diff --git a/.clang-format b/.clang-format
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3d685994a1aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.clang-format
@@ -0,0 +1,136 @@
+---
+Language: Java
+AccessModifierOffset: -4
+AlignAfterOpenBracket: DontAlign
+AlignConsecutiveMacros: false
+AlignConsecutiveAssignments: false
+AlignConsecutiveDeclarations: false
+AlignEscapedNewlines: Right
+AlignOperands:   false
+AlignTrailingComments: false
+AllowAllArgumentsOnNextLine: true
+AllowAllConstructorInitializersOnNextLine: true
+AllowAllParametersOfDeclarationOnNextLine: true
+AllowShortBlocksOnASingleLine: Never
+AllowShortCaseLabelsOnASingleLine: false
+AllowShortFunctionsOnASingleLine: false
+AllowShortLambdasOnASingleLine: All
+AllowShortIfStatementsOnASingleLine: true
+AllowShortLoopsOnASingleLine: true
+AlwaysBreakAfterDefinitionReturnType: None
+AlwaysBreakAfterReturnType: None
+AlwaysBreakBeforeMultilineStrings: false
+AlwaysBreakTemplateDeclarations: MultiLine
+BinPackArguments: true
+BinPackParameters: true
+BraceWrapping:
+  AfterCaseLabel:  false
+  AfterClass:      false
+  AfterControlStatement: false
+  AfterEnum:       false
+  AfterFunction:   false
+  AfterNamespace:  false
+  AfterObjCDeclaration: false
+  AfterStruct:     false
+  AfterUnion:      false
+  AfterExternBlock: false
+  BeforeCatch:     false
+  BeforeElse:      false
+  IndentBraces:    false
+  SplitEmptyFunction: true
+  SplitEmptyRecord: true
+  SplitEmptyNamespace: true
+BreakBeforeBinaryOperators: All
+BreakBeforeBraces: Custom
+BreakBeforeInheritanceComma: false
+BreakInheritanceList: BeforeColon
+BreakBeforeTernaryOperators: true
+BreakConstructorInitializersBeforeComma: false
+BreakConstructorInitializers: BeforeComma
+BreakAfterJavaFieldAnnotations: false
+BreakStringLiterals: true
+ColumnLimit:     300
+CommentPragmas:  '^ IWYU pragma:'
+CompactNamespaces: false
+ConstructorInitializerAllOnOneLineOrOnePerLine: false
+ConstructorInitializerIndentWidth: 4
+ContinuationIndentWidth: 4
+Cpp11BracedListStyle: true
+DeriveLineEnding: true
+DerivePointerAlignment: false
+DisableFormat:   false
+ExperimentalAutoDetectBinPacking: false
+FixNamespaceComments: false
+ForEachMacros:
+  - foreach
+  - Q_FOREACH
+  - BOOST_FOREACH
+IncludeBlocks:   Preserve
+IncludeCategories:
+  - Regex:           '^"(llvm|llvm-c|clang|clang-c)/'
+    Priority:        2
+    SortPriority:    0
+  - Regex:           '^(<|"(gtest|gmock|isl|json)/)'
+    Priority:        3
+    SortPriority:    0
+  - Regex:           '.*'
+    Priority:        1
+    SortPriority:    0
+IncludeIsMainRegex: '(Test)?$'
+IncludeIsMainSourceRegex: ''
+IndentCaseLabels: false
+IndentGotoLabels: true
+IndentPPDirectives: None
+IndentWidth:     4
+IndentWrappedFunctionNames: false
+InsertNewlineAtEOF: true
+JavaScriptQuotes: Leave
+JavaScriptWrapImports: true
+KeepEmptyLinesAtTheStartOfBlocks: true
+MacroBlockBegin: ''
+MacroBlockEnd:   ''
+MaxEmptyLinesToKeep: 1
+NamespaceIndentation: Inner
+ObjCBinPackProtocolList: Auto
+ObjCBlockIndentWidth: 4
+ObjCSpaceAfterProperty: true
+ObjCSpaceBeforeProtocolList: true
+PenaltyBreakAssignment: 2
+PenaltyBreakBeforeFirstCallParameter: 19
+PenaltyBreakComment: 300
+PenaltyBreakFirstLessLess: 120
+PenaltyBreakString: 1000
+PenaltyBreakTemplateDeclaration: 10
+PenaltyExcessCharacter: 1000000
+PenaltyReturnTypeOnItsOwnLine: 60
+PointerAlignment: Left
+ReflowComments:  true
+SortIncludes:    true
+SortUsingDeclarations: true
+SpaceAfterCStyleCast: true
+SpaceAfterLogicalNot: false
+SpaceAfterTemplateKeyword: true
+SpaceBeforeAssignmentOperators: true
+SpaceBeforeCpp11BracedList: false
+SpaceBeforeCtorInitializerColon: true
+SpaceBeforeInheritanceColon: true
+SpaceBeforeParens: ControlStatements
+SpaceBeforeRangeBasedForLoopColon: true
+SpaceInEmptyBlock: false
+SpaceInEmptyParentheses: false
+SpacesBeforeTrailingComments: 1
+SpacesInAngles:  false
+SpacesInConditionalStatement: false
+SpacesInContainerLiterals: false
+SpacesInCStyleCastParentheses: false
+SpacesInParentheses: false
+SpacesInSquareBrackets: false
+SpaceBeforeSquareBrackets: false
+Standard:        Latest
+StatementMacros:
+  - Q_UNUSED
+  - QT_REQUIRE_VERSION
+TabWidth:        8
+UseCRLF:         false
+UseTab:          Never
+...
diff --git a/.devcontainer/Dockerfile b/.devcontainer/Dockerfile
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bcea8e797ffb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.devcontainer/Dockerfile
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+# See here for image contents: https://github.com/microsoft/vscode-dev-containers/tree/v0.238.0/containers/java/.devcontainer/base.Dockerfile
+
+# [Choice] Java version (use -bullseye variants on local arm64/Apple Silicon): 11, 17, 11-bullseye, 17-bullseye, 11-buster, 17-buster
+ARG VARIANT="21-bullseye"
+FROM mcr.microsoft.com/vscode/devcontainers/java:1.1.0-${VARIANT}
+
+# [Option] Install Maven
+ARG INSTALL_MAVEN="false"
+ARG MAVEN_VERSION=""
+# [Option] Install Gradle
+ARG INSTALL_GRADLE="false"
+ARG GRADLE_VERSION=""
+RUN if [ "${INSTALL_MAVEN}" = "true" ]; then su vscode -c "umask 0002 && . /usr/local/sdkman/bin/sdkman-init.sh && sdk install maven \"${MAVEN_VERSION}\""; fi \
+    && if [ "${INSTALL_GRADLE}" = "true" ]; then su vscode -c "umask 0002 && . /usr/local/sdkman/bin/sdkman-init.sh && sdk install gradle \"${GRADLE_VERSION}\""; fi
+
+# [Choice] Node.js version: none, lts/*, 16, 14, 12, 10
+ARG NODE_VERSION="none"
+RUN if [ "${NODE_VERSION}" != "none" ]; then su vscode -c "umask 0002 && . /usr/local/share/nvm/nvm.sh && nvm install ${NODE_VERSION} 2>&1"; fi
+
+# [Optional] Uncomment this section to install additional OS packages.
+# RUN apt-get update && export DEBIAN_FRONTEND=noninteractive \
+#     && apt-get -y install --no-install-recommends <your-package-list-here>
+
+# [Optional] Uncomment this line to install global node packages.
+# RUN su vscode -c "source /usr/local/share/nvm/nvm.sh && npm install -g <your-package-here>" 2>&1
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/.devcontainer/devcontainer.json b/.devcontainer/devcontainer.json
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fdc7cdbd25f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.devcontainer/devcontainer.json
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+// For format details, see https://aka.ms/devcontainer.json. For config options, see the README at:
+// https://github.com/microsoft/vscode-dev-containers/tree/v0.238.0/containers/java
+{
+	"name": "Java",
+	"build": {
+		"dockerfile": "Dockerfile",
+		"args": {
+			// Update the VARIANT arg to pick a Java version: 11, 17
+			// Append -bullseye or -buster to pin to an OS version.
+			// Use the -bullseye variants on local arm64/Apple Silicon.
+			"VARIANT": "21-bullseye",
+			// Options
+			"INSTALL_MAVEN": "true",
+			"INSTALL_GRADLE": "true",
+			"NODE_VERSION": "lts/*"
+		}
+	},
+
+	// Configure tool-specific properties.
+	"customizations": {
+		// Configure properties specific to VS Code.
+		"vscode": {
+			// Set *default* container specific settings.json values on container create.
+			"settings": { 
+			},
+			
+			// Add the IDs of extensions you want installed when the container is created.
+			"extensions": [
+				"vscjava.vscode-java-pack",
+				"GitHub.copilot",
+			]
+		}
+	},
+
+	// Use 'forwardPorts' to make a list of ports inside the container available locally.
+	// "forwardPorts": [],
+
+	// Use 'postCreateCommand' to run commands after the container is created.
+	"postCreateCommand": "java -version",
+
+	// Comment out to connect as root instead. More info: https://aka.ms/vscode-remote/containers/non-root.
+	"remoteUser": "vscode",
+	"features": {
+		"git": "os-provided",
+		"github-cli": "latest"
+	}
+}
diff --git a/.github/CODEOWNERS b/.github/CODEOWNERS
index 9bfc524c7c8e..f41af80a3459 100644
--- a/.github/CODEOWNERS
+++ b/.github/CODEOWNERS
@@ -1 +1 @@
-* @siriak @yanglbme
+* @DenizAltunkapan @yanglbme @alxkm
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.md b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.md
deleted file mode 100644
index ba390fafa659..000000000000
--- a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,29 +0,0 @@
----
-name: Bug report
-about: Create a report to help us improve
-title: ""
-labels: ""
-assignees: ""
----
-
-**Describe the bug**
-A clear and concise description of what the bug is.
-
-**To Reproduce**
-Steps to reproduce the behavior:
-
-1. Go to '...'
-2. Click on '....'
-3. Scroll down to '....'
-4. See error
-
-**Expected behavior**
-A clear and concise description of what you expected to happen.
-
-**Screenshots**
-If applicable, add screenshots to help explain your problem.
-
-**Device Specification**
-
-**Additional context**
-Add any other context about the problem here.
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.yml b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9c906c381608
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+name: "Bug report"
+description: "Create a report to help us improve"
+title: "[BUG] <title>"
+labels: ["bug"]
+body:
+  - type: textarea
+    id: description
+    attributes:
+      label: "Description"
+      description: "A clear and concise description of what the bug is."
+    validations:
+      required: true
+  - type: textarea
+    id: steps
+    attributes:
+      label: "Steps to reproduce"
+      description: "Steps to reproduce the behavior (if applicable)"
+      placeholder: |
+       1. Go to '...'
+       2. Click on '....'
+       3. Scroll down to '....'
+       4. See error
+    validations:
+      required: false
+  - type: textarea
+    id: exceptedbhv
+    attributes:
+      label: "Excepted behavior"
+      description: "A clear and concise description of what you expected to happen."
+    validations:
+      required: true
+  - type: textarea
+    id: screenshots
+    attributes:
+      label: "Screenshots"
+      description: "If applicable, add screenshots to help explain your problem."
+    validations:
+      required: false
+  - type: textarea
+    id: context
+    attributes:
+      label: "Additional context"
+      description: "Is there anything else we should know about this bug report?"
+    validations:
+      required: false
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/config.yml b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/config.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..875cc4efab00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/config.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+blank_issues_enabled: false
+contact_links:
+  - name: Discord community
+    url: https://the-algorithms.com/discord/
+    about: Have any questions or found any bugs? Please contact us via Discord
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.md b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.md
deleted file mode 100644
index 2bc5d5f71186..000000000000
--- a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,19 +0,0 @@
----
-name: Feature request
-about: Suggest an idea for this project
-title: ""
-labels: ""
-assignees: ""
----
-
-**Is your feature request related to a problem? Please describe.**
-A clear and concise description of what the problem is. Ex. I'm always frustrated when [...]
-
-**Describe the solution you'd like**
-A clear and concise description of what you want to happen.
-
-**Describe alternatives you've considered**
-A clear and concise description of any alternative solutions or features you've considered.
-
-**Additional context**
-Add any other context or screenshots about the feature request here.
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.yml b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..98ff394158be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/feature_request.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+name: "Feature Request"
+description: "Suggest an idea for this project"
+title: "[FEATURE REQUEST] <title>"
+labels: ["enhancement"]
+body:
+  - type: textarea
+    id: description
+    attributes:
+      label: What would you like to Propose?
+      description: Provide a clear and concise explanation of your Proposal.
+    validations:
+      required: true
+  - type: markdown
+    attributes:
+      value: |
+        For new implementations, please specify the name and problem statement for the algorithm.
+        For algorithm enhancements, specify what needs to be changed and why. For example:
+        - Adding tests.
+        - Optimizing logic.
+        - Refactoring the file and folders for better structure.
+  - type: textarea
+    id: needdetails
+    attributes:
+      label: "Issue details"
+      description: "Write down all the issue/algorithm details description mentioned above."
+    validations:
+      required: true
+  - type: textarea
+    id: extrainfo
+    attributes:
+      label: "Additional Information"
+      description: "Add any other information or screenshots about the request here."
+    validations:
+      required: false
diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/other.yml b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/other.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bf8b29f481c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/other.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+name: Other
+description: Use this for any other issues. Do NOT create blank issues
+title: "[OTHER]"
+labels: ["awaiting triage"]
+body:
+  - type: textarea
+    id: issuedescription
+    attributes:
+      label: What would you like to share?
+      description: Provide a clear and concise explanation of your issue.
+    validations:
+      required: true
+  - type: textarea
+    id: extrainfo
+    attributes:
+      label: Additional information
+      description: Is there anything else we should know about this issue?
+    validations:
+      required: false
diff --git a/.github/dependabot.yml b/.github/dependabot.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2e5622f7b51d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/dependabot.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+version: 2
+updates:
+  - package-ecosystem: "docker"
+    directory: "/"
+    schedule:
+      interval: "weekly"
+
+  - package-ecosystem: "github-actions"
+    directory: "/.github/workflows/"
+    schedule:
+      interval: "daily"
+
+  - package-ecosystem: "maven"
+    directory: "/"
+    schedule:
+      interval: "daily"
+...
diff --git a/.github/pull_request_template.md b/.github/pull_request_template.md
index c805c24b29f3..d9cc4c3c35c5 100644
--- a/.github/pull_request_template.md
+++ b/.github/pull_request_template.md
@@ -1,23 +1,16 @@
-### **Describe your change:**
+<!--
+Thank you for your contribution!
+In order to reduce the number of notifications sent to the maintainers, please:
+- create your PR as draft, cf. https://docs.github.com/en/pull-requests/collaborating-with-pull-requests/proposing-changes-to-your-work-with-pull-requests/about-pull-requests#draft-pull-requests,
+- make sure that all of the CI checks pass,
+- mark your PR as ready for review, cf. https://docs.github.com/en/pull-requests/collaborating-with-pull-requests/proposing-changes-to-your-work-with-pull-requests/changing-the-stage-of-a-pull-request#marking-a-pull-request-as-ready-for-review
+-->
 
-- [ ] Add an algorithm?
-- [ ] Fix a bug or typo in an existing algorithm?
-- [ ] Documentation change?
-
-#### References
-
-<!-- Add any reference to previous pull-request or issue -->
-
-### **Checklist:**
-
-<!-- Remove items that do not apply. For completed items, change [ ] to [x]. -->
+<!-- For completed items, change [ ] to [x] -->
 
 - [ ] I have read [CONTRIBUTING.md](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/CONTRIBUTING.md).
-- [ ] This pull request is all my own work -- I have not plagiarized.
-- [ ] I know that pull requests will not be merged if they fail the automated tests.
-- [ ] This PR only changes one algorithm file. To ease review, please open separate PRs for separate algorithms.
-- [ ] All new Java files are placed inside an existing directory.
-- [ ] All filenames are in all uppercase characters with no spaces or dashes.
+- [ ] This pull request is all my own work -- I have not plagiarized it.
+- [ ] All filenames are in PascalCase.
 - [ ] All functions and variable names follow Java naming conventions.
-- [ ] All new algorithms have a URL in its comments that points to Wikipedia or other similar explanation.
-- [ ] If this pull request resolves one or more open issues then the commit message contains `Fixes: #{$ISSUE_NO}`.
+- [ ] All new algorithms have a URL in their comments that points to Wikipedia or other similar explanations.
+- [ ] All new code is formatted with `clang-format -i --style=file path/to/your/file.java`
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/.github/workflows/build.yml b/.github/workflows/build.yml
index 7e3feabdd260..39bde758d68e 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/build.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build.yml
@@ -1,14 +1,40 @@
 name: Build
 on: [push, pull_request]
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
 jobs:
   build:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@v2
-      - name: Set up JDK 17
-        uses: actions/setup-java@v2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v5
+      - name: Set up JDK
+        uses: actions/setup-java@v5
         with:
-          java-version: 17
-          distribution: 'adopt'
+          java-version: 21
+          distribution: 'temurin'
       - name: Build with Maven
         run: mvn --batch-mode --update-snapshots verify
+      - name: Upload coverage to codecov (tokenless)
+        if: >-
+          github.event_name == 'pull_request' &&
+          github.event.pull_request.head.repo.full_name != github.repository
+        uses: codecov/codecov-action@v5
+        with:
+          fail_ci_if_error: true
+      - name: Upload coverage to codecov (with token)
+        if: >
+          github.repository == 'TheAlgorithms/Java' &&
+          (github.event_name != 'pull_request' ||
+          github.event.pull_request.head.repo.full_name == github.repository)
+        uses: codecov/codecov-action@v5
+        with:
+          token: ${{ secrets.CODECOV_TOKEN }}
+          fail_ci_if_error: true
+      - name: Checkstyle
+        run: mvn checkstyle:check
+      - name: SpotBugs
+        run: mvn spotbugs:check
+      - name: PMD
+        run: mvn pmd:check
diff --git a/.github/workflows/clang-format-lint.yml b/.github/workflows/clang-format-lint.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ca014e115282
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/clang-format-lint.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+name: Clang format linter
+on:
+  push: {}
+  pull_request: {}
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
+jobs:
+  build:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+
+    steps:
+    - uses: actions/checkout@v5
+    - uses: DoozyX/clang-format-lint-action@v0.20
+      with:
+        source: './src'
+        extensions: 'java'
+        clangFormatVersion: 16
diff --git a/.github/workflows/close-failed-prs.yml b/.github/workflows/close-failed-prs.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5d54eea07821
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/close-failed-prs.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+name: Close stale PRs with failed workflows
+
+on:
+  schedule:
+    - cron: '0 3 * * *' # runs daily at 03:00 UTC
+  workflow_dispatch:
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+  issues: write
+  pull-requests: write
+
+jobs:
+  close-stale:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - name: Close stale PRs
+        uses: actions/github-script@v7
+        with:
+          github-token: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
+          script: |
+            const mainBranches = ['main', 'master'];
+            const cutoffDays = 14;
+            const cutoff = new Date();
+            cutoff.setDate(cutoff.getDate() - cutoffDays);
+
+            console.log(`Checking PRs older than: ${cutoff.toISOString()}`);
+
+            try {
+              const { data: prs } = await github.rest.pulls.list({
+                owner: context.repo.owner,
+                repo: context.repo.repo,
+                state: 'open',
+                sort: 'updated',
+                direction: 'asc',
+                per_page: 100
+              });
+
+              console.log(`Found ${prs.length} open PRs to check`);
+
+              for (const pr of prs) {
+                try {
+                  const updated = new Date(pr.updated_at);
+                  
+                  if (updated > cutoff) {
+                    console.log(`⏩ Skipping PR #${pr.number} - updated recently`);
+                    continue;
+                  }
+
+                  console.log(`🔍 Checking PR #${pr.number}: "${pr.title}"`);
+
+                  // Get commits
+                  const commits = await github.paginate(github.rest.pulls.listCommits, {
+                    owner: context.repo.owner,
+                    repo: context.repo.repo,
+                    pull_number: pr.number,
+                    per_page: 100
+                  });
+
+                  const meaningfulCommits = commits.filter(c => {
+                    const msg = c.commit.message.toLowerCase();
+                    const isMergeFromMain = mainBranches.some(branch =>
+                      msg.startsWith(`merge branch '${branch}'`) ||
+                      msg.includes(`merge remote-tracking branch '${branch}'`)
+                    );
+                    return !isMergeFromMain;
+                  });
+
+                  // Get checks with error handling
+                  let hasFailedChecks = false;
+                  let allChecksCompleted = false;
+                  let hasChecks = false;
+                  
+                  try {
+                    const { data: checks } = await github.rest.checks.listForRef({
+                      owner: context.repo.owner,
+                      repo: context.repo.repo,
+                      ref: pr.head.sha
+                    });
+                    
+                    hasChecks = checks.check_runs.length > 0;
+                    hasFailedChecks = checks.check_runs.some(c => c.conclusion === 'failure');
+                    allChecksCompleted = checks.check_runs.every(c => 
+                      c.status === 'completed' || c.status === 'skipped'
+                    );
+                  } catch (error) {
+                    console.log(`⚠️ Could not fetch checks for PR #${pr.number}: ${error.message}`);
+                  }
+
+                  // Get workflow runs with error handling
+                  let hasFailedWorkflows = false;
+                  let allWorkflowsCompleted = false;
+                  let hasWorkflows = false;
+                  
+                  try {
+                    const { data: runs } = await github.rest.actions.listWorkflowRuns({
+                      owner: context.repo.owner,
+                      repo: context.repo.repo,
+                      head_sha: pr.head.sha,
+                      per_page: 50
+                    });
+
+                    hasWorkflows = runs.workflow_runs.length > 0;
+                    hasFailedWorkflows = runs.workflow_runs.some(r => r.conclusion === 'failure');
+                    allWorkflowsCompleted = runs.workflow_runs.every(r => 
+                      ['completed', 'skipped', 'cancelled'].includes(r.status)
+                    );
+
+                    console.log(`PR #${pr.number}: ${runs.workflow_runs.length} workflow runs found`);
+
+                  } catch (error) {
+                    console.log(`⚠️ Could not fetch workflow runs for PR #${pr.number}: ${error.message}`);
+                  }
+
+                  console.log(`PR #${pr.number}: ${meaningfulCommits.length} meaningful commits`);
+                  console.log(`Checks - has: ${hasChecks}, failed: ${hasFailedChecks}, completed: ${allChecksCompleted}`);
+                  console.log(`Workflows - has: ${hasWorkflows}, failed: ${hasFailedWorkflows}, completed: ${allWorkflowsCompleted}`);
+
+                  // Combine conditions - only consider if we actually have checks/workflows
+                  const hasAnyFailure = (hasChecks && hasFailedChecks) || (hasWorkflows && hasFailedWorkflows);
+                  const allCompleted = (!hasChecks || allChecksCompleted) && (!hasWorkflows || allWorkflowsCompleted);
+
+                  if (meaningfulCommits.length === 0 && hasAnyFailure && allCompleted) {
+                    console.log(`✅ Closing PR #${pr.number} (${pr.title})`);
+
+                    await github.rest.issues.createComment({
+                      owner: context.repo.owner,
+                      repo: context.repo.repo,
+                      issue_number: pr.number,
+                      body: `This pull request has been automatically closed because its workflows or checks failed and it has been inactive for more than ${cutoffDays} days. Please fix the workflows and reopen if you'd like to continue. Merging from main/master alone does not count as activity.`
+                    });
+
+                    await github.rest.pulls.update({
+                      owner: context.repo.owner,
+                      repo: context.repo.repo,
+                      pull_number: pr.number,
+                      state: 'closed'
+                    });
+                    
+                    console.log(`✅ Successfully closed PR #${pr.number}`);
+                  } else {
+                    console.log(`⏩ Not closing PR #${pr.number} - conditions not met`);
+                  }
+
+                } catch (prError) {
+                  console.error(`❌ Error processing PR #${pr.number}: ${prError.message}`);
+                  continue;
+                }
+              }
+              
+            } catch (error) {
+              console.error(`❌ Fatal error: ${error.message}`);
+              throw error;
+            }
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/.github/workflows/codeql.yml b/.github/workflows/codeql.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3a4cfd829b6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/codeql.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+---
+name: "CodeQL"
+
+on:
+  workflow_dispatch:
+  push:
+    branches:
+      - master
+  pull_request:
+  schedule:
+    - cron: '53 3 * * 0'
+
+jobs:
+  analyzeJava:
+    name: AnalyzeJava
+    runs-on: 'ubuntu-latest'
+    permissions:
+      actions: read
+      contents: read
+      security-events: write
+
+    steps:
+      - name: Checkout repository
+        uses: actions/checkout@v5
+
+      - name: Set up JDK
+        uses: actions/setup-java@v5
+        with:
+          java-version: 21
+          distribution: 'temurin'
+
+      - name: Initialize CodeQL
+        uses: github/codeql-action/init@v4
+        with:
+          languages: 'java-kotlin'
+
+      - name: Build
+        run: mvn --batch-mode --update-snapshots verify
+
+      - name: Perform CodeQL Analysis
+        uses: github/codeql-action/analyze@v4
+        with:
+          category: "/language:java-kotlin"
+
+  analyzeActions:
+    name: AnalyzeActions
+    runs-on: 'ubuntu-latest'
+    permissions:
+      actions: read
+      contents: read
+      security-events: write
+
+    steps:
+      - name: Checkout repository
+        uses: actions/checkout@v5
+
+      - name: Initialize CodeQL
+        uses: github/codeql-action/init@v4
+        with:
+          languages: 'actions'
+
+      - name: Perform CodeQL Analysis
+        uses: github/codeql-action/analyze@v4
+        with:
+          category: "/language:actions"
+...
diff --git a/.github/workflows/infer.yml b/.github/workflows/infer.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3df7c4b1fc9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/infer.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+---
+name: Infer
+
+'on':
+  workflow_dispatch:
+  push:
+    branches:
+      - master
+  pull_request:
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
+jobs:
+  run_infer:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v5
+
+      - name: Set up JDK
+        uses: actions/setup-java@v5
+        with:
+          java-version: 21
+          distribution: 'temurin'
+
+      - name: Set up OCaml
+        uses: ocaml/setup-ocaml@v3
+        with:
+          ocaml-compiler: 5
+
+      - name: Get current year/weak
+        run: echo "year_week=$(date +'%Y_%U')" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+
+      - name: Cache infer build
+        id: cache-infer
+        uses: actions/cache@v4
+        with:
+          path: infer
+          key: ${{ runner.os }}-infer-${{ env.year_week }}
+
+      - name: Build infer
+        if: steps.cache-infer.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
+        run: |
+          cd ..
+          git clone https://github.com/facebook/infer.git
+          cd infer
+          git checkout 01aaa268f9d38723ba69c139e10f9e2a04b40b1c
+          ./build-infer.sh java
+          cp -r infer ../Java
+
+      - name: Add infer to PATH
+        run: |
+          echo "infer/bin" >> $GITHUB_PATH
+
+      - name: Display infer version
+        run: |
+          which infer
+          infer --version
+
+      - name: Run infer
+        run: |
+          mvn clean
+          infer --fail-on-issue  --print-logs --no-progress-bar -- mvn test
+...
diff --git a/.github/workflows/prettify.yml b/.github/workflows/prettify.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index da58f5f06379..000000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/prettify.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
-name: Prettify
-on: [push, pull_request]
-jobs:
-  prettier:
-    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    steps:
-    - name: Checkout
-      uses: actions/checkout@v2
-      with:
-        ref: ${{ github.head_ref }}
-
-    - name: Prettify code
-      uses: creyD/prettier_action@v3.3
-      with:
-        prettier_options: --write **/*.java
-        commit_message: 'Prettify code'
-      env:
-        GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/project_structure.yml b/.github/workflows/project_structure.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f9fb82a2781c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/project_structure.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+name: ProjectStructure
+
+'on':
+  workflow_dispatch:
+  push:
+    branches:
+      - master
+  pull_request:
+
+permissions:
+  contents: read
+
+jobs:
+  check_structure:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v5
+      - uses: actions/setup-python@v6
+        with:
+          python-version: '3.13'
+
+      - name: Check project structure
+        run: python3 .github/workflows/scripts/check_structure.py
+...
diff --git a/.github/workflows/scripts/check_structure.py b/.github/workflows/scripts/check_structure.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..914f64369207
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/scripts/check_structure.py
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+import pathlib
+import sys
+
+
+def _is_java_file_properly_located(java_file: pathlib.Path) -> bool:
+    main_parents = java_file.parent.parents
+    return (
+        pathlib.Path("src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/") in main_parents
+        or pathlib.Path("src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/") in main_parents
+    )
+
+
+def _find_misplaced_java_files() -> list[pathlib.Path]:
+    return [
+        java_file
+        for java_file in pathlib.Path(".").rglob("*.java")
+        if not _is_java_file_properly_located(java_file)
+    ]
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    misplaced_files = _find_misplaced_java_files()
+    if misplaced_files:
+        print("The following java files are not located in the correct directory:")
+        for _ in misplaced_files:
+            print(_)
+        sys.exit(1)
diff --git a/.github/workflows/stale.yml b/.github/workflows/stale.yml
index 8fbb262b9e36..bb613daf8f1d 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/stale.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/stale.yml
@@ -2,16 +2,21 @@ name: 'Close stale issues and PRs'
 on:
   schedule:
     - cron: '0 0 * * *'
+permissions:
+  contents: read
 jobs:
   stale:
+    permissions:
+      issues: write
+      pull-requests: write
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/stale@v4
+      - uses: actions/stale@v10
         with:
-          stale-issue-message: 'This issue has been automatically marked as stale because it has not had recent activity. It will be closed if no further activity occurs. Thank you for your contributions.'
-          close-issue-message: 'Please reopen this issue once you add more information and updates here. If this is not the case and you need some help, feel free to seek help from our [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms) or ping one of the reviewers. Thank you for your contributions!'
-          stale-pr-message: 'This pull request has been automatically marked as stale because it has not had recent activity. It will be closed if no further activity occurs. Thank you for your contributions.'
-          close-pr-message: 'Please reopen this pull request once you commit the changes requested or make improvements on the code. If this is not the case and you need some help, feel free to seek help from our [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms) or ping one of the reviewers. Thank you for your contributions!'
+          stale-issue-message: 'This issue has been automatically marked as stale because it has not had recent activity. It will be closed if no further activity occurs. Thank you for your contribution!'
+          close-issue-message: 'Please reopen this issue once you have made the required changes. If you need help, feel free to ask in our [Discord](https://the-algorithms.com/discord) server or ping one of the maintainers here. Thank you for your contribution!'
+          stale-pr-message: 'This pull request has been automatically marked as stale because it has not had recent activity. It will be closed if no further activity occurs. Thank you for your contribution!'
+          close-pr-message: 'Please reopen this pull request once you have made the required changes. If you need help, feel free to ask in our [Discord](https://the-algorithms.com/discord) server or ping one of the maintainers here. Thank you for your contribution!'
           exempt-issue-labels: 'dont-close'
           exempt-pr-labels: 'dont-close'
           days-before-stale: 30
diff --git a/.github/workflows/update-directorymd.yml b/.github/workflows/update-directorymd.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6692a884a867
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/update-directorymd.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+name: Generate Directory Markdown
+
+on:
+  push:
+    branches: [master]
+  workflow_dispatch:
+
+permissions:
+  contents: write
+  pull-requests: write
+
+jobs:
+  generate-directory:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - name: Checkout Repository
+        uses: actions/checkout@v5
+
+      - name: Run Directory Tree Generator
+        uses: DenizAltunkapan/directory-tree-generator@v2
+        with:
+          path: src
+          extensions: .java
+          show-extensions: false
+
+      - name: Commit changes
+        run: |
+          git config --global user.name "$GITHUB_ACTOR"
+          git config --global user.email "$GITHUB_ACTOR@users.noreply.github.com"
+          git add DIRECTORY.md
+          git diff --cached --quiet || git commit -m "Update DIRECTORY.md"
+      
+      - name: Create Pull Request
+        uses: peter-evans/create-pull-request@v7
+        with:
+          token: ${{ secrets.REPO_SCOPED_TOKEN }}
+          branch: update-directory
+          base: master
+          title: "Update DIRECTORY.md"
+          body: "Automatically generated update of the directory tree."
+          commit-message: "Update DIRECTORY.md"
+          draft: false
diff --git a/.github/workflows/update_directory.yml b/.github/workflows/update_directory.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index 0a9265c5d801..000000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/update_directory.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,67 +0,0 @@
-# This GitHub Action updates the DIRECTORY.md file (if needed) when doing a git push
-name: Update Directory
-on: [push, pull_request]
-jobs:
-  update_directory_md:
-    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@master
-      - uses: actions/setup-python@master
-      - name: Update Directory
-        shell: python
-        run: |
-            import os
-            from typing import Iterator
-
-            URL_BASE = "https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master"
-            g_output = []
-
-
-            def good_filepaths(top_dir: str = ".") -> Iterator[str]:
-                for dirpath, dirnames, filenames in os.walk(top_dir):
-                    dirnames[:] = [d for d in dirnames if d[0] not in "._"]
-                    for filename in filenames:
-                        if os.path.splitext(filename)[1].lower() == ".java":
-                            yield os.path.join(dirpath, filename).lstrip("./")
-
-
-            def md_prefix(i):
-                return f"{i * '  '}*" if i else "\n##"
-
-
-            def print_path(old_path: str, new_path: str) -> str:
-                global g_output
-                old_parts = old_path.split(os.sep)
-                for i, new_part in enumerate(new_path.split(os.sep)):
-                    if i + 1 > len(old_parts) or old_parts[i] != new_part:
-                        if new_part:
-                            g_output.append(f"{md_prefix(i)} {new_part.replace('_', ' ')}")
-                return new_path
-
-
-            def build_directory_md(top_dir: str = ".") -> str:
-                global g_output
-                old_path = ""
-                for filepath in sorted(good_filepaths(), key=str.lower):
-                    filepath, filename = os.path.split(filepath)
-                    if filepath != old_path:
-                        old_path = print_path(old_path, filepath)
-                    indent = (filepath.count(os.sep) + 1) if filepath else 0
-                    url = "/".join((URL_BASE, filepath, filename)).replace(" ", "%20")
-                    filename = os.path.splitext(filename.replace("_", " "))[0]
-                    g_output.append(f"{md_prefix(indent)} [{filename}]({url})")
-                return "\n".join(g_output)
-
-
-            with open("DIRECTORY.md", "w") as out_file:
-                out_file.write(build_directory_md(".") + "\n")
-
-      - name: Update DIRECTORY.md
-        run: |
-          cat DIRECTORY.md
-          git config --global user.name github-actions
-          git config --global user.email '${GITHUB_ACTOR}@users.noreply.github.com'
-          git remote set-url origin https://x-access-token:${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}@github.com/$GITHUB_REPOSITORY
-          git add DIRECTORY.md
-          git commit -am "Update directory" ||  true
-          git push --force origin HEAD:$GITHUB_REF || true
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index e74117ebc9b3..eb9d33c78a33 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 /gradle/wrapper/gradle-wrapper.properties
+
 ##----------Android----------
-# build
 *.apk
 *.ap_
 *.dex
@@ -10,35 +10,37 @@ gen/
 build/
 out/
 
-# gradle
+# Ignoring Gradle build artifacts and project files
+##----------Gradle----------
 .gradle/
 gradle-app.setting
 !gradle-wrapper.jar
 build/
 
-# maven
+# Ignoring Maven build artifacts and project files
+##----------Maven----------
 *.classpath
 *.project
 *.settings
 /target/
-
 local.properties
 
-##----------idea----------
+# Ignoring IntelliJ IDEA project files and configurations
+##----------IDEA----------
 *.iml
 .idea/
 *.ipr
 *.iws
 
-# Android Studio Navigation editor temp files
+# Ignoring Android Studio Navigation editor temporary files
 .navigation/
 
+# Ignoring common system and editor-generated files
 ##----------Other----------
-# osx
 *~
 .DS_Store
 gradle.properties
-
 .vscode
-
 *.log
+
+/infer-out/
diff --git a/.gitpod.Dockerfile b/.gitpod.Dockerfile
deleted file mode 100644
index f8e49f267475..000000000000
--- a/.gitpod.Dockerfile
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-FROM gitpod/workspace-full
-
-# Install custom tools, runtimes, etc.
-# For example "bastet", a command-line tetris clone:
-# RUN brew install bastet
-#
-# More information: https://www.gitpod.io/docs/config-docker/
diff --git a/.gitpod.dockerfile b/.gitpod.dockerfile
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4195f928d1bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitpod.dockerfile
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+FROM gitpod/workspace-java-21:2025-10-06-13-14-25
+
+ENV LLVM_SCRIPT="tmp_llvm.sh"
+
+RUN test ! -f  "$LLVM_SCRIPT" \
+  && wget https://apt.llvm.org/llvm.sh -O "$LLVM_SCRIPT" \
+  && chmod +x "$LLVM_SCRIPT"
+
+USER root
+
+RUN ./"$LLVM_SCRIPT" 16 \
+  && apt-get update \
+  && apt-get install -y --no-install-recommends \
+  clang-format-16=1:16.0.6~++20231112100510+7cbf1a259152-1~exp1~20231112100554.106 \
+  && apt-get clean \
+  && rm -rf /var/lib/apt/lists/*
+
+RUN ln -s "$(command -v clang-format-16)" "/usr/bin/clang-format"
+
+USER gitpod
+
+RUN rm "$LLVM_SCRIPT"
diff --git a/.gitpod.yml b/.gitpod.yml
index 479ecfd1f5e7..21d69f6e2122 100644
--- a/.gitpod.yml
+++ b/.gitpod.yml
@@ -1,6 +1,13 @@
+---
 image:
-  file: .gitpod.Dockerfile
+  file: .gitpod.dockerfile
 
 tasks:
-  - init: 'echo "TODO: Replace with init/build command"'
-    command: (e.g. 'npm start', 'yarn watch'...)
+  - init: |
+      mvn dependency:resolve
+      mvn compile
+
+vscode:
+  extensions:
+    - xaver.clang-format
+
diff --git a/.inferconfig b/.inferconfig
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6af4f9e2e818
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.inferconfig
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+{
+    "report-block-list-path-regex": [
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/CompositeLFSR.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounter.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounter.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeap.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SimpsonIntegration.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSort.java",
+        "src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AhoCorasick.java",
+        "src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCacheTest.java",
+        "src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SkipListTest.java",
+        "src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTreeTest.java",
+        "src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LazySegmentTreeTest.java",
+        "src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelectTest.java",
+        "src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfixTest.java",
+        "src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearchTest.java"
+    ]
+}
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index d439684a4e14..f2f8dd9ffdea 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -1,27 +1,31 @@
 ## How to contribute?
 
