 42.0,
-            io_cost: 42.0,
-        };
-        let mut estimated_statistic = 42.0;
-        backend_manager
-            .store_cost(
-                physical_expression_id,
-                Some(cost.clone()),
-                Some(estimated_statistic),
-                Some(epoch_id),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let costs = super::PlanCost::find()
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(costs.len(), 2); // The first row one is the initialized data
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].epoch_id, epoch_id);
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].physical_expression_id, physical_expression_id);
-        assert_eq!(
-            costs[1].cost,
-            Some(json!({"compute_cost": cost.compute_cost, "io_cost": cost.io_cost}))
-        );
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].estimated_statistic.unwrap(), estimated_statistic);
-
-        estimated_statistic = 50.0;
-        backend_manager
-            .store_cost(
-                physical_expression_id,
-                None,
-                Some(estimated_statistic),
-                None,
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let costs = super::PlanCost::find()
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(costs.len(), 2); // We should not insert a new row
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].epoch_id, epoch_id);
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].physical_expression_id, physical_expression_id);
-        assert_eq!(
-            costs[1].cost,
-            Some(json!({"compute_cost": cost.compute_cost, "io_cost": cost.io_cost}))
-        );
-        assert_eq!(
-            costs[1].estimated_statistic.unwrap(),
-            estimated_statistic // The estimated_statistic should be update
-        );
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_get_cost() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_get_cost.db";
-        let database_url = copy_init_db(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        let epoch_id = backend_manager
-            .create_new_epoch("source".to_string(), "data".to_string())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let stat = Stat {
-            stat_type: StatType::TableRowCount,
-            stat_value: json!(10),
-            attr_ids: vec![],
-            table_id: Some(1),
-            name: "row_count".to_owned(),
-        };
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .update_stats(stat, EpochOption::Existed(epoch_id))
-            .await;
-        assert!(res.is_ok());
-
-        let physical_expression_id = 1;
-        let cost = Cost {
-            compute_cost: 42.0,
-            io_cost: 42.0,
-        };
-        let _ = backend_manager
-            .store_cost(
-                physical_expression_id,
-                Some(cost.clone()),
-                None,
-                Some(epoch_id),
-            )
-            .await;
-        let costs = super::PlanCost::find()
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(costs.len(), 2); // The first row one is the initialized data
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].epoch_id, epoch_id);
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].physical_expression_id, physical_expression_id);
-        assert_eq!(
-            costs[1].cost,
-            Some(json!({"compute_cost": cost.compute_cost, "io_cost": cost.io_cost}))
-        );
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].estimated_statistic, None);
-
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_cost(physical_expression_id)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(res.0.unwrap(), cost);
-        assert_eq!(res.1, None);
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_get_cost_analysis() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_get_cost_analysis.db";
-        let database_url = copy_init_db(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        let epoch_id = backend_manager
-            .create_new_epoch("source".to_string(), "data".to_string())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let stat = Stat {
-            stat_type: StatType::TableRowCount,
-            stat_value: json!(10),
-            attr_ids: vec![],
-            table_id: Some(1),
-            name: "row_count".to_owned(),
-        };
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .update_stats(stat, EpochOption::Existed(epoch_id))
-            .await;
-        assert!(res.is_ok());
-
-        let physical_expression_id = 1;
-        let estimated_statistic = 42.0;
-        let _ = backend_manager
-            .store_cost(
-                physical_expression_id,
-                None,
-                Some(estimated_statistic),
-                Some(epoch_id),
-            )
-            .await;
-        let costs = super::PlanCost::find()
-            .all(&backend_manager.db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(costs.len(), 2); // The first row one is the initialized data
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].epoch_id, epoch_id);
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].physical_expression_id, physical_expression_id);
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].cost, None);
-        assert_eq!(costs[1].estimated_statistic.unwrap(), estimated_statistic);
-        println!("{:?}", costs);
-
-        // Retrieve physical_expression_id 1 and epoch_id 1
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_cost_analysis(physical_expression_id, 1)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // The cost in the dummy data is 10
-        assert_eq!(
-            res.0.unwrap(),
-            Cost {
-                compute_cost: 10.0,
-                io_cost: 10.0,
-            }
-        );
-        assert_eq!(res.1.unwrap(), 10.0);
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_get_stats_for_table() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_get_stats_for_table.db";
-        let database_url = copy_init_db(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        let epoch_id = 1;
-        let table_id = 1;
-        let stat_type = StatType::TableRowCount;
-
-        // Get initial stats
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_table(table_id, stat_type, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let row_count = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(row_count, 0);
-
-        // Update stats
-        let epoch_id2 = backend_manager
-            .create_new_epoch("test".to_string(), "test_get_stats_for_table".to_string())
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let stat = Stat {
-            stat_type: StatType::TableRowCount,
-            stat_value: json!(100),
-            attr_ids: vec![],
-            table_id: Some(table_id),
-            name: "row_count".to_string(),
-        };
-        backend_manager
-            .update_stats(stat, EpochOption::Existed(epoch_id2))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Get updated stats
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_table(table_id, stat_type, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let row_count = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(row_count, 100);
-
-        // Get stats for a specific epoch
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_table(table_id, stat_type, Some(epoch_id))
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let row_count = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(row_count, 0);
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_get_stats_for_single_attr() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_get_stats_for_single_attr.db";
-        let database_url = copy_init_db(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        let epoch_id = 1;
-        let attr_ids = vec![1];
-        let stat_type = StatType::Cardinality;
-
-        // Get initial stats
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr(attr_ids.clone(), stat_type, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let cardinality = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(cardinality, 0);
-
-        // Update stats
-        let epoch_id2 = backend_manager
-            .create_new_epoch(
-                "test".to_string(),
-                "test_get_stats_for_single_attr".to_string(),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let stat = Stat {
-            stat_type: StatType::Cardinality,
-            stat_value: json!(100),
-            attr_ids: attr_ids.clone(),
-            table_id: None,
-            name: "cardinality".to_string(),
-        };
-        backend_manager
-            .update_stats(stat, EpochOption::Existed(epoch_id2))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Get updated stats
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr(attr_ids.clone(), stat_type, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let cardinality = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(cardinality, 100);
-
-        // Get stats for a specific epoch
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr(attr_ids.clone(), stat_type, Some(epoch_id))
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let cardinality = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(cardinality, 0);
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_get_stats_for_multiple_attrs() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_get_stats_for_multiple_attrs.db";
-        let database_url = copy_init_db(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        let epoch_id = 1;
-        let attr_ids = vec![2, 1];
-        let stat_type = StatType::Cardinality;
-
-        // Get initial stats
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr(attr_ids.clone(), stat_type, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let cardinality = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(cardinality, 0);
-
-        // Update stats
-        let epoch_id2 = backend_manager
-            .create_new_epoch(
-                "test".to_string(),
-                "test_get_stats_for_multiple_attrs".to_string(),
-            )
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        let stat = Stat {
-            stat_type: StatType::Cardinality,
-            stat_value: json!(111),
-            attr_ids: attr_ids.clone(),
-            table_id: None,
-            name: "cardinality".to_string(),
-        };
-        backend_manager
-            .update_stats(stat, EpochOption::Existed(epoch_id2))
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-
-        // Get updated stats
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr(attr_ids.clone(), stat_type, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let cardinality = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(cardinality, 111);
-
-        // Get stats for a specific epoch
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr(attr_ids.clone(), stat_type, Some(epoch_id))
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let cardinality = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(cardinality, 0);
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-
-    #[tokio::test]
-    async fn test_get_stats_for_attr_indices_based() {
-        const DATABASE_FILE: &str = "test_get_stats_for_attr_indices_based.db";
-        let database_url = copy_init_db(DATABASE_FILE).await;
-        let mut binding = super::BackendManager::new(Some(&database_url)).await;
-        let backend_manager = binding.as_mut().unwrap();
-        let epoch_id = 1;
-        let table_id = 1;
-        let attr_base_indices = vec![0, 1];
-        let stat_type = StatType::Cardinality;
-
-        // Statistics exist in the database
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(table_id, attr_base_indices.clone(), stat_type, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-        let cardinality = res.as_i64().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(cardinality, 0);
-
-        // Statistics do not exist in the database
-        let attr_base_indices = vec![1];
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(table_id, attr_base_indices.clone(), stat_type, None)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert!(res.is_none());
-
-        // Attribute base indices not valid.