-#### **Did you find a bug?**
+NOTE: *We DO NOT add leetcode problems. They are just applications of basic principles that can be found in other algorithms included in the repository.*
 
-- **Ensure the bug was not already reported** by searching on GitHub under [Project Issues](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/issues).
+### Did you find a bug?
 
-- Please avoid opening issues asking to be "assigned” to a particular algorithm. This merely creates unnecessary noise for maintainers. Instead, please submit your implementation in a pull request and it will be evaluated by project maintainers.
+**Ensure the bug was not already reported** by searching on GitHub under [Project Issues](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/issues).
+  - If it is mentioned in the issues and you want to fix it, [fork](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/fork) the repository and submit your implementation in a pull request. The project maintainers will evaluate it.
+  - If the bug is **NOT** mentioned in the issues, [open a new issue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/issues/new). Be sure to include a **title**, a clear **description** and a **test case** demonstrating the expected behavior that is not occurring.
 
-- If you are unable to find an open issue referring to the same problem, depending on the type of issue follow the appropriate steps:
+NOTE: *Please avoid opening issues asking to be "assigned" to a particular algorithm. This merely creates unnecessary noise for maintainers. Instead, please submit your implementation in a pull request and project maintainers will evaluate it.*
 
-#### **Do you want to contribute to the documentation?**
 
-- Please read the documentation here [Contributing to the Documentation](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/CONTRIBUTING.md), [open a new issue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/issues/new), make changes, and then create a pull request, it will be put under review and accepted if it is appropriate.
 
-#### **Do you want to add a new feature?**
+### Do you want to contribute to the documentation?
+   - [Fork](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/fork) the repository and make necessary changes.
+   - Create a pull request.
+   - It will be put under review for approval.
+   - If approved, the requested changes will be merged to the repository.
 
-- [Open a new issue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/issues/new). Be sure to include a **title and a clear description** and a **test case** demonstrating the new feature that you want to add to the project.
+### Do you want to add a new feature?
 
-#### **Do you want to fix a bug?**
+- [Open a new issue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/issues/new).
+- Be sure to include a **title**, a clear **description** and a **test case** demonstrating the new feature you want to add to the project.
 
-- [Open a new issue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/issues/new).Be sure to include a **title and a clear description** and a **test case** demonstrating the expected behavior that is not occurring.
 
-#### **Do you have questions about the source code?**
+### Do you have questions about the source code?
 
 - Ask any question about how to use the repository in the [TheAlgorithms room in GITTER](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms/community?source=orgpage#) or [open a new issue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/issues/new)
 
-:+1::tada: That's all you need to know about the process now it's your turn to help us improve the repository, thank you again! :+1::tada:
+:+1::tada: That's all you need to know about the process now it's your turn to help us improve the repository, thank you again! :+1::tada:
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/DIRECTORY.md b/DIRECTORY.md
index 12410c4977f8..47833a3f59f2 100644
--- a/DIRECTORY.md
+++ b/DIRECTORY.md
@@ -1,417 +1,1526 @@
+# Project Structure
 