-        let attr_base_indices = vec![1, 2];
-        let res = backend_manager
-            .get_stats_for_attr_indices_based(table_id, attr_base_indices.clone(), stat_type, None)
-            .await;
-        assert!(res.is_err());
-
-        remove_db_file(DATABASE_FILE);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/db/init.db b/optd-persistent/src/db/init.db
deleted file mode 100644
index 0c3d71c..0000000
Binary files a/optd-persistent/src/db/init.db and /dev/null differ
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/attribute.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/attribute.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index aa312c0..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/attribute.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,73 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "attribute")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub table_id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub compression_method: String,
-    pub variant_tag: i32,
-    pub base_attribute_number: i32,
-    pub is_not_null: bool,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::attribute_constraint_junction::Entity")]
-    AttributeConstraintJunction,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::attribute_foreign_constraint_junction::Entity")]
-    AttributeForeignConstraintJunction,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Entity")]
-    StatisticToAttributeJunction,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::table_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::TableId",
-        to = "super::table_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    TableMetadata,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::attribute_constraint_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::AttributeConstraintJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::attribute_foreign_constraint_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::AttributeForeignConstraintJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::StatisticToAttributeJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::table_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::TableMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::statistic::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        super::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Relation::Statistic.def()
-    }
-    fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
-        Some(
-            super::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Relation::Attribute
-                .def()
-                .rev(),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/attribute_constraint_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/attribute_constraint_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 7c61c72..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/attribute_constraint_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "attribute_constraint_junction")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub attribute_id: i32,
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub constraint_id: i32,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::attribute::Entity",
-        from = "Column::AttributeId",
-        to = "super::attribute::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Attribute,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::constraint_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::ConstraintId",
-        to = "super::constraint_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    ConstraintMetadata,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::attribute::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Attribute.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::constraint_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::ConstraintMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/attribute_foreign_constraint_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/attribute_foreign_constraint_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index f219a39..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/attribute_foreign_constraint_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "attribute_foreign_constraint_junction")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub attribute_id: i32,
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub constraint_id: i32,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::attribute::Entity",
-        from = "Column::AttributeId",
-        to = "super::attribute::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Attribute,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::constraint_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::ConstraintId",
-        to = "super::constraint_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    ConstraintMetadata,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::attribute::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Attribute.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::constraint_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::ConstraintMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/constraint_metadata.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/constraint_metadata.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 8adf1d7..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/constraint_metadata.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,68 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "constraint_metadata")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub variant_tag: i32,
-    pub table_id: Option<i32>,
-    pub index_id: Option<i32>,
-    pub foreign_ref_id: Option<i32>,
-    pub check_src: String,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::attribute_constraint_junction::Entity")]
-    AttributeConstraintJunction,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::attribute_foreign_constraint_junction::Entity")]
-    AttributeForeignConstraintJunction,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::index_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::IndexId",
-        to = "super::index_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    IndexMetadata,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::table_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::ForeignRefId",
-        to = "super::table_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    TableMetadata2,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::table_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::TableId",
-        to = "super::table_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    TableMetadata1,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::attribute_constraint_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::AttributeConstraintJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::attribute_foreign_constraint_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::AttributeForeignConstraintJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::index_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::IndexMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/database_metadata.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/database_metadata.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 98106d6..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/database_metadata.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,26 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "database_metadata")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub creation_time: DateTimeUtc,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::namespace_metadata::Entity")]
-    NamespaceMetadata,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::namespace_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::NamespaceMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/event.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/event.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index ad9157d..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/event.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,43 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "event")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub epoch_id: i32,
-    pub timestamp: DateTimeUtc,
-    pub source_variant: String,
-    pub data: Json,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::group_winner::Entity")]
-    GroupWinner,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::plan_cost::Entity")]
-    PlanCost,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::versioned_statistic::Entity")]
-    VersionedStatistic,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::group_winner::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::GroupWinner.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::plan_cost::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PlanCost.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::versioned_statistic::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::VersionedStatistic.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/group_winner.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/group_winner.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 32cbcb4..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/group_winner.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,76 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "group_winner")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub group_id: i32,
-    pub physical_expression_id: i32,
-    pub cost_id: i32,
-    pub epoch_id: i32,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::cascades_group::Entity",
-        from = "Column::GroupId",
-        to = "super::cascades_group::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    CascadesGroup,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::event::Entity",
-        from = "Column::EpochId",
-        to = "super::event::Column::EpochId",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Event,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::physical_expression::Entity",
-        from = "Column::PhysicalExpressionId",
-        to = "super::physical_expression::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    PhysicalExpression,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::plan_cost::Entity",
-        from = "Column::CostId",
-        to = "super::plan_cost::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    PlanCost,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::cascades_group::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::CascadesGroup.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::event::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Event.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PhysicalExpression.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::plan_cost::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PlanCost.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/index_metadata.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/index_metadata.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 47263b7..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/index_metadata.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "index_metadata")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub table_id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub number_of_attributes: i32,
-    pub variant_tag: i32,
-    pub is_unique: bool,
-    pub nulls_not_distinct: bool,
-    pub is_primary: bool,
-    pub is_clustered: bool,
-    pub is_exclusion: bool,
-    pub description: String,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::constraint_metadata::Entity")]
-    ConstraintMetadata,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::table_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::TableId",
-        to = "super::table_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    TableMetadata,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::constraint_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::ConstraintMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::table_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::TableMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/mod.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index cd2d9d0..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,31 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-pub mod prelude;
-
-pub mod attribute;
-pub mod attribute_constraint_junction;
-pub mod attribute_foreign_constraint_junction;
-pub mod cascades_group;
-pub mod constraint_metadata;
-pub mod database_metadata;
-pub mod event;
-pub mod group_winner;
-pub mod index_metadata;
-pub mod logical_children;
-pub mod logical_expression;
-pub mod logical_property;
-pub mod namespace_metadata;
-pub mod physical_children;
-pub mod physical_expression;
-pub mod physical_expression_to_statistic_junction;
-pub mod physical_property;
-pub mod plan_cost;
-pub mod predicate;
-pub mod predicate_children;
-pub mod predicate_logical_expression_junction;
-pub mod predicate_physical_expression_junction;
-pub mod statistic;
-pub mod statistic_to_attribute_junction;
-pub mod table_metadata;
-pub mod trigger;
-pub mod versioned_statistic;
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/namespace_metadata.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/namespace_metadata.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 8f63146..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/namespace_metadata.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,41 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "namespace_metadata")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub database_id: i32,
-    pub creation_time: DateTimeUtc,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::database_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::DatabaseId",
-        to = "super::database_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    DatabaseMetadata,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::table_metadata::Entity")]
-    TableMetadata,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::database_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::DatabaseMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::table_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::TableMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_expression.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_expression.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 4876d35..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_expression.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,94 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "physical_expression")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub group_id: i32,
-    pub fingerprint: i64,
-    pub variant_tag: i16,
-    pub data: Json,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::cascades_group::Entity",
-        from = "Column::GroupId",
-        to = "super::cascades_group::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    CascadesGroup,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::group_winner::Entity")]
-    GroupWinner,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::physical_children::Entity")]
-    PhysicalChildren,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Entity")]
-    PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::physical_property::Entity")]
-    PhysicalProperty,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::plan_cost::Entity")]
-    PlanCost,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::group_winner::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::GroupWinner.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_children::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PhysicalChildren.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_property::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PhysicalProperty.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::plan_cost::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PlanCost.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::cascades_group::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        super::physical_children::Relation::CascadesGroup.def()
-    }
-    fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
-        Some(
-            super::physical_children::Relation::PhysicalExpression
-                .def()
-                .rev(),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::statistic::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        super::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Relation::Statistic.def()
-    }
-    fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
-        Some(
-            super::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Relation::PhysicalExpression
-                .def()
-                .rev(),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_expression_to_statistic_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_expression_to_statistic_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index f8020bd..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_expression_to_statistic_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "physical_expression_to_statistic_junction")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub physical_expression_id: i32,
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub statistic_id: i32,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::physical_expression::Entity",
-        from = "Column::PhysicalExpressionId",
-        to = "super::physical_expression::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    PhysicalExpression,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::statistic::Entity",
-        from = "Column::StatisticId",
-        to = "super::statistic::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Statistic,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PhysicalExpression.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::statistic::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Statistic.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_property.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_property.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 51d98dc..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/physical_property.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,33 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "physical_property")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub physical_expression_id: i32,
-    pub variant_tag: i16,
-    pub data: Json,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::physical_expression::Entity",
-        from = "Column::PhysicalExpressionId",
-        to = "super::physical_expression::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    PhysicalExpression,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PhysicalExpression.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/plan_cost.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/plan_cost.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 5d7e24b..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/plan_cost.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,58 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "plan_cost")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub physical_expression_id: i32,
-    pub epoch_id: i32,
-    pub cost: Option<Json>,
-    #[sea_orm(column_type = "Float", nullable)]
-    pub estimated_statistic: Option<f32>,
-    pub is_valid: bool,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::event::Entity",
-        from = "Column::EpochId",
-        to = "super::event::Column::EpochId",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Event,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::group_winner::Entity")]
-    GroupWinner,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::physical_expression::Entity",
-        from = "Column::PhysicalExpressionId",