 ## src
-  * main
-    * java
-      * com
-        * thealgorithms
-          * audiofilters
-            * [IIRFilter](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java)
-          * backtracking
-            * [KnightsTour](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java)
-            * [NQueens](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java)
-            * [PowerSum](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java)
-          * ciphers
-            * [AES](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AES.java)
-            * [AESEncryption](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryption.java)
-            * [AffineCipher](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java)
-            * [Caesar](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Caesar.java)
-            * [ColumnarTranspositionCipher](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java)
-            * [HillCipher](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipher.java)
-            * [ProductCipher](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java)
-            * [RSA](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java)
-            * [SimpleSubCipher](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java)
-            * [SimpleSubstitutionCipher](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubstitutionCipher.java)
-            * [Vigenere](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java)
-          * conversions
-            * [AnyBaseToAnyBase](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToAnyBase.java)
-            * [AnyBaseToDecimal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimal.java)
-            * [AnytoAny](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java)
-            * [BinaryToDecimal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimal.java)
-            * [BinaryToHexadecimal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimal.java)
-            * [BinaryToOctal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctal.java)
-            * [DecimalToAnyBase](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBase.java)
-            * [DecimalToBinary](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinary.java)
-            * [DecimalToHexaDecimal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexaDecimal.java)
-            * [DecimalToOctal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctal.java)
-            * [HexaDecimalToBinary](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinary.java)
-            * [HexaDecimalToDecimal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimal.java)
-            * [HexToOct](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOct.java)
-            * [IntegerToRoman](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRoman.java)
-            * [OctalToDecimal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimal.java)
-            * [OctalToHexadecimal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimal.java)
-            * [RgbHsvConversion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RgbHsvConversion.java)
-            * [RomanToInteger](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToInteger.java)
-            * [TurkishToLatinConversion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversion.java)
-          * datastructures
-            * bags
-              * [Bag](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bags/Bag.java)
-            * buffers
-              * [CircularBuffer](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBuffer.java)
-            * caches
-              * [LRUCache](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCache.java)
-              * [MRUCache](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java)
-            * disjointsets
-              * [DisjointSets](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsets/DisjointSets.java)
-              * [Node](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsets/Node.java)
-            * dynamicarray
-              * [DynamicArray](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArray.java)
-            * graphs
-              * [A Star](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/A_Star.java)
-              * [BellmanFord](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java)
-              * [BipartiteGrapfDFS](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGrapfDFS.java)
-              * [ConnectedComponent](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java)
-              * [Cycles](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java)
-              * [DIJSKSTRAS ALGORITHM](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DIJSKSTRAS_ALGORITHM.java)
-              * [FloydWarshall](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java)
-              * [Graphs](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java)
-              * [KahnsAlgorithm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java)
-              * [Kruskal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java)
-              * [MatrixGraphs](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphs.java)
-              * [PrimMST](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMST.java)
-            * hashmap
-              * hashing
-                * [HashMap](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMap.java)
-                * [HashMapLinearProbing](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapLinearProbing.java)
-                * [Main](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Main.java)
-                * [MainLinearProbing](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MainLinearProbing.java)
-            * heaps
-              * [EmptyHeapException](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/EmptyHeapException.java)
-              * [Heap](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/Heap.java)
-              * [HeapElement](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElement.java)
-              * [MaxHeap](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java)
-              * [MinHeap](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java)
-              * [MinPriorityQueue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueue.java)
-            * lists
-              * [CircleLinkedList](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java)
-              * [CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java)
-              * [CreateAndDetectLoop](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java)
-              * [CursorLinkedList](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedList.java)
-              * [DoublyLinkedList](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java)
-              * [Merge K SortedLinkedlist](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/Merge_K_SortedLinkedlist.java)
-              * [MergeSortedArrayList](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java)
-              * [MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.java)
-              * [RandomNode](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java)
-              * [RemoveDuplicateNodes](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RemoveDuplicateNodes.java)
-              * [SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java)
-              * [SinglyLinkedList](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java)
-            * queues
-              * [CircularQueue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueue.java)
-              * [Deques](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deques.java)
-              * [GenericArrayListQueue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueue.java)
-              * [LinkedQueue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java)
-              * [PriorityQueues](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java)
-              * [Queues](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queues.java)
-            * stacks
-              * [BalancedBrackets](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/BalancedBrackets.java)
-              * [DecimalToAnyUsingStack](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStack.java)
-              * [DuplicateBrackets](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/DuplicateBrackets.java)
-              * [InfixToPostfix](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/InfixToPostfix.java)
-              * [MaximumMinimumWindow](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/MaximumMinimumWindow.java)
-              * [NextGraterElement](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NextGraterElement.java)
-              * [NextSmallerElement](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NextSmallerElement.java)
-              * [NodeStack](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java)
-              * [ReverseStack](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java)
-              * [StackArray](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArray.java)
-              * [StackArrayList](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayList.java)
-              * [StackOfLinkedList](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java)
-            * trees
-              * [AVLTree](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java)
-              * [BinaryTree](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTree.java)
-              * [BSTIterative](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterative.java)
-              * [BSTRecursive](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursive.java)
-              * [BSTRecursiveGeneric](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java)
-              * [CeilInBinarySearchTree](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java)
-              * [CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.java)
-              * [CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.java)
-              * [CreateBSTFromSortedArray](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBSTFromSortedArray.java)
-              * [FenwickTree](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java)
-              * [GenericTree](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java)
-              * [LCA](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LCA.java)
-              * [LevelOrderTraversal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversal.java)
-              * [LevelOrderTraversalQueue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversalQueue.java)
-              * [nearestRightKey](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java)
-              * [PrintTopViewofTree](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java)
-              * [RedBlackBST](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java)
-              * [SegmentTree](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java)
-              * [TreeTraversal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeTraversal.java)
-              * [TrieImp](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieImp.java)
-              * [ValidBSTOrNot](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ValidBSTOrNot.java)
-              * [VerticalOrderTraversal](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java)
-          * devutils
-            * nodes
-              * [LargeTreeNode](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java)
-              * [Node](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/Node.java)
-              * [SimpleNode](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/SimpleNode.java)
-              * [SimpleTreeNode](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/SimpleTreeNode.java)
-              * [TreeNode](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/TreeNode.java)
-            * searches
-              * [SearchAlgorithm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java)
-          * divideandconquer
-            * [BinaryExponentiation](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiation.java)
-            * [ClosestPair](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java)
-            * [SkylineAlgorithm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java)
-            * [StrassenMatrixMultiplication](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplication.java)
-          * dynamicprogramming
-            * [BoardPath](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPath.java)
-            * [BoundaryFill](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java)
-            * [BruteForceKnapsack](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsack.java)
-            * [CatalanNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java)
-            * [CoinChange](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java)
-            * [DiceThrow](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DiceThrow.java)
-            * [DyanamicProgrammingKnapsack](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DyanamicProgrammingKnapsack.java)
-            * [EditDistance](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistance.java)
-            * [EggDropping](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDropping.java)
-            * [Fibonacci](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java)
-            * [FloodFill](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FloodFill.java)
-            * [FordFulkerson](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FordFulkerson.java)
-            * [KadaneAlgorithm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java)
-            * [Knapsack](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java)
-            * [KnapsackMemoization](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoization.java)
-            * [LevenshteinDistance](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java)
-            * [LongestAlternatingSubsequence](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequence.java)
-            * [LongestCommonSubsequence](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java)
-            * [LongestIncreasingSubsequence](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java)
-            * [LongestPalindromicSubsequence](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubsequence.java)
-            * [LongestPalindromicSubstring](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java)
-            * [LongestValidParentheses](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java)
-            * [MatrixChainMultiplication](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplication.java)
-            * [MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.java)
-            * [MemoizationTechniqueKnapsack](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MemoizationTechniqueKnapsack.java)
-            * [MinimumPathSum](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSum.java)
-            * [MinimumSumPartition](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartition.java)
-            * [PalindromicPartitioning](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioning.java)
-            * [RegexMatching](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java)
-            * [RodCutting](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCutting.java)
-            * [ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength.java)
-            * [SubsetSum](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSum.java)
-            * [Sum Of Subset](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Sum_Of_Subset.java)
-            * [WineProblem](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java)
-          * maths
-            * [AbsoluteMax](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMax.java)
-            * [AbsoluteMin](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMin.java)
-            * [AbsoluteValue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValue.java)
-            * [ADTFraction](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFraction.java)
-            * [AliquotSum](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java)
-            * [AmicableNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java)
-            * [Area](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java)
-            * [Armstrong](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java)
-            * [AutomorphicNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumber.java)
-            * [Average](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Average.java)
-            * [BinaryPow](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPow.java)
-            * [BinomialCoefficient](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficient.java)
-            * [Ceil](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Ceil.java)
-            * [CircularConvolutionFFT](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java)
-            * [Combinations](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java)
-            * [Convolution](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Convolution.java)
-            * [ConvolutionFFT](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java)
-            * [DeterminantOfMatrix](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java)
-            * [DigitalRoot](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java)
-            * [DudeneyNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumber.java)
-            * [EulerMethod](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java)
-            * [Factorial](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Factorial.java)
-            * [FactorialRecursion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursion.java)
-            * [FFT](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java)
-            * [FFTBluestein](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java)
-            * [FibonacciJavaStreams](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreams.java)
-            * [FibonacciNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumber.java)
-            * [FindMax](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMax.java)
-            * [FindMaxRecursion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursion.java)
-            * [FindMin](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMin.java)
-            * [FindMinRecursion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursion.java)
-            * [Floor](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Floor.java)
-            * [Gaussian](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java)
-            * [GCD](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java)
-            * [GCDRecursion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java)
-            * [GenericRoot](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java)
-            * [HarshadNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumber.java)
-            * [JugglerSequence](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JugglerSequence.java)
-            * [KaprekarNumbers](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java)
-            * [KeithNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumber.java)
-            * [KrishnamurthyNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumber.java)
-            * [LeonardoNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumber.java)
-            * [LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.java)
-            * [LucasSeries](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeries.java)
-            * [MagicSquare](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MagicSquare.java)
-            * [MatrixUtil](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MatrixUtil.java)
-            * [MaxValue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValue.java)
-            * [Median](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Median.java)
-            * [MinValue](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValue.java)
-            * [Mode](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Mode.java)
-            * [NonRepeatingElement](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java)
-            * [NthUglyNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java)
-            * [NumberOfDigits](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigits.java)
-            * [PalindromeNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumber.java)
-            * [ParseInteger](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseInteger.java)
-            * [PascalTriangle](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java)
-            * [PerfectCube](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java)
-            * [PerfectNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java)
-            * [PerfectSquare](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java)
-            * [PiNilakantha](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiNilakantha.java)
-            * [Pow](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Pow.java)
-            * [PowerOfTwoOrNot](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNot.java)
-            * [PowRecursion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowRecursion.java)
-            * [PrimeCheck](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PrimeCheck.java)
-            * [PrimeFactorization](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PrimeFactorization.java)
-            * [PronicNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumber.java)
-            * [PythagoreanTriple](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java)
-            * [ReverseNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumber.java)
-            * [RomanNumeralUtil](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/RomanNumeralUtil.java)
-            * [SimpsonIntegration](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SimpsonIntegration.java)
-            * [SumOfArithmeticSeries](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java)
-            * [SumOfDigits](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigits.java)
-            * [TrinomialTriangle](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java)
-            * [VampireNumber](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumber.java)
-            * [VectorCrossProduct](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java)
-            * [Volume](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Volume.java)
-          * matrixexponentiation
-            * [Fibonacci](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java)
-          * minimizinglateness
-            * [MinimizingLateness](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/minimizinglateness/MinimizingLateness.java)
-          * misc
-            * [ColorContrastRatio](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatio.java)
-            * [InverseOfMatrix](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/InverseOfMatrix.java)
-            * [matrixTranspose](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/matrixTranspose.java)
-            * [MedianOfRunningArray](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java)
-            * [PalindromePrime](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrime.java)
-            * [PalindromeSinglyLinkedList](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java)
-            * [RangeInSortedArray](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArray.java)
-            * [Sort012D](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sort012D.java)
-            * [Sparcity](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparcity.java)
-            * [ThreeSumProblem](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java)
-            * [TwoSumProblem](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java)
-            * [WordBoggle](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/WordBoggle.java)
-          * others
-            * [ArrayLeftRotation](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotation.java)
-            * [BankersAlgorithm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java)
-            * [BestFit](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFit.java)
-            * [BFPRT](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRT.java)
-            * [BoyerMoore](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java)
-            * [BrianKernighanAlgorithm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BrianKernighanAlgorithm.java)
-            * [CountChar](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountChar.java)
-            * [CountWords](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountWords.java)
-            * [CRC32](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java)
-            * [CRCAlgorithm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java)
-            * [Damm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Damm.java)
-            * [Dijkstra](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java)
-            * [EulersFunction](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/EulersFunction.java)
-            * [FibbonaciSeries](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FibbonaciSeries.java)
-            * [FirstFit](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFit.java)
-            * [FloydTriangle](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangle.java)
-            * [GuassLegendre](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GuassLegendre.java)
-            * [HappyNumbersSeq](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/HappyNumbersSeq.java)
-            * [Huffman](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Huffman.java)
-            * [Implementing auto completing features using trie](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Implementing_auto_completing_features_using_trie.java)
-            * [InsertDeleteInArray](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArray.java)
-            * [KMP](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KMP.java)
-            * [KochSnowflake](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java)
-            * [Krishnamurthy](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Krishnamurthy.java)
-            * [LinearCongruentialGenerator](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinearCongruentialGenerator.java)
-            * [LowestBasePalindrome](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindrome.java)
-            * [Luhn](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java)
-            * [Mandelbrot](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java)
-            * [MiniMaxAlgorithm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java)
-            * [PageRank](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java)
-            * [PasswordGen](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGen.java)
-            * [PerlinNoise](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoise.java)
-            * [QueueUsingTwoStacks](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java)
-            * [RabinKarp](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RabinKarp.java)
-            * [RemoveDuplicateFromString](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java)
-            * [ReturnSubsequence](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ReturnSubsequence.java)
-            * [ReverseStackUsingRecursion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ReverseStackUsingRecursion.java)
-            * [RootPrecision](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RootPrecision.java)
-            * [RotateMatriceBy90Degree](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RotateMatriceBy90Degree.java)
-            * [SieveOfEratosthenes](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SieveOfEratosthenes.java)
-            * [SJF](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SJF.java)
-            * [SkylineProblem](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java)
-            * [StackPostfixNotation](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/StackPostfixNotation.java)
-            * [StringMatchFiniteAutomata](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/StringMatchFiniteAutomata.java)
-            * [Sudoku](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Sudoku.java)
-            * [ThreeSum](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ThreeSum.java)
-            * [TopKWords](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TopKWords.java)
-            * [TowerOfHanoi](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TowerOfHanoi.java)
-            * [TwoPointers](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointers.java)
-            * [Verhoeff](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Verhoeff.java)
-            * [WorstFit](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFit.java)
-          * searches
-            * [BinarySearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java)
-            * [BreadthFirstSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearch.java)
-            * [DepthFirstSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java)
-            * [ExponentalSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentalSearch.java)
-            * [FibonacciSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearch.java)
-            * [HowManyTimesRotated](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotated.java)
-            * [InterpolationSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java)
-            * [IterativeBinarySearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearch.java)
-            * [IterativeTernarySearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearch.java)
-            * [JumpSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearch.java)
-            * [LinearSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java)
-            * [LinearSearchThread](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThread.java)
-            * [LowerBound](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java)
-            * [MonteCarloTreeSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java)
-            * [PerfectBinarySearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearch.java)
-            * [QuickSelect](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelect.java)
-            * [SaddlebackSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearch.java)
-            * [SquareRootBinarySearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearch.java)
-            * [TernarySearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java)
-            * [UnionFind](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java)
-            * [UpperBound](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java)
-          * sorts
-            * [BitonicSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSort.java)
-            * [BogoSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java)
-            * [BubbleSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java)
-            * [BubbleSortRecursion](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursion.java)
-            * [BucketSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSort.java)
-            * [CircleSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSort.java)
-            * [CocktailShakerSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java)
-            * [CombSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java)
-            * [CountingSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java)
-            * [CycleSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java)
-            * [DNFSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DNFSort.java)
-            * [GnomeSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java)
-            * [HeapSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java)
-            * [InsertionSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java)
-            * [MergeSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java)
-            * [MergeSortNoExtraSpace](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpace.java)
-            * [MergeSortRecursive](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java)
-            * [OddEvenSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSort.java)
-            * [PancakeSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java)
-            * [QuickSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSort.java)
-            * [RadixSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSort.java)
-            * [SelectionSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java)
-            * [ShellSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSort.java)
-            * [SimpleSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SimpleSort.java)
-            * [SlowSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java)
-            * [SortAlgorithm](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java)
-            * [SortUtils](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtils.java)
-            * [StoogeSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java)
-            * [SwapSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSort.java)
-            * [TimSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSort.java)
-            * [TreeSort](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java)
-          * strings
-            * [Alphabetical](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Alphabetical.java)
-            * [Anagrams](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java)
-            * [CharactersSame](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSame.java)
-            * [CheckAnagrams](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckAnagrams.java)
-            * [CheckVowels](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java)
-            * [HorspoolSearch](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java)
-            * [List all Possible Words From Phone Digits](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/List_all_Possible_Words_From_Phone_Digits.java)
-            * [LongestPalindromicSubstring](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java)
-            * [Lower](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Lower.java)
-            * [Palindrome](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java)
-            * [Pangram](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java)
-            * [PermuteString](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteString.java)
-            * [ReverseString](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseString.java)
-            * [Rotation](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Rotation.java)
-            * [Upper](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Upper.java)
-            * [WordLadder](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadder.java)
-  * test
-    * java
-      * com
-        * thealgorithms
-          * maths
-            * [KaprekarNumbersTest](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java)
-            * [PascalTriangleTest](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangleTest.java)
-            * [PronicNumberTest](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumberTest.java)
-          * others
-            * [ArrayLeftRotationTest](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotationTest.java)
-          * searches
-            * [QuickSelectTest](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/blob/master/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelectTest.java)
+
+- 📁 **main**
+  - 📁 **java**
+    - 📁 **com**
+      - 📁 **thealgorithms**
+        - 📁 **audiofilters**
+          - 📄 [EMAFilter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/EMAFilter.java)
+          - 📄 [IIRFilter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java)
+        - 📁 **backtracking**
+          - 📄 [AllPathsFromSourceToTarget](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.java)
+          - 📄 [ArrayCombination](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ArrayCombination.java)
+          - 📄 [Combination](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/Combination.java)
+          - 📄 [CrosswordSolver](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolver.java)
+          - 📄 [FloodFill](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/FloodFill.java)
+          - 📄 [KnightsTour](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java)
+          - 📄 [MColoring](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoring.java)
+          - 📄 [MazeRecursion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursion.java)
+          - 📄 [NQueens](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java)
+          - 📄 [ParenthesesGenerator](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ParenthesesGenerator.java)
+          - 📄 [Permutation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/Permutation.java)
+          - 📄 [PowerSum](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java)
+          - 📄 [SubsequenceFinder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/SubsequenceFinder.java)
+          - 📄 [WordPatternMatcher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcher.java)
+          - 📄 [WordSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearch.java)
+        - 📁 **bitmanipulation**
+          - 📄 [BcdConversion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversion.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryPalindromeCheck](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BinaryPalindromeCheck.java)
+          - 📄 [BitSwap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitSwap.java)
+          - 📄 [BitwiseGCD](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitwiseGCD.java)
+          - 📄 [BooleanAlgebraGates](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BooleanAlgebraGates.java)
+          - 📄 [ClearLeftmostSetBit](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBit.java)
+          - 📄 [CountBitsFlip](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlip.java)
+          - 📄 [CountLeadingZeros](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountLeadingZeros.java)
+          - 📄 [CountSetBits](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountSetBits.java)
+          - 📄 [FindNthBit](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FindNthBit.java)
+          - 📄 [FirstDifferentBit](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBit.java)
+          - 📄 [GenerateSubsets](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GenerateSubsets.java)
+          - 📄 [GrayCodeConversion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GrayCodeConversion.java)
+          - 📄 [HammingDistance](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HammingDistance.java)
+          - 📄 [HigherLowerPowerOfTwo](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.java)
+          - 📄 [HighestSetBit](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBit.java)
+          - 📄 [IndexOfRightMostSetBit](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBit.java)
+          - 📄 [IsEven](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEven.java)
+          - 📄 [IsPowerTwo](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwo.java)
+          - 📄 [LowestSetBit](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBit.java)
+          - 📄 [ModuloPowerOfTwo](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ModuloPowerOfTwo.java)
+          - 📄 [NextHigherSameBitCount](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NextHigherSameBitCount.java)
+          - 📄 [NonRepeatingNumberFinder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinder.java)
+          - 📄 [NumberAppearingOddTimes](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimes.java)
+          - 📄 [NumbersDifferentSigns](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSigns.java)
+          - 📄 [OneBitDifference](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifference.java)
+          - 📄 [OnesComplement](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplement.java)
+          - 📄 [ParityCheck](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ParityCheck.java)
+          - 📄 [ReverseBits](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBits.java)
+          - 📄 [SingleBitOperations](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperations.java)
+          - 📄 [SingleElement](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleElement.java)
+          - 📄 [SwapAdjacentBits](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBits.java)
+          - 📄 [TwosComplement](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplement.java)
+          - 📄 [Xs3Conversion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3Conversion.java)
+        - 📁 **ciphers**
+          - 📄 [ADFGVXCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ADFGVXCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [AES](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AES.java)
+          - 📄 [AESEncryption](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryption.java)
+          - 📄 [AffineCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [AtbashCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [Autokey](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Autokey.java)
+          - 📄 [BaconianCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [Blowfish](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Blowfish.java)
+          - 📄 [Caesar](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Caesar.java)
+          - 📄 [ColumnarTranspositionCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [DES](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DES.java)
+          - 📄 [DiffieHellman](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DiffieHellman.java)
+          - 📄 [ECC](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECC.java)
+          - 📄 [HillCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [MonoAlphabetic](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/MonoAlphabetic.java)
+          - 📄 [PermutationCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [PlayfairCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [Polybius](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Polybius.java)
+          - 📄 [ProductCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [RSA](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java)
+          - 📄 [RailFenceCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [SimpleSubCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java)
+          - 📄 [Vigenere](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java)
+          - 📄 [XORCipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipher.java)
+          - 📁 **a5**
+            - 📄 [A5Cipher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5Cipher.java)
+            - 📄 [A5KeyStreamGenerator](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5KeyStreamGenerator.java)
+            - 📄 [BaseLFSR](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/BaseLFSR.java)
+            - 📄 [CompositeLFSR](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/CompositeLFSR.java)
+            - 📄 [LFSR](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSR.java)
+            - 📄 [Utils](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/Utils.java)
+        - 📁 **compression**
+          - 📄 [RunLengthEncoding](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/RunLengthEncoding.java)
+          - 📄 [ShannonFano](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ShannonFano.java)
+        - 📁 **conversions**
+          - 📄 [AffineConverter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverter.java)
+          - 📄 [AnyBaseToAnyBase](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToAnyBase.java)
+          - 📄 [AnyBaseToDecimal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimal.java)
+          - 📄 [AnytoAny](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java)
+          - 📄 [Base64](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryToDecimal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimal.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryToHexadecimal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimal.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryToOctal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctal.java)
+          - 📄 [CoordinateConverter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/CoordinateConverter.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToAnyBase](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBase.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToBinary](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinary.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToHexadecimal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexadecimal.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToOctal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctal.java)
+          - 📄 [EndianConverter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/EndianConverter.java)
+          - 📄 [HexToOct](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOct.java)
+          - 📄 [HexaDecimalToBinary](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinary.java)
+          - 📄 [HexaDecimalToDecimal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimal.java)
+          - 📄 [IPConverter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverter.java)
+          - 📄 [IPv6Converter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6Converter.java)
+          - 📄 [IntegerToEnglish](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglish.java)
+          - 📄 [IntegerToRoman](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRoman.java)
+          - 📄 [MorseCodeConverter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverter.java)
+          - 📄 [NumberToWords](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/NumberToWords.java)
+          - 📄 [OctalToBinary](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToBinary.java)
+          - 📄 [OctalToDecimal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimal.java)
+          - 📄 [OctalToHexadecimal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimal.java)
+          - 📄 [PhoneticAlphabetConverter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/PhoneticAlphabetConverter.java)
+          - 📄 [RgbHsvConversion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RgbHsvConversion.java)
+          - 📄 [RomanToInteger](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToInteger.java)
+          - 📄 [TimeConverter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TimeConverter.java)
+          - 📄 [TurkishToLatinConversion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversion.java)
+          - 📄 [UnitConversions](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversions.java)
+          - 📄 [UnitsConverter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverter.java)
+          - 📄 [WordsToNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/WordsToNumber.java)
+        - 📁 **datastructures**
+          - 📄 [Node](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/Node.java)
+          - 📁 **bags**
+            - 📄 [Bag](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bags/Bag.java)
+          - 📁 **bloomfilter**
+            - 📄 [BloomFilter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bloomfilter/BloomFilter.java)
+          - 📁 **buffers**
+            - 📄 [CircularBuffer](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBuffer.java)
+          - 📁 **caches**
+            - 📄 [FIFOCache](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCache.java)
+            - 📄 [LFUCache](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCache.java)
+            - 📄 [LIFOCache](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCache.java)
+            - 📄 [LRUCache](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCache.java)
+            - 📄 [MRUCache](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java)
+            - 📄 [RRCache](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCache.java)
+          - 📁 **crdt**
+            - 📄 [GCounter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounter.java)
+            - 📄 [GSet](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSet.java)
+            - 📄 [LWWElementSet](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSet.java)
+            - 📄 [ORSet](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSet.java)
+            - 📄 [PNCounter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounter.java)
+            - 📄 [TwoPSet](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSet.java)
+          - 📁 **disjointsetunion**
+            - 📄 [DisjointSetUnion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnion.java)
+            - 📄 [DisjointSetUnionBySize](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySize.java)
+            - 📄 [Node](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/Node.java)
+          - 📁 **dynamicarray**
+            - 📄 [DynamicArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArray.java)
+          - 📁 **graphs**
+            - 📄 [AStar](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStar.java)
+            - 📄 [BellmanFord](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java)
+            - 📄 [BipartiteGraphDFS](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFS.java)
+            - 📄 [BoruvkaAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithm.java)
+            - 📄 [ConnectedComponent](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java)
+            - 📄 [Cycles](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java)
+            - 📄 [DialsAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithm.java)
+            - 📄 [DijkstraAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithm.java)
+            - 📄 [DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.java)
+            - 📄 [EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.java)
+            - 📄 [FloydWarshall](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java)
+            - 📄 [FordFulkerson](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FordFulkerson.java)
+            - 📄 [Graphs](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java)
+            - 📄 [HamiltonianCycle](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/HamiltonianCycle.java)
+            - 📄 [JohnsonsAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithm.java)
+            - 📄 [KahnsAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java)
+            - 📄 [Kosaraju](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kosaraju.java)
+            - 📄 [Kruskal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java)
+            - 📄 [MatrixGraphs](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphs.java)
+            - 📄 [PrimMST](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMST.java)
+            - 📄 [TarjansAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TarjansAlgorithm.java)
+            - 📄 [TwoSat](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TwoSat.java)
+            - 📄 [UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph.java)
+            - 📄 [WelshPowell](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowell.java)
+          - 📁 **hashmap**
+            - 📁 **hashing**
+              - 📄 [GenericHashMapUsingArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArray.java)
+              - 📄 [GenericHashMapUsingArrayList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayList.java)
+              - 📄 [HashMap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMap.java)
+              - 📄 [HashMapCuckooHashing](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashing.java)
+              - 📄 [Intersection](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection.java)
+              - 📄 [LinearProbingHashMap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/LinearProbingHashMap.java)
+              - 📄 [MainCuckooHashing](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MainCuckooHashing.java)
+              - 📄 [MajorityElement](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MajorityElement.java)
+              - 📄 [Map](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Map.java)
+          - 📁 **heaps**
+            - 📄 [EmptyHeapException](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/EmptyHeapException.java)
+            - 📄 [FibonacciHeap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeap.java)
+            - 📄 [GenericHeap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeap.java)
+            - 📄 [Heap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/Heap.java)
+            - 📄 [HeapElement](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElement.java)
+            - 📄 [KthElementFinder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinder.java)
+            - 📄 [LeftistHeap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/LeftistHeap.java)
+            - 📄 [MaxHeap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java)
+            - 📄 [MedianFinder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinder.java)
+            - 📄 [MergeKSortedArrays](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArrays.java)
+            - 📄 [MinHeap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java)
+            - 📄 [MinPriorityQueue](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueue.java)
+          - 📁 **lists**
+            - 📄 [CircleLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [CircularDoublyLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java)
+            - 📄 [CreateAndDetectLoop](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java)
+            - 📄 [CursorLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [DoublyLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [FlattenMultilevelLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [MergeKSortedLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [MergeSortedArrayList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java)
+            - 📄 [MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [QuickSortLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [RandomNode](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java)
+            - 📄 [ReverseKGroup](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroup.java)
+            - 📄 [RotateSinglyLinkedLists](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedLists.java)
+            - 📄 [SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java)
+            - 📄 [SinglyLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [SinglyLinkedListNode](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListNode.java)
+            - 📄 [SkipList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SkipList.java)
+            - 📄 [SortedLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedList.java)
+            - 📄 [TortoiseHareAlgo](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgo.java)
+          - 📁 **queues**
+            - 📄 [CircularQueue](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueue.java)
+            - 📄 [Deque](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deque.java)
+            - 📄 [GenericArrayListQueue](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueue.java)
+            - 📄 [LinkedQueue](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java)
+            - 📄 [PriorityQueues](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java)
+            - 📄 [Queue](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queue.java)
+            - 📄 [QueueByTwoStacks](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueByTwoStacks.java)
+            - 📄 [SlidingWindowMaximum](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/SlidingWindowMaximum.java)
+            - 📄 [TokenBucket](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucket.java)
+          - 📁 **stacks**
+            - 📄 [NodeStack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java)
+            - 📄 [ReverseStack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java)
+            - 📄 [Stack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/Stack.java)
+            - 📄 [StackArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArray.java)
+            - 📄 [StackArrayList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayList.java)
+            - 📄 [StackOfLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java)
+          - 📁 **trees**
+            - 📄 [AVLSimple](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple.java)
+            - 📄 [AVLTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java)
+            - 📄 [BSTFromSortedArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArray.java)
+            - 📄 [BSTIterative](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterative.java)
+            - 📄 [BSTRecursive](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursive.java)
+            - 📄 [BSTRecursiveGeneric](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java)
+            - 📄 [BTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTree.java)
+            - 📄 [BinaryTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTree.java)
+            - 📄 [BoundaryTraversal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BoundaryTraversal.java)
+            - 📄 [CeilInBinarySearchTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java)
+            - 📄 [CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.java)
+            - 📄 [CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.java)
+            - 📄 [CheckTreeIsSymmetric](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetric.java)
+            - 📄 [CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.java)
+            - 📄 [FenwickTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java)
+            - 📄 [GenericTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java)
+            - 📄 [InorderTraversal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversal.java)
+            - 📄 [KDTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTree.java)
+            - 📄 [LCA](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LCA.java)
+            - 📄 [LazySegmentTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LazySegmentTree.java)
+            - 📄 [LevelOrderTraversal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversal.java)
+            - 📄 [PostOrderTraversal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PostOrderTraversal.java)
+            - 📄 [PreOrderTraversal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversal.java)
+            - 📄 [PrintTopViewofTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java)
+            - 📄 [QuadTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTree.java)
+            - 📄 [RedBlackBST](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java)
+            - 📄 [SameTreesCheck](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheck.java)
+            - 📄 [SegmentTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java)
+            - 📄 [SplayTree](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTree.java)
+            - 📄 [Treap](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Treap.java)
+            - 📄 [TreeRandomNode](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeRandomNode.java)
+            - 📄 [Trie](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Trie.java)
+            - 📄 [VerticalOrderTraversal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java)
+            - 📄 [ZigzagTraversal](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversal.java)
+            - 📄 [nearestRightKey](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java)
+        - 📁 **devutils**
+          - 📁 **entities**
+            - 📄 [ProcessDetails](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/entities/ProcessDetails.java)
+          - 📁 **nodes**
+            - 📄 [LargeTreeNode](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java)
+            - 📄 [Node](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/Node.java)
+            - 📄 [SimpleNode](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/SimpleNode.java)
+            - 📄 [SimpleTreeNode](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/SimpleTreeNode.java)
+            - 📄 [TreeNode](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/TreeNode.java)
+          - 📁 **searches**
+            - 📄 [MatrixSearchAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/MatrixSearchAlgorithm.java)
+            - 📄 [SearchAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java)
+        - 📁 **divideandconquer**
+          - 📄 [BinaryExponentiation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiation.java)
+          - 📄 [ClosestPair](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java)
+          - 📄 [CountingInversions](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/CountingInversions.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfTwoSortedArrays](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/MedianOfTwoSortedArrays.java)
+          - 📄 [SkylineAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [StrassenMatrixMultiplication](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplication.java)
+          - 📄 [TilingProblem](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/TilingProblem.java)
+        - 📁 **dynamicprogramming**
+          - 📄 [Abbreviation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Abbreviation.java)
+          - 📄 [AllConstruct](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstruct.java)
+          - 📄 [AssignmentUsingBitmask](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AssignmentUsingBitmask.java)
+          - 📄 [BoardPath](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPath.java)
+          - 📄 [BoundaryFill](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java)
+          - 📄 [BruteForceKnapsack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsack.java)
+          - 📄 [CatalanNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [ClimbingStairs](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ClimbingStairs.java)
+          - 📄 [CoinChange](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java)
+          - 📄 [CountFriendsPairing](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CountFriendsPairing.java)
+          - 📄 [DamerauLevenshteinDistance](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistance.java)
+          - 📄 [DiceThrow](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DiceThrow.java)
+          - 📄 [EditDistance](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistance.java)
+          - 📄 [EggDropping](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDropping.java)
+          - 📄 [Fibonacci](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java)
+          - 📄 [KadaneAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [Knapsack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java)
+          - 📄 [KnapsackMemoization](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoization.java)
+          - 📄 [KnapsackZeroOne](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOne.java)
+          - 📄 [KnapsackZeroOneTabulation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.java)
+          - 📄 [LevenshteinDistance](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestAlternatingSubsequence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequence.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestArithmeticSubsequence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequence.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestCommonSubsequence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestIncreasingSubsequence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestPalindromicSubsequence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubsequence.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestPalindromicSubstring](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestValidParentheses](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixChainMultiplication](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplication.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.java)
+          - 📄 [MaximumProductSubarray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumProductSubarray.java)
+          - 📄 [MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimumPathSum](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSum.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimumSumPartition](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartition.java)
+          - 📄 [NeedlemanWunsch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunsch.java)
+          - 📄 [NewManShanksPrime](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NewManShanksPrime.java)
+          - 📄 [OptimalJobScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromicPartitioning](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioning.java)
+          - 📄 [PartitionProblem](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblem.java)
+          - 📄 [RegexMatching](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java)
+          - 📄 [RodCutting](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCutting.java)
+          - 📄 [ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength.java)
+          - 📄 [SmithWaterman](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWaterman.java)
+          - 📄 [SubsetCount](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetCount.java)
+          - 📄 [SubsetSum](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSum.java)
+          - 📄 [SubsetSumSpaceOptimized](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumSpaceOptimized.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfSubset](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubset.java)
+          - 📄 [TreeMatching](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatching.java)
+          - 📄 [Tribonacci](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Tribonacci.java)
+          - 📄 [UniquePaths](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePaths.java)
+          - 📄 [UniqueSubsequencesCount](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCount.java)
+          - 📄 [WildcardMatching](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatching.java)
+          - 📄 [WineProblem](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java)
+        - 📁 **geometry**
+          - 📄 [BresenhamLine](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLine.java)
+          - 📄 [ConvexHull](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHull.java)
+          - 📄 [GrahamScan](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScan.java)
+          - 📄 [Haversine](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Haversine.java)
+          - 📄 [MidpointCircle](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointCircle.java)
+          - 📄 [MidpointEllipse](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointEllipse.java)
+          - 📄 [Point](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Point.java)
+          - 📄 [WusLine](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLine.java)
+        - 📁 **graph**
+          - 📄 [BronKerbosch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerbosch.java)
+          - 📄 [ConstrainedShortestPath](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPath.java)
+          - 📄 [Dinic](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Dinic.java)
+          - 📄 [Edmonds](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Edmonds.java)
+          - 📄 [EdmondsKarp](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarp.java)
+          - 📄 [HopcroftKarp](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarp.java)
+          - 📄 [HungarianAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HungarianAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [PredecessorConstrainedDfs](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PredecessorConstrainedDfs.java)
+          - 📄 [PushRelabel](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PushRelabel.java)
+          - 📄 [StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized.java)
+          - 📄 [TravelingSalesman](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TravelingSalesman.java)
+          - 📄 [YensKShortestPaths](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPaths.java)
+          - 📄 [ZeroOneBfs](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfs.java)
+        - 📁 **greedyalgorithms**
+          - 📄 [ActivitySelection](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelection.java)
+          - 📄 [BandwidthAllocation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BandwidthAllocation.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryAddition](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAddition.java)
+          - 📄 [CoinChange](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/CoinChange.java)
+          - 📄 [DigitSeparation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/DigitSeparation.java)
+          - 📄 [EgyptianFraction](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/EgyptianFraction.java)
+          - 📄 [FractionalKnapsack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsack.java)
+          - 📄 [GaleShapley](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapley.java)
+          - 📄 [JobSequencing](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencing.java)
+          - 📄 [KCenters](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/KCenters.java)
+          - 📄 [MergeIntervals](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervals.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimizingLateness](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLateness.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimumWaitingTime](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimumWaitingTime.java)
+          - 📄 [OptimalFileMerging](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/OptimalFileMerging.java)
+          - 📄 [StockProfitCalculator](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/StockProfitCalculator.java)
+        - 📁 **io**
+          - 📄 [BufferedReader](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/io/BufferedReader.java)
+        - 📁 **lineclipping**
+          - 📄 [CohenSutherland](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherland.java)
+          - 📄 [LiangBarsky](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarsky.java)
+          - 📁 **utils**
+            - 📄 [Line](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/utils/Line.java)
+            - 📄 [Point](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/utils/Point.java)
+        - 📁 **maths**
+          - 📄 [ADTFraction](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFraction.java)
+          - 📄 [AbsoluteMax](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMax.java)
+          - 📄 [AbsoluteMin](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMin.java)
+          - 📄 [AbsoluteValue](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValue.java)
+          - 📄 [AliquotSum](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java)
+          - 📄 [AmicableNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [Area](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java)
+          - 📄 [Armstrong](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java)
+          - 📄 [AutoCorrelation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutoCorrelation.java)
+          - 📄 [AutomorphicNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [Average](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Average.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryPow](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPow.java)
+          - 📄 [BinomialCoefficient](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficient.java)
+          - 📄 [CatalanNumbers](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CatalanNumbers.java)
+          - 📄 [Ceil](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Ceil.java)
+          - 📄 [ChineseRemainderTheorem](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChineseRemainderTheorem.java)
+          - 📄 [CircularConvolutionFFT](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java)
+          - 📄 [CollatzConjecture](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CollatzConjecture.java)
+          - 📄 [Combinations](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java)
+          - 📄 [Convolution](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Convolution.java)
+          - 📄 [ConvolutionFFT](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java)
+          - 📄 [CrossCorrelation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CrossCorrelation.java)
+          - 📄 [DeterminantOfMatrix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java)
+          - 📄 [DigitalRoot](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java)
+          - 📄 [DistanceFormula](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormula.java)
+          - 📄 [DudeneyNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [EulerMethod](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java)
+          - 📄 [EulerPseudoprime](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprime.java)
+          - 📄 [EulersFunction](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulersFunction.java)
+          - 📄 [FFT](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java)
+          - 📄 [FFTBluestein](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java)
+          - 📄 [Factorial](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Factorial.java)
+          - 📄 [FactorialRecursion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursion.java)
+          - 📄 [FastExponentiation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiation.java)
+          - 📄 [FastInverseSqrt](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrt.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciJavaStreams](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreams.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciLoop](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciLoop.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciNumberCheck](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheck.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciNumberGoldenRation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberGoldenRation.java)
+          - 📄 [FindKthNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindKthNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [FindMax](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMax.java)
+          - 📄 [FindMaxRecursion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursion.java)
+          - 📄 [FindMin](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMin.java)
+          - 📄 [FindMinRecursion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursion.java)
+          - 📄 [Floor](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Floor.java)
+          - 📄 [FrizzyNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FrizzyNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [GCD](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java)
+          - 📄 [GCDRecursion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java)
+          - 📄 [Gaussian](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java)
+          - 📄 [GenericRoot](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java)
+          - 📄 [GermainPrimeAndSafePrime](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GermainPrimeAndSafePrime.java)
+          - 📄 [GoldbachConjecture](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjecture.java)
+          - 📄 [HappyNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [HarshadNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [HeronsFormula](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HeronsFormula.java)
+          - 📄 [JosephusProblem](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblem.java)
+          - 📄 [JugglerSequence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JugglerSequence.java)
+          - 📄 [KaprekarNumbers](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java)
+          - 📄 [KaratsubaMultiplication](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaratsubaMultiplication.java)
+          - 📄 [KeithNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [KrishnamurthyNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [LeastCommonMultiple](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultiple.java)
+          - 📄 [LeonardoNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.java)
+          - 📄 [LongDivision](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivision.java)
+          - 📄 [LucasSeries](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeries.java)
+          - 📄 [MagicSquare](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MagicSquare.java)
+          - 📄 [MathBuilder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilder.java)
+          - 📄 [MaxValue](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValue.java)
+          - 📄 [Means](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Means.java)
+          - 📄 [Median](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Median.java)
+          - 📄 [MinValue](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValue.java)
+          - 📄 [Mode](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Mode.java)
+          - 📄 [NonRepeatingElement](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java)
+          - 📄 [NthUglyNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [NumberOfDigits](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigits.java)
+          - 📄 [NumberPersistence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberPersistence.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromeNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [ParseInteger](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseInteger.java)
+          - 📄 [PascalTriangle](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java)
+          - 📄 [PerfectCube](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java)
+          - 📄 [PerfectNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [PerfectSquare](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java)
+          - 📄 [Perimeter](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Perimeter.java)
+          - 📄 [PiApproximation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximation.java)
+          - 📄 [PiNilakantha](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiNilakantha.java)
+          - 📄 [PollardRho](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PollardRho.java)
+          - 📄 [Pow](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Pow.java)
+          - 📄 [PowerOfTwoOrNot](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNot.java)
+          - 📄 [PowerUsingRecursion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursion.java)
+          - 📁 **Prime**
+            - 📄 [LiouvilleLambdaFunction](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/LiouvilleLambdaFunction.java)
+            - 📄 [MillerRabinPrimalityCheck](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.java)
+            - 📄 [MobiusFunction](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MobiusFunction.java)
+            - 📄 [PrimeCheck](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/PrimeCheck.java)
+            - 📄 [PrimeFactorization](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/PrimeFactorization.java)
+            - 📄 [SquareFreeInteger](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/SquareFreeInteger.java)
+          - 📄 [PronicNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [PythagoreanTriple](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java)
+          - 📄 [QuadraticEquationSolver](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolver.java)
+          - 📄 [ReverseNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [RomanNumeralUtil](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/RomanNumeralUtil.java)
+          - 📄 [SecondMinMax](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMax.java)
+          - 📄 [SieveOfAtkin](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkin.java)
+          - 📄 [SieveOfEratosthenes](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenes.java)
+          - 📄 [SimpsonIntegration](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SimpsonIntegration.java)
+          - 📄 [SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod.java)
+          - 📄 [SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.java)
+          - 📄 [StandardDeviation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardDeviation.java)
+          - 📄 [StandardScore](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardScore.java)
+          - 📄 [StrobogrammaticNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StrobogrammaticNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfArithmeticSeries](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfDigits](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigits.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfOddNumbers](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbers.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfSquares](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfSquares.java)
+          - 📄 [SumWithoutArithmeticOperators](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperators.java)
+          - 📄 [TrinomialTriangle](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java)
+          - 📄 [TwinPrime](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TwinPrime.java)
+          - 📄 [UniformNumbers](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/UniformNumbers.java)
+          - 📄 [VampireNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [VectorCrossProduct](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java)
+          - 📄 [Volume](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Volume.java)
+          - 📄 [ZellersCongruence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ZellersCongruence.java)
+        - 📁 **matrix**
+          - 📄 [InverseOfMatrix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrix.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixMultiplication](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplication.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixRank](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRank.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixTranspose](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixTranspose.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfMatrix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrix.java)
+          - 📄 [MirrorOfMatrix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MirrorOfMatrix.java)
+          - 📄 [PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder.java)
+          - 📄 [RotateMatrixBy90Degrees](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/RotateMatrixBy90Degrees.java)
+          - 📄 [SolveSystem](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/SolveSystem.java)
+          - 📁 **matrixexponentiation**
+            - 📄 [Fibonacci](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java)
+          - 📁 **utils**
+            - 📄 [MatrixUtil](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/utils/MatrixUtil.java)
+        - 📁 **misc**
+          - 📄 [ColorContrastRatio](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatio.java)
+          - 📄 [MapReduce](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduce.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfRunningArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfRunningArrayByte](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayByte.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfRunningArrayDouble](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayDouble.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfRunningArrayFloat](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayFloat.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfRunningArrayInteger](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayInteger.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfRunningArrayLong](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayLong.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromePrime](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrime.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromeSinglyLinkedList](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java)
+          - 📄 [RangeInSortedArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArray.java)
+          - 📄 [ShuffleArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArray.java)
+          - 📄 [Sparsity](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparsity.java)
+          - 📄 [ThreeSumProblem](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java)
+          - 📄 [TwoSumProblem](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java)
+        - 📁 **others**
+          - 📄 [ArrayLeftRotation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotation.java)
+          - 📄 [ArrayRightRotation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotation.java)
+          - 📄 [BFPRT](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRT.java)
+          - 📄 [BankersAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [BoyerMoore](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java)
+          - 📄 [BrianKernighanAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BrianKernighanAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [CRC16](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC16.java)
+          - 📄 [CRC32](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java)
+          - 📄 [CRCAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [Conway](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Conway.java)
+          - 📄 [Damm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Damm.java)
+          - 📄 [Dijkstra](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java)
+          - 📄 [FloydTriangle](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangle.java)
+          - 📄 [GaussLegendre](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GaussLegendre.java)
+          - 📄 [Huffman](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Huffman.java)
+          - 📄 [Implementing_auto_completing_features_using_trie](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Implementing_auto_completing_features_using_trie.java)
+          - 📄 [InsertDeleteInArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArray.java)
+          - 📄 [IterativeFloodFill](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFill.java)
+          - 📄 [KochSnowflake](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java)
+          - 📄 [LineSweep](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweep.java)
+          - 📄 [LinearCongruentialGenerator](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinearCongruentialGenerator.java)
+          - 📄 [LowestBasePalindrome](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindrome.java)
+          - 📄 [Luhn](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java)
+          - 📄 [Mandelbrot](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java)
+          - 📄 [MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.java)
+          - 📄 [MemoryManagementAlgorithms](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MemoryManagementAlgorithms.java)
+          - 📄 [MiniMaxAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [MosAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [PageRank](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java)
+          - 📄 [PasswordGen](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGen.java)
+          - 📄 [PerlinNoise](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoise.java)
+          - 📄 [PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder.java)
+          - 📄 [QueueUsingTwoStacks](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java)
+          - 📄 [SkylineProblem](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java)
+          - 📄 [TwoPointers](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointers.java)
+          - 📄 [Verhoeff](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Verhoeff.java)
+          - 📁 **cn**
+            - 📄 [HammingDistance](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/cn/HammingDistance.java)
+        - 📁 **physics**
+          - 📄 [GroundToGroundProjectileMotion](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.java)
+        - 📁 **puzzlesandgames**
+          - 📄 [Sudoku](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/Sudoku.java)
+          - 📄 [TowerOfHanoi](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/TowerOfHanoi.java)
+          - 📄 [WordBoggle](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggle.java)
+        - 📁 **randomized**
+          - 📄 [KargerMinCut](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCut.java)
+          - 📄 [MonteCarloIntegration](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/MonteCarloIntegration.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomizedClosestPair](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPair.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomizedQuickSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedQuickSort.java)
+          - 📄 [ReservoirSampling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSampling.java)
+        - 📁 **recursion**
+          - 📄 [DiceThrower](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrower.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciSeries](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/FibonacciSeries.java)
+          - 📄 [GenerateSubsets](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/GenerateSubsets.java)
+          - 📄 [SylvesterSequence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/SylvesterSequence.java)
+        - 📁 **scheduling**
+          - 📄 [AgingScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [EDFScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [FCFSScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [FairShareScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [GangScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [JobSchedulingWithDeadline](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadline.java)
+          - 📄 [LotteryScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotteryScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [MLFQScheduler](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQScheduler.java)
+          - 📄 [MultiAgentScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [PreemptivePriorityScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/PreemptivePriorityScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [ProportionalFairScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [RRScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [SJFScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SJFScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [SRTFScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [SelfAdjustingScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingScheduling.java)
+          - 📄 [SlackTimeScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeScheduling.java)
+          - 📁 **diskscheduling**
+            - 📄 [CircularLookScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookScheduling.java)
+            - 📄 [CircularScanScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanScheduling.java)
+            - 📄 [LookScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookScheduling.java)
+            - 📄 [SSFScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFScheduling.java)
+            - 📄 [ScanScheduling](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanScheduling.java)
+        - 📁 **searches**
+          - 📄 [BM25InvertedIndex](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndex.java)
+          - 📄 [BinarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [BinarySearch2dArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArray.java)
+          - 📄 [BoyerMoore](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMoore.java)
+          - 📄 [BreadthFirstSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [DepthFirstSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [ExponentalSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentalSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [HowManyTimesRotated](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotated.java)
+          - 📄 [InterpolationSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [IterativeBinarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [IterativeTernarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [JumpSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [KMPSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [LinearSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [LinearSearchThread](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThread.java)
+          - 📄 [LowerBound](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java)
+          - 📄 [MonteCarloTreeSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [OrderAgnosticBinarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [PerfectBinarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [QuickSelect](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelect.java)
+          - 📄 [RabinKarpAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RandomSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [RecursiveBinarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RecursiveBinarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [SaddlebackSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java)
+          - 📄 [SentinelLinearSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SentinelLinearSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [SquareRootBinarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [TernarySearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java)
+          - 📄 [UnionFind](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java)
+          - 📄 [UpperBound](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java)
+        - 📁 **slidingwindow**
+          - 📄 [LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.java)
+          - 📄 [MaxSumKSizeSubarray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarray.java)
+          - 📄 [MaximumSlidingWindow](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindow.java)
+          - 📄 [MinSumKSizeSubarray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarray.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimumWindowSubstring](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstring.java)
+          - 📄 [ShortestCoprimeSegment](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegment.java)
+        - 📁 **sorts**
+          - 📄 [AdaptiveMergeSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSort.java)
+          - 📄 [BeadSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BeadSort.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryInsertionSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BinaryInsertionSort.java)
+          - 📄 [BitonicSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSort.java)
+          - 📄 [BogoSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java)
+          - 📄 [BubbleSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java)
+          - 📄 [BubbleSortRecursive](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursive.java)
+          - 📄 [BucketSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSort.java)
+          - 📄 [CircleSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSort.java)
+          - 📄 [CocktailShakerSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java)
+          - 📄 [CombSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java)
+          - 📄 [CountingSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java)
+          - 📄 [CycleSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java)
+          - 📄 [DarkSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSort.java)
+          - 📄 [DualPivotQuickSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSort.java)
+          - 📄 [DutchNationalFlagSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSort.java)
+          - 📄 [ExchangeSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSort.java)
+          - 📄 [FlashSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSort.java)
+          - 📄 [GnomeSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java)
+          - 📄 [HeapSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java)
+          - 📄 [InsertionSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java)
+          - 📄 [IntrospectiveSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/IntrospectiveSort.java)
+          - 📄 [LinkListSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/LinkListSort.java)
+          - 📄 [MergeSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java)
+          - 📄 [MergeSortNoExtraSpace](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpace.java)
+          - 📄 [MergeSortRecursive](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java)
+          - 📄 [OddEvenSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSort.java)
+          - 📄 [PancakeSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java)
+          - 📄 [PatienceSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PatienceSort.java)
+          - 📄 [PigeonholeSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PigeonholeSort.java)
+          - 📄 [PriorityQueueSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PriorityQueueSort.java)
+          - 📄 [QuickSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSort.java)
+          - 📄 [RadixSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSort.java)
+          - 📄 [SelectionSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java)
+          - 📄 [SelectionSortRecursive](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortRecursive.java)
+          - 📄 [ShellSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSort.java)
+          - 📄 [SlowSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java)
+          - 📄 [SortAlgorithm](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java)
+          - 📄 [SortUtils](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtils.java)
+          - 📄 [SortUtilsRandomGenerator](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsRandomGenerator.java)
+          - 📄 [SpreadSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SpreadSort.java)
+          - 📄 [StalinSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StalinSort.java)
+          - 📄 [StoogeSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java)
+          - 📄 [StrandSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StrandSort.java)
+          - 📄 [SwapSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSort.java)
+          - 📄 [TimSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSort.java)
+          - 📄 [TopologicalSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSort.java)
+          - 📄 [TreeSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java)
+          - 📄 [WaveSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WaveSort.java)
+          - 📄 [WiggleSort](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSort.java)
+        - 📁 **stacks**
+          - 📄 [BalancedBrackets](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/BalancedBrackets.java)
+          - 📄 [CelebrityFinder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/CelebrityFinder.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToAnyUsingStack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStack.java)
+          - 📄 [DuplicateBrackets](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DuplicateBrackets.java)
+          - 📄 [GreatestElementConstantTime](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTime.java)
+          - 📄 [InfixToPostfix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPostfix.java)
+          - 📄 [InfixToPrefix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPrefix.java)
+          - 📄 [LargestRectangle](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/LargestRectangle.java)
+          - 📄 [MaximumMinimumWindow](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MaximumMinimumWindow.java)
+          - 📄 [MinStackUsingSingleStack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStack.java)
+          - 📄 [MinStackUsingTwoStacks](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingTwoStacks.java)
+          - 📄 [NextGreaterElement](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextGreaterElement.java)
+          - 📄 [NextSmallerElement](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextSmallerElement.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromeWithStack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStack.java)
+          - 📄 [PostfixEvaluator](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixEvaluator.java)
+          - 📄 [PostfixToInfix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfix.java)
+          - 📄 [PrefixEvaluator](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixEvaluator.java)
+          - 📄 [PrefixToInfix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfix.java)
+          - 📄 [SmallestElementConstantTime](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTime.java)
+          - 📄 [SortStack](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStack.java)
+          - 📄 [StackPostfixNotation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackPostfixNotation.java)
+          - 📄 [StackUsingTwoQueues](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackUsingTwoQueues.java)
+        - 📁 **strings**
+          - 📄 [AhoCorasick](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AhoCorasick.java)
+          - 📄 [Alphabetical](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Alphabetical.java)
+          - 📄 [AlternativeStringArrange](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlternativeStringArrange.java)
+          - 📄 [Anagrams](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java)
+          - 📄 [CharactersSame](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSame.java)
+          - 📄 [CheckVowels](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java)
+          - 📄 [CountChar](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountChar.java)
+          - 📄 [CountWords](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountWords.java)
+          - 📄 [HammingDistance](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HammingDistance.java)
+          - 📄 [HorspoolSearch](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java)
+          - 📄 [Isogram](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isogram.java)
+          - 📄 [Isomorphic](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isomorphic.java)
+          - 📄 [KMP](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/KMP.java)
+          - 📄 [LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestCommonPrefix](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestCommonPrefix.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestPalindromicSubstring](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java)
+          - 📄 [Lower](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Lower.java)
+          - 📄 [Manacher](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Manacher.java)
+          - 📄 [MyAtoi](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoi.java)
+          - 📄 [Palindrome](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java)
+          - 📄 [Pangram](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java)
+          - 📄 [PermuteString](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteString.java)
+          - 📄 [RabinKarp](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RabinKarp.java)
+          - 📄 [RemoveDuplicateFromString](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java)
+          - 📄 [ReturnSubsequence](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReturnSubsequence.java)
+          - 📄 [ReverseString](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseString.java)
+          - 📄 [ReverseWordsInString](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseWordsInString.java)
+          - 📄 [Rotation](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Rotation.java)
+          - 📄 [StringCompression](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompression.java)
+          - 📄 [StringMatchFiniteAutomata](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringMatchFiniteAutomata.java)
+          - 📄 [SuffixArray](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArray.java)
+          - 📄 [Upper](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Upper.java)
+          - 📄 [ValidParentheses](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ValidParentheses.java)
+          - 📄 [WordLadder](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadder.java)
+          - 📁 **zigZagPattern**
+            - 📄 [ZigZagPattern](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/ZigZagPattern.java)
+        - 📁 **tree**
+          - 📄 [HeavyLightDecomposition](src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/tree/HeavyLightDecomposition.java)
+- 📁 **test**
+  - 📁 **java**
+    - 📁 **com**
+      - 📁 **thealgorithms**
+        - 📁 **audiofilters**
+          - 📄 [EMAFilterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/EMAFilterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IIRFilterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilterTest.java)
+        - 📁 **backtracking**
+          - 📄 [AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ArrayCombinationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ArrayCombinationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CombinationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CombinationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CrosswordSolverTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolverTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FloodFillTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/FloodFillTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KnightsTourTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTourTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MColoringTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoringTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MazeRecursionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NQueensTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueensTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ParenthesesGeneratorTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ParenthesesGeneratorTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PermutationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PermutationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PowerSumTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSumTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SubsequenceFinderTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/SubsequenceFinderTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WordPatternMatcherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcherTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WordSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearchTest.java)
+        - 📁 **bitmanipulation**
+          - 📄 [BcdConversionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryPalindromeCheckTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BinaryPalindromeCheckTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BitSwapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitSwapTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BitwiseGCDTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitwiseGCDTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BooleanAlgebraGatesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BooleanAlgebraGatesTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ClearLeftmostSetBitTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBitTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CountBitsFlipTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlipTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CountLeadingZerosTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountLeadingZerosTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CountSetBitsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountSetBitsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FindNthBitTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FindNthBitTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FirstDifferentBitTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBitTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GenerateSubsetsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GenerateSubsetsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GrayCodeConversionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GrayCodeConversionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HammingDistanceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HammingDistanceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HigherLowerPowerOfTwoTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HigherLowerPowerOfTwoTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HighestSetBitTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBitTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IsEvenTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEvenTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IsPowerTwoTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwoTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LowestSetBitTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBitTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ModuloPowerOfTwoTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ModuloPowerOfTwoTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NextHigherSameBitCountTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NextHigherSameBitCountTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NumberAppearingOddTimesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimesTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NumbersDifferentSignsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSignsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [OneBitDifferenceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifferenceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [OnesComplementTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplementTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ParityCheckTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ParityCheckTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ReverseBitsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBitsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SingleBitOperationsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperationsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SingleElementTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleElementTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SwapAdjacentBitsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBitsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TwosComplementTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplementTest.java)
+          - 📄 [Xs3ConversionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3ConversionTest.java)
+        - 📁 **ciphers**
+          - 📄 [ADFGVXCipherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ADFGVXCipherTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AESEncryptionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryptionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AffineCipherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipherTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AtbashTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AutokeyTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AutokeyTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BaconianCipherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipherTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BlowfishTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BlowfishTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CaesarTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/CaesarTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DESTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DESTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DiffieHellmanTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DiffieHellmanTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ECCTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECCTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HillCipherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipherTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MonoAlphabeticTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/MonoAlphabeticTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PermutationCipherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipherTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PlayfairTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PolybiusTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PolybiusTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RSATest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSATest.java)
+          - 📄 [RailFenceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SimpleSubCipherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipherTest.java)
+          - 📄 [VigenereTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/VigenereTest.java)
+          - 📄 [XORCipherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipherTest.java)
+          - 📁 **a5**
+            - 📄 [A5CipherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5CipherTest.java)
+            - 📄 [A5KeyStreamGeneratorTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5KeyStreamGeneratorTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LFSRTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSRTest.java)
+        - 📁 **compression**
+          - 📄 [RunLengthEncodingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/RunLengthEncodingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ShannonFanoTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ShannonFanoTest.java)
+        - 📁 **conversions**
+          - 📄 [AffineConverterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AnyBaseToDecimalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AnytoAnyTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAnyTest.java)
+          - 📄 [Base64Test](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64Test.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryToDecimalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryToHexadecimalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryToOctalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CoordinateConverterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/CoordinateConverterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToAnyBaseTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBaseTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToBinaryTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinaryTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToHexadecimalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexadecimalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToOctalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EndianConverterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/EndianConverterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HexToOctTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOctTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HexaDecimalToBinaryTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinaryTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HexaDecimalToDecimalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IPConverterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IPv6ConverterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6ConverterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IntegerToEnglishTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglishTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IntegerToRomanTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRomanTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MorseCodeConverterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NumberToWordsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/NumberToWordsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [OctalToBinaryTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToBinaryTest.java)
+          - 📄 [OctalToDecimalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [OctalToHexadecimalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PhoneticAlphabetConverterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/PhoneticAlphabetConverterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RomanToIntegerTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToIntegerTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TimeConverterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TimeConverterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TurkishToLatinConversionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [UnitConversionsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversionsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [UnitsConverterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WordsToNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/WordsToNumberTest.java)
+        - 📁 **datastructures**
+          - 📁 **bag**
+            - 📄 [BagTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bag/BagTest.java)
+          - 📁 **bloomfilter**
+            - 📄 [BloomFilterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bloomfilter/BloomFilterTest.java)
+          - 📁 **buffers**
+            - 📄 [CircularBufferTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBufferTest.java)
+          - 📁 **caches**
+            - 📄 [FIFOCacheTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCacheTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LFUCacheTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCacheTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LIFOCacheTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCacheTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LRUCacheTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCacheTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MRUCacheTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCacheTest.java)
+            - 📄 [RRCacheTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCacheTest.java)
+          - 📁 **crdt**
+            - 📄 [GCounterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounterTest.java)
+            - 📄 [GSetTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSetTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LWWElementSetTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSetTest.java)
+            - 📄 [ORSetTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSetTest.java)
+            - 📄 [PNCounterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounterTest.java)
+            - 📄 [TwoPSetTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSetTest.java)
+          - 📁 **disjointsetunion**
+            - 📄 [DisjointSetUnionBySizeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySizeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [DisjointSetUnionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionTest.java)
+          - 📁 **dynamicarray**
+            - 📄 [DynamicArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArrayTest.java)
+          - 📁 **graphs**
+            - 📄 [AStarTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStarTest.java)
+            - 📄 [BipartiteGraphDFSTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFSTest.java)
+            - 📄 [BoruvkaAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithmTest.java)
+            - 📄 [DialsAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithmTest.java)
+            - 📄 [DijkstraAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithmTest.java)
+            - 📄 [DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithmTest.java)
+            - 📄 [EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest.java)
+            - 📄 [FloydWarshallTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshallTest.java)
+            - 📄 [FordFulkersonTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FordFulkersonTest.java)
+            - 📄 [HamiltonianCycleTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/HamiltonianCycleTest.java)
+            - 📄 [JohnsonsAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithmTest.java)
+            - 📄 [KahnsAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithmTest.java)
+            - 📄 [KosarajuTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KosarajuTest.java)
+            - 📄 [KruskalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KruskalTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MatrixGraphsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphsTest.java)
+            - 📄 [PrimMSTTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMSTTest.java)
+            - 📄 [TarjansAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TarjansAlgorithmTest.java)
+            - 📄 [TwoSatTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TwoSatTest.java)
+            - 📄 [WelshPowellTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowellTest.java)
+          - 📁 **hashmap**
+            - 📁 **hashing**
+              - 📄 [GenericHashMapUsingArrayListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayListTest.java)
+              - 📄 [GenericHashMapUsingArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayTest.java)
+              - 📄 [HashMapCuckooHashingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashingTest.java)
+              - 📄 [HashMapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapTest.java)
+              - 📄 [IntersectionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/IntersectionTest.java)
+              - 📄 [LinearProbingHashMapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/LinearProbingHashMapTest.java)
+              - 📄 [MajorityElementTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MajorityElementTest.java)
+              - 📄 [MapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MapTest.java)
+          - 📁 **heaps**
+            - 📄 [FibonacciHeapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeapTest.java)
+            - 📄 [GenericHeapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeapTest.java)
+            - 📄 [HeapElementTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElementTest.java)
+            - 📄 [KthElementFinderTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinderTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LeftistHeapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/LeftistHeapTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MaxHeapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeapTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MedianFinderTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinderTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MergeKSortedArraysTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArraysTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MinHeapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeapTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MinPriorityQueueTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueueTest.java)
+          - 📁 **lists**
+            - 📄 [CircleLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CircularDoublyLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CountSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CreateAndDetectLoopTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoopTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CursorLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [FlattenMultilevelLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MergeKSortedLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MergeSortedArrayListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MergeSortedSinglyLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [QuickSortLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [ReverseKGroupTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroupTest.java)
+            - 📄 [RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest.java)
+            - 📄 [SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest.java)
+            - 📄 [SinglyLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [SkipListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SkipListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [SortedLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [TortoiseHareAlgoTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgoTest.java)
+          - 📁 **queues**
+            - 📄 [CircularQueueTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueueTest.java)
+            - 📄 [DequeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/DequeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [GenericArrayListQueueTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueueTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LinkedQueueTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueueTest.java)
+            - 📄 [PriorityQueuesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueuesTest.java)
+            - 📄 [QueueByTwoStacksTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueByTwoStacksTest.java)
+            - 📄 [QueueTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueTest.java)
+            - 📄 [SlidingWindowMaximumTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/SlidingWindowMaximumTest.java)
+            - 📄 [TokenBucketTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucketTest.java)
+          - 📁 **stacks**
+            - 📄 [NodeStackTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStackTest.java)
+            - 📄 [ReverseStackTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStackTest.java)
+            - 📄 [StackArrayListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayListTest.java)
+            - 📄 [StackArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayTest.java)
+            - 📄 [StackOfLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedListTest.java)
+          - 📁 **trees**
+            - 📄 [AVLTreeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTreeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [BSTFromSortedArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArrayTest.java)
+            - 📄 [BSTIterativeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterativeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [BSTRecursiveGenericTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGenericTest.java)
+            - 📄 [BSTRecursiveTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveTest.java)
+            - 📄 [BTreeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTreeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [BinaryTreeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTreeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [BoundaryTraversalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BoundaryTraversalTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CeilInBinarySearchTreeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTreeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBSTTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBSTTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CheckIfBinaryTreeBalancedTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalancedTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CheckTreeIsSymmetricTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetricTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorderTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorderTest.java)
+            - 📄 [InorderTraversalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversalTest.java)
+            - 📄 [KDTreeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTreeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LazySegmentTreeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LazySegmentTreeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LevelOrderTraversalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversalTest.java)
+            - 📄 [PostOrderTraversalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PostOrderTraversalTest.java)
+            - 📄 [PreOrderTraversalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversalTest.java)
+            - 📄 [QuadTreeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTreeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [SameTreesCheckTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheckTest.java)
+            - 📄 [SplayTreeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTreeTest.java)
+            - 📄 [TreapTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreapTest.java)
+            - 📄 [TreeTestUtils](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeTestUtils.java)
+            - 📄 [TrieTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieTest.java)
+            - 📄 [VerticalOrderTraversalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversalTest.java)
+            - 📄 [ZigzagTraversalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversalTest.java)
+        - 📁 **devutils**
+          - 📁 **entities**
+            - 📄 [ProcessDetailsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/entities/ProcessDetailsTest.java)
+        - 📁 **divideandconquer**
+          - 📄 [BinaryExponentiationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ClosestPairTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPairTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CountingInversionsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/CountingInversionsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfTwoSortedArraysTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/MedianOfTwoSortedArraysTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SkylineAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithmTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TilingProblemTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/TilingProblemTest.java)
+        - 📁 **dynamicprogramming**
+          - 📄 [AbbreviationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AbbreviationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AllConstructTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstructTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AssignmentUsingBitmaskTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AssignmentUsingBitmaskTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BoardPathTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPathTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BoundaryFillTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFillTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BruteForceKnapsackTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsackTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CatalanNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ClimbStairsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ClimbStairsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CoinChangeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChangeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CountFriendsPairingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CountFriendsPairingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DPTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DPTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DamerauLevenshteinDistanceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistanceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EditDistanceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistanceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EggDroppingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDroppingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FibonacciTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KadaneAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithmTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KnapsackMemoizationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoizationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KnapsackTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KnapsackZeroOneTabulationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KnapsackZeroOneTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LevenshteinDistanceTests](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistanceTests.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestAlternatingSubsequenceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequenceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestArithmeticSubsequenceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequenceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestCommonSubsequenceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequenceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogNTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogNTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestIncreasingSubsequenceTests](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceTests.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestPalindromicSubstringTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstringTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestValidParenthesesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParenthesesTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixChainMultiplicationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplicationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MaximumProductSubarrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumProductSubarrayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElementsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElementsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimumPathSumTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSumTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimumSumPartitionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartitionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NeedlemanWunschTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunschTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NewManShanksPrimeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NewManShanksPrimeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [OptimalJobSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromicPartitioningTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioningTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PartitionProblemTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblemTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RegexMatchingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatchingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RodCuttingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCuttingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ShortestCommonSupersequenceLengthTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLengthTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SmithWatermanTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWatermanTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SubsetCountTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetCountTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SubsetSumSpaceOptimizedTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumSpaceOptimizedTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SubsetSumTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfSubsetTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubsetTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TreeMatchingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatchingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TribonacciTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TribonacciTest.java)
+          - 📄 [UniquePathsTests](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePathsTests.java)
+          - 📄 [UniqueSubsequencesCountTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCountTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WildcardMatchingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatchingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WineProblemTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblemTest.java)
+        - 📁 **geometry**
+          - 📄 [BresenhamLineTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLineTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ConvexHullTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHullTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GrahamScanTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScanTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HaversineTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/HaversineTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MidpointCircleTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointCircleTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MidpointEllipseTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointEllipseTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PointTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/PointTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WusLineTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLineTest.java)
+        - 📁 **graph**
+          - 📄 [BronKerboschTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerboschTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ConstrainedShortestPathTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPathTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DinicTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/DinicTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EdmondsKarpTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarpTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EdmondsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HopcroftKarpTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarpTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PredecessorConstrainedDfsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PredecessorConstrainedDfsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PushRelabelTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PushRelabelTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StronglyConnectedComponentOptimizedTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimizedTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TravelingSalesmanTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TravelingSalesmanTest.java)
+          - 📄 [YensKShortestPathsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPathsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ZeroOneBfsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfsTest.java)
+        - 📁 **greedyalgorithms**
+          - 📄 [ActivitySelectionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelectionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BandwidthAllocationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BandwidthAllocationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryAdditionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAdditionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CoinChangeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/CoinChangeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DigitSeparationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/DigitSeparationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EgyptianFractionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/EgyptianFractionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FractionalKnapsackTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsackTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GaleShapleyTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapleyTest.java)
+          - 📄 [JobSequencingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KCentersTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/KCentersTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MergeIntervalsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervalsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimizingLatenessTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLatenessTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimumWaitingTimeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimumWaitingTimeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [OptimalFileMergingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/OptimalFileMergingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StockProfitCalculatorTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/StockProfitCalculatorTest.java)
+        - 📁 **io**
+          - 📄 [BufferedReaderTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/io/BufferedReaderTest.java)
+        - 📁 **lineclipping**
+          - 📄 [CohenSutherlandTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherlandTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LiangBarskyTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarskyTest.java)
+        - 📁 **maths**
+          - 📄 [ADTFractionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFractionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AbsoluteMaxTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMaxTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AbsoluteMinTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMinTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AbsoluteValueTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValueTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AliquotSumTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSumTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AmicableNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AreaTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AreaTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ArmstrongTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ArmstrongTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AutoCorrelationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutoCorrelationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AutomorphicNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AverageTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AverageTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryPowTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPowTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BinomialCoefficientTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficientTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CatalanNumbersTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CatalanNumbersTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CeilTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CeilTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ChineseRemainderTheoremTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChineseRemainderTheoremTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CollatzConjectureTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CollatzConjectureTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CombinationsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CombinationsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ConvolutionFFTTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFTTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ConvolutionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CrossCorrelationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CrossCorrelationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DeterminantOfMatrixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DigitalRootTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRootTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DistanceFormulaTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormulaTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DudeneyNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EulerMethodTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethodTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EulerPseudoprimeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprimeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EulersFunctionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulersFunctionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FFTTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FactorialRecursionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FactorialTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FastExponentiationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FastInverseSqrtTests](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrtTests.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciJavaStreamsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreamsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciLoopTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciLoopTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciNumberCheckTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheckTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciNumberGoldenRationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberGoldenRationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FindKthNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindKthNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FindMaxRecursionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FindMaxTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FindMinRecursionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FindMinTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FloorTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FloorTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FrizzyNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FrizzyNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GCDRecursionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GCDTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GaussianTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GaussianTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GenericRootTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRootTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GermainPrimeAndSafePrimeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GermainPrimeAndSafePrimeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GoldbachConjectureTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjectureTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HappyNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HarshadNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HeronsFormulaTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HeronsFormulaTest.java)
+          - 📄 [JosephusProblemTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblemTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KaprekarNumbersTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KaratsubaMultiplicationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaratsubaMultiplicationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KeithNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KrishnamurthyNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LeastCommonMultipleTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultipleTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LeonardoNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LinearDiophantineEquationsSolverTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolverTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongDivisionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivisionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LucasSeriesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeriesTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MathBuilderTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilderTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MaxValueTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValueTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MeansTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MeansTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MedianTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MinValueTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValueTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ModeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ModeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NonRepeatingElementTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElementTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NthUglyNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NumberOfDigitsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigitsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NumberPersistenceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberPersistenceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromeNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ParseIntegerTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseIntegerTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PascalTriangleTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangleTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PerfectCubeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCubeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PerfectNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PerfectSquareTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquareTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PerimeterTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerimeterTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PiApproximationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PollardRhoTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PollardRhoTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PowTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PowerOfTwoOrNotTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNotTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PowerUsingRecursionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PronicNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PythagoreanTripleTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTripleTest.java)
+          - 📄 [QuadraticEquationSolverTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolverTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ReverseNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SecondMinMaxTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMaxTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SieveOfAtkinTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkinTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SieveOfEratosthenesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenesTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SolovayStrassenPrimalityTestTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTestTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SquareFreeIntegerTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareFreeIntegerTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod.java)
+          - 📄 [SquareRootwithBabylonianMethodTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootwithBabylonianMethodTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StandardDeviationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardDeviationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StandardScoreTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardScoreTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StrobogrammaticNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StrobogrammaticNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfArithmeticSeriesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeriesTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfDigitsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigitsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfOddNumbersTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbersTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SumOfSquaresTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfSquaresTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TestArmstrong](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TestArmstrong.java)
+          - 📄 [TwinPrimeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TwinPrimeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [UniformNumbersTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/UniformNumbersTest.java)
+          - 📄 [VampireNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [VolumeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VolumeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ZellersCongruenceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ZellersCongruenceTest.java)
+          - 📁 **prime**
+            - 📄 [LiouvilleLambdaFunctionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/LiouvilleLambdaFunctionTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MillerRabinPrimalityCheckTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheckTest.java)
+            - 📄 [MobiusFunctionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/MobiusFunctionTest.java)
+            - 📄 [PrimeCheckTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/PrimeCheckTest.java)
+            - 📄 [PrimeFactorizationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/PrimeFactorizationTest.java)
+        - 📁 **matrix**
+          - 📄 [InverseOfMatrixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixMultiplicationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplicationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixRankTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRankTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixTransposeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixTransposeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MatrixUtilTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixUtilTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfMatrixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MirrorOfMatrixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MirrorOfMatrixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SolveSystemTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/SolveSystemTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TestPrintMatrixInSpiralOrder](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/TestPrintMatrixInSpiralOrder.java)
+        - 📁 **misc**
+          - 📄 [ColorContrastRatioTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatioTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MapReduceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MedianOfRunningArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromePrimeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrimeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromeSinglyLinkedListTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedListTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RangeInSortedArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArrayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ShuffleArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArrayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SparsityTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/SparsityTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ThreeSumProblemTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblemTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TwoSumProblemTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblemTest.java)
+        - 📁 **others**
+          - 📄 [ArrayLeftRotationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ArrayRightRotationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BFPRTTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRTTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BestFitCPUTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFitCPUTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BoyerMooreTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMooreTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CRC16Test](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC16Test.java)
+          - 📄 [CRCAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithmTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ConwayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ConwayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CountFriendsPairingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountFriendsPairingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FirstFitCPUTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFitCPUTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FloydTriangleTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangleTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HuffmanTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/HuffmanTest.java)
+          - 📄 [InsertDeleteInArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArrayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IterativeFloodFillTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFillTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KadaneAlogrithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KadaneAlogrithmTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LineSweepTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweepTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LinkListSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinkListSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LowestBasePalindromeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindromeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MiniMaxAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithmTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MosAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithmTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NewManShanksPrimeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NewManShanksPrimeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NextFitTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NextFitTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PageRankTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRankTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PasswordGenTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGenTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PerlinNoiseTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoiseTest.java)
+          - 📄 [QueueUsingTwoStacksTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacksTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SkylineProblemTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblemTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TestPrintMatrixInSpiralOrder](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TestPrintMatrixInSpiralOrder.java)
+          - 📄 [TwoPointersTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointersTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WorstFitCPUTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFitCPUTest.java)
+          - 📁 **cn**
+            - 📄 [HammingDistanceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/cn/HammingDistanceTest.java)
+        - 📁 **physics**
+          - 📄 [GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest.java)
+        - 📁 **puzzlesandgames**
+          - 📄 [SudokuTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/SudokuTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TowerOfHanoiTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/TowerOfHanoiTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WordBoggleTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggleTest.java)
+        - 📁 **randomized**
+          - 📄 [KargerMinCutTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCutTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MonteCarloIntegrationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/MonteCarloIntegrationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomizedClosestPairTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPairTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerificationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerificationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomizedQuickSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedQuickSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ReservoirSamplingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSamplingTest.java)
+        - 📁 **recursion**
+          - 📄 [DiceThrowerTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrowerTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciSeriesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/FibonacciSeriesTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GenerateSubsetsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/GenerateSubsetsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SylvesterSequenceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/SylvesterSequenceTest.java)
+        - 📁 **scheduling**
+          - 📄 [AgingSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [EDFSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FCFSSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FairShareSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GangSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HighestResponseRatioNextSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [JobSchedulingWithDeadlineTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadlineTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LotterySchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotterySchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MLFQSchedulerTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQSchedulerTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MultiAgentSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/PreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ProportionalFairSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RRSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SJFSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SJFSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SRTFSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SelfAdjustingSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SlackTimeSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeSchedulingTest.java)
+          - 📁 **diskscheduling**
+            - 📄 [CircularLookSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookSchedulingTest.java)
+            - 📄 [CircularScanSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanSchedulingTest.java)
+            - 📄 [LookSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookSchedulingTest.java)
+            - 📄 [SSFSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFSchedulingTest.java)
+            - 📄 [ScanSchedulingTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanSchedulingTest.java)
+        - 📁 **searches**
+          - 📄 [BM25InvertedIndexTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndexTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BinarySearch2dArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArrayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BinarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BoyerMooreTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMooreTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BreadthFirstSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DepthFirstSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ExponentialSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentialSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FibonacciSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HowManyTimesRotatedTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotatedTest.java)
+          - 📄 [InterpolationSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IterativeBinarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IterativeTernarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [JumpSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [KMPSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LinearSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LinearSearchThreadTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThreadTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LowerBoundTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBoundTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MonteCarloTreeSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [OrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/OrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PerfectBinarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [QuickSelectTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelectTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RabinKarpAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithmTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RandomSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RandomSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RecursiveBinarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RecursiveBinarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SaddlebackSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SentinelLinearSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SentinelLinearSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SquareRootBinarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TernarySearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TestSearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TestSearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java)
+          - 📄 [UnionFindTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFindTest.java)
+          - 📄 [UpperBoundTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBoundTest.java)
+        - 📁 **slidingwindow**
+          - 📄 [LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToKTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToKTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MaximumSlidingWindowTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindowTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MinimumWindowSubstringTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstringTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ShortestCoprimeSegmentTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegmentTest.java)
+        - 📁 **sorts**
+          - 📄 [AdaptiveMergeSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BeadSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BeadSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BinaryInsertionSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BinaryInsertionSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BitonicSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BogoSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BubbleSortRecursiveTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursiveTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BubbleSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [BucketSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CircleSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CocktailShakerSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CombSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CountingSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CycleSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DarkSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DualPivotQuickSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DutchNationalFlagSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ExchangeSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [FlashSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GnomeSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HeapSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [InsertionSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IntrospectiveSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/IntrospectiveSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MergeSortNoExtraSpaceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpaceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MergeSortRecursiveTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursiveTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MergeSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [OddEvenSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PancakeSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PatienceSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PatienceSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PigeonholeSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PigeonholeSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PriorityQueueSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PriorityQueueSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [QuickSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RadixSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SelectionSortRecursiveTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortRecursiveTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SelectionSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ShellSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SlowSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SortUtilsRandomGeneratorTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsRandomGeneratorTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SortUtilsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SortingAlgorithmTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortingAlgorithmTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SpreadSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SpreadSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StalinSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StalinSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StoogeSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StrandSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StrandSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SwapSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TimSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TopologicalSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [TreeSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WaveSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WaveSortTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WiggleSortTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSortTest.java)
+        - 📁 **stacks**
+          - 📄 [BalancedBracketsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/BalancedBracketsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CelebrityFinderTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/CelebrityFinderTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DecimalToAnyUsingStackTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStackTest.java)
+          - 📄 [DuplicateBracketsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DuplicateBracketsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [GreatestElementConstantTimeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTimeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [InfixToPostfixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPostfixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [InfixToPrefixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPrefixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LargestRectangleTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/LargestRectangleTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MinStackUsingSingleStackTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStackTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MinStackUsingTwoStacksTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingTwoStacksTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NextGreaterElementTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextGreaterElementTest.java)
+          - 📄 [NextSmallerElementTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextSmallerElementTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromeWithStackTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStackTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PostfixEvaluatorTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixEvaluatorTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PostfixToInfixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PrefixEvaluatorTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixEvaluatorTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PrefixToInfixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SmallestElementConstantTimeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTimeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SortStackTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStackTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StackPostfixNotationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackPostfixNotationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StackUsingTwoQueuesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackUsingTwoQueuesTest.java)
+        - 📁 **strings**
+          - 📄 [AhoCorasickTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AhoCorasickTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AlphabeticalTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlphabeticalTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AlternativeStringArrangeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlternativeStringArrangeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [AnagramsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AnagramsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CharactersSameTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSameTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CheckVowelsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowelsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CountCharTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountCharTest.java)
+          - 📄 [CountWordsTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountWordsTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HammingDistanceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HammingDistanceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [HorspoolSearchTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearchTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IsogramTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/IsogramTest.java)
+          - 📄 [IsomorphicTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/IsomorphicTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumberTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumberTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestCommonPrefixTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestCommonPrefixTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestNonRepetitiveSubstringTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstringTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LongestPalindromicSubstringTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstringTest.java)
+          - 📄 [LowerTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LowerTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ManacherTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ManacherTest.java)
+          - 📄 [MyAtoiTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoiTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PalindromeTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PalindromeTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PangramTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PangramTest.java)
+          - 📄 [PermuteStringTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteStringTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RemoveDuplicateFromStringTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromStringTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ReturnSubsequenceTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReturnSubsequenceTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ReverseStringTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseStringTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ReverseWordsInStringTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseWordsInStringTest.java)
+          - 📄 [RotationTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RotationTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StringCompressionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompressionTest.java)
+          - 📄 [StringMatchFiniteAutomataTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringMatchFiniteAutomataTest.java)
+          - 📄 [SuffixArrayTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArrayTest.java)
+          - 📄 [UpperTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/UpperTest.java)
+          - 📄 [ValidParenthesesTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ValidParenthesesTest.java)
+          - 📄 [WordLadderTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadderTest.java)
+          - 📁 **zigZagPattern**
+            - 📄 [ZigZagPatternTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/ZigZagPatternTest.java)
+        - 📁 **tree**
+          - 📄 [HeavyLightDecompositionTest](src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/tree/HeavyLightDecompositionTest.java)
diff --git a/README-ko.md b/README-ko.md
index 487d80e94e19..4f8cab92fc42 100644
--- a/README-ko.md
+++ b/README-ko.md
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ From [Wikipedia][bubble-wiki]: 버블 소트(sinking sor라고도 불리움)는
 
 ![alt text][insertion-image]
 
-From [Wikipedia][insertion-wiki]: 삽입 정렬은 최종 정렬된 배열(또는 리스트)을 한번에 하나씩 구축하는 알고리즘이다. 이것은 큰 리스트에서 더 나은 알고리즘인 퀵 소트, 힙 소트, 또는 머지 소트보다 훨씬 안좋은 효율을 가진다. 그림에서 각 막대는 정렬해야 하는 배열의 요소를 나타낸다. 상단과 두 번째 상단 막대의 첫 번째 교차점에서 발생하는 것은 두 번째 요소가 첫 번째 요소보다 더 높은 우선 순위를 가지기 떄문에 막대로 표시되는 이러한 요소를 교환한 것이다. 이 방법을 반복하면 삽입 정렬이 완료된다.
+From [Wikipedia][insertion-wiki]: 삽입 정렬은 최종 정렬된 배열(또는 리스트)을 한번에 하나씩 구축하는 알고리즘이다. 이것은 큰 리스트에서 더 나은 알고리즘인 퀵 소트, 힙 소트, 또는 머지 소트보다 훨씬 안좋은 효율을 가진다. 그림에서 각 막대는 정렬해야 하는 배열의 요소를 나타낸다. 상단과 두 번째 상단 막대의 첫 번째 교차점에서 발생하는 것은 두 번째 요소가 첫 번째 요소보다 더 높은 우선 순위를 가지기 때문에 막대로 표시되는 이러한 요소를 교환한 것이다. 이 방법을 반복하면 삽입 정렬이 완료된다.
 
 **속성**
 
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ From [Wikipedia][selection-wiki]: 알고리즘 입력 리스트를 두 부분으
 
 ![alt text][shell-image]
 
-From [Wikipedia][shell-wiki]: 쉘 정렬은 멀리 떨어져 있는 항목의 교환을 허용하는 삽입 종류의 일반화이다. 그 아이디어는 모든 n번째 요소가 정렬된 목록을 제공한다는 것을 고려하여 어느 곳에서든지 시작하도록 요소의 목록을 배열하는 것이다. 이러한 목록은 h-sorted로 알려져 있다. 마찬가지로, 각각 개별적으로 정렬된 h 인터리브 목록으로 간주될 수 있다.
+From [Wikipedia][shell-wiki]: 쉘 정렬은 멀리 떨어져 있는 항목의 교환을 허용하는 삽입 종류의 일반화이다. 그 아이디어는 모든 n번째 요소가 정렬된 목록을 제공한다는 것을 고려하여 어느 곳에서든지 시작하도록 요소의 목록을 배열하는 것이다. 이러한 목록은 h-sorted로 알려져 있다. 마찬가지로, 각각 개별적으로 정렬된 h 인터리브 목록으로 간주할 수 있다.
 
 **속성**
 
@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ From [Wikipedia][linear-wiki]: 선형 탐색 또는 순차 탐색은 목록 내
 
 ![alt text][binary-image]
 
-From [Wikipedia][binary-wiki]: 이진 탐색, (also known as half-interval search or logarithmic search), 은 정렬된 배열 내에서 목표값의 위치를 찾는 검색 알고리즘이다. 목표값을 배열의 중간 요소와 비교한다; 만약 목표값이 동일하지 않으면, 목표물의 절반이 제거되고 검색이 성공할 때까지 나머지 절반에서 게속된다.
+From [Wikipedia][binary-wiki]: 이진 탐색, (also known as half-interval search or logarithmic search), 은 정렬된 배열 내에서 목표값의 위치를 찾는 검색 알고리즘이다. 목표값을 배열의 중간 요소와 비교한다; 만약 목표값이 동일하지 않으면, 목표물의 절반이 제거되고 검색이 성공할 때까지 나머지 절반에서 속된다.
 
 **속성**
 
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index 59930fded1d3..d60d5104c385 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 # The Algorithms - Java
 
 [![Build](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/actions/workflows/build.yml/badge.svg?branch=master)](https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java/actions/workflows/build.yml)
+[![codecov](https://codecov.io/gh/TheAlgorithms/Java/graph/badge.svg?token=XAdPyqTIqR)](https://codecov.io/gh/TheAlgorithms/Java)
 [![Discord chat](https://img.shields.io/discord/808045925556682782.svg?logo=discord&colorB=7289DA&style=flat-square)](https://discord.gg/c7MnfGFGa6)
 [![Gitpod ready-to-code](https://img.shields.io/badge/Gitpod-ready--to--code-blue?logo=gitpod)](https://gitpod.io/#https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/Java)
 
@@ -15,8 +16,5 @@ These implementations are intended for learning purposes. As such, they may be l
 ## Contribution Guidelines
 Please read our [Contribution Guidelines](CONTRIBUTING.md) before you contribute to this project.
 
-## Community Channel
-We're on [Gitter](https://gitter.im/TheAlgorithms)! Come join us.
-
 ## Algorithms
 Our [directory](DIRECTORY.md) has the full list of applications.
diff --git a/checkstyle.xml b/checkstyle.xml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d78724455af7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/checkstyle.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,198 @@
+<?xml version="1.0"?>
+<!DOCTYPE module PUBLIC
+          "-//Checkstyle//DTD Checkstyle Configuration 1.3//EN"
+          "https://checkstyle.org/dtds/configuration_1_3.dtd">
+
+<!--
+
+  Checkstyle configuration that checks the sun coding conventions from:
+
+    - the Java Language Specification at
+      https://docs.oracle.com/javase/specs/jls/se11/html/index.html
+
+    - the Sun Code Conventions at https://www.oracle.com/java/technologies/javase/codeconventions-contents.html
+
+    - the Javadoc guidelines at
+      https://www.oracle.com/technical-resources/articles/java/javadoc-tool.html
+
+    - the JDK Api documentation https://docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/11/
+
+    - some best practices
+
+  Checkstyle is very configurable. Be sure to read the documentation at
+  https://checkstyle.org (or in your downloaded distribution).
+
+  Most Checks are configurable, be sure to consult the documentation.
+
+  To completely disable a check, just comment it out or delete it from the file.
+  To suppress certain violations please review suppression filters.
+
+  Finally, it is worth reading the documentation.
+
+-->
+
+<module name="Checker">
+  <!--
+      If you set the basedir property below, then all reported file
+      names will be relative to the specified directory. See
+      https://checkstyle.org/config.html#Checker
+
+      <property name="basedir" value="${basedir}"/>
+  -->
+  <property name="severity" value="error"/>
+
+  <property name="fileExtensions" value="java, properties, xml"/>
+
+  <!-- Excludes all 'module-info.java' files              -->
+  <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/filefilters/index.html -->
+  <module name="BeforeExecutionExclusionFileFilter">
+    <property name="fileNamePattern" value="module\-info\.java$"/>
+  </module>
+
+  <!-- https://checkstyle.org/filters/suppressionfilter.html -->
+  <module name="SuppressionFilter">
+    <property name="file" value="${org.checkstyle.sun.suppressionfilter.config}"
+              default="checkstyle-suppressions.xml" />
+    <property name="optional" value="true"/>
+  </module>
+
+  <!-- Checks that a package-info.java file exists for each package.     -->
+  <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/javadoc/javadocpackage.html#JavadocPackage -->
+  <!-- TODO <module name="JavadocPackage"/> -->
+
+  <!-- Checks whether files end with a new line.                        -->
+  <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/misc/newlineatendoffile.html -->
+  <module name="NewlineAtEndOfFile"/>
+
+  <!-- Checks that property files contain the same keys.         -->
+  <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/misc/translation.html -->
+  <module name="Translation"/>
+
+  <!-- Checks for Size Violations.                    -->
+  <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/sizes/index.html -->
+  <!-- TODO <module name="FileLength"/> -->
+  <!-- TODO <module name="LineLength">
+    <property name="fileExtensions" value="java"/>
+  </module> -->
+
+  <!-- Checks for whitespace                               -->
+  <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/whitespace/index.html -->
+  <!-- TODO <module name="FileTabCharacter"/> -->
+
+  <!-- Miscellaneous other checks.                   -->
+  <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/misc/index.html -->
+  <module name="RegexpSingleline">
+    <property name="format" value="\s+$"/>
+    <property name="minimum" value="0"/>
+    <property name="maximum" value="0"/>
+    <property name="message" value="Line has trailing spaces."/>
+  </module>
+
+  <!-- Checks for Headers                                -->
+  <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/header/index.html   -->
+  <!-- <module name="Header"> -->
+  <!--   <property name="headerFile" value="${checkstyle.header.file}"/> -->
+  <!--   <property name="fileExtensions" value="java"/> -->
+  <!-- </module> -->
+
+  <module name="TreeWalker">
+
+    <!-- Checks for Javadoc comments.                     -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/javadoc/index.html -->
+    <module name="InvalidJavadocPosition"/>
+    <!-- TODO <module name="JavadocMethod"/> -->
+    <!-- TODO <module name="JavadocType"/> -->
+    <!-- TODO <module name="JavadocVariable"/> -->
+    <!-- TODO <module name="JavadocStyle"/> -->
+    <!-- TODO <module name="MissingJavadocMethod"/> -->
+
+    <!-- Checks for Naming Conventions.                  -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/naming/index.html -->
+    <module name="ConstantName"/>
+    <module name="LocalFinalVariableName"/>
+    <module name="LocalVariableName"/>
+    <module name="MemberName"/>
+    <module name="MethodName"/>
+    <module name="PackageName"/>
+    <module name="ParameterName"/>
+    <module name="StaticVariableName"/>
+    <module name="TypeName"/>
+
+    <!-- Checks for imports                              -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/imports/index.html -->
+    <module name="AvoidStarImport"/>
+    <module name="IllegalImport"/> <!-- defaults to sun.* packages -->
+    <module name="RedundantImport"/>
+    <module name="UnusedImports">
+      <property name="processJavadoc" value="false"/>
+    </module>
+
+    <!-- Checks for Size Violations.                    -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/sizes/index.html -->
+    <module name="MethodLength"/>
+    <module name="ParameterNumber"/>
+
+    <!-- Checks for whitespace                               -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/whitespace/index.html -->
+    <module name="EmptyForIteratorPad"/>
+    <!-- TODO <module name="GenericWhitespace"/> -->
+    <module name="MethodParamPad"/>
+    <!-- TODO <module name="NoWhitespaceAfter"/> -->
+    <module name="NoWhitespaceBefore"/>
+    <module name="OperatorWrap"/>
+    <module name="ParenPad"/>
+    <module name="TypecastParenPad"/>
+    <module name="WhitespaceAfter"/>
+    <module name="WhitespaceAround"/>
+
+    <!-- Modifier Checks                                    -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/modifier/index.html -->
+    <module name="ModifierOrder"/>
+    <module name="RedundantModifier"/>
+
+    <!-- Checks for blocks. You know, those {}'s         -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/blocks/index.html -->
+    <module name="AvoidNestedBlocks"/>
+    <!-- TODO <module name="EmptyBlock"/> -->
+    <!-- TODO <module name="LeftCurly"/> -->
+    <module name="NeedBraces"/>
+    <!-- TODO <module name="RightCurly"/> -->
+
+    <!-- Checks for common coding problems               -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/coding/index.html -->
+    <module name="EmptyStatement"/>
+    <module name="EqualsHashCode"/>
+    <!-- TODO <module name="HiddenField"/> -->
+    <module name="IllegalInstantiation"/>
+    <module name="InnerAssignment"/>
+    <!-- TODO <module name="MagicNumber"/> -->
+    <module name="MissingSwitchDefault"/>
+    <module name="MultipleVariableDeclarations"/>
+    <module name="SimplifyBooleanExpression"/>
+    <module name="SimplifyBooleanReturn"/>
+
+    <!-- Checks for class design                         -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/design/index.html -->
+    <!-- TODO <module name="DesignForExtension"/> -->
+    <module name="FinalClass"/>
+    <module name="HideUtilityClassConstructor"/>
+    <module name="InterfaceIsType"/>
+    <!-- TODO <module name="VisibilityModifier"/> -->
+
+    <!-- Miscellaneous other checks.                   -->
+    <!-- See https://checkstyle.org/checks/misc/index.html -->
+    <module name="ArrayTypeStyle"/>
+    <!-- TODO <module name="FinalParameters"/> -->
+    <module name="TodoComment"/>
+    <module name="UpperEll"/>
+
+    <!-- https://checkstyle.org/filters/suppressionxpathfilter.html -->
+    <module name="SuppressionXpathFilter">
+      <property name="file" value="${org.checkstyle.sun.suppressionxpathfilter.config}"
+                default="checkstyle-xpath-suppressions.xml" />
+      <property name="optional" value="true"/>
+    </module>
+
+  </module>
+
+</module>
diff --git a/pmd-custom_ruleset.xml b/pmd-custom_ruleset.xml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..19bb1c7968f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pmd-custom_ruleset.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+<?xml version="1.0"?>
+<ruleset name="TheAlgorithms/Java ruleset"
+    xmlns="http://pmd.sf.net/ruleset/1.0.0"
+    xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"
+    xsi:schemaLocation="http://pmd.sf.net/ruleset/1.0.0%20http://pmd.sf.net/ruleset_xml_schema.xsd"
+    xsi:noNamespaceSchemaLocation="http://pmd.sf.net/ruleset_xml_schema.xsd">
+  <description>
+  Custom PMD checks for TheAlgorithms/Java
+  </description>
+<rule name="UselessMainMethod"
+      language="java"
+      message="The main method is redundant in this context"
+      class="net.sourceforge.pmd.lang.rule.xpath.XPathRule">
+    <description>
+        Avoid using the main method.
+    </description>
+    <priority>3</priority>
+    <properties>
+        <property name="xpath">
+            <value>
+<![CDATA[
+//MethodDeclaration[@Name = "main"]
+]]>
+            </value>
+        </property>
+    </properties>
+</rule>
+</ruleset>
diff --git a/pmd-exclude.properties b/pmd-exclude.properties
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a3c95b12fa4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pmd-exclude.properties
@@ -0,0 +1,122 @@
+com.thealgorithms.ciphers.AES=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.ciphers.AESEncryption=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.ciphers.AffineCipher=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.ciphers.DES=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.ciphers.ProductCipher=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.ciphers.RSA=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.conversions.AnyBaseToAnyBase=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.conversions.AnytoAny=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.conversions.RgbHsvConversion=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt.Pair=UnusedPrivateField
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.AStar=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.AdjacencyMatrixGraph=CollapsibleIfStatements,UnnecessaryFullyQualifiedName,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.BellmanFord=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.BipartiteGraphDFS=CollapsibleIfStatements
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.ConnectedComponent=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.Cycles=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.Graphs=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.KahnsAlgorithm=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.MatrixGraphs=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing.HashMapCuckooHashing=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing.MainCuckooHashing=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps.FibonacciHeap=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps.HeapNode=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists.DoublyLinkedList=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists.Link=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists.RandomNode=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists.SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists.SinglyLinkedList=UnusedLocalVariable,UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues.Deque=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues.PriorityQueue=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BSTRecursiveGeneric=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.LCA=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.NearestRightKey=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.PrintTopViewofTree=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.SegmentTree=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.devutils.nodes.LargeTreeNode=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.devutils.nodes.SimpleNode=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.devutils.nodes.SimpleTreeNode=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.devutils.nodes.TreeNode=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer.ClosestPair=UnnecessaryFullyQualifiedName,UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer.Point=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming.CatalanNumber=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming.EggDropping=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming.LongestPalindromicSubsequence=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming.WineProblem=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.BinomialCoefficient=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.Complex=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.DistanceFormulaTest=UnnecessaryFullyQualifiedName
+com.thealgorithms.maths.EulerMethod=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.maths.GCDRecursion=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.maths.Gaussian=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.GcdSolutionWrapper=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.HeronsFormula=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.JugglerSequence=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.maths.KaprekarNumbers=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.KeithNumber=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.LeonardoNumber=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.MagicSquare=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.maths.PiNilakantha=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.PrimeCheck=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.maths.PythagoreanTriple=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.maths.RomanNumeralUtil=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.SecondMinMax=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.SecondMinMaxTest=UnnecessaryFullyQualifiedName
+com.thealgorithms.maths.SimpsonIntegration=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.maths.StandardDeviation=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.SumOfArithmeticSeries=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.TrinomialTriangle=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.maths.VectorCrossProduct=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.maths.Volume=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.matrix.RotateMatrixBy90Degrees=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.misc.Sparsity=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.others.BankersAlgorithm=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.BrianKernighanAlgorithm=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.CRC16=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.others.CRC32=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.Damm=UnnecessaryFullyQualifiedName,UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.Dijkstra=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.GaussLegendre=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.HappyNumbersSeq=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.Huffman=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.InsertDeleteInArray=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.KochSnowflake=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.Krishnamurthy=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.LinearCongruentialGenerator=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.Luhn=UnnecessaryFullyQualifiedName,UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.Mandelbrot=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.others.MiniMaxAlgorithm=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.others.MosAlgorithm=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.others.PageRank=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.others.PerlinNoise=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.others.QueueUsingTwoStacks=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.others.Trieac=UselessMainMethod,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.others.Verhoeff=UnnecessaryFullyQualifiedName,UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.puzzlesandgames.Sudoku=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.recursion.DiceThrower=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.searches.HowManyTimesRotated=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.searches.InterpolationSearch=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.searches.KMPSearch=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.searches.RabinKarpAlgorithm=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.searches.RecursiveBinarySearch=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.sorts.BogoSort=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.sorts.CircleSort=EmptyControlStatement
+com.thealgorithms.sorts.DutchNationalFlagSort=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.sorts.MergeSortNoExtraSpace=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.sorts.RadixSort=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.sorts.TreeSort=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.sorts.WiggleSort=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.stacks.LargestRectangle=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.stacks.MaximumMinimumWindow=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.stacks.PostfixToInfix=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.strings.Alphabetical=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.strings.HorspoolSearch=UnnecessaryFullyQualifiedName,UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.strings.KMP=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.strings.Lower=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.strings.Palindrome=UselessParentheses
+com.thealgorithms.strings.Pangram=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.strings.RabinKarp=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.strings.Rotation=UselessMainMethod
+com.thealgorithms.strings.Upper=UselessMainMethod
diff --git a/pom.xml b/pom.xml
index 48f9e1cbbbc6..116c7bb27e40 100644
--- a/pom.xml
+++ b/pom.xml
@@ -1,16 +1,18 @@
 <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
 <project xmlns="http://maven.apache.org/POM/4.0.0"
-         xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"
-         xsi:schemaLocation="http://maven.apache.org/POM/4.0.0%20http://maven.apache.org/xsd/maven-4.0.0.xsd">
+    xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"
+    xsi:schemaLocation="http://maven.apache.org/POM/4.0.0%20http://maven.apache.org/xsd/maven-4.0.0.xsd">
     <modelVersion>4.0.0</modelVersion>
     <groupId>com.thealgorithms</groupId>
     <artifactId>Java</artifactId>
     <version>1.0-SNAPSHOT</version>
     <packaging>jar</packaging>
+
     <properties>
         <project.build.sourceEncoding>UTF-8</project.build.sourceEncoding>
-        <maven.compiler.source>17</maven.compiler.source>
-        <maven.compiler.target>17</maven.compiler.target>
+        <maven.compiler.source>21</maven.compiler.source>
+        <maven.compiler.target>21</maven.compiler.target>
+        <assertj.version>3.27.6</assertj.version>
     </properties>
 
     <dependencyManagement>
@@ -18,7 +20,7 @@
             <dependency>
                 <groupId>org.junit</groupId>
                 <artifactId>junit-bom</artifactId>
-                <version>5.8.2</version>
+                <version>6.0.0</version>
                 <type>pom</type>
                 <scope>import</scope>
             </dependency>
@@ -31,18 +33,126 @@
             <artifactId>junit-jupiter</artifactId>
             <scope>test</scope>
         </dependency>
+        <dependency>
+            <groupId>org.assertj</groupId>
+            <artifactId>assertj-core</artifactId>
+            <version>${assertj.version}</version>
+            <scope>test</scope>
+        </dependency>
+        <dependency>
+            <groupId>org.mockito</groupId>
+            <artifactId>mockito-core</artifactId>
+            <version>5.20.0</version>
+            <scope>test</scope>
+        </dependency>
+        <dependency>
+            <groupId>org.apache.commons</groupId>
+            <artifactId>commons-lang3</artifactId>
+            <version>3.19.0</version>
+        </dependency>
+        <dependency>
+            <groupId>org.apache.commons</groupId>
+            <artifactId>commons-collections4</artifactId>
+            <version>4.5.0</version>
+        </dependency>
     </dependencies>
 