-        to = "super::physical_expression::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    PhysicalExpression,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::event::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Event.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::group_winner::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::GroupWinner.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PhysicalExpression.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index e142a21..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,60 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.1
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "predicate")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub data: Json,
-    pub variant: i32,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::predicate_logical_expression_junction::Entity")]
-    PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::predicate_physical_expression_junction::Entity")]
-    PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::predicate_logical_expression_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::predicate_physical_expression_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::logical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        super::predicate_logical_expression_junction::Relation::LogicalExpression.def()
-    }
-    fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
-        Some(
-            super::predicate_logical_expression_junction::Relation::Predicate
-                .def()
-                .rev(),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        super::predicate_physical_expression_junction::Relation::PhysicalExpression.def()
-    }
-    fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
-        Some(
-            super::predicate_physical_expression_junction::Relation::Predicate
-                .def()
-                .rev(),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate_children.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate_children.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 93ef3eb..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate_children.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,34 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.1
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "predicate_children")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub parent_id: i32,
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub child_id: i32,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::predicate::Entity",
-        from = "Column::ChildId",
-        to = "super::predicate::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Predicate2,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::predicate::Entity",
-        from = "Column::ParentId",
-        to = "super::predicate::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Predicate1,
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate_logical_expression_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate_logical_expression_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 520da03..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate_logical_expression_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.1
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "predicate_logical_expression_junction")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub logical_expr_id: i32,
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub predicate_id: i32,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::logical_expression::Entity",
-        from = "Column::LogicalExprId",
-        to = "super::logical_expression::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    LogicalExpression,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::predicate::Entity",
-        from = "Column::PredicateId",
-        to = "super::predicate::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Predicate,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::logical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::LogicalExpression.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::predicate::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Predicate.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate_physical_expression_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate_physical_expression_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 263abc8..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/predicate_physical_expression_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.1
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "predicate_physical_expression_junction")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub physical_expr_id: i32,
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub predicate_id: i32,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::physical_expression::Entity",
-        from = "Column::PhysicalExprId",
-        to = "super::physical_expression::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    PhysicalExpression,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::predicate::Entity",
-        from = "Column::PredicateId",
-        to = "super::predicate::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Predicate,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PhysicalExpression.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::predicate::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Predicate.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/prelude.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/prelude.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 753e58b..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/prelude.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,25 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-pub use super::attribute::Entity as Attribute;
-pub use super::attribute_constraint_junction::Entity as AttributeConstraintJunction;
-pub use super::attribute_foreign_constraint_junction::Entity as AttributeForeignConstraintJunction;
-pub use super::cascades_group::Entity as CascadesGroup;
-pub use super::constraint_metadata::Entity as ConstraintMetadata;
-pub use super::database_metadata::Entity as DatabaseMetadata;
-pub use super::event::Entity as Event;
-pub use super::group_winner::Entity as GroupWinner;
-pub use super::index_metadata::Entity as IndexMetadata;
-pub use super::logical_children::Entity as LogicalChildren;
-pub use super::logical_expression::Entity as LogicalExpression;
-pub use super::logical_property::Entity as LogicalProperty;
-pub use super::namespace_metadata::Entity as NamespaceMetadata;
-pub use super::physical_children::Entity as PhysicalChildren;
-pub use super::physical_expression::Entity as PhysicalExpression;
-pub use super::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Entity as PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction;
-pub use super::physical_property::Entity as PhysicalProperty;
-pub use super::plan_cost::Entity as PlanCost;
-pub use super::statistic::Entity as Statistic;
-pub use super::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Entity as StatisticToAttributeJunction;
-pub use super::table_metadata::Entity as TableMetadata;
-pub use super::trigger::Entity as Trigger;
-pub use super::versioned_statistic::Entity as VersionedStatistic;
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/statistic.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/statistic.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 1eaf96b..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/statistic.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,86 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "statistic")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub table_id: Option<i32>,
-    pub creation_time: DateTimeUtc,
-    pub number_of_attributes: i32,
-    pub variant_tag: i32,
-    pub description: String,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Entity")]
-    PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Entity")]
-    StatisticToAttributeJunction,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::table_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::TableId",
-        to = "super::table_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    TableMetadata,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::versioned_statistic::Entity")]
-    VersionedStatistic,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::StatisticToAttributeJunction.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::table_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::TableMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::versioned_statistic::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::VersionedStatistic.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::attribute::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        super::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Relation::Attribute.def()
-    }
-    fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
-        Some(
-            super::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Relation::Statistic
-                .def()
-                .rev(),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::physical_expression::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        super::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Relation::PhysicalExpression.def()
-    }
-    fn via() -> Option<RelationDef> {
-        Some(
-            super::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Relation::Statistic
-                .def()
-                .rev(),
-        )
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/statistic_to_attribute_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/statistic_to_attribute_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 63d23fb..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/statistic_to_attribute_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "statistic_to_attribute_junction")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub statistic_id: i32,
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key, auto_increment = false)]
-    pub attribute_id: i32,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::attribute::Entity",
-        from = "Column::AttributeId",
-        to = "super::attribute::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Attribute,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::statistic::Entity",
-        from = "Column::StatisticId",
-        to = "super::statistic::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Statistic,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::attribute::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Attribute.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::statistic::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Statistic.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/table_metadata.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/table_metadata.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 35ea923..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/table_metadata.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "table_metadata")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub namespace_id: i32,
-    pub creation_time: DateTimeUtc,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::attribute::Entity")]
-    Attribute,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::index_metadata::Entity")]
-    IndexMetadata,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::namespace_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::NamespaceId",
-        to = "super::namespace_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    NamespaceMetadata,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::statistic::Entity")]
-    Statistic,
-    #[sea_orm(has_many = "super::trigger::Entity")]
-    Trigger,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::attribute::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Attribute.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::index_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::IndexMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::namespace_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::NamespaceMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::statistic::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Statistic.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::trigger::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Trigger.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/trigger.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/trigger.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index a5f9de8..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/trigger.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,42 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "trigger")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub name: String,
-    pub table_id: i32,
-    pub parent_trigger_id: i32,
-    pub function: Json,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::table_metadata::Entity",
-        from = "Column::TableId",
-        to = "super::table_metadata::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    TableMetadata,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "Entity",
-        from = "Column::ParentTriggerId",
-        to = "Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    SelfRef,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::table_metadata::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::TableMetadata.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/entities/versioned_statistic.rs b/optd-persistent/src/entities/versioned_statistic.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index c4533bf..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/entities/versioned_statistic.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,47 +0,0 @@
-//! `SeaORM` Entity, @generated by sea-orm-codegen 1.1.0
-
-use sea_orm::entity::prelude::*;
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, DeriveEntityModel, Eq)]
-#[sea_orm(table_name = "versioned_statistic")]
-pub struct Model {
-    #[sea_orm(primary_key)]
-    pub id: i32,
-    pub epoch_id: i32,
-    pub statistic_id: i32,
-    pub statistic_value: Json,
-}
-
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, EnumIter, DeriveRelation)]
-pub enum Relation {
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::event::Entity",
-        from = "Column::EpochId",
-        to = "super::event::Column::EpochId",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Event,
-    #[sea_orm(
-        belongs_to = "super::statistic::Entity",
-        from = "Column::StatisticId",
-        to = "super::statistic::Column::Id",
-        on_update = "Cascade",
-        on_delete = "Cascade"
-    )]
-    Statistic,
-}
-
-impl Related<super::event::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Event.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl Related<super::statistic::Entity> for Entity {
-    fn to() -> RelationDef {
-        Relation::Statistic.def()
-    }
-}
-
-impl ActiveModelBehavior for ActiveModel {}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/lib.rs b/optd-persistent/src/lib.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index dd95da2..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/lib.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,114 +0,0 @@
-#![allow(dead_code)]
-
-use std::sync::LazyLock;
-
-use sea_orm::*;
-use sea_orm_migration::prelude::*;
-
-use migrator::Migrator;
-
-pub mod entities;
-mod migrator;
-
-pub mod cost_model;
-pub use cost_model::interface::CostModelStorageLayer;
-
-mod memo;
-pub use memo::interface::Memo;
-
-/// The filename of the SQLite database for migration.
-pub const DATABASE_FILENAME: &str = "sqlite.db";
-/// The URL of the SQLite database for migration.
-pub const DATABASE_URL: &str = "sqlite:./sqlite.db?mode=rwc";
-
-/// The filename of the SQLite database for testing.
-pub const TEST_DATABASE_FILENAME: &str = "init.db";
-/// The URL of the SQLite database for testing.
-pub static TEST_DATABASE_FILE: LazyLock<String> = LazyLock::new(|| {
-    std::env::current_dir()
-        .unwrap()
-        .join("src")
-        .join("db")
-        .join(TEST_DATABASE_FILENAME)
-        .to_str()
-        .unwrap()
-        .to_owned()
-});
-/// The URL of the SQLite database for testing.
-pub static TEST_DATABASE_URL: LazyLock<String> =
-    LazyLock::new(|| get_sqlite_url(http://github.com/TEST_DATABASE_FILE.as_str()));
-
-fn get_sqlite_url(/service/file:///%20&str) -> String {
-    format!("sqlite:{}?mode=rwc", file)
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub enum CostModelError {
-    // TODO: Add more error types
-    UnknownStatisticType,
-    VersionedStatisticNotFound,
-    CustomError(String),
-}
-
-/// TODO convert this to `thiserror`
-#[derive(Debug)]
-/// The different kinds of errors that might occur while running operations on a memo table.
-pub enum MemoError {
-    UnknownGroup,
-    UnknownLogicalExpression,
-    UnknownPhysicalExpression,
-    InvalidExpression,
-}
-
-/// TODO convert this to `thiserror`
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub enum BackendError {
-    Memo(MemoError),
-    DatabaseError(DbErr),
-    CostModel(CostModelError),
-    BackendError(String),
-}
-
-impl From<String> for CostModelError {
-    fn from(value: String) -> Self {
-        CostModelError::CustomError(value)
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<CostModelError> for BackendError {
-    fn from(value: CostModelError) -> Self {
-        BackendError::CostModel(value)
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<MemoError> for BackendError {
-    fn from(value: MemoError) -> Self {
-        BackendError::Memo(value)
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<DbErr> for BackendError {
-    fn from(value: DbErr) -> Self {
-        BackendError::DatabaseError(value)
-    }
-}
-
-/// A type alias for a result with [`BackendError`] as the error type.
-pub type StorageResult<T> = Result<T, BackendError>;
-
-pub struct BackendManager {
-    db: DatabaseConnection,
-}
-
-impl BackendManager {
-    /// Creates a new `BackendManager`.
-    pub async fn new(database_url: Option<&str>) -> StorageResult<Self> {
-        Ok(Self {
-            db: Database::connect(database_url.unwrap_or(DATABASE_URL)).await?,
-        })
-    }
-}
-
-pub async fn migrate(db: &DatabaseConnection) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-    Migrator::refresh(db).await
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/main.rs b/optd-persistent/src/main.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 165189e..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/main.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,112 +0,0 @@
-//! Very basic demo of using the ORM for optd-persistent.
-//!
-//! You may run into errors when you first clone this repository.
-//! See the `README.md` for setup instructions.
-
-#![allow(dead_code, unused_imports)]
-
-use sea_orm::*;
-use sea_orm_migration::prelude::*;
-use serde_json::json;
-
-mod entities;
-mod migrator;
-
-use entities::{prelude::*, *};
-use optd_persistent::DATABASE_URL;
-
-#[tokio::main]
-async fn main() {
-    basic_demo().await;
-    memo_demo().await;
-}
-
-async fn memo_demo() {
-    let _db = Database::connect(DATABASE_URL).await.unwrap();
-
-    todo!()
-}
-
-async fn basic_demo() {
-    let db = Database::connect(DATABASE_URL).await.unwrap();
-
-    // Create a new `CascadesGroup`.
-    let group = cascades_group::ActiveModel {
-        latest_winner: ActiveValue::Set(None),
-        in_progress: ActiveValue::Set(false),
-        is_optimized: ActiveValue::Set(false),
-        ..Default::default()
-    }
-    .save(&db)
-    .await
-    .unwrap();
-
-    // Create a new logical expression.
-    let l_expr = logical_expression::ActiveModel {
-        group_id: group.id.clone(),
-        fingerprint: ActiveValue::Set(42), // Example fingerprint
-        variant_tag: ActiveValue::Set(1),  // Example variant tag
-        data: ActiveValue::Set(json!({ // Example operator
-            "type": "Scan",
-            "table": "lineitem",
-            "predicate": "l_quantity < 10",
-        })),
-        ..Default::default()
-    }
-    .save(&db)
-    .await
-    .unwrap();
-
-    // Create a link between the group and the logical expression in the junction table.
-    let _link = logical_children::ActiveModel {
-        group_id: group.id.clone(),
-        logical_expression_id: l_expr.id.clone(),
-    }
-    .insert(&db)
-    .await
-    .unwrap();
-
-    // Basic lookup test on each table.
-    {
-        let groups: Vec<cascades_group::Model> = CascadesGroup::find().all(&db).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(groups.len(), 1);
-
-        let l_expressions: Vec<logical_expression::Model> =
-            LogicalExpression::find().all(&db).await.unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(l_expressions.len(), 1);
-    }
-
-    // Retrieve all logical expressions that belong to this group with lazy loading.
-    {
-        let group = CascadesGroup::find_by_id(*group.id.try_as_ref().unwrap())
-            .one(&db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap()
-            .unwrap();
-
-        let group_expressions: Vec<logical_expression::Model> = group
-            .find_related(LogicalExpression)
-            .all(&db)
-            .await
-            .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(group_expressions.len(), 1);
-    }
-
-    // Retrieve all logical expressions that belong to this group with eager loading.
-    {
-        let group_with_expressions: Vec<(cascades_group::Model, Vec<logical_expression::Model>)> =
-            CascadesGroup::find()
-                .find_with_related(LogicalExpression)
-                .all(&db)
-                .await
-                .unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(group_with_expressions.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(group_with_expressions[0].1.len(), 1);
-    }
-
-    // Clean up everything. Since everything is cascading, we only need to manually delete the group
-    // and then SeaORM will take care of the expression and the junction.
-    group.delete(&db).await.unwrap();
-
-    println!("Demo Finished!");
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/memo/expression.rs b/optd-persistent/src/memo/expression.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index ff1590c..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/memo/expression.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,73 +0,0 @@
-use crate::entities::*;
-use std::hash::{DefaultHasher, Hash, Hasher};
-
-/// All of the different types of fixed logical operators.
-///
-/// Note that there could be more operators that the memo table must support that are not enumerated
-/// in this enum, as there can be up to `2^16` different types of operators.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Hash, Eq, PartialEq)]
-#[non_exhaustive]
-#[repr(i16)]
-pub enum LogicalOperator {
-    Scan,
-    Join,
-}
-
-/// All of the different types of fixed physical operators.
-///
-/// Note that there could be more operators that the memo table must support that are not enumerated
-/// in this enum, as there can be up to `2^16` different types of operators.
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, Hash, Eq, PartialEq)]
-#[non_exhaustive]
-#[repr(i16)]
-pub enum PhysicalOperator {
-    TableScan,
-    IndexScan,
-    NestedLoopJoin,
-    HashJoin,
-}
-
-/// A method to generate a fingerprint used to efficiently check if two
-/// expressions are equivalent.
-///
-/// TODO actually make efficient.
-fn fingerprint(variant_tag: i16, data: &serde_json::Value) -> i64 {
-    let mut hasher = DefaultHasher::new();
-
-    variant_tag.hash(&mut hasher);
-    data.hash(&mut hasher);
-
-    hasher.finish() as i64
-}
-
-impl logical_expression::Model {
-    /// Creates a new logical expression with an unset `id` and `group_id`.
-    pub fn new(variant_tag: LogicalOperator, data: serde_json::Value) -> Self {
-        let tag = variant_tag as i16;
-        let fingerprint = fingerprint(tag, &data);
-
-        Self {
-            id: 0,
-            group_id: 0,
-            fingerprint,
-            variant_tag: tag,
-            data,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl physical_expression::Model {
-    /// Creates a new physical expression with an unset `id` and `group_id`.
-    pub fn new(variant_tag: PhysicalOperator, data: serde_json::Value) -> Self {
-        let tag = variant_tag as i16;
-        let fingerprint = fingerprint(tag, &data);
-
-        Self {
-            id: 0,
-            group_id: 0,
-            fingerprint,
-            variant_tag: tag,
-            data,
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/memo/interface.rs b/optd-persistent/src/memo/interface.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 2d2240e..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/memo/interface.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,141 +0,0 @@
-use crate::StorageResult;
-
-/// A trait representing an implementation of a memoization table.
-///
-/// Note that we use [`trait_variant`] here in order to add bounds on every method.
-/// See this [blog post](
-/// https://blog.rust-lang.org/2023/12/21/async-fn-rpit-in-traits.html#async-fn-in-public-traits)
-/// for more information.
-///
-/// TODO Figure out for each when to get the ID of a record or the entire record itself.
-#[trait_variant::make(Send)]
-pub trait Memo {
-    /// A type representing a group in the Cascades framework.
-    type Group;
-    /// A type representing a unique identifier for a group.
-    type GroupId;
-    /// A type representing a logical expression.
-    type LogicalExpression;
-    /// A type representing a unique identifier for a logical expression.
-    type LogicalExpressionId;
-    /// A type representing a physical expression.
-    type PhysicalExpression;
-    /// A type representing a unique identifier for a physical expression.
-    type PhysicalExpressionId;
-
-    /// Retrieves a [`Self::Group`] given a [`Self::GroupId`].
-    ///
-    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
-    async fn get_group(&self, group_id: Self::GroupId) -> StorageResult<Self::Group>;
-
-    /// Retrieves all group IDs that are stored in the memo table.
-    async fn get_all_groups(&self) -> StorageResult<Vec<Self::Group>>;
-
-    /// Retrieves a [`Self::LogicalExpression`] given a [`Self::LogicalExpressionId`].
-    ///
-    /// If the logical expression does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownLogicalExpression`]
-    /// error.
-    async fn get_logical_expression(
-        &self,
-        logical_expression_id: Self::LogicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Self::LogicalExpression>;
-
-    /// Retrieves a [`Self::PhysicalExpression`] given a [`Self::PhysicalExpressionId`].
-    ///
-    /// If the physical expression does not exist, returns a
-    /// [`MemoError::UnknownPhysicalExpression`] error.
-    async fn get_physical_expression(
-        &self,
-        physical_expression_id: Self::PhysicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Self::PhysicalExpression>;
-
-    /// Retrieves the parent group ID of a logical expression given its expression ID.
-    ///
-    /// If the logical expression does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownLogicalExpression`]
-    /// error.
-    async fn get_group_from_logical_expression(
-        &self,
-        logical_expression_id: Self::LogicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Self::GroupId>;
-
-    /// Retrieves the parent group ID of a logical expression given its expression ID.
-    ///
-    /// If the physical expression does not exist, returns a
-    /// [`MemoError::UnknownPhysicalExpression`] error.
-    async fn get_group_from_physical_expression(
-        &self,
-        physical_expression_id: Self::PhysicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Self::GroupId>;
-
-    /// Retrieves all of the logical expression "children" of a group.
-    ///
-    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
-    async fn get_group_logical_expressions(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Vec<Self::LogicalExpression>>;
-
-    /// Retrieves all of the physical expression "children" of a group.
-    ///
-    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
-    async fn get_group_physical_expressions(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Vec<Self::PhysicalExpression>>;
-
-    /// Retrieves the best physical query plan (winner) for a given group.
-    ///
-    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
-    async fn get_winner(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Self::PhysicalExpressionId>>;
-
-    /// Updates / replaces a group's best physical plan (winner). Optionally returns the previous
-    /// winner's physical expression ID.
-    ///
-    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
-    async fn update_group_winner(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-        physical_expression_id: Self::PhysicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Self::PhysicalExpressionId>>;
-
-    /// Adds a logical expression to an existing group via its [`Self::GroupId`].
-    ///
-    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
-    async fn add_logical_expression_to_group(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-        logical_expression: Self::LogicalExpression,
-        children: Vec<Self::LogicalExpressionId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<()>;
-
-    /// Adds a physical expression to an existing group via its [`Self::GroupId`].
-    ///
-    /// If the group does not exist, returns a [`MemoError::UnknownGroup`] error.
-    async fn add_physical_expression_to_group(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-        physical_expression: Self::PhysicalExpression,
-        children: Vec<Self::LogicalExpressionId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<()>;
-
-    /// Adds a new logical expression into the memo table, creating a new group if the expression
-    /// does not already exist.
-    ///
-    /// The [`Self::LogicalExpression`] type should have some sort of mechanism for checking if
-    /// the expression has been seen before, and if it has already been created, then the parent
-    /// group ID should also be retrievable.
-    ///
-    /// If the expression already exists, then this function will return the [`Self::GroupId`] of
-    /// the parent group and the corresponding (already existing) [`Self::LogicalExpressionId`].
-    ///
-    /// If the expression does not exist, this function will create a new group and a new
-    /// expression, returning brand new IDs for both.
-    async fn add_logical_expression(
-        &self,
-        expression: Self::LogicalExpression,
-        children: Vec<Self::LogicalExpressionId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<(Self::GroupId, Self::LogicalExpressionId)>;
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/memo/mod.rs b/optd-persistent/src/memo/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index c455782..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/memo/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
-mod expression;
-
-pub mod interface;
-pub mod orm;
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/memo/orm.rs b/optd-persistent/src/memo/orm.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 6d4ec31..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/memo/orm.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,213 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{
-    entities::{prelude::*, *},
-    BackendManager, {Memo, MemoError, StorageResult},
-};
-use sea_orm::*;
-
-impl Memo for BackendManager {
-    type Group = cascades_group::Model;
-    type GroupId = i32;
-    type LogicalExpression = logical_expression::Model;
-    type LogicalExpressionId = i32;
-    type PhysicalExpression = physical_expression::Model;
-    type PhysicalExpressionId = i32;
-
-    async fn get_group(&self, group_id: Self::GroupId) -> StorageResult<Self::Group> {
-        Ok(CascadesGroup::find_by_id(group_id)
-            .one(&self.db)
-            .await?
-            .ok_or(MemoError::UnknownGroup)?)
-    }
-
-    async fn get_all_groups(&self) -> StorageResult<Vec<Self::Group>> {
-        Ok(CascadesGroup::find().all(&self.db).await?)