     <build>
         <plugins>
             <plugin>
+                <artifactId>maven-surefire-plugin</artifactId>
+                <version>3.5.4</version>
+                <configuration>
+                    <forkNode implementation="org.apache.maven.plugin.surefire.extensions.SurefireForkNodeFactory"/>
+                </configuration>
+            </plugin>
+            <plugin>
+                <groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
                 <artifactId>maven-compiler-plugin</artifactId>
-                <version>3.8.1</version>
+                <version>3.14.1</version>
+                <configuration>
+                    <release>21</release>
+                    <compilerArgs>
+                        <arg>-Xlint:all</arg>
+                        <arg>-Xlint:-auxiliaryclass</arg>
+                        <arg>-Werror</arg>
+                    </compilerArgs>
+                </configuration>
             </plugin>
             <plugin>
-                <artifactId>maven-surefire-plugin</artifactId>
-                <version>2.22.2</version>
+                <groupId>org.jacoco</groupId>
+                <artifactId>jacoco-maven-plugin</artifactId>
+                <version>0.8.14</version>
+                <executions>
+                    <execution>
+                        <goals>
+                            <goal>prepare-agent</goal>
+                        </goals>
+                    </execution>
+                    <execution>
+                        <id>generate-code-coverage-report</id>
+                        <phase>test</phase>
+                        <goals>
+                            <goal>report</goal>
+                        </goals>
+                    </execution>
+                </executions>
+            </plugin>
+            <plugin>
+                <groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
+                <artifactId>maven-checkstyle-plugin</artifactId>
+                <version>3.6.0</version>
+                <configuration>
+                    <configLocation>checkstyle.xml</configLocation>
+                    <consoleOutput>true</consoleOutput>
+                    <includeTestSourceDirectory>true</includeTestSourceDirectory>
+                    <violationSeverity>warning</violationSeverity>
+                </configuration>
+                <dependencies>
+                    <dependency>
+                    <groupId>com.puppycrawl.tools</groupId>
+                    <artifactId>checkstyle</artifactId>
+                    <version>12.1.0</version>
+                    </dependency>
+                </dependencies>
+            </plugin>
+            <plugin>
+                <groupId>com.github.spotbugs</groupId>
+                <artifactId>spotbugs-maven-plugin</artifactId>
+                <version>4.9.8.1</version>
+                <configuration>
+                    <excludeFilterFile>spotbugs-exclude.xml</excludeFilterFile>
+                    <includeTests>true</includeTests>
+                    <plugins>
+                        <plugin>
+                            <groupId>com.mebigfatguy.fb-contrib</groupId>
+                            <artifactId>fb-contrib</artifactId>
+                            <version>7.6.15</version>
+                        </plugin>
+                        <plugin>
+                            <groupId>com.h3xstream.findsecbugs</groupId>
+                            <artifactId>findsecbugs-plugin</artifactId>
+                            <version>1.14.0</version>
+                        </plugin>
+                    </plugins>
+                </configuration>
+            </plugin>
+            <plugin>
+                <groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
+                <artifactId>maven-pmd-plugin</artifactId>
+                <version>3.28.0</version>
+                <configuration>
+                    <rulesets>
+                        <ruleset>/rulesets/java/maven-pmd-plugin-default.xml</ruleset>
+                        <ruleset>/category/java/security.xml</ruleset>
+                        <ruleset>file://${basedir}/pmd-custom_ruleset.xml</ruleset>
+                    </rulesets>
+                    <printFailingErrors>true</printFailingErrors>
+                    <includeTests>true</includeTests>
+                    <linkXRef>false</linkXRef>
+                    <excludeFromFailureFile>pmd-exclude.properties</excludeFromFailureFile>
+                </configuration>
             </plugin>
         </plugins>
     </build>
-</project>
\ No newline at end of file
+</project>
diff --git a/spotbugs-exclude.xml b/spotbugs-exclude.xml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d2e094556d61
--- /dev/null
+++ b/spotbugs-exclude.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,211 @@
+<FindBugsFilter>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="DM_DEFAULT_ENCODING" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="EI_EXPOSE_REP2" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="DMI_RANDOM_USED_ONLY_ONCE" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SF_SWITCH_NO_DEFAULT" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="RV_RETURN_VALUE_IGNORED_NO_SIDE_EFFECT" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="DM_NEXTINT_VIA_NEXTDOUBLE" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SIC_INNER_SHOULD_BE_STATIC" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="EI_EXPOSE_REP" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="EI_EXPOSE_REP" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SBSC_USE_STRINGBUFFER_CONCATENATION" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="PA_PUBLIC_PRIMITIVE_ATTRIBUTE" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="MS_PKGPROTECT" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SE_COMPARATOR_SHOULD_BE_SERIALIZABLE" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="INT_BAD_REM_BY_1" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="FE_FLOATING_POINT_EQUALITY" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="CT_CONSTRUCTOR_THROW" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="URF_UNREAD_FIELD" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="RC_REF_COMPARISON" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="MS_EXPOSE_REP" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="DM_BOXED_PRIMITIVE_FOR_PARSING" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="UWF_UNWRITTEN_FIELD" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="UWF_NULL_FIELD" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="NP_UNWRITTEN_FIELD" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="URF_UNREAD_PUBLIC_OR_PROTECTED_FIELD" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="NP_IMMEDIATE_DEREFERENCE_OF_READLINE" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="EQ_COMPARETO_USE_OBJECT_EQUALS" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SA_FIELD_SELF_ASSIGNMENT" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="AT_STALE_THREAD_WRITE_OF_PRIMITIVE" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SF_SWITCH_FALLTHROUGH" />
+    </Match>
+    <!-- fb-contrib -->
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="LSC_LITERAL_STRING_COMPARISON" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="CE_CLASS_ENVY" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="PSC_PRESIZE_COLLECTIONS" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SACM_STATIC_ARRAY_CREATED_IN_METHOD" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="LUI_USE_SINGLETON_LIST" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="CLI_CONSTANT_LIST_INDEX" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="CNC_COLLECTION_NAMING_CONFUSION" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="TR_TAIL_RECURSION" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="USBR_UNNECESSARY_STORE_BEFORE_RETURN" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="BL_BURYING_LOGIC" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="UTWR_USE_TRY_WITH_RESOURCES" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="MUI_CONTAINSKEY_BEFORE_GET" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="IMC_IMMATURE_CLASS_PRINTSTACKTRACE" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="UCPM_USE_CHARACTER_PARAMETERIZED_METHOD" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SUA_SUSPICIOUS_UNINITIALIZED_ARRAY" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SPP_USE_MATH_CONSTANT" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="UJM_UNJITABLE_METHOD" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SEC_SIDE_EFFECT_CONSTRUCTOR" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="MDM_STRING_BYTES_ENCODING" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="PMB_POSSIBLE_MEMORY_BLOAT" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="LSYC_LOCAL_SYNCHRONIZED_COLLECTION" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="IOI_USE_OF_FILE_STREAM_CONSTRUCTORS" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="UP_UNUSED_PARAMETER" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="DSOC_DUBIOUS_SET_OF_COLLECTIONS" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="FPL_FLOATING_POINT_LOOPS" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="ITU_INAPPROPRIATE_TOSTRING_USE" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SPP_PASSING_THIS_AS_PARM" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="FCBL_FIELD_COULD_BE_LOCAL" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="CFS_CONFUSING_FUNCTION_SEMANTICS" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="PRMC_POSSIBLY_REDUNDANT_METHOD_CALLS" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="FCCD_FIND_CLASS_CIRCULAR_DEPENDENCY" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="PL_PARALLEL_LISTS" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="PCAIL_POSSIBLE_CONSTANT_ALLOCATION_IN_LOOP" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="STT_STRING_PARSING_A_FIELD" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="IMC_IMMATURE_CLASS_BAD_SERIALVERSIONUID" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="DRE_DECLARED_RUNTIME_EXCEPTION" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="BAS_BLOATED_ASSIGNMENT_SCOPE" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="SPP_FIELD_COULD_BE_STATIC" />
+    </Match>
+    <!-- find-sec-bugs -->
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="PREDICTABLE_RANDOM" />
+    </Match>
+    <Match>
+        <Bug pattern="HARD_CODE_KEY" />
+    </Match>
+</FindBugsFilter>
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/EMAFilter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/EMAFilter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0dd23e937953
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/EMAFilter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.audiofilters;
+
+/**
+ * Exponential Moving Average (EMA) Filter for smoothing audio signals.
+ *
+ * <p>This filter applies an exponential moving average to a sequence of audio
+ * signal values, making it useful for smoothing out rapid fluctuations.
+ * The smoothing factor (alpha) controls the degree of smoothing.
+ *
+ * <p>Based on the definition from
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average">Wikipedia link</a>.
+ */
+public class EMAFilter {
+    private final double alpha;
+    private double emaValue;
+    /**
+     * Constructs an EMA filter with a given smoothing factor.
+     *
+     * @param alpha Smoothing factor (0 < alpha <= 1)
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if alpha is not in (0, 1]
+     */
+    public EMAFilter(double alpha) {
+        if (alpha <= 0 || alpha > 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Alpha must be between 0 and 1.");
+        }
+        this.alpha = alpha;
+        this.emaValue = 0.0;
+    }
+    /**
+     * Applies the EMA filter to an audio signal array.
+     *
+     * @param audioSignal Array of audio samples to process
+     * @return Array of processed (smoothed) samples
+     */
+    public double[] apply(double[] audioSignal) {
+        if (audioSignal.length == 0) {
+            return new double[0];
+        }
+        double[] emaSignal = new double[audioSignal.length];
+        emaValue = audioSignal[0];
+        emaSignal[0] = emaValue;
+        for (int i = 1; i < audioSignal.length; i++) {
+            emaValue = alpha * audioSignal[i] + (1 - alpha) * emaValue;
+            emaSignal[i] = emaValue;
+        }
+        return emaSignal;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java
index 0de145f60c67..fbc095909541 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * N-Order IIR Filter Assumes inputs are normalized to [-1, 1]
  *
  * Based on the difference equation from
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_impulse_response
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_impulse_response">Wikipedia link</a>
  */
 public class IIRFilter {
 
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ public void setCoeffs(double[] aCoeffs, double[] bCoeffs) throws IllegalArgument
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("bCoeffs must be of size " + order + ", got " + bCoeffs.length);
         }
 
-        for (int i = 0; i <= order; i++) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < order; i++) {
             coeffsA[i] = aCoeffs[i];
             coeffsB[i] = bCoeffs[i];
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c35a36d97a57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.java
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Program description - To find all possible paths from source to destination
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problem">Wikipedia</a>
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/siddhant2002">Siddhant Swarup Mallick</a>
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
+public class AllPathsFromSourceToTarget {
+
+    // No. of vertices in graph
+    private final int v;
+
+    // To store the paths from source to destination
+    static List<List<Integer>> nm = new ArrayList<>();
+    // adjacency list
+    private ArrayList<Integer>[] adjList;
+
+    // Constructor
+    public AllPathsFromSourceToTarget(int vertices) {
+
+        // initialise vertex count
+        this.v = vertices;
+
+        // initialise adjacency list
+        initAdjList();
+    }
+
+    // utility method to initialise adjacency list
+    private void initAdjList() {
+        adjList = new ArrayList[v];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            adjList[i] = new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+    }
+
+    // add edge from u to v
+    public void addEdge(int u, int v) {
+        // Add v to u's list.
+        adjList[u].add(v);
+    }
+
+    public void storeAllPaths(int s, int d) {
+        boolean[] isVisited = new boolean[v];
+        ArrayList<Integer> pathList = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // add source to path[]
+        pathList.add(s);
+        // Call recursive utility
+        storeAllPathsUtil(s, d, isVisited, pathList);
+    }
+
+    // A recursive function to print all paths from 'u' to 'd'.
+    // isVisited[] keeps track of vertices in current path.
+    // localPathList<> stores actual vertices in the current path
+    private void storeAllPathsUtil(Integer u, Integer d, boolean[] isVisited, List<Integer> localPathList) {
+
+        if (u.equals(d)) {
+            nm.add(new ArrayList<>(localPathList));
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Mark the current node
+        isVisited[u] = true;
+
+        // Recursion for all the vertices adjacent to current vertex
+
+        for (Integer i : adjList[u]) {
+            if (!isVisited[i]) {
+                // store current node in path[]
+                localPathList.add(i);
+                storeAllPathsUtil(i, d, isVisited, localPathList);
+
+                // remove current node in path[]
+                localPathList.remove(i);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Mark the current node
+        isVisited[u] = false;
+    }
+
+    // Driver program
+    public static List<List<Integer>> allPathsFromSourceToTarget(int vertices, int[][] a, int source, int destination) {
+        // Create a sample graph
+        AllPathsFromSourceToTarget g = new AllPathsFromSourceToTarget(vertices);
+        for (int[] i : a) {
+            g.addEdge(i[0], i[1]);
+            // edges are added
+        }
+        g.storeAllPaths(source, destination);
+        // method call to store all possible paths
+        return nm;
+        // returns all possible paths from source to destination
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ArrayCombination.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ArrayCombination.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f8cd0c40c20e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ArrayCombination.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides methods to find all combinations of integers from 0 to n-1
+ * of a specified length k using backtracking.
+ */
+public final class ArrayCombination {
+    private ArrayCombination() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates all possible combinations of length k from the integers 0 to n-1.
+     *
+     * @param n The total number of elements (0 to n-1).
+     * @param k The desired length of each combination.
+     * @return A list containing all combinations of length k.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n or k are negative, or if k is greater than n.
+     */
+    public static List<List<Integer>> combination(int n, int k) {
+        if (n < 0 || k < 0 || k > n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid input: n must be non-negative, k must be non-negative and less than or equal to n.");
+        }
+
+        List<List<Integer>> combinations = new ArrayList<>();
+        combine(combinations, new ArrayList<>(), 0, n, k);
+        return combinations;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A helper method that uses backtracking to find combinations.
+     *
+     * @param combinations The list to store all valid combinations found.
+     * @param current The current combination being built.
+     * @param start The starting index for the current recursion.
+     * @param n The total number of elements (0 to n-1).
+     * @param k The desired length of each combination.
+     */
+    private static void combine(List<List<Integer>> combinations, List<Integer> current, int start, int n, int k) {
+        // Base case: combination found
+        if (current.size() == k) {
+            combinations.add(new ArrayList<>(current));
+            return;
+        }
+
+        for (int i = start; i < n; i++) {
+            current.add(i);
+            combine(combinations, current, i + 1, n, k);
+            current.remove(current.size() - 1); // Backtrack
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/Combination.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/Combination.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ecaf7428f986
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/Combination.java
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.TreeSet;
+
+/**
+ * Finds all permutations of given array
+ * @author Alan Piao (<a href="https://github.com/cpiao3">git-Alan Piao</a>)
+ */
+public final class Combination {
+    private Combination() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find all combinations of given array using backtracking
+     * @param arr the array.
+     * @param n length of combination
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array.
+     * @return a list of all combinations of length n. If n == 0, return null.
+     */
+    public static <T> List<TreeSet<T>> combination(T[] arr, int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The combination length cannot be negative.");
+        }
+
+        if (n == 0) {
+            return Collections.emptyList();
+        }
+        T[] array = arr.clone();
+        Arrays.sort(array);
+
+        List<TreeSet<T>> result = new LinkedList<>();
+        backtracking(array, n, 0, new TreeSet<T>(), result);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Backtrack all possible combinations of a given array
+     * @param arr the array.
+     * @param n length of the combination
+     * @param index the starting index.
+     * @param currSet set that tracks current combination
+     * @param result the list contains all combination.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array.
+     */
+    private static <T> void backtracking(T[] arr, int n, int index, TreeSet<T> currSet, List<TreeSet<T>> result) {
+        if (index + n - currSet.size() > arr.length) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if (currSet.size() == n - 1) {
+            for (int i = index; i < arr.length; i++) {
+                currSet.add(arr[i]);
+                result.add(new TreeSet<>(currSet));
+                currSet.remove(arr[i]);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        for (int i = index; i < arr.length; i++) {
+            currSet.add(arr[i]);
+            backtracking(arr, n, i + 1, currSet, result);
+            currSet.remove(arr[i]);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolver.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolver.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6bfb026c7de9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolver.java
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * A class to solve a crossword puzzle using backtracking.
+ * Example:
+ * Input:
+ *  puzzle = {
+ *      {' ', ' ', ' '},
+ *      {' ', ' ', ' '},
+ *      {' ', ' ', ' '}
+ *  }
+ *  words = List.of("cat", "dog")
+ *
+ * Output:
+ *  {
+ *      {'c', 'a', 't'},
+ *      {' ', ' ', ' '},
+ *      {'d', 'o', 'g'}
+ *  }
+ */
+public final class CrosswordSolver {
+    private CrosswordSolver() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a word can be placed at the specified position in the crossword.
+     *
+     * @param puzzle   The crossword puzzle represented as a 2D char array.
+     * @param word     The word to be placed.
+     * @param row      The row index where the word might be placed.
+     * @param col      The column index where the word might be placed.
+     * @param vertical If true, the word is placed vertically; otherwise, horizontally.
+     * @return true if the word can be placed, false otherwise.
+     */
+    public static boolean isValid(char[][] puzzle, String word, int row, int col, boolean vertical) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
+            if (vertical) {
+                if (row + i >= puzzle.length || puzzle[row + i][col] != ' ') {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            } else {
+                if (col + i >= puzzle[0].length || puzzle[row][col + i] != ' ') {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Places a word at the specified position in the crossword.
+     *
+     * @param puzzle   The crossword puzzle represented as a 2D char array.
+     * @param word     The word to be placed.
+     * @param row      The row index where the word will be placed.
+     * @param col      The column index where the word will be placed.
+     * @param vertical If true, the word is placed vertically; otherwise, horizontally.
+     */
+    public static void placeWord(char[][] puzzle, String word, int row, int col, boolean vertical) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
+            if (vertical) {
+                puzzle[row + i][col] = word.charAt(i);
+            } else {
+                puzzle[row][col + i] = word.charAt(i);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes a word from the specified position in the crossword.
+     *
+     * @param puzzle   The crossword puzzle represented as a 2D char array.
+     * @param word     The word to be removed.
+     * @param row      The row index where the word is placed.
+     * @param col      The column index where the word is placed.
+     * @param vertical If true, the word was placed vertically; otherwise, horizontally.
+     */
+    public static void removeWord(char[][] puzzle, String word, int row, int col, boolean vertical) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
+            if (vertical) {
+                puzzle[row + i][col] = ' ';
+            } else {
+                puzzle[row][col + i] = ' ';
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the crossword puzzle using backtracking.
+     *
+     * @param puzzle The crossword puzzle represented as a 2D char array.
+     * @param words  The list of words to be placed.
+     * @return true if the crossword is solved, false otherwise.
+     */
+    public static boolean solveCrossword(char[][] puzzle, Collection<String> words) {
+        // Create a mutable copy of the words list
+        List<String> remainingWords = new ArrayList<>(words);
+
+        for (int row = 0; row < puzzle.length; row++) {
+            for (int col = 0; col < puzzle[0].length; col++) {
+                if (puzzle[row][col] == ' ') {
+                    for (String word : new ArrayList<>(remainingWords)) {
+                        for (boolean vertical : new boolean[] {true, false}) {
+                            if (isValid(puzzle, word, row, col, vertical)) {
+                                placeWord(puzzle, word, row, col, vertical);
+                                remainingWords.remove(word);
+                                if (solveCrossword(puzzle, remainingWords)) {
+                                    return true;
+                                }
+                                remainingWords.add(word);
+                                removeWord(puzzle, word, row, col, vertical);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    return false;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/FloodFill.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/FloodFill.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c8219ca8ba7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/FloodFill.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+/**
+ * Java program for Flood fill algorithm.
+ * @author Akshay Dubey (<a href="https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey">Git-Akshay Dubey</a>)
+ */
+public final class FloodFill {
+    private FloodFill() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get the color at the given coordinates of a 2D image
+     *
+     * @param image The image to be filled
+     * @param x The x co-ordinate of which color is to be obtained
+     * @param y The y co-ordinate of which color is to be obtained
+     */
+
+    public static int getPixel(final int[][] image, final int x, final int y) {
+        return image[x][y];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Put the color at the given coordinates of a 2D image
+     *
+     * @param image The image to be filled
+     * @param x The x co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     * @param y The y co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     */
+    public static void putPixel(final int[][] image, final int x, final int y, final int newColor) {
+        image[x][y] = newColor;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Fill the 2D image with new color
+     *
+     * @param image The image to be filled
+     * @param x The x co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     * @param y The y co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     * @param newColor The new color which to be filled in the image
+     * @param oldColor The old color which is to be replaced in the image
+     */
+    public static void floodFill(final int[][] image, final int x, final int y, final int newColor, final int oldColor) {
+        if (newColor == oldColor || x < 0 || x >= image.length || y < 0 || y >= image[x].length || getPixel(image, x, y) != oldColor) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        putPixel(image, x, y, newColor);
+
+        /* Recursively check for horizontally & vertically adjacent coordinates */
+        floodFill(image, x + 1, y, newColor, oldColor);
+        floodFill(image, x - 1, y, newColor, oldColor);
+        floodFill(image, x, y + 1, newColor, oldColor);
+        floodFill(image, x, y - 1, newColor, oldColor);
+
+        /* Recursively check for diagonally adjacent coordinates  */
+        floodFill(image, x + 1, y - 1, newColor, oldColor);
+        floodFill(image, x - 1, y + 1, newColor, oldColor);
+        floodFill(image, x + 1, y + 1, newColor, oldColor);
+        floodFill(image, x - 1, y - 1, newColor, oldColor);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java
index e337df8f6e8e..2c2da659f3aa 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java
@@ -1,62 +1,72 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
 
-import java.util.*;
-
-/*
-    * Problem Statement: -
-    
-    Given a N*N board with the Knight placed on the first block of an empty board. Moving according to the rules of
-    chess knight must visit each square exactly once. Print the order of each cell in which they are visited.
-
-    Example: -
-
-    Input : N = 8
-
-    Output:
-        0  59  38  33  30  17   8  63
-        37  34  31  60   9  62  29  16
-        58   1  36  39  32  27  18   7
-        35  48  41  26  61  10  15  28
-        42  57   2  49  40  23   6  19
-        47  50  45  54  25  20  11  14
-        56  43  52   3  22  13  24   5
-        51  46  55  44  53   4  21  12
-
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The KnightsTour class solves the Knight's Tour problem using backtracking.
+ *
+ * Problem Statement:
+ * Given an N*N board with a knight placed on the first block, the knight must
+ * move according to chess rules and visit each square on the board exactly once.
+ * The class outputs the sequence of moves for the knight.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * Input: N = 8 (8x8 chess board)
+ * Output: The sequence of numbers representing the order in which the knight visits each square.
  */
-public class KnightsTour {
-
-    private final static int base = 12;
-    private final static int[][] moves = {{1, -2}, {2, -1}, {2, 1}, {1, 2}, {-1, 2}, {-2, 1}, {-2, -1}, {-1, -2}}; // Possible moves by knight on chess
-    private static int[][] grid;    // chess grid
-    private static int total;   // total squares in chess
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        grid = new int[base][base];
-        total = (base - 4) * (base - 4);
+public final class KnightsTour {
+    private KnightsTour() {
+    }
 
-        for (int r = 0; r < base; r++) {
-            for (int c = 0; c < base; c++) {
-                if (r < 2 || r > base - 3 || c < 2 || c > base - 3) {
-                    grid[r][c] = -1;
+    // The size of the chess board (12x12 grid, with 2 extra rows/columns as a buffer around a 8x8 area)
+    private static final int BASE = 12;
+
+    // Possible moves for a knight in chess
+    private static final int[][] MOVES = {
+        {1, -2},
+        {2, -1},
+        {2, 1},
+        {1, 2},
+        {-1, 2},
+        {-2, 1},
+        {-2, -1},
+        {-1, -2},
+    };
+
+    // Chess grid representing the board
+    static int[][] grid;
+
+    // Total number of cells the knight needs to visit
+    static int total;
+
+    /**
+     * Resets the chess board to its initial state.
+     * Initializes the grid with boundary cells marked as -1 and internal cells as 0.
+     * Sets the total number of cells the knight needs to visit.
+     */
+    public static void resetBoard() {
+        grid = new int[BASE][BASE];
+        total = (BASE - 4) * (BASE - 4);
+        for (int r = 0; r < BASE; r++) {
+            for (int c = 0; c < BASE; c++) {
+                if (r < 2 || r > BASE - 3 || c < 2 || c > BASE - 3) {
+                    grid[r][c] = -1; // Mark boundary cells
                 }
             }
         }
-
-        int row = 2 + (int) (Math.random() * (base - 4));
-        int col = 2 + (int) (Math.random() * (base - 4));
-
-        grid[row][col] = 1;
-
-        if (solve(row, col, 2)) {
-            printResult();
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("no result");
-        }
-
     }
 
-    // Return True when solvable
-    private static boolean solve(int row, int column, int count) {
+    /**
+     * Recursive method to solve the Knight's Tour problem.
+     *
+     * @param row   The current row of the knight
+     * @param column The current column of the knight
+     * @param count  The current move number
+     * @return True if a solution is found, False otherwise
+     */
+    static boolean solve(int row, int column, int count) {
         if (count > total) {
             return true;
         }
@@ -67,53 +77,72 @@ private static boolean solve(int row, int column, int count) {
             return false;
         }
 
-        Collections.sort(neighbor, new Comparator<int[]>() {
-            public int compare(int[] a, int[] b) {
-                return a[2] - b[2];
-            }
-        });
+        // Sort neighbors by Warnsdorff's rule (fewest onward moves)
+        neighbor.sort(Comparator.comparingInt(a -> a[2]));
 
         for (int[] nb : neighbor) {
-            row = nb[0];
-            column = nb[1];
-            grid[row][column] = count;
-            if (!orphanDetected(count, row, column) && solve(row, column, count + 1)) {
+            int nextRow = nb[0];
+            int nextCol = nb[1];
+            grid[nextRow][nextCol] = count;
+            if (!orphanDetected(count, nextRow, nextCol) && solve(nextRow, nextCol, count + 1)) {
                 return true;
             }
-            grid[row][column] = 0;
+            grid[nextRow][nextCol] = 0; // Backtrack
         }
 
         return false;
     }
 
-    // Returns List of neighbours
-    private static List<int[]> neighbors(int row, int column) {
+    /**
+     * Returns a list of valid neighboring cells where the knight can move.
+     *
+     * @param row   The current row of the knight
+     * @param column The current column of the knight
+     * @return A list of arrays representing valid moves, where each array contains:
+     *         {nextRow, nextCol, numberOfPossibleNextMoves}
+     */
+    static List<int[]> neighbors(int row, int column) {
         List<int[]> neighbour = new ArrayList<>();
 
-        for (int[] m : moves) {
+        for (int[] m : MOVES) {
             int x = m[0];
             int y = m[1];
-            if (grid[row + y][column + x] == 0) {
+            if (row + y >= 0 && row + y < BASE && column + x >= 0 && column + x < BASE && grid[row + y][column + x] == 0) {
                 int num = countNeighbors(row + y, column + x);
-                neighbour.add(new int[]{row + y, column + x, num});
+                neighbour.add(new int[] {row + y, column + x, num});
             }
         }
         return neighbour;
     }
 
-    // Returns the total count of neighbors
-    private static int countNeighbors(int row, int column) {
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of possible valid moves for a knight from a given position.
+     *
+     * @param row    The row of the current position
+     * @param column The column of the current position
+     * @return The number of valid neighboring moves
+     */
+    static int countNeighbors(int row, int column) {
         int num = 0;
-        for (int[] m : moves) {
-            if (grid[row + m[1]][column + m[0]] == 0) {
+        for (int[] m : MOVES) {
+            int x = m[0];
+            int y = m[1];
+            if (row + y >= 0 && row + y < BASE && column + x >= 0 && column + x < BASE && grid[row + y][column + x] == 0) {
                 num++;
             }
         }
         return num;
     }
 
-    // Returns true if it is orphan
-    private static boolean orphanDetected(int count, int row, int column) {
+    /**
+     * Detects if moving to a given position will create an orphan (a position with no further valid moves).
+     *
+     * @param count   The current move number
+     * @param row     The row of the current position
+     * @param column  The column of the current position
+     * @return True if an orphan is detected, False otherwise
+     */
+    static boolean orphanDetected(int count, int row, int column) {
         if (count < total - 1) {
             List<int[]> neighbor = neighbors(row, column);
             for (int[] nb : neighbor) {
@@ -124,17 +153,4 @@ private static boolean orphanDetected(int count, int row, int column) {
         }
         return false;
     }
-
-    // Prints the result grid
-    private static void printResult() {
-        for (int[] row : grid) {
-            for (int i : row) {
-                if (i == -1) {
-                    continue;
-                }
-                System.out.printf("%2d ", i);
-            }
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoring.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoring.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d0188dfd13aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoring.java
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.Queue;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * Node class represents a graph node. Each node is associated with a color
+ * (initially 1) and contains a set of edges representing its adjacent nodes.
+ *
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+class Node {
+    int color = 1; // Initial color for each node
+    Set<Integer> edges = new HashSet<Integer>(); // Set of edges representing adjacent nodes
+}
+
+/**
+ * MColoring class solves the M-Coloring problem where the goal is to determine
+ * if it's possible to color a graph using at most M colors such that no two
+ * adjacent nodes have the same color.
+ */
+public final class MColoring {
+
+    private MColoring() {
+    } // Prevent instantiation of utility class
+
+    /**
+     * Determines whether it is possible to color the graph using at most M colors.
+     *
+     * @param nodes List of nodes representing the graph.
+     * @param n     The total number of nodes in the graph.
+     * @param m     The maximum number of allowed colors.
+     * @return true if the graph can be colored using M colors, false otherwise.
+     */
+    static boolean isColoringPossible(ArrayList<Node> nodes, int n, int m) {
+
+        // Visited array keeps track of whether each node has been processed.
+        ArrayList<Integer> visited = new ArrayList<Integer>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < n + 1; i++) {
+            visited.add(0); // Initialize all nodes as unvisited (0)
+        }
+
+        // The number of colors used so far (initially set to 1, since all nodes
+        // start with color 1).
+        int maxColors = 1;
+
+        // Loop through all the nodes to ensure every node is visited, in case the
+        // graph is disconnected.
+        for (int sv = 1; sv <= n; sv++) {
+            if (visited.get(sv) > 0) {
+                continue; // Skip nodes that are already visited
+            }
+
+            // If the node is unvisited, mark it as visited and add it to the queue for BFS.
+            visited.set(sv, 1);
+            Queue<Integer> q = new LinkedList<>();
+            q.add(sv);
+
+            // Perform BFS to process all nodes and their adjacent nodes
+            while (q.size() != 0) {
+                int top = q.peek(); // Get the current node from the queue
+                q.remove();
+
+                // Check all adjacent nodes of the current node
+                for (int it : nodes.get(top).edges) {
+
+                    // If the adjacent node has the same color as the current node, increment its
+                    // color to avoid conflict.
+                    if (nodes.get(top).color == nodes.get(it).color) {
+                        nodes.get(it).color += 1;
+                    }
+
+                    // Keep track of the maximum number of colors used so far
+                    maxColors = Math.max(maxColors, Math.max(nodes.get(top).color, nodes.get(it).color));
+
+                    // If the number of colors used exceeds the allowed limit M, return false.
+                    if (maxColors > m) {
+                        return false;
+                    }
+
+                    // If the adjacent node hasn't been visited yet, mark it as visited and add it
+                    // to the queue for further processing.
+                    if (visited.get(it) == 0) {
+                        visited.set(it, 1);
+                        q.add(it);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return true; // Possible to color the entire graph with M or fewer colors.
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursion.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8247172e7ee0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+/**
+ * This class contains methods to solve a maze using recursive backtracking.
+ * The maze is represented as a 2D array where walls, paths, and visited/dead
+ * ends are marked with different integers.
+ *
+ * The goal is to find a path from a starting position to the target position
+ * (map[6][5]) while navigating through the maze.
+ */
+public final class MazeRecursion {
+
+    private MazeRecursion() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method solves the maze using the "down -> right -> up -> left"
+     * movement strategy.
+     *
+     * @param map The 2D array representing the maze (walls, paths, etc.)
+     * @return The solved maze with paths marked, or null if no solution exists.
+     */
+    public static int[][] solveMazeUsingFirstStrategy(int[][] map) {
+        if (setWay(map, 1, 1)) {
+            return map;
+        }
+        return null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method solves the maze using the "up -> right -> down -> left"
+     * movement strategy.
+     *
+     * @param map The 2D array representing the maze (walls, paths, etc.)
+     * @return The solved maze with paths marked, or null if no solution exists.
+     */
+    public static int[][] solveMazeUsingSecondStrategy(int[][] map) {
+        if (setWay2(map, 1, 1)) {
+            return map;
+        }
+        return null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Attempts to find a path through the maze using a "down -> right -> up -> left"
+     * movement strategy. The path is marked with '2' for valid paths and '3' for dead ends.
+     *
+     * @param map The 2D array representing the maze (walls, paths, etc.)
+     * @param i   The current x-coordinate of the ball (row index)
+     * @param j   The current y-coordinate of the ball (column index)
+     * @return True if a path is found to (6,5), otherwise false
+     */
+    private static boolean setWay(int[][] map, int i, int j) {
+        if (map[6][5] == 2) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        // If the current position is unvisited (0), explore it
+        if (map[i][j] == 0) {
+            // Mark the current position as '2'
+            map[i][j] = 2;
+
+            // Move down
+            if (setWay(map, i + 1, j)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            // Move right
+            else if (setWay(map, i, j + 1)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            // Move up
+            else if (setWay(map, i - 1, j)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            // Move left
+            else if (setWay(map, i, j - 1)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+
+            map[i][j] = 3; // Mark as dead end (3) if no direction worked
+            return false;
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Attempts to find a path through the maze using an alternative movement
+     * strategy "up -> right -> down -> left".
+     *
+     * @param map The 2D array representing the maze (walls, paths, etc.)
+     * @param i   The current x-coordinate of the ball (row index)
+     * @param j   The current y-coordinate of the ball (column index)
+     * @return True if a path is found to (6,5), otherwise false
+     */
+    private static boolean setWay2(int[][] map, int i, int j) {
+        if (map[6][5] == 2) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        if (map[i][j] == 0) {
+            map[i][j] = 2;
+
+            // Move up
+            if (setWay2(map, i - 1, j)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            // Move right
+            else if (setWay2(map, i, j + 1)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            // Move down
+            else if (setWay2(map, i + 1, j)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            // Move left
+            else if (setWay2(map, i, j - 1)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+
+            map[i][j] = 3; // Mark as dead end (3) if no direction worked
+            return false;
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java
index fb0138d10d20..1a8e453e34cb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java
@@ -8,18 +8,18 @@
  * which N queens can be placed on the board such no two queens attack each
  * other. Ex. N = 6 Solution= There are 4 possible ways Arrangement: 1 ".Q....",
  * "...Q..", ".....Q", "Q.....", "..Q...", "....Q."
- * <p>
+ *
  * Arrangement: 2 "..Q...", ".....Q", ".Q....", "....Q.", "Q.....", "...Q.."
- * <p>
+ *
  * Arrangement: 3 "...Q..", "Q.....", "....Q.", ".Q....", ".....Q", "..Q..."
- * <p>
+ *
  * Arrangement: 4 "....Q.", "..Q...", "Q.....", ".....Q", "...Q..", ".Q...."
  *
  * Solution: Brute Force approach:
  *
  * Generate all possible arrangement to place N queens on N*N board. Check each
  * board if queens are placed safely. If it is safe, include arrangement in
- * solution set. Otherwise ignore it
+ * solution set. Otherwise, ignore it
  *
  * Optimized solution: This can be solved using backtracking in below steps
  *
@@ -32,15 +32,14 @@
  * queen is not placed safely. If there is no such way then return an empty list
  * as solution
  */
-public class NQueens {
+public final class NQueens {
+    private NQueens() {
+    }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        placeQueens(1);
-        placeQueens(2);
-        placeQueens(3);
-        placeQueens(4);
-        placeQueens(5);
-        placeQueens(6);
+    public static List<List<String>> getNQueensArrangements(int queens) {
+        List<List<String>> arrangements = new ArrayList<>();
+        getSolution(queens, arrangements, new int[queens], 0);
+        return arrangements;
     }
 
     public static void placeQueens(final int queens) {
@@ -51,10 +50,10 @@ public static void placeQueens(final int queens) {
         } else {
             System.out.println("Arrangement for placing " + queens + " queens");
         }
-        arrangements.forEach(arrangement -> {
-            arrangement.forEach(row -> System.out.println(row));
+        for (List<String> arrangement : arrangements) {
+            arrangement.forEach(System.out::println);
             System.out.println();
-        });
+        }
     }
 