-    }
-
-    async fn get_logical_expression(
-        &self,
-        logical_expression_id: Self::LogicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Self::LogicalExpression> {
-        Ok(LogicalExpression::find_by_id(logical_expression_id)
-            .one(&self.db)
-            .await?
-            .ok_or(MemoError::UnknownLogicalExpression)?)
-    }
-
-    async fn get_physical_expression(
-        &self,
-        physical_expression_id: Self::PhysicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Self::PhysicalExpression> {
-        Ok(PhysicalExpression::find_by_id(physical_expression_id)
-            .one(&self.db)
-            .await?
-            .ok_or(MemoError::UnknownPhysicalExpression)?)
-    }
-
-    async fn get_group_from_logical_expression(
-        &self,
-        logical_expression_id: Self::LogicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Self::GroupId> {
-        // Find the logical expression and then look up the field.
-        Ok(self
-            .get_logical_expression(logical_expression_id)
-            .await?
-            .group_id)
-    }
-
-    async fn get_group_from_physical_expression(
-        &self,
-        physical_expression_id: Self::PhysicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Self::GroupId> {
-        Ok(self
-            .get_physical_expression(physical_expression_id)
-            .await?
-            .group_id)
-    }
-
-    async fn get_group_logical_expressions(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Vec<Self::LogicalExpression>> {
-        // First retrieve the group record, and then find all related logical expressions.
-        Ok(self
-            .get_group(group_id)
-            .await?
-            .find_related(LogicalExpression)
-            .all(&self.db)
-            .await?)
-    }
-
-    async fn get_group_physical_expressions(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Vec<Self::PhysicalExpression>> {
-        // First retrieve the group record, and then find all related physical expressions.
-        Ok(self
-            .get_group(group_id)
-            .await?
-            .find_related(PhysicalExpression)
-            .all(&self.db)
-            .await?)
-    }
-
-    async fn get_winner(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Self::PhysicalExpressionId>> {
-        Ok(self.get_group(group_id).await?.latest_winner)
-    }
-
-    async fn update_group_winner(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-        physical_expression_id: Self::PhysicalExpressionId,
-    ) -> StorageResult<Option<Self::PhysicalExpressionId>> {
-        // First retrieve the group record, and then use an `ActiveModel` to update it.
-        let mut group = self.get_group(group_id).await?.into_active_model();
-        let old_id = group.latest_winner;
-
-        group.latest_winner = Set(Some(physical_expression_id));
-        group.update(&self.db).await?;
-
-        // The old value must be set (`None` still means it has been set).
-        let old = old_id.unwrap();
-        Ok(old)
-    }
-
-    async fn add_logical_expression_to_group(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-        logical_expression: Self::LogicalExpression,
-        _children: Vec<Self::LogicalExpressionId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<()> {
-        if logical_expression.group_id != group_id {
-            Err(MemoError::InvalidExpression)?
-        }
-
-        // Check if the group actually exists.
-        let _ = self.get_group(group_id).await?;
-
-        // Insert the expression.
-        let _ = logical_expression
-            .into_active_model()
-            .insert(&self.db)
-            .await?;
-
-        todo!("add the children of the logical expression into the children table")
-    }
-
-    async fn add_physical_expression_to_group(
-        &self,
-        group_id: Self::GroupId,
-        physical_expression: Self::PhysicalExpression,
-        _children: Vec<Self::LogicalExpressionId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<()> {
-        if physical_expression.group_id != group_id {
-            Err(MemoError::InvalidExpression)?
-        }
-
-        // Check if the group actually exists.
-        let _ = self.get_group(group_id).await?;
-
-        // Insert the expression.
-        let _ = physical_expression
-            .into_active_model()
-            .insert(&self.db)
-            .await?;
-
-        todo!("add the children of the logical expression into the children table")
-    }
-
-    /// Note that in this function, we ignore the group ID that the logical expression contains.
-    async fn add_logical_expression(
-        &self,
-        expression: Self::LogicalExpression,
-        _children: Vec<Self::LogicalExpressionId>,
-    ) -> StorageResult<(Self::GroupId, Self::LogicalExpressionId)> {
-        // Lookup all expressions that have the same fingerprint. There may be false positives, but
-        // we will check for those later.
-        let fingerprint = expression.fingerprint;
-        let potential_matches = LogicalExpression::find()
-            .filter(logical_expression::Column::Fingerprint.eq(fingerprint))
-            .all(&self.db)
-            .await?;
-
-        // Of the expressions that have the same fingerprint, check if there already exists an
-        // expression that is exactly identical to the input expression.
-        let mut matches: Vec<_> = potential_matches
-            .into_iter()
-            .filter(|expr| expr == &expression)
-            .collect();
-        assert!(
-            matches.len() <= 1,
-            "there cannot be more than 1 exact logical expression match"
-        );
-
-        // The expression already exists, so return its data.
-        if !matches.is_empty() {
-            let existing_expression = matches
-                .pop()
-                .expect("we just checked that an element exists");
-
-            return Ok((existing_expression.group_id, existing_expression.id));
-        }
-
-        // The expression does not exist yet, so we need to create a new group and new expression.
-        let group = cascades_group::ActiveModel {
-            latest_winner: Set(None),
-            in_progress: Set(false),
-            is_optimized: Set(false),
-            ..Default::default()
-        };
-
-        // Insert a new group.
-        let res = cascades_group::Entity::insert(group).exec(&self.db).await?;
-
-        // Insert the input expression with the correct `group_id`.
-        let mut new_expr = expression.into_active_model();
-        new_expr.group_id = Set(res.last_insert_id);
-        let new_expr = new_expr.insert(&self.db).await?;
-
-        Ok((new_expr.group_id, new_expr.id))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_attribute.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_attribute.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 543c745..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_attribute.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,51 +0,0 @@
-use crate::migrator::catalog::table_metadata::TableMetadata;
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum Attribute {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    TableId,
-    Name,
-    CompressionMethod,
-    VariantTag,
-    BaseAttributeNumber,
-    IsNotNull,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(Attribute::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(Attribute::Id))
-                    .col(integer(Attribute::TableId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(Attribute::Table, Attribute::TableId)
-                            .to(TableMetadata::Table, TableMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(string(Attribute::Name))
-                    .col(char(Attribute::CompressionMethod))
-                    .col(integer(Attribute::VariantTag))
-                    .col(integer(Attribute::BaseAttributeNumber))
-                    .col(boolean(Attribute::IsNotNull))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(Attribute::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_attribute_constraint_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_attribute_constraint_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index c97ff99..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_attribute_constraint_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,69 +0,0 @@
-//! An entity representing the relationship between [`attribute`] and [`constraint`].
-//!
-//! If a constraint is a table constraint (including foreign keys, but not constraint triggers),
-//! the attributes that are constrained on are stored in the [`attribute_constraint_junction`].
-//!
-//! One constraint might be associated with multiple attributes, for example, a composite primary key.
-
-use crate::migrator::catalog::{attribute::Attribute, constraint_metadata::ConstraintMetadata};
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum AttributeConstraintJunction {
-    Table,
-    AttributeId,
-    ConstraintId,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(AttributeConstraintJunction::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(integer(AttributeConstraintJunction::AttributeId))
-                    .col(integer(AttributeConstraintJunction::ConstraintId))
-                    .primary_key(
-                        Index::create()
-                            .col(AttributeConstraintJunction::AttributeId)
-                            .col(AttributeConstraintJunction::ConstraintId),
-                    )
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                AttributeConstraintJunction::Table,
-                                AttributeConstraintJunction::AttributeId,
-                            )
-                            .to(Attribute::Table, Attribute::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                AttributeConstraintJunction::Table,
-                                AttributeConstraintJunction::ConstraintId,
-                            )
-                            .to(ConstraintMetadata::Table, ConstraintMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(
-                Table::drop()
-                    .table(AttributeConstraintJunction::Table)
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_attribute_foreign_constraint_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_attribute_foreign_constraint_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 7b95600..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_attribute_foreign_constraint_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,73 +0,0 @@
-//! An entity representing the relationship between [`attribute`] and [`constraint`].
-//!
-//! If a constraint is a foreign key constraint, the attributes that are referenced by the foreign
-//! key are stored in the [`attribute_foreign_constraint_junction`]. Note that this is different from
-//! the [`attribute_constraint_junction`] table, which stores the attributes that are constrained on.
-//! In the case of a foreign key constraint, this refers to the attributes that are referecing from the
-//! foreign key.
-//!
-//! One foreign key constraint might be associated with multiple attributes, for example, a composite
-//! foreign key.
-
-use crate::migrator::catalog::{attribute::Attribute, constraint_metadata::ConstraintMetadata};
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum AttributeForeignConstraintJunction {
-    Table,
-    AttributeId,
-    ConstraintId,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(integer(AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::AttributeId))
-                    .col(integer(AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::ConstraintId))
-                    .primary_key(
-                        Index::create()
-                            .col(AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::AttributeId)
-                            .col(AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::ConstraintId),
-                    )
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::Table,
-                                AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::AttributeId,
-                            )
-                            .to(Attribute::Table, Attribute::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::Table,
-                                AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::ConstraintId,
-                            )
-                            .to(ConstraintMetadata::Table, ConstraintMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(
-                Table::drop()
-                    .table(AttributeForeignConstraintJunction::Table)
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_constraint_metadata.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_constraint_metadata.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index f6435eb..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_constraint_metadata.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,65 +0,0 @@
-use crate::migrator::catalog::{index_metadata::IndexMetadata, table_metadata::TableMetadata};
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum ConstraintMetadata {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    Name,
-    VariantTag,
-    TableId,
-    IndexId,
-    ForeignRefId,
-    CheckSrc,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(ConstraintMetadata::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(ConstraintMetadata::Id))
-                    .col(string(ConstraintMetadata::Name))
-                    .col(integer(ConstraintMetadata::VariantTag))
-                    .col(integer_null(ConstraintMetadata::TableId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(ConstraintMetadata::Table, ConstraintMetadata::TableId)
-                            .to(TableMetadata::Table, TableMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer_null(ConstraintMetadata::IndexId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(ConstraintMetadata::Table, ConstraintMetadata::IndexId)
-                            .to(IndexMetadata::Table, IndexMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer_null(ConstraintMetadata::ForeignRefId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(ConstraintMetadata::Table, ConstraintMetadata::ForeignRefId)
-                            .to(TableMetadata::Table, TableMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(string(ConstraintMetadata::CheckSrc))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(ConstraintMetadata::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_database_metadata.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_database_metadata.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 4423557..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_database_metadata.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,35 +0,0 @@
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum DatabaseMetadata {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    Name,
-    CreationTime,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(DatabaseMetadata::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(DatabaseMetadata::Id))
-                    .col(string(DatabaseMetadata::Name))
-                    .col(timestamp(DatabaseMetadata::CreationTime))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(DatabaseMetadata::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_index_metadata.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_index_metadata.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 1d51a6f..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_index_metadata.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,59 +0,0 @@
-use crate::migrator::catalog::table_metadata::TableMetadata;
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum IndexMetadata {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    TableId,
-    Name,
-    NumberOfAttributes,
-    VariantTag,
-    IsUnique,
-    NullsNotDistinct,
-    IsPrimary,
-    IsClustered,
-    IsExclusion,
-    Description,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(IndexMetadata::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(IndexMetadata::Id))
-                    .col(integer(IndexMetadata::TableId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(IndexMetadata::Table, IndexMetadata::TableId)
-                            .to(TableMetadata::Table, TableMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(string(IndexMetadata::Name))
-                    .col(integer(IndexMetadata::NumberOfAttributes))
-                    .col(integer(IndexMetadata::VariantTag))
-                    .col(boolean(IndexMetadata::IsUnique))
-                    .col(boolean(IndexMetadata::NullsNotDistinct))
-                    .col(boolean(IndexMetadata::IsPrimary))
-                    .col(boolean(IndexMetadata::IsClustered))
-                    .col(boolean(IndexMetadata::IsExclusion))
-                    .col(string(IndexMetadata::Description))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(IndexMetadata::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_table_metadata.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_table_metadata.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 66a0ec3..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_table_metadata.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,45 +0,0 @@
-use crate::migrator::catalog::namespace_metadata::NamespaceMetadata;
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum TableMetadata {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    Name,
-    NamespaceId,
-    CreationTime,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(TableMetadata::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(TableMetadata::Id))
-                    .col(string(TableMetadata::Name))
-                    .col(integer(TableMetadata::NamespaceId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(TableMetadata::Table, TableMetadata::NamespaceId)
-                            .to(NamespaceMetadata::Table, NamespaceMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(timestamp(TableMetadata::CreationTime))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(TableMetadata::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_trigger.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_trigger.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index c2bf0eb..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/m20241029_000001_trigger.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,54 +0,0 @@
-use crate::migrator::catalog::table_metadata::TableMetadata;
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum Trigger {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    Name,
-    TableId,
-    ParentTriggerId,
-    Function,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(Trigger::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(Trigger::Id))
-                    .col(string(Trigger::Name))
-                    .col(integer(Trigger::TableId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(Trigger::Table, Trigger::TableId)
-                            .to(TableMetadata::Table, TableMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer(Trigger::ParentTriggerId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(Trigger::Table, Trigger::ParentTriggerId)
-                            .to(Trigger::Table, Trigger::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(json(Trigger::Function))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(Trigger::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/mod.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index bef234a..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/catalog/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,19 +0,0 @@
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_attribute;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_attribute_constraint_junction;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_attribute_foreign_constraint_junction;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_constraint_metadata;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_database_metadata;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_index_metadata;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_namespace_metadata;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_table_metadata;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_trigger;
-
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_attribute as attribute;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_attribute_constraint_junction as attribute_constraint_junction;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_attribute_foreign_constraint_junction as attribute_foreign_constraint_junction;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_constraint_metadata as constraint_metadata;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_database_metadata as database_metadata;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_index_metadata as index_metadata;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_namespace_metadata as namespace_metadata;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_table_metadata as table_metadata;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_trigger as trigger;
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_event.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_event.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 9fe326f..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_event.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,40 +0,0 @@
-//! Every time we insert/update statistics, we need to insert a new
-//! row into this table to record the event.
-
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum Event {
-    Table,
-    EpochId,
-    Timestamp,
-    SourceVariant,
-    Data,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(Event::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(Event::EpochId))
-                    .col(timestamp(Event::Timestamp))
-                    .col(string(Event::SourceVariant))
-                    .col(json(Event::Data))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(Event::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_physical_expression_to_statistic_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_physical_expression_to_statistic_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 06b8ac4..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_physical_expression_to_statistic_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,75 +0,0 @@
-//! This table stores for a physical expression, which statistics are used, so we
-//! don't need to compute it again. It is especially useful for update_stats, where
-//! we need to invalidate all the costs based on the physical_expression_id, so we
-//! need to use this table to get the physical_expression_id via statistic_id.
-//!
-//! **NOTE:** When we compute the cost for a physical expression, we should also
-//! insert related mappings into this table.
-
-use crate::migrator::cost_model::statistic::Statistic;
-use crate::migrator::memo::physical_expression::PhysicalExpression;
-
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction {
-    Table,
-    PhysicalExpressionId,
-    StatisticId,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(integer(
-                        PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::PhysicalExpressionId,
-                    ))
-                    .col(integer(PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::StatisticId))
-                    .primary_key(
-                        Index::create()
-                            .col(PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::PhysicalExpressionId)
-                            .col(PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::StatisticId),
-                    )
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::Table,
-                                PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::PhysicalExpressionId,
-                            )
-                            .to(PhysicalExpression::Table, PhysicalExpression::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::Table,
-                                PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::StatisticId,
-                            )
-                            .to(Statistic::Table, Statistic::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(
-                Table::drop()
-                    .table(PhysicalExpressionToStatisticJunction::Table)
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_plan_cost.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_plan_cost.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index fdd2fef..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_plan_cost.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,73 +0,0 @@
-//! When a statistic is updated, then all the related costs should be invalidated. (IsValid is set to false)
-//! This design (using IsValid flag) is based on the assumption that update_stats will not be called very frequently.
-//! It favors the compute_cost performance over the update_stats performance.
-//!
-//! This file stores cost like compute_cost, io_cost, network_cost, etc. for each physical expression. It also
-//! stores the estimated output row count (estimated statistic) of each physical expression.
-//! Sometimes we only have one of them to store, so we make Cost and EstimatedStatistic optional. But
-//! one record must have at least one of them.
-//!
-//! TODO: Ideally, we can separate them since sometimes we only have the estimated output row count to store,
-//! (when calling `derive_statistic`) but we don't have the detailed cost.
-
-use crate::migrator::cost_model::event::Event;
-use crate::migrator::memo::physical_expression::PhysicalExpression;
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum PlanCost {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    PhysicalExpressionId,
-    EpochId,
-    // It is json type, including computation cost, I/O cost, etc.
-    Cost,
-    // Raw estimated output row count of this expression
-    EstimatedStatistic,
-    // Whether the cost is valid or not. If the latest cost for an expr is invalid, then we need to recompute the cost.
-    // We need to invalidate the cost when the related stats are updated.
-    IsValid,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(PlanCost::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(PlanCost::Id))
-                    .col(integer(PlanCost::PhysicalExpressionId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(PlanCost::Table, PlanCost::PhysicalExpressionId)
-                            .to(PhysicalExpression::Table, PhysicalExpression::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer(PlanCost::EpochId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(PlanCost::Table, PlanCost::EpochId)
-                            .to(Event::Table, Event::EpochId)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(json_null(PlanCost::Cost))
-                    .col(float_null(PlanCost::EstimatedStatistic))
-                    .col(boolean(PlanCost::IsValid))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(PlanCost::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_statistic.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_statistic.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 3b2bb3c..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_statistic.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,64 +0,0 @@
-//! This table stores the statistic infos. One sole statistic only has one row in this table.
-//!
-//! If we want to insert a new statistic, we should first insert one row into this table, then add a new
-//! event, and finally insert the statistic value into the versioned_statistic table.
-//! If we want to update a statistic, we should first find the real statistic id from this table, then
-//! add a new event, and finally insert the statistic value into the versioned_statistic table.
-
-use crate::migrator::catalog::m20241029_000001_table_metadata::TableMetadata;
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum Statistic {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    Name,
-    // null if not a table statistic.
-    TableId,
-    CreationTime,
-    // 0 if a table statistic.
-    NumberOfAttributes,
-    VariantTag,
-    // Store the sorted attribute ids of this statistic, to support quick lookup (OR we can use junction table to look up)
-    // For example, if we want to store the statistic of attributes [1, 2, 3], we can store it as "1,2,3".
-    // During lookup, we should first sort the attribute ids, and then look up.
-    // OR we can use statistic_to_attribute_junction table to look up.
-    Description,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(Statistic::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(Statistic::Id))
-                    .col(string(Statistic::Name))
-                    .col(integer_null(Statistic::TableId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(Statistic::Table, Statistic::TableId)
-                            .to(TableMetadata::Table, TableMetadata::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(timestamp(Statistic::CreationTime))
-                    .col(integer(Statistic::NumberOfAttributes))
-                    .col(integer(Statistic::VariantTag))
-                    .col(string(Statistic::Description))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(Statistic::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_statistic_to_attribute_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_statistic_to_attribute_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 739675b..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_statistic_to_attribute_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,70 +0,0 @@
-//! An entity representing the relationship between [`statistic`] and [`attribute`].
-//!
-//! One [`statistic`] can be associated with multiple [`attribute`]s, which denotes a joint
-//! statistic for the attributes. On the other hand, one [`attribute`] can be associated with
-//! multiple [`statistic`]s, since the attribute can be used in multiple statistics.