     /**
@@ -84,7 +83,8 @@ private static void getSolution(int boardSize, List<List<String>> solutions, int
         for (int rowIndex = 0; rowIndex < boardSize; rowIndex++) {
             columns[columnIndex] = rowIndex;
             if (isPlacedCorrectly(columns, rowIndex, columnIndex)) {
-                // If queen is placed successfully at rowIndex in column=columnIndex then try placing queen in next column
+                // If queen is placed successfully at rowIndex in column=columnIndex then try
+                // placing queen in next column
                 getSolution(boardSize, solutions, columns, columnIndex + 1);
             }
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ParenthesesGenerator.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ParenthesesGenerator.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bf93f946ab7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ParenthesesGenerator.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * This class generates all valid combinations of parentheses for a given number of pairs using backtracking.
+ */
+public final class ParenthesesGenerator {
+    private ParenthesesGenerator() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates all valid combinations of parentheses for a given number of pairs.
+     *
+     * @param n The number of pairs of parentheses.
+     * @return A list of strings representing valid combinations of parentheses.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is less than 0.
+     */
+    public static List<String> generateParentheses(final int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The number of pairs of parentheses cannot be negative");
+        }
+        List<String> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        generateParenthesesHelper(result, "", 0, 0, n);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper function for generating all valid combinations of parentheses recursively.
+     *
+     * @param result  The list to store valid combinations.
+     * @param current The current combination being formed.
+     * @param open    The number of open parentheses.
+     * @param close   The number of closed parentheses.
+     * @param n       The total number of pairs of parentheses.
+     */
+    private static void generateParenthesesHelper(List<String> result, final String current, final int open, final int close, final int n) {
+        if (current.length() == n * 2) {
+            result.add(current);
+            return;
+        }
+        if (open < n) {
+            generateParenthesesHelper(result, current + "(", open + 1, close, n);
+        }
+        if (close < open) {
+            generateParenthesesHelper(result, current + ")", open, close + 1, n);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/Permutation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/Permutation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..21d26e53980f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/Permutation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Finds all permutations of given array
+ * @author Alan Piao (<a href="https://github.com/cpiao3">Git-Alan Piao</a>)
+ */
+public final class Permutation {
+    private Permutation() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find all permutations of given array using backtracking
+     * @param arr the array.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array.
+     * @return a list of all permutations.
+     */
+    public static <T> List<T[]> permutation(T[] arr) {
+        T[] array = arr.clone();
+        List<T[]> result = new LinkedList<>();
+        backtracking(array, 0, result);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Backtrack all possible orders of a given array
+     * @param arr the array.
+     * @param index the starting index.
+     * @param result the list contains all permutations.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array.
+     */
+    private static <T> void backtracking(T[] arr, int index, List<T[]> result) {
+        if (index == arr.length) {
+            result.add(arr.clone());
+        }
+        for (int i = index; i < arr.length; i++) {
+            swap(index, i, arr);
+            backtracking(arr, index + 1, result);
+            swap(index, i, arr);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Swap two element for a given array
+     * @param a first index
+     * @param b second index
+     * @param arr the array.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array.
+     */
+    private static <T> void swap(int a, int b, T[] arr) {
+        T temp = arr[a];
+        arr[a] = arr[b];
+        arr[b] = temp;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java
index bbaf83ecaa98..b34ba660ebd7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java
@@ -1,55 +1,51 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-/*
- * Problem Statement :
- * Find the number of ways that a given integer, N , can be expressed as the sum of the Xth powers of unique, natural numbers.
- * For example, if N=100 and X=3, we have to find all combinations of unique cubes adding up to 100. The only solution is 1^3+2^3+3^3+4^3.
- * Therefore output will be 1.
+/**
+ * Problem Statement:
+ * Find the number of ways that a given integer, N, can be expressed as the sum of the Xth powers
+ * of unique, natural numbers.
+ * For example, if N=100 and X=3, we have to find all combinations of unique cubes adding up to 100.
+ * The only solution is 1^3 + 2^3 + 3^3 + 4^3. Therefore, the output will be 1.
+ *
+ * N is represented by the parameter 'targetSum' in the code.
+ * X is represented by the parameter 'power' in the code.
  */
 public class PowerSum {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter the number and the power");
-        int N = sc.nextInt();
-        int X = sc.nextInt();
-        PowerSum ps = new PowerSum();
-        int count = ps.powSum(N, X);
-        //printing the answer.
-        System.out.println("Number of combinations of different natural number's raised to " + X + " having sum " + N + " are : ");
-        System.out.println(count);
-        sc.close();
+    /**
+     * Calculates the number of ways to express the target sum as a sum of Xth powers of unique natural numbers.
+     *
+     * @param targetSum The target sum to achieve (N in the problem statement)
+     * @param power The power to raise natural numbers to (X in the problem statement)
+     * @return The number of ways to express the target sum
+     */
+    public int powSum(int targetSum, int power) {
+        // Special case: when both targetSum and power are zero
+        if (targetSum == 0 && power == 0) {
+            return 1; // by convention, one way to sum to zero: use nothing
+        }
+        return sumRecursive(targetSum, power, 1, 0);
     }
-    private int count = 0, sum = 0;
 
-    public int powSum(int N, int X) {
-        Sum(N, X, 1);
-        return count;
-    }
+    /**
+     * Recursively calculates the number of ways to express the remaining sum as a sum of Xth powers.
+     *
+     * @param remainingSum The remaining sum to achieve
+     * @param power The power to raise natural numbers to (X in the problem statement)
+     * @param currentNumber The current natural number being considered
+     * @param currentSum The current sum of powered numbers
+     * @return The number of valid combinations
+     */
+    private int sumRecursive(int remainingSum, int power, int currentNumber, int currentSum) {
+        int newSum = currentSum + (int) Math.pow(currentNumber, power);
 
-    //here i is the natural number which will be raised by X and added in sum.
-    public void Sum(int N, int X, int i) {
-        //if sum is equal to N that is one of our answer and count is increased.
-        if (sum == N) {
-            count++;
-            return;
-        } //we will be adding next natural number raised to X only if on adding it in sum the result is less than N.
-        else if (sum + power(i, X) <= N) {
-            sum += power(i, X);
-            Sum(N, X, i + 1);
-            //backtracking and removing the number added last since no possible combination is there with it.
-            sum -= power(i, X);
+        if (newSum == remainingSum) {
+            return 1;
         }
-        if (power(i, X) < N) {
-            //calling the sum function with next natural number after backtracking if when it is raised to X is still less than X.
-            Sum(N, X, i + 1);
+        if (newSum > remainingSum) {
+            return 0;
         }
-    }
 