-
-use crate::migrator::catalog::attribute::Attribute;
-use crate::migrator::cost_model::statistic::Statistic;
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum StatisticToAttributeJunction {
-    Table,
-    StatisticId,
-    AttributeId,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(StatisticToAttributeJunction::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(integer(StatisticToAttributeJunction::StatisticId))
-                    .col(integer(StatisticToAttributeJunction::AttributeId))
-                    .primary_key(
-                        Index::create()
-                            .col(StatisticToAttributeJunction::StatisticId)
-                            .col(StatisticToAttributeJunction::AttributeId),
-                    )
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                StatisticToAttributeJunction::Table,
-                                StatisticToAttributeJunction::StatisticId,
-                            )
-                            .to(Statistic::Table, Statistic::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                StatisticToAttributeJunction::Table,
-                                StatisticToAttributeJunction::AttributeId,
-                            )
-                            .to(Attribute::Table, Attribute::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(
-                Table::drop()
-                    .table(StatisticToAttributeJunction::Table)
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_versioned_statistic.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_versioned_statistic.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index f31d011..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/m20241029_000001_versioned_statistic.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,57 +0,0 @@
-//! This table stores the versioned statistics. It includes all the histories of the statistics.
-//!
-//! If a statistic is updated/inserted, please insert one new row into this table.
-
-use crate::migrator::cost_model::{event::Event, statistic::Statistic};
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum VersionedStatistic {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    EpochId,
-    // Real statistic id.
-    StatisticId,
-    StatisticValue,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(VersionedStatistic::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(VersionedStatistic::Id))
-                    .col(integer(VersionedStatistic::EpochId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(VersionedStatistic::Table, VersionedStatistic::EpochId)
-                            .to(Event::Table, Event::EpochId)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer(VersionedStatistic::StatisticId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(VersionedStatistic::Table, VersionedStatistic::StatisticId)
-                            .to(Statistic::Table, Statistic::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(json(VersionedStatistic::StatisticValue))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(VersionedStatistic::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/mod.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 5f8dad1..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/cost_model/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,13 +0,0 @@
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_event;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_physical_expression_to_statistic_junction;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_plan_cost;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_statistic;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_statistic_to_attribute_junction;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_versioned_statistic;
-
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_event as event;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_physical_expression_to_statistic_junction as physical_expression_to_statistic_junction;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_plan_cost as plan_cost;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_statistic as statistic;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_statistic_to_attribute_junction as statistic_to_attribute_junction;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_versioned_statistic as versioned_statistic;
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_group_winner.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_group_winner.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index bd952c9..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_group_winner.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,103 +0,0 @@
-//! An entity representing a the best physical plan (or "winner") of a Cascades group.
-//!
-//! In the Cascades framework, query optimization is done through dynamic programming that is based
-//! on the assumption that the cost model satisfies the _principle of optimality_. Quoted from the
-//! Microsoft article _Extensible query optimizers in practice_:
-//!
-//! > ... in the search space of linear sequence of joins, the optimal plan for a join of n
-//! > relations can be found by extending the optimal plan of a sub-expression of n - 1 joins with
-//! > an additional join.
-//!
-//! By storing the best sub-plans / [`physical_expression`]s of smaller Cascades groups, we can
-//! build up an optimal query plan.
-//!
-//! This entity represents the best plan sub-tree for a specific group. However, we store multiple
-//! winners over different epochs, as changes to the database may require us to re-evaluate what the
-//! optimal sub-plan is.
-//!
-//! # Columns
-//!
-//! Other than the primary key, all of the columns in this relation are foreign keys to other
-//! tables.
-//!
-//! A group winner is defined by the [`cascades_group`] it belongs to (`group_id`), the unique ID of
-//! the [`physical_expression`] (`physical_expression_id`), the ID of the cost record in the
-//! [`plan_cost`] table (`cost_id`), and the monotonically-increasing epoch ID in the [`event`]
-//! table (`epoch_id`).
-//!
-//! [`cascades_group`]: super::cascades_group
-//! [`physical_expression`]: super::physical_expression
-//! [`plan_cost`]: super::super::cost_model::plan_cost
-//! [`event`]: super::super::cost_model::event
-
-use crate::migrator::cost_model::{event::Event, plan_cost::PlanCost};
-use crate::migrator::memo::{
-    cascades_group::CascadesGroup, physical_expression::PhysicalExpression,
-};
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum GroupWinner {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    GroupId,
-    PhysicalExpressionId,
-    CostId,
-    EpochId,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(GroupWinner::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(GroupWinner::Id))
-                    .col(integer(GroupWinner::GroupId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(GroupWinner::Table, GroupWinner::GroupId)
-                            .to(CascadesGroup::Table, CascadesGroup::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer(GroupWinner::PhysicalExpressionId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(GroupWinner::Table, GroupWinner::PhysicalExpressionId)
-                            .to(PhysicalExpression::Table, PhysicalExpression::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer(GroupWinner::CostId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(GroupWinner::Table, GroupWinner::CostId)
-                            .to(PlanCost::Table, PlanCost::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer(GroupWinner::EpochId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(GroupWinner::Table, GroupWinner::EpochId)
-                            .to(Event::Table, Event::EpochId)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(GroupWinner::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_logical_property.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_logical_property.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 4b10da6..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_logical_property.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,50 +0,0 @@
-//! An entity representing a logical property of a Cascades group.
-//!
-//! TODO what exactly are we storing in here?
-//! TODO why is it linked to only cascades groups and not logical expressions?
-
-use crate::migrator::memo::cascades_group::CascadesGroup;
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(DeriveIden)]
-pub enum LogicalProperty {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    GroupId,
-    VariantTag,
-    Data,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(LogicalProperty::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(LogicalProperty::Id))
-                    .col(integer(LogicalProperty::GroupId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(LogicalProperty::Table, LogicalProperty::GroupId)
-                            .to(CascadesGroup::Table, CascadesGroup::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(small_integer(LogicalProperty::VariantTag))
-                    .col(json(LogicalProperty::Data))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(LogicalProperty::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_physical_property.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_physical_property.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 262ae41..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_physical_property.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,53 +0,0 @@
-//! An entity representing a physical property of a physical expression in the Cascades framework.
-//!
-//! TODO what exactly are we storing in here?
-//! TODO why is it linked to only physical expressions and not cascades groups?
-
-use crate::migrator::memo::physical_expression::PhysicalExpression;
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::*};
-
-#[derive(DeriveIden)]
-pub enum PhysicalProperty {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    PhysicalExpressionId,
-    VariantTag,
-    Data,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(PhysicalProperty::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(PhysicalProperty::Id))
-                    .col(integer(PhysicalProperty::PhysicalExpressionId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                PhysicalProperty::Table,
-                                PhysicalProperty::PhysicalExpressionId,
-                            )
-                            .to(PhysicalExpression::Table, PhysicalExpression::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(small_integer(PhysicalProperty::VariantTag))
-                    .col(json(PhysicalProperty::Data))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(PhysicalProperty::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index b4a58b9..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-/*
-Table predicate {
-  id integer [pk]
-  data json
-  variant integer
-}
-*/
-
-use sea_orm_migration::{
-    prelude::*,
-    schema::{integer, json, pk_auto},
-};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum Predicate {
-    Table,
-    Id,
-    Data,
-    Variant,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(Predicate::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(pk_auto(Predicate::Id))
-                    .col(json(Predicate::Data))
-                    .col(integer(Predicate::Variant))
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(Predicate::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate_children.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate_children.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index f3c0d10..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate_children.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,61 +0,0 @@
-/*
-Table predicate_children {
-  parent_id integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-  child_id integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-}
- */
-
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::integer};
-
-use super::m20241029_000001_predicate::Predicate;
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum PredicateChildren {
-    Table,
-    ParentId,
-    ChildId,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(PredicateChildren::Table)
-                    .if_not_exists()
-                    .col(integer(PredicateChildren::ParentId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(PredicateChildren::Table, PredicateChildren::ParentId)
-                            .to(Predicate::Table, Predicate::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer(PredicateChildren::ChildId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(PredicateChildren::Table, PredicateChildren::ChildId)
-                            .to(Predicate::Table, Predicate::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .primary_key(
-                        Index::create()
-                            .col(PredicateChildren::ParentId)
-                            .col(PredicateChildren::ChildId),
-                    )
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(Table::drop().table(PredicateChildren::Table).to_owned())
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate_logical_expression_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate_logical_expression_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index ab901d6..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate_logical_expression_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,72 +0,0 @@
-/*
-Table predicate_logical_expression_junction {
-  logical_expr_id integer [ref: > logical_expression.id]
-  predicate_id integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-}
- */
-
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::integer};
-
-use super::{
-    m20241029_000001_logical_expression::LogicalExpression, m20241029_000001_predicate::Predicate,
-};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction {
-    Table,
-    LogicalExprId,
-    PredicateId,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::Table)
-                    .col(integer(PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::LogicalExprId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::Table,
-                                PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::LogicalExprId,
-                            )
-                            .to(LogicalExpression::Table, LogicalExpression::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer(PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::PredicateId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .from(
-                                PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::Table,
-                                PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::PredicateId,
-                            )
-                            .to(Predicate::Table, Predicate::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .primary_key(
-                        Index::create()
-                            .col(PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::LogicalExprId)
-                            .col(PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::PredicateId),
-                    )
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(
-                Table::drop()
-                    .table(PredicateLogicalExpressionJunction::Table)
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate_physical_expression_junction.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate_physical_expression_junction.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 8d82831..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/m20241029_000001_predicate_physical_expression_junction.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,74 +0,0 @@
-/*
-Table predicate_physical_expression_junction {
-  physical_expr_id integer [ref: > physical_expression.id]
-  predicate_id integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-}
- */
-
-use sea_orm_migration::{prelude::*, schema::integer};
-
-use super::{
-    m20241029_000001_physical_expression::PhysicalExpression, m20241029_000001_predicate::Predicate,
-};
-
-#[derive(Iden)]
-pub enum PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction {
-    Table,
-    PhysicalExprId,
-    PredicateId,
-}
-
-#[derive(DeriveMigrationName)]
-pub struct Migration;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigrationTrait for Migration {
-    async fn up(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .create_table(
-                Table::create()
-                    .table(PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::Table)
-                    .col(integer(PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::PhysicalExprId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .name("predicate_physical_expression_junction_physical_expr_id_fkey")
-                            .from(
-                                PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::Table,
-                                PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::PhysicalExprId,
-                            )
-                            .to(PhysicalExpression::Table, PhysicalExpression::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .col(integer(PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::PredicateId))
-                    .foreign_key(
-                        ForeignKey::create()
-                            .name("predicate_physical_expression_junction_predicate_id_fkey")
-                            .from(
-                                PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::Table,
-                                PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::PredicateId,
-                            )
-                            .to(Predicate::Table, Predicate::Id)
-                            .on_delete(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade)
-                            .on_update(ForeignKeyAction::Cascade),
-                    )
-                    .primary_key(
-                        Index::create()
-                            .col(PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::PhysicalExprId)
-                            .col(PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::PredicateId),
-                    )
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-
-    async fn down(&self, manager: &SchemaManager) -> Result<(), DbErr> {
-        manager
-            .drop_table(
-                Table::drop()
-                    .table(PredicatePhysicalExpressionJunction::Table)
-                    .to_owned(),
-            )
-            .await
-    }
-}
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/mod.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index b4caabf..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/memo/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,28 +0,0 @@
-//! Entities related to the memo table used for dynamic programming in the Cascades query
-//! optimization framework.
-
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_cascades_group;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_group_winner;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_logical_children;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_logical_expression;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_logical_property;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_physical_children;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_physical_expression;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_physical_property;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_predicate;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_predicate_children;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_predicate_logical_expression_junction;
-pub(crate) mod m20241029_000001_predicate_physical_expression_junction;
-
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_cascades_group as cascades_group;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_group_winner as group_winner;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_logical_children as logical_children;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_logical_expression as logical_expression;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_logical_property as logical_property;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_physical_children as physical_children;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_physical_expression as physical_expression;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_physical_property as physical_property;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_predicate as predicate;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_predicate_children as predicate_children;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_predicate_logical_expression_junction as predicate_logical_expression_junction;
-pub(crate) use m20241029_000001_predicate_physical_expression_junction as predicate_physical_expression_junction;
diff --git a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/mod.rs b/optd-persistent/src/migrator/mod.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 468f7d0..0000000
--- a/optd-persistent/src/migrator/mod.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,42 +0,0 @@
-use sea_orm_migration::prelude::*;
-
-mod catalog;
-mod cost_model;
-mod memo;
-
-pub struct Migrator;
-
-#[async_trait::async_trait]
-impl MigratorTrait for Migrator {
-    fn migrations() -> Vec<Box<dyn MigrationTrait>> {
-        vec![
-            Box::new(catalog::database_metadata::Migration),
-            Box::new(catalog::namespace_metadata::Migration),
-            Box::new(catalog::table_metadata::Migration),
-            Box::new(catalog::attribute::Migration),
-            Box::new(catalog::attribute_constraint_junction::Migration),
-            Box::new(catalog::attribute_foreign_constraint_junction::Migration),
-            Box::new(catalog::index_metadata::Migration),
-            Box::new(catalog::trigger::Migration),
-            Box::new(catalog::constraint_metadata::Migration),
-            Box::new(cost_model::statistic::Migration),
-            Box::new(cost_model::versioned_statistic::Migration),
-            Box::new(cost_model::statistic_to_attribute_junction::Migration),
-            Box::new(cost_model::physical_expression_to_statistic_junction::Migration),
-            Box::new(cost_model::event::Migration),
-            Box::new(cost_model::plan_cost::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::cascades_group::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::group_winner::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::logical_expression::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::logical_children::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::logical_property::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::physical_expression::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::physical_children::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::physical_property::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::predicate::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::predicate_children::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::predicate_logical_expression_junction::Migration),
-            Box::new(memo::predicate_physical_expression_junction::Migration),
-        ]
-    }
-}
diff --git a/schema/all_tables.dbml b/schema/all_tables.dbml
deleted file mode 100644
index 29a2136..0000000
--- a/schema/all_tables.dbml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,216 +0,0 @@
-// Use DBML to define your database structure
-// Docs: https://dbml.dbdiagram.io/docs
-
-Table database_metadata {
-  id integer PK
-  name varchar
-  creation_time timestamp 
-}
-
-Table namespace_metadata {
-  id integer PK
-  database_id integer [ref: > database_metadata.id]
-  name varchar
-  creation_time timestamp
-}
-
-Table table_metadata {
-  id integer PK
-  namespace_id integer [ref: > namespace_metadata.id]
-  name varchar
-  creation_time timestamp
-}
-
-Table attribute {
-  id integer PK // global index
-  table_id integer [ref: > table_metadata.id]
-  name varchar
-  compression_method char
-  variant_tag integer // Data type of this attribute. Should we make another table to explain the type mapping?
-  base_attribute_number integer // local index within the table
-  is_not_null boolean // physical property
-}
-
-Table statistic {
-  id integer PK
-  name varchar
-  table_id integer [ref: > table_metadata.id, null] // null if not a table statistic
-  creation_time timestamp
-  number_of_attributes integer // 0 if a table statistic
-  variant_tag integer // Should we make another table to explain the type mapping?
-  description varchar // Store the sorted attribute ids of this statistic, to support quick lookup (OR we can use junction table to look up)
-}
-
-Table versioned_statistic {
-  id integer PK
-  epoch_id integer [ref: > event.epoch_id]
-  statistic_id integer [ref: > statistic.id]
-  statistic_value json
-}
-
-Table event {
-  epoch_id integer PK
-  source_variant varchar
-  create_timestamp timestamp
-  data json
-}
-
-Table plan_cost {
-  id integer PK
-  physical_expression_id integer [ref: > physical_expression.id]
-  epoch_id integer [ref: > event.epoch_id]
-  // It is json type, including computation cost, I/O cost, etc.
-  cost json [null]
-  // Raw estimated output row count of this expression
-  estimated_statistic float [null]
-  // Whether the cost is valid or not. If the latest cost for an expr is invalid, then we need to recompute the cost.
-  // We need to invalidate the cost when the related stats are updated.
-  is_valid boolean
-}
-
-Table index {
-  id integer PK
-  name varchar
-  table_id integer [ref: > table_metadata.id]
-  // Whether it is an unique index.
-  is_unique boolean
-  // Only valid for unique index, if true, then null value is equal, if false, null value is distinct.
-  nulls_not_distinct boolean
-  // Whether the attribute is primary.
-  is_primary boolean
-  // If true, the table was last clustered on this index
-  is_clustered boolean
-  // More fields might be added in the future for expressiveness on exclusion constraint.
-  is_exclusion boolean
-  // Do we need it?
-  number_of_attributes integer
-  // Stores the related attribute ids.
-  data json
-}
-
-Table trigger {
-  id integer PK
-  name varchar
-  table_id integer [ref: > table_metadata.id]
-  // This field is only valid if it is triggered by another parent trigger.
-  parent_trigger_id integer [ref: > trigger.id]
-  function json
-}
-
-// Not-null is handled directly in `attribute`. See `is_not_null` field.
-// Constraint trigger is handled directly in `trigger`.
-Table constraint {
-  id integer PK
-  name varchar
-  variant_tag integer // pk, fk, unique, check, exclusion
-  table_id integer [ref: > table_metadata.id, null] // null if not a table constraint
-  index_id integer [ref: > index.id, null] // The index supporting this constraint, if it's a unique, primary key, foreign key, or exclusion constraint; else null
-  foreign_ref_id integer [ref: > table_metadata.id, null] // If a foreign key, the referenced table; else null
-  check_src varchar // the expression tree for a check constraint, which provides a textual representation of the constraint expression
-}
-
-// The constrained attributes (columns) if a constraint is a table constraint (including foreign keys, but not constraint triggers)
-Table attribute_constraint_junction {
-  attribute_id integer [ref: > attribute.id]
-  constraint_id integer [ref: > constraint.id]
-}
-
-// The referenced attributes (columns) if the constraint is a foreign key
-Table attribute_foreign_constraint_junction {
-  attribute_id integer [ref: > attribute.id]
-  constraint_id integer [ref: > constraint.id]
-}
-
-Table statistic_to_attribute_junction {
-  statistic_id integer [ref: > statistic.id]
-  attribute_id integer [ref: > attribute.id]
-}
-
-Table physical_expression_to_statistic_junction {
-  physical_expression_id integer [ref: > physical_expression.id]
-  statistic_id integer [ref: > statistic.id]
-}
-
-// Logical expressions and groups
-Table logical_expression {
-  id integer [pk]
-  group_id integer [ref: > cascades_group.id]
-  fingerprint integer
-  variant_tag integer
-  predicate integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-}
-
-Table cascades_group {
-  id integer [pk]
-  latest_winner integer [ref: > physical_expression.id, null]
-  in_progress boolean
-  is_optimized boolean
-  parent integer [ref: > cascades_group.id]
-}
-
-// Physical expressions and properties
-Table physical_expression {
-  id integer [pk]
-  group_id integer [ref: > cascades_group.id]
-  fingerprint integer
-  variant_tag integer
-  predicate integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-}
-
-Table physical_property {
-  id integer [pk]
-  physical_expression_id integer [ref: > physical_expression.id]
-  variant_tag integer
-  data json
-}
-
-// Junction tables
-Table logical_group_junction {
-  group_id integer [ref: > cascades_group.id]
-  logical_expression_id integer [ref: > logical_expression.id]
-}
-
-Table physical_group_junction {
-  group_id integer [ref: > cascades_group.id]
-  physical_expression_id integer [ref: > physical_expression.id]
-}
-
-// Properties
-Table logical_property {
-  id integer [pk]
-  group_id integer [ref: > cascades_group.id]
-  variant_tag integer
-  data json
-}
-
-// Winners tracking
-Table group_winner {
-  id integer [pk]
-  group_id integer [ref: > cascades_group.id]
-  physical_expression_id integer [ref: > physical_expression.id]
-  cost integer
-  epoch_id integer [ref: > event.epoch_id]
-}
-
-Table predicate {
-  id integer [pk]
-  data json
-  variant integer
-}
-
-Table predicate_children {
-  parent_id integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-  child_id integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-}
-
-Table predicate_logical_expression_junction {
-  logical_expr_id integer [ref: > logical_expression.id]
-  predicate_id integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-}
-
-Table predicate_physical_expression_junction {
-  physical_expr_id integer [ref: > physical_expression.id]
-  predicate_id integer [ref: > predicate.id]
-}
-
-