-    //creating a separate power function so that it can be used again and again when required. 
-    private int power(int a, int b) {
-        return (int) Math.pow(a, b);
+        return sumRecursive(remainingSum, power, currentNumber + 1, newSum) + sumRecursive(remainingSum, power, currentNumber + 1, currentSum);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/SubsequenceFinder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/SubsequenceFinder.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4a159dbfe0b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/SubsequenceFinder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Class generates all subsequences for a given list of elements using backtracking
+ */
+public final class SubsequenceFinder {
+    private SubsequenceFinder() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find all subsequences of given list using backtracking
+     *
+     * @param sequence a list of items on the basis of which we need to generate all subsequences
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array
+     * @return a list of all subsequences
+     */
+    public static <T> List<List<T>> generateAll(List<T> sequence) {
+        List<List<T>> allSubSequences = new ArrayList<>();
+        if (sequence.isEmpty()) {
+            allSubSequences.add(new ArrayList<>());
+            return allSubSequences;
+        }
+        List<T> currentSubsequence = new ArrayList<>();
+        backtrack(sequence, currentSubsequence, 0, allSubSequences);
+        return allSubSequences;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Iterate through each branch of states
+     * We know that each state has exactly two branching
+     * It terminates when it reaches the end of the given sequence
+     *
+     * @param sequence all elements
+     * @param currentSubsequence current subsequence
+     * @param index current index
+     * @param allSubSequences contains all sequences
+     * @param <T> the type of elements which we generate
+     */
+    private static <T> void backtrack(List<T> sequence, List<T> currentSubsequence, final int index, List<List<T>> allSubSequences) {
+        assert index <= sequence.size();
+        if (index == sequence.size()) {
+            allSubSequences.add(new ArrayList<>(currentSubsequence));
+            return;
+        }
+
+        backtrack(sequence, currentSubsequence, index + 1, allSubSequences);
+        currentSubsequence.add(sequence.get(index));
+        backtrack(sequence, currentSubsequence, index + 1, allSubSequences);
+        currentSubsequence.removeLast();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1854cab20a7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Class to determine if a pattern matches a string using backtracking.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * Pattern: "abab"
+ * Input String: "JavaPythonJavaPython"
+ * Output: true
+ *
+ * Pattern: "aaaa"
+ * Input String: "JavaJavaJavaJava"
+ * Output: true
+ *
+ * Pattern: "aabb"
+ * Input String: "JavaPythonPythonJava"
+ * Output: false
+ */
+public final class WordPatternMatcher {
+    private WordPatternMatcher() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Determines if the given pattern matches the input string using backtracking.
+     *
+     * @param pattern The pattern to match.
+     * @param inputString The string to match against the pattern.
+     * @return True if the pattern matches the string, False otherwise.
+     */
+    public static boolean matchWordPattern(String pattern, String inputString) {
+        Map<Character, String> patternMap = new HashMap<>();
+        Map<String, Character> strMap = new HashMap<>();
+        return backtrack(pattern, inputString, 0, 0, patternMap, strMap);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Backtracking helper function to check if the pattern matches the string.
+     *
+     * @param pattern The pattern string.
+     * @param inputString The string to match against the pattern.
+     * @param patternIndex Current index in the pattern.
+     * @param strIndex Current index in the input string.
+     * @param patternMap Map to store pattern characters to string mappings.
+     * @param strMap Map to store string to pattern character mappings.
+     * @return True if the pattern matches, False otherwise.
+     */
+    private static boolean backtrack(String pattern, String inputString, int patternIndex, int strIndex, Map<Character, String> patternMap, Map<String, Character> strMap) {
+        if (patternIndex == pattern.length() && strIndex == inputString.length()) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (patternIndex == pattern.length() || strIndex == inputString.length()) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        char currentChar = pattern.charAt(patternIndex);
+        if (patternMap.containsKey(currentChar)) {
+            String mappedStr = patternMap.get(currentChar);
+            if (inputString.startsWith(mappedStr, strIndex)) {
+                return backtrack(pattern, inputString, patternIndex + 1, strIndex + mappedStr.length(), patternMap, strMap);
+            } else {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+
+        for (int end = strIndex + 1; end <= inputString.length(); end++) {
+            String substring = inputString.substring(strIndex, end);
+            if (strMap.containsKey(substring)) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            patternMap.put(currentChar, substring);
+            strMap.put(substring, currentChar);
+            if (backtrack(pattern, inputString, patternIndex + 1, end, patternMap, strMap)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+
+            patternMap.remove(currentChar);
+            strMap.remove(substring);
+        }
+
+        return false;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..174ca90ccaab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+/**
+ * Word Search Problem
+ *
+ * This class solves the word search problem where given an m x n grid of characters (board)
+ * and a target word, the task is to check if the word exists in the grid.
+ * The word can be constructed from sequentially adjacent cells (horizontally or vertically),
+ * and the same cell may not be used more than once in constructing the word.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * - For board =
+ *     [
+ *       ['A','B','C','E'],
+ *       ['S','F','C','S'],
+ *       ['A','D','E','E']
+ *     ]
+ *   and word = "ABCCED", -> returns true
+ *   and word = "SEE",    -> returns true
+ *   and word = "ABCB",   -> returns false
+ *
+ * Solution:
+ * - Depth First Search (DFS) with backtracking is used to explore possible paths from any cell
+ *   matching the first letter of the word. DFS ensures that we search all valid paths, while
+ *   backtracking helps in reverting decisions when a path fails to lead to a solution.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(m * n * 3^L)
+ *  - m = number of rows in the board
+ *  - n = number of columns in the board
+ *  - L = length of the word
+ *  - For each cell, we look at 3 possible directions (since we exclude the previously visited direction),
+ *    and we do this for L letters.
+ *
+ * Space Complexity: O(L)
+ *  - Stack space for the recursive DFS function, where L is the maximum depth of recursion (length of the word).
+ */
+public class WordSearch {
+    private final int[] dx = {0, 0, 1, -1};
+    private final int[] dy = {1, -1, 0, 0};
+    private boolean[][] visited;
+    private char[][] board;
+    private String word;
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the given (x, y) coordinates are valid positions in the board.
+     *
+     * @param x The row index.
+     * @param y The column index.
+     * @return True if the coordinates are within the bounds of the board; false otherwise.
+     */
+    private boolean isValid(int x, int y) {
+        return x >= 0 && x < board.length && y >= 0 && y < board[0].length;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs Depth First Search (DFS) from the cell (x, y)
+     * to search for the next character in the word.
+     *
+     * @param x       The current row index.
+     * @param y       The current column index.
+     * @param nextIdx The index of the next character in the word to be matched.
+     * @return True if a valid path is found to match the remaining characters of the word; false otherwise.
+     */
+    private boolean doDFS(int x, int y, int nextIdx) {
+        visited[x][y] = true;
+        if (nextIdx == word.length()) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) {
+            int xi = x + dx[i];
+            int yi = y + dy[i];
+            if (isValid(xi, yi) && board[xi][yi] == word.charAt(nextIdx) && !visited[xi][yi]) {
+                boolean exists = doDFS(xi, yi, nextIdx + 1);
+                if (exists) {
+                    return true;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        visited[x][y] = false; // Backtrack
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Main function to check if the word exists in the board. It initiates DFS from any
+     * cell that matches the first character of the word.
+     *
+     * @param board The 2D grid of characters (the board).
+     * @param word  The target word to search for in the board.
+     * @return True if the word exists in the board; false otherwise.
+     */
+    public boolean exist(char[][] board, String word) {
+        this.board = board;
+        this.word = word;
+        for (int i = 0; i < board.length; ++i) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < board[0].length; ++j) {
+                if (board[i][j] == word.charAt(0)) {
+                    visited = new boolean[board.length][board[0].length];
+                    boolean exists = doDFS(i, j, 1);
+                    if (exists) {
+                        return true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversion.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e6bd35720d9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides methods to convert between BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) and decimal numbers.
+ *
+ * BCD is a class of binary encodings of decimal numbers where each decimal digit is represented by a fixed number of binary digits, usually four or eight.
+ *
+ * For more information, refer to the
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal">Binary-Coded Decimal</a> Wikipedia page.
+ *
+ * <b>Example usage:</b>
+ * <pre>
+ * int decimal = BcdConversion.bcdToDecimal(0x1234);
+ * System.out.println("BCD 0x1234 to decimal: " + decimal); // Output: 1234
+ *
+ * int bcd = BcdConversion.decimalToBcd(1234);
+ * System.out.println("Decimal 1234 to BCD: " + Integer.toHexString(bcd)); // Output: 0x1234
+ * </pre>
+ */
+public final class BcdConversion {
+    private BcdConversion() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) number to a decimal number.
+     * <p>Steps:
+     * <p>1. Validate the BCD number to ensure all digits are between 0 and 9.
+     * <p>2. Extract the last 4 bits (one BCD digit) from the BCD number.
+     * <p>3. Multiply the extracted digit by the corresponding power of 10 and add it to the decimal number.
+     * <p>4. Shift the BCD number right by 4 bits to process the next BCD digit.
+     * <p>5. Repeat steps 1-4 until the BCD number is zero.
+     *
+     * @param bcd The BCD number.
+     * @return The corresponding decimal number.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the BCD number contains invalid digits.
+     */
+    public static int bcdToDecimal(int bcd) {
+        int decimal = 0;
+        int multiplier = 1;
+
+        // Validate BCD digits
+        while (bcd > 0) {
+            int digit = bcd & 0xF;
+            if (digit > 9) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid BCD digit: " + digit);
+            }
+            decimal += digit * multiplier;
+            multiplier *= 10;
+            bcd >>= 4;
+        }
+        return decimal;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a decimal number to BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal).
+     * <p>Steps:
+     * <p>1. Check if the decimal number is within the valid range for BCD (0 to 9999).
+     * <p>2. Extract the last decimal digit from the decimal number.
+     * <p>3. Shift the digit to the correct BCD position and add it to the BCD number.
+     * <p>4. Remove the last decimal digit from the decimal number.
+     * <p>5. Repeat steps 2-4 until the decimal number is zero.
+     *
+     * @param decimal The decimal number.
+     * @return The corresponding BCD number.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the decimal number is greater than 9999.
+     */
+    public static int decimalToBcd(int decimal) {
+        if (decimal < 0 || decimal > 9999) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Value out of bounds for BCD representation: " + decimal);
+        }
+
+        int bcd = 0;
+        int shift = 0;
+        while (decimal > 0) {
+            int digit = decimal % 10;
+            bcd |= (digit << (shift * 4));
+            decimal /= 10;
+            shift++;
+        }
+        return bcd;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BinaryPalindromeCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BinaryPalindromeCheck.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0d6fd140c720
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BinaryPalindromeCheck.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class contains a method to check if the binary representation of a number is a palindrome.
+ * <p>
+ *     A binary palindrome is a number whose binary representation is the same when read from left to right and right to left.
+ *     For example, the number 9 has a binary representation of 1001, which is a palindrome.
+ *     The number 10 has a binary representation of 1010, which is not a palindrome.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class BinaryPalindromeCheck {
+    private BinaryPalindromeCheck() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the binary representation of a number is a palindrome.
+     *
+     * @param x The number to check.
+     * @return True if the binary representation is a palindrome, otherwise false.
+     */
+    public static boolean isBinaryPalindrome(int x) {
+        int reversed = reverseBits(x);
+        return x == reversed;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper function to reverse all the bits of an integer.
+     *
+     * @param x The number to reverse the bits of.
+     * @return The number with reversed bits.
+     */
+    private static int reverseBits(int x) {
+        int result = 0;
+        while (x > 0) {
+            result <<= 1;
+            result |= (x & 1);
+            x >>= 1;
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitSwap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitSwap.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..634c9e7b3b44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitSwap.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for performing bit-swapping operations on integers.
+ * This class cannot be instantiated.
+ */
+public final class BitSwap {
+    private BitSwap() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Swaps two bits at specified positions in an integer.
+     *
+     * @param data The input integer whose bits need to be swapped
+     * @param posA The position of the first bit (0-based, from least significant)
+     * @param posB The position of the second bit (0-based, from least significant)
+     * @return The modified value with swapped bits
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if either position is negative or ≥ 32
+     */
+
+    public static int bitSwap(int data, final int posA, final int posB) {
+        if (posA < 0 || posA >= Integer.SIZE || posB < 0 || posB >= Integer.SIZE) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Bit positions must be between 0 and 31");
+        }
+
+        boolean bitA = ((data >> posA) & 1) != 0;
+        boolean bitB = ((data >> posB) & 1) != 0;
+        if (bitA != bitB) {
+            data ^= (1 << posA) ^ (1 << posB);
+        }
+        return data;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitwiseGCD.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitwiseGCD.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..516563459256
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitwiseGCD.java
@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+
+/**
+ * Bitwise GCD implementation with full-range support utilities.
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides a fast binary (Stein's) GCD implementation for {@code long}
+ * inputs and a BigInteger-backed API for full 2's-complement range support (including
+ * {@code Long.MIN_VALUE}). The {@code long} implementation is efficient and avoids
+ * division/modulo operations. For edge-cases that overflow signed-64-bit ranges
+ * (e.g., gcd(Long.MIN_VALUE, 0) = 2^63), use the BigInteger API {@code gcdBig}.
+ *
+ * <p>Behaviour:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>{@code gcd(long,long)} : returns non-negative {@code long} gcd for inputs whose
+ *       absolute values fit in signed {@code long} (i.e., not causing an unsigned 2^63 result).
+ *       If the true gcd does not fit in a signed {@code long} (for example gcd(Long.MIN_VALUE,0) = 2^63)
+ *       this method will delegate to BigInteger and throw {@link ArithmeticException} if the
+ *       BigInteger result does not fit into a signed {@code long}.</li>
+ *   <li>{@code gcdBig(BigInteger, BigInteger)} : returns the exact gcd as a {@link BigInteger}
+ *       and works for the full signed-64-bit range and beyond.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ */
+public final class BitwiseGCD {
+
+    private BitwiseGCD() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes GCD of two long values using Stein's algorithm (binary GCD).
+     * <p>Handles negative inputs. If either input is {@code Long.MIN_VALUE} the
+     * method delegates to the BigInteger implementation and will throw {@link ArithmeticException}
+     * if the result cannot be represented as a signed {@code long}.
+     *
+     * @param a first value (may be negative)
+     * @param b second value (may be negative)
+     * @return non-negative gcd as a {@code long}
+     * @throws ArithmeticException when the exact gcd does not fit into a signed {@code long}
+     */
+    public static long gcd(long a, long b) {
+        // Trivial cases
+        if (a == 0L) {
+            return absOrThrowIfOverflow(b);
+        }
+        if (b == 0L) {
+            return absOrThrowIfOverflow(a);
+        }
+
+        // If either is Long.MIN_VALUE, absolute value doesn't fit into signed long.
+        if (a == Long.MIN_VALUE || b == Long.MIN_VALUE) {
+            // Delegate to BigInteger and try to return a long if it fits
+            BigInteger g = gcdBig(BigInteger.valueOf(a), BigInteger.valueOf(b));
+            return g.longValueExact();
+        }
+
+        // Work with non-negative long values now (safe because we excluded Long.MIN_VALUE)
+        a = (a < 0) ? -a : a;
+        b = (b < 0) ? -b : b;
+
+        // Count common factors of 2
+        int commonTwos = Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(a | b);
+
+        // Remove all factors of 2 from a
+        a >>= Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(a);
+
+        while (b != 0L) {
+            // Remove all factors of 2 from b
+            b >>= Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(b);
+
+            // Now both a and b are odd. Ensure a <= b
+            if (a > b) {
+                long tmp = a;
+                a = b;
+                b = tmp;
+            }
+
+            // b >= a; subtract a from b (result is even)
+            b = b - a;
+        }
+
+        // Restore common powers of two
+        return a << commonTwos;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper to return absolute value of x unless x == Long.MIN_VALUE, in which
+     * case we delegate to BigInteger and throw to indicate overflow.
+     */
+    private static long absOrThrowIfOverflow(long x) {
+        if (x == Long.MIN_VALUE) {
+            // |Long.MIN_VALUE| = 2^63 which does not fit into signed long
+            throw new ArithmeticException("Absolute value of Long.MIN_VALUE does not fit into signed long. Use gcdBig() for full-range support.");
+        }
+        return (x < 0) ? -x : x;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes GCD for an array of {@code long} values. Returns 0 for empty/null arrays.
+     * If any intermediate gcd cannot be represented in signed long (rare), an ArithmeticException
+     * will be thrown.
+     */
+    public static long gcd(long... values) {
+
+        if (values == null || values.length == 0) {
+            return 0L;
+        }
+        long result = values[0];
+        for (int i = 1; i < values.length; i++) {
+            result = gcd(result, values[i]);
+            if (result == 1L) {
+                return 1L; // early exit
+            }
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * BigInteger-backed gcd that works for the full integer range (and beyond).
+     * This is the recommended method when inputs may be Long.MIN_VALUE or when you
+     * need an exact result even if it is greater than Long.MAX_VALUE.
+     * @param a first value (may be negative)
+     * @param b second value (may be negative)
+     * @return non-negative gcd as a {@link BigInteger}
+     */
+    public static BigInteger gcdBig(BigInteger a, BigInteger b) {
+
+        if (a == null || b == null) {
+            throw new NullPointerException("Arguments must not be null");
+        }
+        return a.abs().gcd(b.abs());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Convenience overload that accepts signed-64 inputs and returns BigInteger gcd.
+     */
+    public static BigInteger gcdBig(long a, long b) {
+        return gcdBig(BigInteger.valueOf(a), BigInteger.valueOf(b));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * int overload for convenience.
+     */
+    public static int gcd(int a, int b) {
+        return (int) gcd((long) a, (long) b);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BooleanAlgebraGates.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BooleanAlgebraGates.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..869466320831
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BooleanAlgebraGates.java
@@ -0,0 +1,111 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Implements various Boolean algebra gates (AND, OR, NOT, XOR, NAND, NOR)
+ */
+public final class BooleanAlgebraGates {
+
+    private BooleanAlgebraGates() {
+        // Prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a Boolean gate that takes multiple inputs and returns a result.
+     */
+    interface BooleanGate {
+        /**
+         * Evaluates the gate with the given inputs.
+         *
+         * @param inputs The input values for the gate.
+         * @return The result of the evaluation.
+         */
+        boolean evaluate(List<Boolean> inputs);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * AND Gate implementation.
+     * Returns true if all inputs are true; otherwise, false.
+     */
+    static class ANDGate implements BooleanGate {
+        @Override
+        public boolean evaluate(List<Boolean> inputs) {
+            for (boolean input : inputs) {
+                if (!input) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            }
+            return true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * OR Gate implementation.
+     * Returns true if at least one input is true; otherwise, false.
+     */
+    static class ORGate implements BooleanGate {
+        @Override
+        public boolean evaluate(List<Boolean> inputs) {
+            for (boolean input : inputs) {
+                if (input) {
+                    return true;
+                }
+            }
+            return false;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * NOT Gate implementation (Unary operation).
+     * Negates a single input value.
+     */
+    static class NOTGate {
+        /**
+         * Evaluates the negation of the input.
+         *
+         * @param input The input value to be negated.
+         * @return The negated value.
+         */
+        public boolean evaluate(boolean input) {
+            return !input;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * XOR Gate implementation.
+     * Returns true if an odd number of inputs are true; otherwise, false.
+     */
+    static class XORGate implements BooleanGate {
+        @Override
+        public boolean evaluate(List<Boolean> inputs) {
+            boolean result = false;
+            for (boolean input : inputs) {
+                result ^= input;
+            }
+            return result;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * NAND Gate implementation.
+     * Returns true if at least one input is false; otherwise, false.
+     */
+    static class NANDGate implements BooleanGate {
+        @Override
+        public boolean evaluate(List<Boolean> inputs) {
+            return !new ANDGate().evaluate(inputs); // Equivalent to negation of AND
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * NOR Gate implementation.
+     * Returns true if all inputs are false; otherwise, false.
+     */
+    static class NORGate implements BooleanGate {
+        @Override
+        public boolean evaluate(List<Boolean> inputs) {
+            return !new ORGate().evaluate(inputs); // Equivalent to negation of OR
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBit.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3e9a4a21183f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBit.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * ClearLeftmostSetBit class contains a method to clear the leftmost set bit of a number.
+ * The leftmost set bit is the leftmost bit that is set to 1 in the binary representation of a number.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * 26 (11010) -> 10 (01010)
+ * 1 (1) -> 0 (0)
+ * 7 (111) -> 3 (011)
+ * 6 (0110) -> 2 (0010)
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class ClearLeftmostSetBit {
+    private ClearLeftmostSetBit() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Clears the leftmost set bit (1) of a given number.
+     * Step 1: Find the position of the leftmost set bit
+     * Step 2: Create a mask with all bits set except for the leftmost set bit
+     * Step 3: Clear the leftmost set bit using AND with the mask
+     *
+     * @param num The input number.
+     * @return The number after clearing the leftmost set bit.
+     */
+    public static int clearLeftmostSetBit(int num) {
+        int pos = 0;
+        int temp = num;
+        while (temp > 0) {
+            temp >>= 1;
+            pos++;
+        }
+
+        int mask = ~(1 << (pos - 1));
+        return num & mask;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlip.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlip.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8d2c757e5e0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlip.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation to count number of bits to be flipped to convert A to B
+ *
+ * Problem: Given two numbers A and B, count the number of bits needed to be
+ * flipped to convert A to B.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * A = 10 (01010 in binary)
+ * B = 20 (10100 in binary)
+ * XOR = 30 (11110 in binary) - positions where bits differ
+ * Answer: 4 bits need to be flipped
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(log n) - where n is the number of set bits
+ * Space Complexity: O(1)
+ *
+ *@author [Yash Rajput](https://github.com/the-yash-rajput)
+ */
+public final class CountBitsFlip {
+
+    private CountBitsFlip() {
+        throw new AssertionError("No instances.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of bits that need to be flipped to convert a to b
+     *
+     * Algorithm:
+     * 1. XOR a and b to get positions where bits differ
+     * 2. Count the number of set bits in the XOR result
+     * 3. Use Brian Kernighan's algorithm: n & (n-1) removes rightmost set bit
+     *
+     * @param a the source number
+     * @param b the target number
+     * @return the number of bits to flip to convert A to B
+     */
+    public static long countBitsFlip(long a, long b) {
+        int count = 0;
+
+        // XOR gives us positions where bits differ
+        long xorResult = a ^ b;
+
+        // Count set bits using Brian Kernighan's algorithm
+        while (xorResult != 0) {
+            xorResult = xorResult & (xorResult - 1); // Remove rightmost set bit
+            count++;
+        }
+
+        return count;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Alternative implementation using Long.bitCount().
+     *
+     * @param a the source number
+     * @param b the target number
+     * @return the number of bits to flip to convert a to b
+     */
+    public static long countBitsFlipAlternative(long a, long b) {
+        return Long.bitCount(a ^ b);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountLeadingZeros.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountLeadingZeros.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..318334f0b951
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountLeadingZeros.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * CountLeadingZeros class contains a method to count the number of leading zeros in the binary representation of a number.
+ * The number of leading zeros is the number of zeros before the leftmost 1 bit.
+ * For example, the number 5 has 29 leading zeros in its 32-bit binary representation.
+ * The number 0 has 32 leading zeros.
+ * The number 1 has 31 leading zeros.
+ * The number -1 has no leading zeros.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class CountLeadingZeros {
+    private CountLeadingZeros() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of leading zeros in the binary representation of a number.
+     * Method: Keep shifting the mask to the right until the leftmost bit is 1.
+     * The number of shifts is the number of leading zeros.
+     *
+     * @param num The input number.
+     * @return The number of leading zeros.
+     */
+    public static int countLeadingZeros(int num) {
+        if (num == 0) {
+            return 32;
+        }
+
+        int count = 0;
+        int mask = 1 << 31;
+        while ((mask & num) == 0) {
+            count++;
+            mask >>>= 1;
+        }
+
+        return count;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountSetBits.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountSetBits.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..242f35fc35f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountSetBits.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+public class CountSetBits {
+
+    /**
+     * The below algorithm is called as Brian Kernighan's algorithm
+     * We can use Brian Kernighan’s algorithm to improve the above naive algorithm’s performance.
+     The idea is to only consider the set bits of an integer by turning off its rightmost set bit
+     (after counting it), so the next iteration of the loop considers the next rightmost bit.
+
+        The expression n & (n-1) can be used to turn off the rightmost set bit of a number n. This
+     works as the expression n-1 flips all the bits after the rightmost set bit of n, including the
+     rightmost set bit itself. Therefore, n & (n-1) results in the last bit flipped of n.
+
+        For example, consider number 52, which is 00110100 in binary, and has a total 3 bits set.
+
+        1st iteration of the loop: n = 52
+
+        00110100    &               (n)
+        00110011                    (n-1)
+        ~~~~~~~~
+        00110000
+
+
+        2nd iteration of the loop: n = 48
+
+        00110000    &               (n)
+        00101111                    (n-1)
+        ~~~~~~~~
+        00100000
+
+
+        3rd iteration of the loop: n = 32
+
+        00100000    &               (n)
+        00011111                    (n-1)
+        ~~~~~~~~
+        00000000                    (n = 0)
+
+     * @param num takes Long number whose number of set bit is to be found
+     * @return the count of set bits in the binary equivalent
+    */
+    public long countSetBits(long num) {
+        long cnt = 0;
+        while (num > 0) {
+            cnt++;
+            num &= (num - 1);
+        }
+        return cnt;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This approach takes O(1) running time to count the set bits, but requires a pre-processing.
+     *
+     * So, we divide our 32-bit input into 8-bit chunks, with four chunks. We have 8 bits in each chunk.
+     *
+     * Then the range is from 0-255 (0 to 2^7).
+     * So, we may need to count set bits from 0 to 255 in individual chunks.
+     *
+     * @param num takes a long number
+     * @return the count of set bits in the binary equivalent
+     */
+    public int lookupApproach(int num) {
+        int[] table = new int[256];
+        table[0] = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 1; i < 256; i++) {
+            table[i] = (i & 1) + table[i >> 1]; // i >> 1 equals to i/2
+        }
+
+        int res = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
+            res += table[num & 0xff];
+            num >>= 8;
+        }
+
+        return res;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FindNthBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FindNthBit.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7a35fc3feebf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FindNthBit.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to find the Nth bit of a given number.
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides a method to extract the value of the Nth bit (either 0 or 1)
+ * from the binary representation of a given integer.
+ *
+ * <p>Example:
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * int result = FindNthBit.findNthBit(5, 2); // returns 0 as the 2nd bit of 5 (binary 101) is 0.
+ * }</pre>
+ *
+ * <p>Author: <a href="https://github.com/Tuhinm2002">Tuhinm2002</a>
+ */
+public final class FindNthBit {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation.
+     *
+     * <p>This is a utility class, and it should not be instantiated.
+     * Attempting to instantiate this class will throw an UnsupportedOperationException.
+     */
+    private FindNthBit() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Utility class");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the value of the Nth bit of the given number.
+     *
+     * <p>This method uses bitwise operations to extract the Nth bit from the
+     * binary representation of the given integer.
+     *
+     * @param num the integer number whose Nth bit is to be found
+     * @param n   the bit position (1-based) to retrieve
+     * @return    the value of the Nth bit (0 or 1)
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the bit position is less than 1
+     */
+    public static int findNthBit(int num, int n) {
+        if (n < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Bit position must be greater than or equal to 1.");
+        }
+        // Shifting the number to the right by (n - 1) positions and checking the last bit
+        return (num & (1 << (n - 1))) >> (n - 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBit.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9a761c572e2c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBit.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to find the first differing bit
+ * between two integers.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ *  x = 10 (1010 in binary)
+ *  y = 12 (1100 in binary)
+ *  The first differing bit is at index 1 (0-based)
+ *  So, the output will be 1
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class FirstDifferentBit {
+    private FirstDifferentBit() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Identifies the index of the first differing bit between two integers.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. XOR the two integers to get the differing bits
+     * 2. Find the index of the first set bit in XOR result
+     *
+     * @param x the first integer
+     * @param y the second integer
+     * @return the index of the first differing bit (0-based)
+     */
+    public static int firstDifferentBit(int x, int y) {
+        int diff = x ^ y;
+        return Integer.numberOfTrailingZeros(diff);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GenerateSubsets.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GenerateSubsets.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f1b812495c1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GenerateSubsets.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to generate all subsets (power set)
+ * of a given set using bit manipulation.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class GenerateSubsets {
+    private GenerateSubsets() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates all subsets of a given set using bit manipulation.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Iterate over all numbers from 0 to 2^n - 1.
+     * 2. For each number, iterate over all bits from 0 to n - 1.
+     * 3. If the i-th bit of the number is set, add the i-th element of the set to the current subset.
+     * 4. Add the current subset to the list of subsets.
+     * 5. Return the list of subsets.
+     *
+     * @param set the input set of integers
+     * @return a list of all subsets represented as lists of integers
+     */
+    public static List<List<Integer>> generateSubsets(int[] set) {
+        int n = set.length;
+        List<List<Integer>> subsets = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (int mask = 0; mask < (1 << n); mask++) {
+            List<Integer> subset = new ArrayList<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                if ((mask & (1 << i)) != 0) {
+                    subset.add(set[i]);
+                }
+            }
+            subsets.add(subset);
+        }
+
+        return subsets;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GrayCodeConversion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GrayCodeConversion.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..83cd30c7d50a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GrayCodeConversion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * Gray code is a binary numeral system where two successive values differ in only one bit.
+ * This is a simple conversion between binary and Gray code.
+ * Example:
+ * 7 -> 0111 -> 0100 -> 4
+ * 4 -> 0100 -> 0111 -> 7
+ * 0 -> 0000 -> 0000 -> 0
+ * 1 -> 0001 -> 0000 -> 0
+ * 2 -> 0010 -> 0011 -> 3
+ * 3 -> 0011 -> 0010 -> 2
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class GrayCodeConversion {
+    private GrayCodeConversion() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a binary number to Gray code.
+     *
+     * @param num The binary number.
+     * @return The corresponding Gray code.
+     */
+    public static int binaryToGray(int num) {
+        return num ^ (num >> 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a Gray code number back to binary.
+     *
+     * @param gray The Gray code number.
+     * @return The corresponding binary number.
+     */
+    public static int grayToBinary(int gray) {
+        int binary = gray;
+        while (gray > 0) {
+            gray >>= 1;
+            binary ^= gray;
+        }
+        return binary;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HammingDistance.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HammingDistance.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4c24909ef234
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HammingDistance.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * The Hamming distance between two integers is the number of positions at which the corresponding bits are different.
+ * Given two integers x and y, calculate the Hamming distance.
+ * Example:
+ * Input: x = 1, y = 4
+ * Output: 2
+ * Explanation: 1 (0001) and 4 (0100) have 2 differing bits.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class HammingDistance {
+    private HammingDistance() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the Hamming distance between two integers.
+     * The Hamming distance is the number of differing bits between the two integers.
+     *
+     * @param x The first integer.
+     * @param y The second integer.
+     * @return The Hamming distance (number of differing bits).
+     */
+    public static int hammingDistance(int x, int y) {
+        int xor = x ^ y;
+        return Integer.bitCount(xor);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0fb058b2b8a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * HigherLowerPowerOfTwo class has two methods to find the next higher and lower power of two.
+ * <p>
+ *     nextHigherPowerOfTwo method finds the next higher power of two.
+ *     nextLowerPowerOfTwo method finds the next lower power of two.
+ *     Both methods take an integer as input and return the next higher or lower power of two.
+ *     If the input is less than 1, the next higher power of two is 1.
+ *     If the input is less than or equal to 1, the next lower power of two is 0.
+ *     nextHigherPowerOfTwo method uses bitwise operations to find the next higher power of two.
+ *     nextLowerPowerOfTwo method uses Integer.highestOneBit method to find the next lower power of two.
+ *     The time complexity of both methods is O(1).
+ *     The space complexity of both methods is O(1).
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class HigherLowerPowerOfTwo {
+    private HigherLowerPowerOfTwo() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the next higher power of two.
+     *
+     * @param x The given number.
+     * @return The next higher power of two.
+     */
+    public static int nextHigherPowerOfTwo(int x) {
+        if (x < 1) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+        x--;
+        x |= x >> 1;
+        x |= x >> 2;
+        x |= x >> 4;
+        x |= x >> 8;
+        x |= x >> 16;
+        return x + 1;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the next lower power of two.
+     *
+     * @param x The given number.
+     * @return The next lower power of two.
+     */
+    public static int nextLowerPowerOfTwo(int x) {
+        if (x < 1) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        return Integer.highestOneBit(x);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBit.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2398b8214371
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBit.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/**
+ * Find Highest Set Bit
+ *
+ * This class provides a utility method to calculate the position of the highest
+ * (most significant) bit that is set to 1 in a given non-negative integer.
+ * It is often used in bit manipulation tasks to find the left-most set bit in binary
+ * representation of a number.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * - For input 18 (binary 10010), the highest set bit is at position 4 (zero-based index).
+ *
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi
+ * @version 1.0
+ * @since 2021-06-23
+ */
+public final class HighestSetBit {
+
+    private HighestSetBit() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the highest (most significant) set bit in the given integer.
+     * The method returns the position (index) of the highest set bit as an {@link Optional}.
+     *
+     * - If the number is 0, no bits are set, and the method returns {@link Optional#empty()}.
+     * - If the number is negative, the method throws {@link IllegalArgumentException}.
+     *
+     * @param num The input integer for which the highest set bit is to be found. It must be non-negative.
+     * @return An {@link Optional} containing the index of the highest set bit (zero-based).
+     *         Returns {@link Optional#empty()} if the number is 0.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input number is negative.
+     */
+    public static Optional<Integer> findHighestSetBit(int num) {
+        if (num < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input cannot be negative");
+        }
+
+        if (num == 0) {
+            return Optional.empty();
+        }
+
+        int position = 0;
+        while (num > 0) {
+            num >>= 1;
+            position++;
+        }
+
+        return Optional.of(position - 1); // Subtract 1 to convert to zero-based index
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBit.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1b8962344ea7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBit.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for bit manipulation operations.
+ * This class provides methods to work with bitwise operations.
+ * Specifically, it includes a method to find the index of the rightmost set bit
+ * in an integer.
+ * This class is not meant to be instantiated.
+ *
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+public final class IndexOfRightMostSetBit {
+
+    private IndexOfRightMostSetBit() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the index of the rightmost set bit in the given integer.
+     * The index is zero-based, meaning the rightmost bit has an index of 0.
+     *
+     * @param n the integer to check for the rightmost set bit
+     * @return the index of the rightmost set bit; -1 if there are no set bits
+     *         (i.e., the input integer is 0)
+     */
+    public static int indexOfRightMostSetBit(int n) {
+        if (n == 0) {
+            return -1; // No set bits
+        }
+
+        // Handle negative numbers by finding the two's complement
+        if (n < 0) {
+            n = -n;
+            n = n & (~n + 1); // Isolate the rightmost set bit
+        }
+
+        int index = 0;
+        while ((n & 1) == 0) {
+            n = n >> 1;
+            index++;
+        }
+
+        return index;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEven.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEven.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..09d5383322ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEven.java
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * Checks whether a number is even
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+
+public final class IsEven {
+    private IsEven() {
+    }
+    public static boolean isEven(int number) {
+        return (number & 1) == 0;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwo.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwo.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4cdf3c6faa3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwo.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for checking if a number is a power of two.
+ * A power of two is a number that can be expressed as 2^n where n is a non-negative integer.
+ * This class provides a method to determine if a given integer is a power of two using bit manipulation.
+ *
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+public final class IsPowerTwo {
+    private IsPowerTwo() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the given integer is a power of two.
+     *
+     * A number is considered a power of two if it is greater than zero and
+     * has exactly one '1' bit in its binary representation. This method
+     * uses the property that for any power of two (n), the expression
+     * (n & (n - 1)) will be zero.
+     *
+     * @param number the integer to check
+     * @return true if the number is a power of two, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isPowerTwo(int number) {
+        if (number <= 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        int ans = number & (number - 1);
+        return ans == 0;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBit.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..127b6fa2c0b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBit.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * Lowest Set Bit
+ * @author Prayas Kumar (https://github.com/prayas7102)
+ */
+
+public final class LowestSetBit {
+    // Private constructor to hide the default public one
+    private LowestSetBit() {
+    }
+    /**
+     * Isolates the lowest set bit of the given number. For example, if n = 18
+     * (binary: 10010), the result will be 2 (binary: 00010).
+     *
+     * @param n the number whose lowest set bit will be isolated
+     * @return the isolated lowest set bit of n
+     */
+    public static int isolateLowestSetBit(int n) {
+        // Isolate the lowest set bit using n & -n
+        return n & -n;
+    }
+    /**
+     * Clears the lowest set bit of the given number.
+     * For example, if n = 18 (binary: 10010), the result will be 16 (binary: 10000).
+     *
+     * @param n the number whose lowest set bit will be cleared
+     * @return the number after clearing its lowest set bit
+     */
+    public static int clearLowestSetBit(int n) {
+        // Clear the lowest set bit using n & (n - 1)
+        return n & (n - 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ModuloPowerOfTwo.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ModuloPowerOfTwo.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..537a046f77e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ModuloPowerOfTwo.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to compute the remainder
+ * of a number when divided by a power of two (2^n)
+ * without using division or modulo operations.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class ModuloPowerOfTwo {
+    private ModuloPowerOfTwo() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the remainder of a given integer when divided by 2^n.
+     *
+     * @param x the input number
+     * @param n the exponent (power of two)
+     * @return the remainder of x divided by 2^n
+     */
+    public static int moduloPowerOfTwo(int x, int n) {
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The exponent must be positive");
+        }
+
+        return x & ((1 << n) - 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NextHigherSameBitCount.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NextHigherSameBitCount.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6a764d806279
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NextHigherSameBitCount.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to find the next higher number
+ * with the same number of set bits as the given number.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class NextHigherSameBitCount {
+    private NextHigherSameBitCount() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the next higher integer with the same number of set bits.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Find {@code c}, the rightmost set bit of {@code n}.
+     * 2. Find {@code r}, the rightmost set bit of {@code n + c}.
+     * 3. Swap the bits of {@code r} and {@code n} to the right of {@code c}.
+     * 4. Shift the bits of {@code r} and {@code n} to the right of {@code c} to the rightmost.
+     * 5. Combine the results of steps 3 and 4.
+     *
+     * @param n the input number
+     * @return the next higher integer with the same set bit count
+     */
+    public static int nextHigherSameBitCount(int n) {
+        int c = n & -n;
+        int r = n + c;
+        return (((r ^ n) >> 2) / c) | r;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinder.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..17e1a73ec062
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to find the non-repeating number in an array where every other number repeats.
+ * This class contains a method to identify the single unique number using bit manipulation.
+ *
+ * The solution leverages the properties of the XOR operation, which states that:
+ * - x ^ x = 0 for any integer x (a number XORed with itself is zero)
+ * - x ^ 0 = x for any integer x (a number XORed with zero is the number itself)
+ *
+ * Using these properties, we can find the non-repeating number in linear time with constant space.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * Given the input array [2, 3, 5, 2, 3], the output will be 5 since it does not repeat.
+ *
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+public final class NonRepeatingNumberFinder {
+    private NonRepeatingNumberFinder() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the non-repeating number in the given array.
+     *
+     * @param arr an array of integers where every number except one appears twice
+     * @return the integer that appears only once in the array or 0 if the array is empty
+     */
+    public static int findNonRepeatingNumber(int[] arr) {
+        int result = 0;
+        for (int num : arr) {
+            result ^= num;
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimes.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimes.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bd4868d4dbd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimes.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to find the element that appears an
+ * odd number of times in an array. All other elements in the array
+ * must appear an even number of times for the logic to work.
+ *
+ * The solution uses the XOR operation, which has the following properties:
+ * - a ^ a = 0 (XOR-ing the same numbers cancels them out)
+ * - a ^ 0 = a
+ * - XOR is commutative and associative.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(n), where n is the size of the array.
+ * Space Complexity: O(1), as no extra space is used.
+ *
+ * Usage Example:
+ * int result = NumberAppearingOddTimes.findOddOccurrence(new int[]{1, 2, 1, 2, 3});
+ * // result will be 3
+ *
+ * @author Lakshyajeet Singh Goyal (https://github.com/DarkMatter-999)
+ */
+
+public final class NumberAppearingOddTimes {
+    private NumberAppearingOddTimes() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the element in the array that appears an odd number of times.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array containing integers, where all elements
+     *            except one appear an even number of times.
+     * @return the integer that appears an odd number of times.
+     */
+    public static int findOddOccurrence(int[] arr) {
+        int result = 0;
+        for (int num : arr) {
+            result ^= num;
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSigns.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSigns.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a2da37aa81ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSigns.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to determine whether two integers have
+ * different signs. It utilizes the XOR operation on the two numbers:
+ *
+ * - If two numbers have different signs, their most significant bits
+ *   (sign bits) will differ, resulting in a negative XOR result.
+ * - If two numbers have the same sign, the XOR result will be non-negative.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(1) - Constant time operation.
+ * Space Complexity: O(1) - No extra space used.
+ *
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi
+ */
+public final class NumbersDifferentSigns {
+    private NumbersDifferentSigns() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Determines if two integers have different signs using bitwise XOR.
+     *
+     * @param num1 the first integer
+     * @param num2 the second integer
+     * @return true if the two numbers have different signs, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean differentSigns(int num1, int num2) {
+        return (num1 ^ num2) < 0;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifference.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifference.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..afec0188e299
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifference.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to detect if two integers
+ * differ by exactly one bit flip.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * 1 (0001) and 2 (0010) differ by exactly one bit flip.
+ * 7 (0111) and 3 (0011) differ by exactly one bit flip.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class OneBitDifference {
+    private OneBitDifference() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if two integers differ by exactly one bit.
+     *
+     * @param x the first integer
+     * @param y the second integer
+     * @return true if x and y differ by exactly one bit, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean differByOneBit(int x, int y) {
+        if (x == y) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        int xor = x ^ y;
+        return (xor & (xor - 1)) == 0;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplement.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..aae3a996e49d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplement.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * @author - https://github.com/Monk-AbhinayVerma
+ * @Wikipedia - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ones%27_complement
+ *            The class OnesComplement computes the complement of binary number
+ *            and returns
+ *            the complemented binary string.
+ * @return the complimented binary string
+ */
+public final class OnesComplement {
+    private OnesComplement() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the 1's complement of a binary string.
+     *
+     * @param binary A string representing a binary number (e.g., "1010").
+     * @return A string representing the 1's complement.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input is null or contains characters other than '0' or '1'.
+     */
+    public static String onesComplement(String binary) {
+        if (binary == null || binary.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must be a non-empty binary string.");
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder complement = new StringBuilder(binary.length());
+        for (char bit : binary.toCharArray()) {
+            switch (bit) {
+                case '0' -> complement.append('1');
+                case '1' -> complement.append('0');
+                default -> throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must contain only '0' and '1'. Found: " + bit);
+            }
+        }
+        return complement.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ParityCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ParityCheck.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5acab4d4a362
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ParityCheck.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * The ParityCheck class provides a method to check the parity of a given number.
+ * <p>
+ * Parity is a mathematical term that describes the property of an integer's binary representation.
+ * The parity of a binary number is the number of 1s in its binary representation.
+ * If the number of 1s is even, the parity is even; otherwise, it is odd.
+ * <p>
+ * For example, the binary representation of 5 is 101, which has two 1s, so the parity of 5 is even.
+ * The binary representation of 6 is 110, which has two 1s, so the parity of 6 is even.
+ * The binary representation of 7 is 111, which has three 1s, so the parity of 7 is odd.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class ParityCheck {
+    private ParityCheck() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method checks the parity of the given number.
+     *
+     * @param n the number to check the parity of
+     * @return true if the number has even parity, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean checkParity(int n) {
+        int count = 0;
+        while (n > 0) {
+            count += n & 1;
+            n >>= 1;
+        }
+        return count % 2 == 0;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBits.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBits.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..12c269d9be48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBits.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to reverse the bits of a 32-bit integer.
+ * Reversing the bits means that the least significant bit (LSB) becomes
+ * the most significant bit (MSB) and vice versa.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * Input (binary): 00000010100101000001111010011100 (43261596)
+ * Output (binary): 00111001011110000010100101000000 (964176192)
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(32) - A fixed number of 32 iterations
+ * Space Complexity: O(1) - No extra space used
+ *
+ * Note:
+ * - If the input is negative, Java handles it using two’s complement representation.
+ * - This function works on 32-bit integers by default.
+ *
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi
+ */
+public final class ReverseBits {
+    private ReverseBits() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Reverses the bits of a 32-bit integer.
+     *
+     * @param n the integer whose bits are to be reversed
+     * @return the integer obtained by reversing the bits of the input
+     */
+    public static int reverseBits(int n) {
+        int result = 0;
+        int bitCount = 32;
+        for (int i = 0; i < bitCount; i++) {
+            result <<= 1; // Left shift the result to make space for the next bit
+            result |= (n & 1); // OR operation to set the least significant bit of result with the current bit of n
+            n >>= 1; // Right shift n to move on to the next bit
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperations.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperations.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..624a4e2b858a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperations.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class for performing single-bit operations on integers.
+ * These operations include flipping, setting, clearing, and getting
+ * individual bits at specified positions.
+ *
+ * Bit positions are zero-indexed (i.e., the least significant bit is at position 0).
+ * These methods leverage bitwise operations for optimal performance.
+ *
+ * Examples:
+ * - `flipBit(3, 1)` flips the bit at index 1 in binary `11` (result: `1`).
+ * - `setBit(4, 0)` sets the bit at index 0 in `100` (result: `101` or 5).
+ * - `clearBit(7, 1)` clears the bit at index 1 in `111` (result: `101` or 5).
+ * - `getBit(6, 0)` checks if the least significant bit is set (result: `0`).
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(1) for all operations.
+ *
+ * Author: lukasb1b (https://github.com/lukasb1b)
+ */
+public final class SingleBitOperations {
+    private SingleBitOperations() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Flips (toggles) the bit at the specified position.
+     *
+     * @param num the input number
+     * @param bit the position of the bit to flip (0-indexed)
+     * @return the new number after flipping the specified bit
+     */
+    public static int flipBit(final int num, final int bit) {
+        return num ^ (1 << bit);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sets the bit at the specified position to 1.
+     *
+     * @param num the input number
+     * @param bit the position of the bit to set (0-indexed)
+     * @return the new number after setting the specified bit to 1
+     */
+    public static int setBit(final int num, final int bit) {
+        return num | (1 << bit);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Clears the bit at the specified position (sets it to 0).
+     *
+     * @param num the input number
+     * @param bit the position of the bit to clear (0-indexed)
+     * @return the new number after clearing the specified bit
+     */
+    public static int clearBit(final int num, final int bit) {
+        return num & ~(1 << bit);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Gets the bit value (0 or 1) at the specified position.
+     *
+     * @param num the input number
+     * @param bit the position of the bit to retrieve (0-indexed)
+     * @return 1 if the bit is set, 0 otherwise
+     */
+    public static int getBit(final int num, final int bit) {
+        return (num >> bit) & 1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleElement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleElement.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..85ebdf02db25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleElement.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class to find the single non-duplicate element from an array
+ * where all other elements appear twice.
+ * <p>
+ * The algorithm runs in O(n) time complexity and O(1) space complexity
+ * using bitwise XOR.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @author <a href="http://github.com/tuhinm2002">Tuhin M</a>
+ */
+public final class SingleElement {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     * Throws an UnsupportedOperationException if attempted.
+     */
+    private SingleElement() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Utility Class");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the single non-duplicate element in an array where every other
+     * element appears exactly twice. Uses bitwise XOR to achieve O(n) time
+     * complexity and O(1) space complexity.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array containing integers where every element
+     *            except one appears exactly twice
+     * @return the single non-duplicate element
+     */
+    public static int findSingleElement(int[] arr) {
+        int ele = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; i++) {
+            ele ^= arr[i];
+        }
+        return ele;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBits.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBits.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..98a7de8bdf1a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBits.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to swap every pair of adjacent bits in a given integer.
+ * This operation shifts the even-positioned bits to odd positions and vice versa.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * - Input: 2 (binary: `10`) → Output: 1 (binary: `01`)
+ * - Input: 43 (binary: `101011`) → Output: 23 (binary: `010111`)
+ *
+ * **Explanation of the Algorithm:**
+ * 1. Mask even-positioned bits: Using `0xAAAAAAAA` (binary: `101010...`),
+ *    which selects bits in even positions.
+ * 2. Mask odd-positioned bits: Using `0x55555555` (binary: `010101...`),
+ *    which selects bits in odd positions.
+ * 3. Shift bits:
+ *    - Right-shift even-positioned bits by 1 to move them to odd positions.
+ *    - Left-shift odd-positioned bits by 1 to move them to even positions.
+ * 4. Combine both shifted results using bitwise OR (`|`) to produce the final result.
+ *
+ * Use Case: This algorithm can be useful in applications involving low-level bit manipulation,
+ * such as encoding, data compression, or cryptographic transformations.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(1) (constant time, since operations are bitwise).
+ *
+ * Author: Lakshyajeet Singh Goyal (https://github.com/DarkMatter-999)
+ */
+public final class SwapAdjacentBits {
+    private SwapAdjacentBits() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Swaps every pair of adjacent bits of a given integer.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Mask the even-positioned bits.
+     * 2. Mask the odd-positioned bits.
+     * 3. Shift the even bits to the right and the odd bits to the left.
+     * 4. Combine the shifted bits.
+     *
+     * @param num the integer whose bits are to be swapped
+     * @return the integer after swapping every pair of adjacent bits
+     */
+    public static int swapAdjacentBits(int num) {
+        // mask the even bits (0xAAAAAAAA => 10101010...)
+        int evenBits = num & 0xAAAAAAAA;
+
+        // mask the odd bits (0x55555555 => 01010101...)
+        int oddBits = num & 0x55555555;
+
+        // right shift even bits and left shift odd bits
+        evenBits >>= 1;
+        oddBits <<= 1;
+
+        // combine shifted bits
+        return evenBits | oddBits;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplement.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9b8cecd791a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplement.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to compute the Two's Complement of a given binary number.
+ *
+ * <p>In two's complement representation, a binary number's negative value is obtained
+ * by taking the one's complement (inverting all bits) and then adding 1 to the result.
+ * This method handles both small and large binary strings and ensures the output is
+ * correct for all binary inputs, including edge cases like all zeroes and all ones.
+ *
+ * <p>For more information on Two's Complement:
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement">Wikipedia - Two's Complement</a>
+ *
+ * <p>Algorithm originally suggested by Jon von Neumann.
+ *
+ * @author Abhinay Verma (https://github.com/Monk-AbhinayVerma)
+ */
+public final class TwosComplement {
+    private TwosComplement() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the Two's Complement of the given binary string.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Compute the One's Complement (invert all bits).
+     * 2. Add 1 to the One's Complement to get the Two's Complement.
+     * 3. Iterate from the rightmost bit to the left, adding 1 and carrying over as needed.
+     * 4. If a carry is still present after the leftmost bit, prepend '1' to handle overflow.
+     *
+     * @param binary The binary number as a string (only '0' and '1' characters allowed).
+     * @return The two's complement of the input binary string as a new binary string.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the input contains non-binary characters.
+     */
+    public static String twosComplement(String binary) {
+        if (!binary.matches("[01]+")) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must contain only '0' and '1'.");
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder onesComplement = new StringBuilder();
+        for (char bit : binary.toCharArray()) {
+            onesComplement.append(bit == '0' ? '1' : '0');
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder twosComplement = new StringBuilder(onesComplement);
+        boolean carry = true;
+
+        for (int i = onesComplement.length() - 1; i >= 0 && carry; i--) {
+            if (onesComplement.charAt(i) == '1') {
+                twosComplement.setCharAt(i, '0');
+            } else {
+                twosComplement.setCharAt(i, '1');
+                carry = false;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (carry) {
+            twosComplement.insert(0, '1');
+        }
+
+        return twosComplement.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3Conversion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3Conversion.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b22abc0c04ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3Conversion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides methods to convert between XS-3 (Excess-3) and binary.
+ *
+ * Excess-3, also called XS-3, is a binary-coded decimal (BCD) code in which each decimal digit is represented by its corresponding 4-bit binary value plus 3.
+ *
+ * For more information, refer to the
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excess-3">Excess-3</a> Wikipedia page.
+ *
+ * <b>Example usage:</b>
+ * <pre>
+ * int binary = Xs3Conversion.xs3ToBinary(0x4567);
+ * System.out.println("XS-3 0x4567 to binary: " + binary); // Output: 1234
+ *
+ * int xs3 = Xs3Conversion.binaryToXs3(1234);
+ * System.out.println("Binary 1234 to XS-3: " + Integer.toHexString(xs3)); // Output: 0x4567
+ * </pre>
+ */
+public final class Xs3Conversion {
+    private Xs3Conversion() {
+    }
+    /**
+     * Converts an XS-3 (Excess-3) number to binary.
+     *
+     * @param xs3 The XS-3 number.
+     * @return The corresponding binary number.
+     */
+    public static int xs3ToBinary(int xs3) {
+        int binary = 0;
+        int multiplier = 1;
+        while (xs3 > 0) {
+            int digit = (xs3 & 0xF) - 3; // Extract the last 4 bits (one XS-3 digit) and subtract 3
+            binary += digit * multiplier;
+            multiplier *= 10;
+            xs3 >>= 4; // Shift right by 4 bits to process the next XS-3 digit
+        }
+        return binary;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a binary number to XS-3 (Excess-3).
+     *
+     * @param binary The binary number.
+     * @return The corresponding XS-3 number.
+     */
+    public static int binaryToXs3(int binary) {
+        int xs3 = 0;
+        int shift = 0;
+        while (binary > 0) {
+            int digit = (binary % 10) + 3; // Extract the last decimal digit and add 3
+            xs3 |= (digit << (shift * 4)); // Shift the digit to the correct XS-3 position
+            binary /= 10; // Remove the last decimal digit
+            shift++;
+        }
+        return xs3;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ADFGVXCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ADFGVXCipher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d915858f9e6f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ADFGVXCipher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * The ADFGVX cipher is a fractionating transposition cipher that was used by
+ * the German Army during World War I. It combines a **Polybius square substitution**
+ * with a **columnar transposition** to enhance encryption strength.
+ * <p>
+ * The name "ADFGVX" refers to the six letters (A, D, F, G, V, X) used as row and
+ * column labels in the Polybius square. This cipher was designed to secure
+ * communication and create complex, hard-to-break ciphertexts.
+ * <p>
+ * Learn more: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADFGVX_cipher">ADFGVX Cipher - Wikipedia</a>.
+ * <p>
+ * Example usage:
+ * <pre>
+ * ADFGVXCipher cipher = new ADFGVXCipher();
+ * String encrypted = cipher.encrypt("attack at 1200am", "PRIVACY");
+ * String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, "PRIVACY");
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * @author bennybebo
+ */
+public class ADFGVXCipher {
+
+    // Constants used in the Polybius square
+    private static final char[] POLYBIUS_LETTERS = {'A', 'D', 'F', 'G', 'V', 'X'};
+    private static final char[][] POLYBIUS_SQUARE = {{'N', 'A', '1', 'C', '3', 'H'}, {'8', 'T', 'B', '2', 'O', 'M'}, {'E', '5', 'W', 'R', 'P', 'D'}, {'4', 'F', '6', 'G', '7', 'I'}, {'9', 'J', '0', 'K', 'L', 'Q'}, {'S', 'U', 'V', 'X', 'Y', 'Z'}};
+
+    // Maps for fast substitution lookups
+    private static final Map<String, Character> POLYBIUS_MAP = new HashMap<>();
+    private static final Map<Character, String> REVERSE_POLYBIUS_MAP = new HashMap<>();
+
+    // Static block to initialize the lookup tables from the Polybius square
+    static {
+        for (int i = 0; i < POLYBIUS_SQUARE.length; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < POLYBIUS_SQUARE[i].length; j++) {
+                String key = "" + POLYBIUS_LETTERS[i] + POLYBIUS_LETTERS[j];
+                POLYBIUS_MAP.put(key, POLYBIUS_SQUARE[i][j]);
+                REVERSE_POLYBIUS_MAP.put(POLYBIUS_SQUARE[i][j], key);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Encrypts a given plaintext using the ADFGVX cipher with the provided keyword.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Substitute each letter in the plaintext with a pair of ADFGVX letters.
+     * 2. Perform a columnar transposition on the fractionated text using the keyword.
+     *
+     * @param plaintext The message to be encrypted (can contain letters and digits).
+     * @param key       The keyword for columnar transposition.
+     * @return The encrypted message as ciphertext.
+     */
+    public String encrypt(String plaintext, String key) {
+        plaintext = plaintext.toUpperCase().replaceAll("[^A-Z0-9]", ""); // Sanitize input
+        StringBuilder fractionatedText = new StringBuilder();
+
+        for (char c : plaintext.toCharArray()) {
+            fractionatedText.append(REVERSE_POLYBIUS_MAP.get(c));
+        }
+
+        return columnarTransposition(fractionatedText.toString(), key);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decrypts a given ciphertext using the ADFGVX cipher with the provided keyword.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Reverse the columnar transposition performed during encryption.
+     * 2. Substitute each pair of ADFGVX letters with the corresponding plaintext letter.
+     * The resulting text is the decrypted message.
+     *
+     * @param ciphertext The encrypted message.
+     * @param key        The keyword used during encryption.
+     * @return The decrypted plaintext message.
+     */
+    public String decrypt(String ciphertext, String key) {
+        String fractionatedText = reverseColumnarTransposition(ciphertext, key);
+
+        StringBuilder plaintext = new StringBuilder();
+        for (int i = 0; i < fractionatedText.length(); i += 2) {
+            String pair = fractionatedText.substring(i, i + 2);
+            plaintext.append(POLYBIUS_MAP.get(pair));
+        }
+
+        return plaintext.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method: Performs columnar transposition during encryption
+     *
+     * @param text The fractionated text to be transposed
+     * @param key  The keyword for columnar transposition
+     * @return The transposed text
+     */
+    private String columnarTransposition(String text, String key) {
+        int numRows = (int) Math.ceil((double) text.length() / key.length());
+        char[][] table = new char[numRows][key.length()];
+        for (char[] row : table) { // Fill empty cells with underscores
+            Arrays.fill(row, '_');
+        }
+
+        // Populate the table row by row
+        for (int i = 0; i < text.length(); i++) {
+            table[i / key.length()][i % key.length()] = text.charAt(i);
+        }
+
+        // Read columns based on the alphabetical order of the key
+        StringBuilder ciphertext = new StringBuilder();
+        char[] sortedKey = key.toCharArray();
+        Arrays.sort(sortedKey);
+
+        for (char keyChar : sortedKey) {
+            int column = key.indexOf(keyChar);
+            for (char[] row : table) {
+                if (row[column] != '_') {
+                    ciphertext.append(row[column]);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return ciphertext.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method: Reverses the columnar transposition during decryption
+     *
+     * @param ciphertext The transposed text to be reversed
+     * @param key        The keyword used during encryption
+     * @return The reversed text
+     */
+    private String reverseColumnarTransposition(String ciphertext, String key) {
+        int numRows = (int) Math.ceil((double) ciphertext.length() / key.length());
+        char[][] table = new char[numRows][key.length()];
+
+        char[] sortedKey = key.toCharArray();
+        Arrays.sort(sortedKey);
+
+        int index = 0;
+        // Populate the table column by column according to the sorted key
+        for (char keyChar : sortedKey) {
+            int column = key.indexOf(keyChar);
+            for (int row = 0; row < numRows; row++) {
+                if (index < ciphertext.length()) {
+                    table[row][column] = ciphertext.charAt(index++);
+                } else {
+                    table[row][column] = '_';
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Read the table row by row to reconstruct the fractionated text
+        StringBuilder fractionatedText = new StringBuilder();
+        for (char[] row : table) {
+            for (char cell : row) {
+                if (cell != '_') {
+                    fractionatedText.append(cell);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return fractionatedText.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AES.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AES.java
index 879523af37bc..1c283f6b7655 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AES.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AES.java
@@ -7,29 +7,271 @@
  * This class is build to demonstrate the application of the AES-algorithm on a
  * single 128-Bit block of data.
  */
-public class AES {
+public final class AES {
+    private AES() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Precalculated values for x to the power of 2 in Rijndaels galois field.
      * Used as 'RCON' during the key expansion.
      */
     private static final int[] RCON = {
-        0x8d, 0x01, 0x02, 0x04, 0x08, 0x10, 0x20, 0x40, 0x80, 0x1b, 0x36, 0x6c, 0xd8, 0xab, 0x4d, 0x9a,
-        0x2f, 0x5e, 0xbc, 0x63, 0xc6, 0x97, 0x35, 0x6a, 0xd4, 0xb3, 0x7d, 0xfa, 0xef, 0xc5, 0x91, 0x39,
-        0x72, 0xe4, 0xd3, 0xbd, 0x61, 0xc2, 0x9f, 0x25, 0x4a, 0x94, 0x33, 0x66, 0xcc, 0x83, 0x1d, 0x3a,
-        0x74, 0xe8, 0xcb, 0x8d, 0x01, 0x02, 0x04, 0x08, 0x10, 0x20, 0x40, 0x80, 0x1b, 0x36, 0x6c, 0xd8,
-        0xab, 0x4d, 0x9a, 0x2f, 0x5e, 0xbc, 0x63, 0xc6, 0x97, 0x35, 0x6a, 0xd4, 0xb3, 0x7d, 0xfa, 0xef,
-        0xc5, 0x91, 0x39, 0x72, 0xe4, 0xd3, 0xbd, 0x61, 0xc2, 0x9f, 0x25, 0x4a, 0x94, 0x33, 0x66, 0xcc,
-        0x83, 0x1d, 0x3a, 0x74, 0xe8, 0xcb, 0x8d, 0x01, 0x02, 0x04, 0x08, 0x10, 0x20, 0x40, 0x80, 0x1b,
-        0x36, 0x6c, 0xd8, 0xab, 0x4d, 0x9a, 0x2f, 0x5e, 0xbc, 0x63, 0xc6, 0x97, 0x35, 0x6a, 0xd4, 0xb3,
-        0x7d, 0xfa, 0xef, 0xc5, 0x91, 0x39, 0x72, 0xe4, 0xd3, 0xbd, 0x61, 0xc2, 0x9f, 0x25, 0x4a, 0x94,
-        0x33, 0x66, 0xcc, 0x83, 0x1d, 0x3a, 0x74, 0xe8, 0xcb, 0x8d, 0x01, 0x02, 0x04, 0x08, 0x10, 0x20,
-        0x40, 0x80, 0x1b, 0x36, 0x6c, 0xd8, 0xab, 0x4d, 0x9a, 0x2f, 0x5e, 0xbc, 0x63, 0xc6, 0x97, 0x35,
-        0x6a, 0xd4, 0xb3, 0x7d, 0xfa, 0xef, 0xc5, 0x91, 0x39, 0x72, 0xe4, 0xd3, 0xbd, 0x61, 0xc2, 0x9f,
-        0x25, 0x4a, 0x94, 0x33, 0x66, 0xcc, 0x83, 0x1d, 0x3a, 0x74, 0xe8, 0xcb, 0x8d, 0x01, 0x02, 0x04,
-        0x08, 0x10, 0x20, 0x40, 0x80, 0x1b, 0x36, 0x6c, 0xd8, 0xab, 0x4d, 0x9a, 0x2f, 0x5e, 0xbc, 0x63,
-        0xc6, 0x97, 0x35, 0x6a, 0xd4, 0xb3, 0x7d, 0xfa, 0xef, 0xc5, 0x91, 0x39, 0x72, 0xe4, 0xd3, 0xbd,
-        0x61, 0xc2, 0x9f, 0x25, 0x4a, 0x94, 0x33, 0x66, 0xcc, 0x83, 0x1d, 0x3a, 0x74, 0xe8, 0xcb, 0x8d
+        0x8d,
+        0x01,
+        0x02,
+        0x04,
+        0x08,
+        0x10,
+        0x20,
+        0x40,
+        0x80,
+        0x1b,
+        0x36,
+        0x6c,
+        0xd8,
+        0xab,
+        0x4d,
+        0x9a,
+        0x2f,
+        0x5e,
+        0xbc,
+        0x63,
+        0xc6,
+        0x97,
+        0x35,
+        0x6a,
+        0xd4,
+        0xb3,
+        0x7d,
+        0xfa,
+        0xef,
+        0xc5,
+        0x91,
+        0x39,
+        0x72,
+        0xe4,
+        0xd3,
+        0xbd,
+        0x61,
+        0xc2,
+        0x9f,
+        0x25,
+        0x4a,
+        0x94,
+        0x33,
+        0x66,
+        0xcc,
+        0x83,
+        0x1d,
+        0x3a,
+        0x74,
+        0xe8,
+        0xcb,
+        0x8d,
+        0x01,
+        0x02,
+        0x04,
+        0x08,
+        0x10,
+        0x20,
+        0x40,
+        0x80,
+        0x1b,
+        0x36,
+        0x6c,
+        0xd8,
+        0xab,
+        0x4d,
+        0x9a,
+        0x2f,
+        0x5e,
+        0xbc,
+        0x63,
+        0xc6,
+        0x97,
+        0x35,
+        0x6a,
+        0xd4,
+        0xb3,
+        0x7d,
+        0xfa,
+        0xef,
+        0xc5,
+        0x91,
+        0x39,
+        0x72,
+        0xe4,
+        0xd3,
+        0xbd,
+        0x61,
+        0xc2,
+        0x9f,
+        0x25,
+        0x4a,
+        0x94,
+        0x33,
+        0x66,
+        0xcc,
+        0x83,
+        0x1d,
+        0x3a,
+        0x74,
+        0xe8,
+        0xcb,
+        0x8d,
+        0x01,
+        0x02,
+        0x04,
+        0x08,
+        0x10,
+        0x20,
+        0x40,
+        0x80,
+        0x1b,
+        0x36,
+        0x6c,
+        0xd8,
+        0xab,
+        0x4d,
+        0x9a,
+        0x2f,
+        0x5e,
+        0xbc,
+        0x63,
+        0xc6,
+        0x97,
+        0x35,
+        0x6a,
+        0xd4,
+        0xb3,
+        0x7d,
+        0xfa,
+        0xef,
+        0xc5,
+        0x91,
+        0x39,
+        0x72,
+        0xe4,
+        0xd3,
+        0xbd,
+        0x61,
+        0xc2,
+        0x9f,
+        0x25,
+        0x4a,
+        0x94,
+        0x33,
+        0x66,
+        0xcc,
+        0x83,
+        0x1d,
+        0x3a,
+        0x74,
+        0xe8,
+        0xcb,
+        0x8d,
+        0x01,
+        0x02,
+        0x04,
+        0x08,
+        0x10,
+        0x20,
+        0x40,
+        0x80,
+        0x1b,
+        0x36,
+        0x6c,
+        0xd8,
+        0xab,
+        0x4d,
+        0x9a,
+        0x2f,
+        0x5e,
+        0xbc,
+        0x63,
+        0xc6,
+        0x97,
+        0x35,
+        0x6a,
+        0xd4,
+        0xb3,
+        0x7d,
+        0xfa,
+        0xef,
+        0xc5,
+        0x91,
+        0x39,
+        0x72,
+        0xe4,
+        0xd3,
+        0xbd,
+        0x61,
+        0xc2,
+        0x9f,
+        0x25,
+        0x4a,
+        0x94,
+        0x33,
+        0x66,
+        0xcc,
+        0x83,
+        0x1d,
+        0x3a,
+        0x74,
+        0xe8,
+        0xcb,
+        0x8d,
+        0x01,
+        0x02,
+        0x04,
+        0x08,
+        0x10,
+        0x20,
+        0x40,
+        0x80,
+        0x1b,
+        0x36,
+        0x6c,
+        0xd8,
+        0xab,
+        0x4d,
+        0x9a,
+        0x2f,
+        0x5e,
+        0xbc,
+        0x63,
+        0xc6,
+        0x97,
+        0x35,
+        0x6a,
+        0xd4,
+        0xb3,
+        0x7d,
+        0xfa,
+        0xef,
+        0xc5,
+        0x91,
+        0x39,
+        0x72,
+        0xe4,
+        0xd3,
+        0xbd,
+        0x61,
+        0xc2,
+        0x9f,
+        0x25,
+        0x4a,
+        0x94,
+        0x33,
+        0x66,
+        0xcc,
+        0x83,
+        0x1d,
+        0x3a,
+        0x74,
+        0xe8,
+        0xcb,
+        0x8d,
     };
 
     /**
@@ -37,22 +279,262 @@ public class AES {
      * step, as well as the key expansion.
      */
     private static final int[] SBOX = {
-        0x63, 0x7C, 0x77, 0x7B, 0xF2, 0x6B, 0x6F, 0xC5, 0x30, 0x01, 0x67, 0x2B, 0xFE, 0xD7, 0xAB, 0x76,
-        0xCA, 0x82, 0xC9, 0x7D, 0xFA, 0x59, 0x47, 0xF0, 0xAD, 0xD4, 0xA2, 0xAF, 0x9C, 0xA4, 0x72, 0xC0,
-        0xB7, 0xFD, 0x93, 0x26, 0x36, 0x3F, 0xF7, 0xCC, 0x34, 0xA5, 0xE5, 0xF1, 0x71, 0xD8, 0x31, 0x15,
-        0x04, 0xC7, 0x23, 0xC3, 0x18, 0x96, 0x05, 0x9A, 0x07, 0x12, 0x80, 0xE2, 0xEB, 0x27, 0xB2, 0x75,
-        0x09, 0x83, 0x2C, 0x1A, 0x1B, 0x6E, 0x5A, 0xA0, 0x52, 0x3B, 0xD6, 0xB3, 0x29, 0xE3, 0x2F, 0x84,
-        0x53, 0xD1, 0x00, 0xED, 0x20, 0xFC, 0xB1, 0x5B, 0x6A, 0xCB, 0xBE, 0x39, 0x4A, 0x4C, 0x58, 0xCF,
-        0xD0, 0xEF, 0xAA, 0xFB, 0x43, 0x4D, 0x33, 0x85, 0x45, 0xF9, 0x02, 0x7F, 0x50, 0x3C, 0x9F, 0xA8,
-        0x51, 0xA3, 0x40, 0x8F, 0x92, 0x9D, 0x38, 0xF5, 0xBC, 0xB6, 0xDA, 0x21, 0x10, 0xFF, 0xF3, 0xD2,
-        0xCD, 0x0C, 0x13, 0xEC, 0x5F, 0x97, 0x44, 0x17, 0xC4, 0xA7, 0x7E, 0x3D, 0x64, 0x5D, 0x19, 0x73,
-        0x60, 0x81, 0x4F, 0xDC, 0x22, 0x2A, 0x90, 0x88, 0x46, 0xEE, 0xB8, 0x14, 0xDE, 0x5E, 0x0B, 0xDB,
-        0xE0, 0x32, 0x3A, 0x0A, 0x49, 0x06, 0x24, 0x5C, 0xC2, 0xD3, 0xAC, 0x62, 0x91, 0x95, 0xE4, 0x79,
-        0xE7, 0xC8, 0x37, 0x6D, 0x8D, 0xD5, 0x4E, 0xA9, 0x6C, 0x56, 0xF4, 0xEA, 0x65, 0x7A, 0xAE, 0x08,
-        0xBA, 0x78, 0x25, 0x2E, 0x1C, 0xA6, 0xB4, 0xC6, 0xE8, 0xDD, 0x74, 0x1F, 0x4B, 0xBD, 0x8B, 0x8A,
-        0x70, 0x3E, 0xB5, 0x66, 0x48, 0x03, 0xF6, 0x0E, 0x61, 0x35, 0x57, 0xB9, 0x86, 0xC1, 0x1D, 0x9E,
-        0xE1, 0xF8, 0x98, 0x11, 0x69, 0xD9, 0x8E, 0x94, 0x9B, 0x1E, 0x87, 0xE9, 0xCE, 0x55, 0x28, 0xDF,
-        0x8C, 0xA1, 0x89, 0x0D, 0xBF, 0xE6, 0x42, 0x68, 0x41, 0x99, 0x2D, 0x0F, 0xB0, 0x54, 0xBB, 0x16
+        0x63,
+        0x7C,
+        0x77,
+        0x7B,
+        0xF2,
+        0x6B,
+        0x6F,
+        0xC5,
+        0x30,
+        0x01,
+        0x67,
+        0x2B,
+        0xFE,
+        0xD7,
+        0xAB,
+        0x76,
+        0xCA,
+        0x82,
+        0xC9,
+        0x7D,
+        0xFA,
+        0x59,
+        0x47,
+        0xF0,
+        0xAD,
+        0xD4,
+        0xA2,
+        0xAF,
+        0x9C,
+        0xA4,
+        0x72,
+        0xC0,
+        0xB7,
+        0xFD,
+        0x93,
+        0x26,
+        0x36,
+        0x3F,
+        0xF7,
+        0xCC,
+        0x34,
+        0xA5,
+        0xE5,
+        0xF1,
+        0x71,
+        0xD8,
+        0x31,
+        0x15,
+        0x04,
+        0xC7,
+        0x23,
+        0xC3,
+        0x18,
+        0x96,
+        0x05,
+        0x9A,
+        0x07,
+        0x12,
+        0x80,
+        0xE2,
+        0xEB,
+        0x27,
+        0xB2,
+        0x75,
+        0x09,
+        0x83,
+        0x2C,
+        0x1A,
+        0x1B,
+        0x6E,
+        0x5A,
+        0xA0,
+        0x52,
+        0x3B,
+        0xD6,
+        0xB3,
+        0x29,
+        0xE3,
+        0x2F,
+        0x84,
+        0x53,
+        0xD1,
+        0x00,
+        0xED,
+        0x20,
+        0xFC,
+        0xB1,
+        0x5B,
+        0x6A,
+        0xCB,
+        0xBE,
+        0x39,
+        0x4A,
+        0x4C,
+        0x58,
+        0xCF,
+        0xD0,
+        0xEF,
+        0xAA,
+        0xFB,
+        0x43,
+        0x4D,
+        0x33,
+        0x85,
+        0x45,
+        0xF9,
+        0x02,
+        0x7F,
+        0x50,
+        0x3C,
+        0x9F,
+        0xA8,
+        0x51,
+        0xA3,
+        0x40,
+        0x8F,
+        0x92,
+        0x9D,
+        0x38,
+        0xF5,
+        0xBC,
+        0xB6,
+        0xDA,
+        0x21,
+        0x10,
+        0xFF,
+        0xF3,
+        0xD2,
+        0xCD,
+        0x0C,
+        0x13,
+        0xEC,
+        0x5F,
+        0x97,
+        0x44,
+        0x17,
+        0xC4,
+        0xA7,
+        0x7E,
+        0x3D,
+        0x64,
+        0x5D,
+        0x19,
+        0x73,
+        0x60,
+        0x81,
+        0x4F,
+        0xDC,
+        0x22,
+        0x2A,
+        0x90,
+        0x88,
+        0x46,
+        0xEE,
+        0xB8,
+        0x14,
+        0xDE,
+        0x5E,
+        0x0B,
+        0xDB,
+        0xE0,
+        0x32,
+        0x3A,
+        0x0A,
+        0x49,
+        0x06,
+        0x24,
+        0x5C,
+        0xC2,
+        0xD3,
+        0xAC,
+        0x62,
+        0x91,
+        0x95,
+        0xE4,
+        0x79,
+        0xE7,
+        0xC8,
+        0x37,
+        0x6D,
+        0x8D,
+        0xD5,
+        0x4E,
+        0xA9,
+        0x6C,
+        0x56,
+        0xF4,
+        0xEA,
+        0x65,
+        0x7A,
+        0xAE,
+        0x08,
+        0xBA,
+        0x78,
+        0x25,
+        0x2E,
+        0x1C,
+        0xA6,
+        0xB4,
+        0xC6,
+        0xE8,
+        0xDD,
+        0x74,
+        0x1F,
+        0x4B,
+        0xBD,
+        0x8B,
+        0x8A,
+        0x70,
+        0x3E,
+        0xB5,
+        0x66,
+        0x48,
+        0x03,
+        0xF6,
+        0x0E,
+        0x61,
+        0x35,
+        0x57,
+        0xB9,
+        0x86,
+        0xC1,
+        0x1D,
+        0x9E,
+        0xE1,
+        0xF8,
+        0x98,
+        0x11,
+        0x69,
+        0xD9,
+        0x8E,
+        0x94,
+        0x9B,
+        0x1E,
+        0x87,
+        0xE9,
+        0xCE,
+        0x55,
+        0x28,
+        0xDF,
+        0x8C,
+        0xA1,
+        0x89,
+        0x0D,
+        0xBF,
+        0xE6,
+        0x42,
+        0x68,
+        0x41,
+        0x99,
+        0x2D,
+        0x0F,
+        0xB0,
+        0x54,
+        0xBB,
+        0x16,
     };
 
     /**
@@ -60,22 +542,262 @@ public class AES {
      * subBytesDec step.
      */
     private static final int[] INVERSE_SBOX = {
-        0x52, 0x09, 0x6A, 0xD5, 0x30, 0x36, 0xA5, 0x38, 0xBF, 0x40, 0xA3, 0x9E, 0x81, 0xF3, 0xD7, 0xFB,
-        0x7C, 0xE3, 0x39, 0x82, 0x9B, 0x2F, 0xFF, 0x87, 0x34, 0x8E, 0x43, 0x44, 0xC4, 0xDE, 0xE9, 0xCB,
-        0x54, 0x7B, 0x94, 0x32, 0xA6, 0xC2, 0x23, 0x3D, 0xEE, 0x4C, 0x95, 0x0B, 0x42, 0xFA, 0xC3, 0x4E,
-        0x08, 0x2E, 0xA1, 0x66, 0x28, 0xD9, 0x24, 0xB2, 0x76, 0x5B, 0xA2, 0x49, 0x6D, 0x8B, 0xD1, 0x25,
-        0x72, 0xF8, 0xF6, 0x64, 0x86, 0x68, 0x98, 0x16, 0xD4, 0xA4, 0x5C, 0xCC, 0x5D, 0x65, 0xB6, 0x92,
-        0x6C, 0x70, 0x48, 0x50, 0xFD, 0xED, 0xB9, 0xDA, 0x5E, 0x15, 0x46, 0x57, 0xA7, 0x8D, 0x9D, 0x84,
-        0x90, 0xD8, 0xAB, 0x00, 0x8C, 0xBC, 0xD3, 0x0A, 0xF7, 0xE4, 0x58, 0x05, 0xB8, 0xB3, 0x45, 0x06,
-        0xD0, 0x2C, 0x1E, 0x8F, 0xCA, 0x3F, 0x0F, 0x02, 0xC1, 0xAF, 0xBD, 0x03, 0x01, 0x13, 0x8A, 0x6B,
-        0x3A, 0x91, 0x11, 0x41, 0x4F, 0x67, 0xDC, 0xEA, 0x97, 0xF2, 0xCF, 0xCE, 0xF0, 0xB4, 0xE6, 0x73,
-        0x96, 0xAC, 0x74, 0x22, 0xE7, 0xAD, 0x35, 0x85, 0xE2, 0xF9, 0x37, 0xE8, 0x1C, 0x75, 0xDF, 0x6E,
-        0x47, 0xF1, 0x1A, 0x71, 0x1D, 0x29, 0xC5, 0x89, 0x6F, 0xB7, 0x62, 0x0E, 0xAA, 0x18, 0xBE, 0x1B,
-        0xFC, 0x56, 0x3E, 0x4B, 0xC6, 0xD2, 0x79, 0x20, 0x9A, 0xDB, 0xC0, 0xFE, 0x78, 0xCD, 0x5A, 0xF4,
-        0x1F, 0xDD, 0xA8, 0x33, 0x88, 0x07, 0xC7, 0x31, 0xB1, 0x12, 0x10, 0x59, 0x27, 0x80, 0xEC, 0x5F,
-        0x60, 0x51, 0x7F, 0xA9, 0x19, 0xB5, 0x4A, 0x0D, 0x2D, 0xE5, 0x7A, 0x9F, 0x93, 0xC9, 0x9C, 0xEF,
-        0xA0, 0xE0, 0x3B, 0x4D, 0xAE, 0x2A, 0xF5, 0xB0, 0xC8, 0xEB, 0xBB, 0x3C, 0x83, 0x53, 0x99, 0x61,
-        0x17, 0x2B, 0x04, 0x7E, 0xBA, 0x77, 0xD6, 0x26, 0xE1, 0x69, 0x14, 0x63, 0x55, 0x21, 0x0C, 0x7D
+        0x52,
+        0x09,
+        0x6A,
+        0xD5,
+        0x30,
+        0x36,
+        0xA5,
+        0x38,
+        0xBF,
+        0x40,
+        0xA3,
+        0x9E,
+        0x81,
+        0xF3,
+        0xD7,
+        0xFB,
+        0x7C,
+        0xE3,
+        0x39,
+        0x82,
+        0x9B,
+        0x2F,
+        0xFF,
+        0x87,
+        0x34,
+        0x8E,
+        0x43,
+        0x44,
+        0xC4,
+        0xDE,
+        0xE9,
+        0xCB,
+        0x54,
+        0x7B,
+        0x94,
+        0x32,
+        0xA6,
+        0xC2,
+        0x23,
+        0x3D,
+        0xEE,
+        0x4C,
+        0x95,
+        0x0B,
+        0x42,
+        0xFA,
+        0xC3,
+        0x4E,
+        0x08,
+        0x2E,
+        0xA1,
+        0x66,
+        0x28,
+        0xD9,
+        0x24,
+        0xB2,
+        0x76,
+        0x5B,
+        0xA2,
+        0x49,
+        0x6D,
+        0x8B,
+        0xD1,
+        0x25,
+        0x72,
+        0xF8,
+        0xF6,
+        0x64,
+        0x86,
+        0x68,
+        0x98,
+        0x16,
+        0xD4,
+        0xA4,
+        0x5C,
+        0xCC,
+        0x5D,
+        0x65,
+        0xB6,
+        0x92,
+        0x6C,
+        0x70,
+        0x48,
+        0x50,
+        0xFD,
+        0xED,
+        0xB9,
+        0xDA,
+        0x5E,
+        0x15,
+        0x46,
+        0x57,
+        0xA7,
+        0x8D,
+        0x9D,
+        0x84,
+        0x90,
+        0xD8,
+        0xAB,
+        0x00,
+        0x8C,
+        0xBC,
+        0xD3,
+        0x0A,
+        0xF7,
+        0xE4,
+        0x58,
+        0x05,
+        0xB8,
+        0xB3,
+        0x45,
+        0x06,
+        0xD0,
+        0x2C,
+        0x1E,
+        0x8F,
+        0xCA,
+        0x3F,
+        0x0F,
+        0x02,
+        0xC1,
+        0xAF,
+        0xBD,
+        0x03,
+        0x01,
+        0x13,
+        0x8A,
+        0x6B,
+        0x3A,
+        0x91,
+        0x11,
+        0x41,
+        0x4F,
+        0x67,
+        0xDC,
+        0xEA,
+        0x97,
+        0xF2,
+        0xCF,
+        0xCE,
+        0xF0,
+        0xB4,
+        0xE6,
+        0x73,
+        0x96,
+        0xAC,
+        0x74,
+        0x22,
+        0xE7,
+        0xAD,
+        0x35,
+        0x85,
+        0xE2,
+        0xF9,
+        0x37,
+        0xE8,
+        0x1C,
+        0x75,
+        0xDF,
+        0x6E,
+        0x47,
+        0xF1,
+        0x1A,
+        0x71,
+        0x1D,
+        0x29,
+        0xC5,
+        0x89,
+        0x6F,
+        0xB7,
+        0x62,
+        0x0E,
+        0xAA,
+        0x18,
+        0xBE,
+        0x1B,
+        0xFC,
+        0x56,
+        0x3E,
+        0x4B,
+        0xC6,
+        0xD2,
+        0x79,
+        0x20,
+        0x9A,
+        0xDB,
+        0xC0,
+        0xFE,
+        0x78,
+        0xCD,
+        0x5A,
+        0xF4,
+        0x1F,
+        0xDD,
+        0xA8,
+        0x33,
+        0x88,
+        0x07,
+        0xC7,
+        0x31,
+        0xB1,
+        0x12,
+        0x10,
+        0x59,
+        0x27,
+        0x80,
+        0xEC,
+        0x5F,
+        0x60,
+        0x51,
+        0x7F,
+        0xA9,
+        0x19,
+        0xB5,
+        0x4A,
+        0x0D,
+        0x2D,
+        0xE5,
+        0x7A,
+        0x9F,
+        0x93,
+        0xC9,
+        0x9C,
+        0xEF,
+        0xA0,
+        0xE0,
+        0x3B,
+        0x4D,
+        0xAE,
+        0x2A,
+        0xF5,
+        0xB0,
+        0xC8,
+        0xEB,
+        0xBB,
+        0x3C,
+        0x83,
+        0x53,
+        0x99,
+        0x61,
+        0x17,
+        0x2B,
+        0x04,
+        0x7E,
+        0xBA,
+        0x77,
+        0xD6,
+        0x26,
+        0xE1,
+        0x69,
+        0x14,
+        0x63,
+        0x55,
+        0x21,
+        0x0C,
+        0x7D,
     };
 
     /**
@@ -83,22 +805,262 @@ public class AES {
      * the MixColums step during encryption.
      */
     private static final int[] MULT2 = {
-        0x00, 0x02, 0x04, 0x06, 0x08, 0x0a, 0x0c, 0x0e, 0x10, 0x12, 0x14, 0x16, 0x18, 0x1a, 0x1c, 0x1e,
-        0x20, 0x22, 0x24, 0x26, 0x28, 0x2a, 0x2c, 0x2e, 0x30, 0x32, 0x34, 0x36, 0x38, 0x3a, 0x3c, 0x3e,
-        0x40, 0x42, 0x44, 0x46, 0x48, 0x4a, 0x4c, 0x4e, 0x50, 0x52, 0x54, 0x56, 0x58, 0x5a, 0x5c, 0x5e,
-        0x60, 0x62, 0x64, 0x66, 0x68, 0x6a, 0x6c, 0x6e, 0x70, 0x72, 0x74, 0x76, 0x78, 0x7a, 0x7c, 0x7e,
-        0x80, 0x82, 0x84, 0x86, 0x88, 0x8a, 0x8c, 0x8e, 0x90, 0x92, 0x94, 0x96, 0x98, 0x9a, 0x9c, 0x9e,
-        0xa0, 0xa2, 0xa4, 0xa6, 0xa8, 0xaa, 0xac, 0xae, 0xb0, 0xb2, 0xb4, 0xb6, 0xb8, 0xba, 0xbc, 0xbe,
-        0xc0, 0xc2, 0xc4, 0xc6, 0xc8, 0xca, 0xcc, 0xce, 0xd0, 0xd2, 0xd4, 0xd6, 0xd8, 0xda, 0xdc, 0xde,
-        0xe0, 0xe2, 0xe4, 0xe6, 0xe8, 0xea, 0xec, 0xee, 0xf0, 0xf2, 0xf4, 0xf6, 0xf8, 0xfa, 0xfc, 0xfe,
-        0x1b, 0x19, 0x1f, 0x1d, 0x13, 0x11, 0x17, 0x15, 0x0b, 0x09, 0x0f, 0x0d, 0x03, 0x01, 0x07, 0x05,
-        0x3b, 0x39, 0x3f, 0x3d, 0x33, 0x31, 0x37, 0x35, 0x2b, 0x29, 0x2f, 0x2d, 0x23, 0x21, 0x27, 0x25,
-        0x5b, 0x59, 0x5f, 0x5d, 0x53, 0x51, 0x57, 0x55, 0x4b, 0x49, 0x4f, 0x4d, 0x43, 0x41, 0x47, 0x45,
-        0x7b, 0x79, 0x7f, 0x7d, 0x73, 0x71, 0x77, 0x75, 0x6b, 0x69, 0x6f, 0x6d, 0x63, 0x61, 0x67, 0x65,
-        0x9b, 0x99, 0x9f, 0x9d, 0x93, 0x91, 0x97, 0x95, 0x8b, 0x89, 0x8f, 0x8d, 0x83, 0x81, 0x87, 0x85,
-        0xbb, 0xb9, 0xbf, 0xbd, 0xb3, 0xb1, 0xb7, 0xb5, 0xab, 0xa9, 0xaf, 0xad, 0xa3, 0xa1, 0xa7, 0xa5,
-        0xdb, 0xd9, 0xdf, 0xdd, 0xd3, 0xd1, 0xd7, 0xd5, 0xcb, 0xc9, 0xcf, 0xcd, 0xc3, 0xc1, 0xc7, 0xc5,
-        0xfb, 0xf9, 0xff, 0xfd, 0xf3, 0xf1, 0xf7, 0xf5, 0xeb, 0xe9, 0xef, 0xed, 0xe3, 0xe1, 0xe7, 0xe5
+        0x00,
+        0x02,
+        0x04,
+        0x06,
+        0x08,
+        0x0a,
+        0x0c,
+        0x0e,
+        0x10,
+        0x12,
+        0x14,
+        0x16,
+        0x18,
+        0x1a,
+        0x1c,
+        0x1e,
+        0x20,
+        0x22,
+        0x24,
+        0x26,
+        0x28,
+        0x2a,
+        0x2c,
+        0x2e,
+        0x30,
+        0x32,
+        0x34,
+        0x36,
+        0x38,
+        0x3a,
+        0x3c,
+        0x3e,
+        0x40,
+        0x42,
+        0x44,
+        0x46,
+        0x48,
+        0x4a,
+        0x4c,
+        0x4e,
+        0x50,
+        0x52,
+        0x54,
+        0x56,
+        0x58,
+        0x5a,
+        0x5c,
+        0x5e,
+        0x60,
+        0x62,
+        0x64,
+        0x66,
+        0x68,
+        0x6a,
+        0x6c,
+        0x6e,
+        0x70,
+        0x72,
+        0x74,
+        0x76,
+        0x78,
+        0x7a,
+        0x7c,
+        0x7e,
+        0x80,
+        0x82,
+        0x84,
+        0x86,
+        0x88,
+        0x8a,
+        0x8c,
+        0x8e,
+        0x90,
+        0x92,
+        0x94,
+        0x96,
+        0x98,
+        0x9a,
+        0x9c,
+        0x9e,
+        0xa0,
+        0xa2,
+        0xa4,
+        0xa6,
+        0xa8,
+        0xaa,
+        0xac,
+        0xae,
+        0xb0,
+        0xb2,
+        0xb4,
+        0xb6,
+        0xb8,
+        0xba,
+        0xbc,
+        0xbe,
+        0xc0,
+        0xc2,
+        0xc4,
+        0xc6,
+        0xc8,
+        0xca,
+        0xcc,
+        0xce,
+        0xd0,
+        0xd2,
+        0xd4,
+        0xd6,
+        0xd8,
+        0xda,
+        0xdc,
+        0xde,
+        0xe0,
+        0xe2,
+        0xe4,
+        0xe6,
+        0xe8,
+        0xea,
+        0xec,
+        0xee,
+        0xf0,
+        0xf2,
+        0xf4,
+        0xf6,
+        0xf8,
+        0xfa,
+        0xfc,
+        0xfe,
+        0x1b,
+        0x19,
+        0x1f,
+        0x1d,
+        0x13,
+        0x11,
+        0x17,
+        0x15,
+        0x0b,
+        0x09,
+        0x0f,
+        0x0d,
+        0x03,
+        0x01,
+        0x07,
+        0x05,
+        0x3b,
+        0x39,
+        0x3f,
+        0x3d,
+        0x33,
+        0x31,
+        0x37,
+        0x35,
+        0x2b,
+        0x29,
+        0x2f,
+        0x2d,
+        0x23,
+        0x21,
+        0x27,
+        0x25,
+        0x5b,
+        0x59,
+        0x5f,
+        0x5d,
+        0x53,
+        0x51,
+        0x57,
+        0x55,
+        0x4b,
+        0x49,
+        0x4f,
+        0x4d,
+        0x43,
+        0x41,
+        0x47,
+        0x45,
+        0x7b,
+        0x79,
+        0x7f,
+        0x7d,
+        0x73,
+        0x71,
+        0x77,
+        0x75,
+        0x6b,
+        0x69,
+        0x6f,
+        0x6d,
+        0x63,
+        0x61,
+        0x67,
+        0x65,
+        0x9b,
+        0x99,
+        0x9f,
+        0x9d,
+        0x93,
+        0x91,
+        0x97,
+        0x95,
+        0x8b,
+        0x89,
+        0x8f,
+        0x8d,
+        0x83,
+        0x81,
+        0x87,
+        0x85,
+        0xbb,
+        0xb9,
+        0xbf,
+        0xbd,
+        0xb3,
+        0xb1,
+        0xb7,
+        0xb5,
+        0xab,
+        0xa9,
+        0xaf,
+        0xad,
+        0xa3,
+        0xa1,
+        0xa7,
+        0xa5,
+        0xdb,
+        0xd9,
+        0xdf,
+        0xdd,
+        0xd3,
+        0xd1,
+        0xd7,
+        0xd5,
+        0xcb,
+        0xc9,
+        0xcf,
+        0xcd,
+        0xc3,
+        0xc1,
+        0xc7,
+        0xc5,
+        0xfb,
+        0xf9,
+        0xff,
+        0xfd,
+        0xf3,
+        0xf1,
+        0xf7,
+        0xf5,
+        0xeb,
+        0xe9,
+        0xef,
+        0xed,
+        0xe3,
+        0xe1,
+        0xe7,
+        0xe5,
     };
 
     /**
@@ -106,22 +1068,262 @@ public class AES {
      * the MixColums step during encryption.
      */
     private static final int[] MULT3 = {
-        0x00, 0x03, 0x06, 0x05, 0x0c, 0x0f, 0x0a, 0x09, 0x18, 0x1b, 0x1e, 0x1d, 0x14, 0x17, 0x12, 0x11,
-        0x30, 0x33, 0x36, 0x35, 0x3c, 0x3f, 0x3a, 0x39, 0x28, 0x2b, 0x2e, 0x2d, 0x24, 0x27, 0x22, 0x21,
-        0x60, 0x63, 0x66, 0x65, 0x6c, 0x6f, 0x6a, 0x69, 0x78, 0x7b, 0x7e, 0x7d, 0x74, 0x77, 0x72, 0x71,
-        0x50, 0x53, 0x56, 0x55, 0x5c, 0x5f, 0x5a, 0x59, 0x48, 0x4b, 0x4e, 0x4d, 0x44, 0x47, 0x42, 0x41,
-        0xc0, 0xc3, 0xc6, 0xc5, 0xcc, 0xcf, 0xca, 0xc9, 0xd8, 0xdb, 0xde, 0xdd, 0xd4, 0xd7, 0xd2, 0xd1,
-        0xf0, 0xf3, 0xf6, 0xf5, 0xfc, 0xff, 0xfa, 0xf9, 0xe8, 0xeb, 0xee, 0xed, 0xe4, 0xe7, 0xe2, 0xe1,
-        0xa0, 0xa3, 0xa6, 0xa5, 0xac, 0xaf, 0xaa, 0xa9, 0xb8, 0xbb, 0xbe, 0xbd, 0xb4, 0xb7, 0xb2, 0xb1,
-        0x90, 0x93, 0x96, 0x95, 0x9c, 0x9f, 0x9a, 0x99, 0x88, 0x8b, 0x8e, 0x8d, 0x84, 0x87, 0x82, 0x81,
-        0x9b, 0x98, 0x9d, 0x9e, 0x97, 0x94, 0x91, 0x92, 0x83, 0x80, 0x85, 0x86, 0x8f, 0x8c, 0x89, 0x8a,
-        0xab, 0xa8, 0xad, 0xae, 0xa7, 0xa4, 0xa1, 0xa2, 0xb3, 0xb0, 0xb5, 0xb6, 0xbf, 0xbc, 0xb9, 0xba,
-        0xfb, 0xf8, 0xfd, 0xfe, 0xf7, 0xf4, 0xf1, 0xf2, 0xe3, 0xe0, 0xe5, 0xe6, 0xef, 0xec, 0xe9, 0xea,
-        0xcb, 0xc8, 0xcd, 0xce, 0xc7, 0xc4, 0xc1, 0xc2, 0xd3, 0xd0, 0xd5, 0xd6, 0xdf, 0xdc, 0xd9, 0xda,
-        0x5b, 0x58, 0x5d, 0x5e, 0x57, 0x54, 0x51, 0x52, 0x43, 0x40, 0x45, 0x46, 0x4f, 0x4c, 0x49, 0x4a,
-        0x6b, 0x68, 0x6d, 0x6e, 0x67, 0x64, 0x61, 0x62, 0x73, 0x70, 0x75, 0x76, 0x7f, 0x7c, 0x79, 0x7a,
-        0x3b, 0x38, 0x3d, 0x3e, 0x37, 0x34, 0x31, 0x32, 0x23, 0x20, 0x25, 0x26, 0x2f, 0x2c, 0x29, 0x2a,
-        0x0b, 0x08, 0x0d, 0x0e, 0x07, 0x04, 0x01, 0x02, 0x13, 0x10, 0x15, 0x16, 0x1f, 0x1c, 0x19, 0x1a
+        0x00,
+        0x03,
+        0x06,
+        0x05,
+        0x0c,
+        0x0f,
+        0x0a,
+        0x09,
+        0x18,
+        0x1b,
+        0x1e,
+        0x1d,
+        0x14,
+        0x17,
+        0x12,
+        0x11,
+        0x30,
+        0x33,
+        0x36,
+        0x35,
+        0x3c,
+        0x3f,
+        0x3a,
+        0x39,
+        0x28,
+        0x2b,
+        0x2e,
+        0x2d,
+        0x24,
+        0x27,
+        0x22,
+        0x21,
+        0x60,
+        0x63,
+        0x66,
+        0x65,
+        0x6c,
+        0x6f,
+        0x6a,
+        0x69,
+        0x78,
+        0x7b,
+        0x7e,
+        0x7d,
+        0x74,
+        0x77,
+        0x72,
+        0x71,
+        0x50,
+        0x53,
+        0x56,
+        0x55,
+        0x5c,
+        0x5f,
+        0x5a,
+        0x59,
+        0x48,
+        0x4b,
+        0x4e,
+        0x4d,
+        0x44,
+        0x47,
+        0x42,
+        0x41,
+        0xc0,
+        0xc3,
+        0xc6,
+        0xc5,
+        0xcc,
+        0xcf,
+        0xca,
+        0xc9,
+        0xd8,
+        0xdb,
+        0xde,
+        0xdd,
+        0xd4,
+        0xd7,
+        0xd2,
+        0xd1,
+        0xf0,
+        0xf3,
+        0xf6,
+        0xf5,
+        0xfc,
+        0xff,
+        0xfa,
+        0xf9,
+        0xe8,
+        0xeb,
+        0xee,
+        0xed,
+        0xe4,
+        0xe7,
+        0xe2,
+        0xe1,
+        0xa0,
+        0xa3,
+        0xa6,
+        0xa5,
+        0xac,
+        0xaf,
+        0xaa,
+        0xa9,
+        0xb8,
+        0xbb,
+        0xbe,
+        0xbd,
+        0xb4,
+        0xb7,
+        0xb2,
+        0xb1,
+        0x90,
+        0x93,
+        0x96,
+        0x95,
+        0x9c,
+        0x9f,
+        0x9a,
+        0x99,
+        0x88,
+        0x8b,
+        0x8e,
+        0x8d,
+        0x84,
+        0x87,
+        0x82,
+        0x81,
+        0x9b,
+        0x98,
+        0x9d,
+        0x9e,
+        0x97,
+        0x94,
+        0x91,
+        0x92,
+        0x83,
+        0x80,
+        0x85,
+        0x86,
+        0x8f,
+        0x8c,
+        0x89,
+        0x8a,
+        0xab,
+        0xa8,
+        0xad,
+        0xae,
+        0xa7,
+        0xa4,
+        0xa1,
+        0xa2,
+        0xb3,
+        0xb0,
+        0xb5,
+        0xb6,
+        0xbf,
+        0xbc,
+        0xb9,
+        0xba,
+        0xfb,
+        0xf8,
+        0xfd,
+        0xfe,
+        0xf7,
+        0xf4,
+        0xf1,
+        0xf2,
+        0xe3,
+        0xe0,
+        0xe5,
+        0xe6,
+        0xef,
+        0xec,
+        0xe9,
+        0xea,
+        0xcb,
+        0xc8,
+        0xcd,
+        0xce,
+        0xc7,
+        0xc4,
+        0xc1,
+        0xc2,
+        0xd3,
+        0xd0,
+        0xd5,
+        0xd6,
+        0xdf,
+        0xdc,
+        0xd9,
+        0xda,
+        0x5b,
+        0x58,
+        0x5d,
+        0x5e,
+        0x57,
+        0x54,
+        0x51,
+        0x52,
+        0x43,
+        0x40,
+        0x45,
+        0x46,
+        0x4f,
+        0x4c,
+        0x49,
+        0x4a,
+        0x6b,
+        0x68,
+        0x6d,
+        0x6e,
+        0x67,
+        0x64,
+        0x61,
+        0x62,
+        0x73,
+        0x70,
+        0x75,
+        0x76,
+        0x7f,
+        0x7c,
+        0x79,
+        0x7a,
+        0x3b,
+        0x38,
+        0x3d,
+        0x3e,
+        0x37,
+        0x34,
+        0x31,
+        0x32,
+        0x23,
+        0x20,
+        0x25,
+        0x26,
+        0x2f,
+        0x2c,
+        0x29,
+        0x2a,
+        0x0b,
+        0x08,
+        0x0d,
+        0x0e,
+        0x07,
+        0x04,
+        0x01,
+        0x02,
+        0x13,
+        0x10,
+        0x15,
+        0x16,
+        0x1f,
+        0x1c,
+        0x19,
+        0x1a,
     };
 
     /**
@@ -129,22 +1331,262 @@ public class AES {
      * the MixColums step during decryption.
      */
     private static final int[] MULT9 = {
-        0x00, 0x09, 0x12, 0x1b, 0x24, 0x2d, 0x36, 0x3f, 0x48, 0x41, 0x5a, 0x53, 0x6c, 0x65, 0x7e, 0x77,
-        0x90, 0x99, 0x82, 0x8b, 0xb4, 0xbd, 0xa6, 0xaf, 0xd8, 0xd1, 0xca, 0xc3, 0xfc, 0xf5, 0xee, 0xe7,
-        0x3b, 0x32, 0x29, 0x20, 0x1f, 0x16, 0x0d, 0x04, 0x73, 0x7a, 0x61, 0x68, 0x57, 0x5e, 0x45, 0x4c,
-        0xab, 0xa2, 0xb9, 0xb0, 0x8f, 0x86, 0x9d, 0x94, 0xe3, 0xea, 0xf1, 0xf8, 0xc7, 0xce, 0xd5, 0xdc,
-        0x76, 0x7f, 0x64, 0x6d, 0x52, 0x5b, 0x40, 0x49, 0x3e, 0x37, 0x2c, 0x25, 0x1a, 0x13, 0x08, 0x01,
-        0xe6, 0xef, 0xf4, 0xfd, 0xc2, 0xcb, 0xd0, 0xd9, 0xae, 0xa7, 0xbc, 0xb5, 0x8a, 0x83, 0x98, 0x91,
-        0x4d, 0x44, 0x5f, 0x56, 0x69, 0x60, 0x7b, 0x72, 0x05, 0x0c, 0x17, 0x1e, 0x21, 0x28, 0x33, 0x3a,
-        0xdd, 0xd4, 0xcf, 0xc6, 0xf9, 0xf0, 0xeb, 0xe2, 0x95, 0x9c, 0x87, 0x8e, 0xb1, 0xb8, 0xa3, 0xaa,
-        0xec, 0xe5, 0xfe, 0xf7, 0xc8, 0xc1, 0xda, 0xd3, 0xa4, 0xad, 0xb6, 0xbf, 0x80, 0x89, 0x92, 0x9b,
-        0x7c, 0x75, 0x6e, 0x67, 0x58, 0x51, 0x4a, 0x43, 0x34, 0x3d, 0x26, 0x2f, 0x10, 0x19, 0x02, 0x0b,
-        0xd7, 0xde, 0xc5, 0xcc, 0xf3, 0xfa, 0xe1, 0xe8, 0x9f, 0x96, 0x8d, 0x84, 0xbb, 0xb2, 0xa9, 0xa0,
-        0x47, 0x4e, 0x55, 0x5c, 0x63, 0x6a, 0x71, 0x78, 0x0f, 0x06, 0x1d, 0x14, 0x2b, 0x22, 0x39, 0x30,
-        0x9a, 0x93, 0x88, 0x81, 0xbe, 0xb7, 0xac, 0xa5, 0xd2, 0xdb, 0xc0, 0xc9, 0xf6, 0xff, 0xe4, 0xed,
-        0x0a, 0x03, 0x18, 0x11, 0x2e, 0x27, 0x3c, 0x35, 0x42, 0x4b, 0x50, 0x59, 0x66, 0x6f, 0x74, 0x7d,
-        0xa1, 0xa8, 0xb3, 0xba, 0x85, 0x8c, 0x97, 0x9e, 0xe9, 0xe0, 0xfb, 0xf2, 0xcd, 0xc4, 0xdf, 0xd6,
-        0x31, 0x38, 0x23, 0x2a, 0x15, 0x1c, 0x07, 0x0e, 0x79, 0x70, 0x6b, 0x62, 0x5d, 0x54, 0x4f, 0x46
+        0x00,
+        0x09,
+        0x12,
+        0x1b,
+        0x24,
+        0x2d,
+        0x36,
+        0x3f,
+        0x48,
+        0x41,
+        0x5a,
+        0x53,
+        0x6c,
+        0x65,
+        0x7e,
+        0x77,
+        0x90,
+        0x99,
+        0x82,
+        0x8b,
+        0xb4,
+        0xbd,
+        0xa6,
+        0xaf,
+        0xd8,
+        0xd1,
+        0xca,
+        0xc3,
+        0xfc,
+        0xf5,
+        0xee,
+        0xe7,
+        0x3b,
+        0x32,
+        0x29,
+        0x20,
+        0x1f,
+        0x16,
+        0x0d,
+        0x04,
+        0x73,
+        0x7a,
+        0x61,
+        0x68,
+        0x57,
+        0x5e,
+        0x45,
+        0x4c,
+        0xab,
+        0xa2,
+        0xb9,
+        0xb0,
+        0x8f,
+        0x86,
+        0x9d,
+        0x94,
+        0xe3,
+        0xea,
+        0xf1,
+        0xf8,
+        0xc7,
+        0xce,
+        0xd5,
+        0xdc,
+        0x76,
+        0x7f,
+        0x64,
+        0x6d,
+        0x52,
+        0x5b,
+        0x40,
+        0x49,
+        0x3e,
+        0x37,
+        0x2c,
+        0x25,
+        0x1a,
+        0x13,
+        0x08,
+        0x01,
+        0xe6,
+        0xef,
+        0xf4,
+        0xfd,
+        0xc2,
+        0xcb,
+        0xd0,
+        0xd9,
+        0xae,
+        0xa7,
+        0xbc,
+        0xb5,
+        0x8a,
+        0x83,
+        0x98,
+        0x91,
+        0x4d,
+        0x44,
+        0x5f,
+        0x56,
+        0x69,
+        0x60,
+        0x7b,
+        0x72,
+        0x05,
+        0x0c,
+        0x17,
+        0x1e,
+        0x21,
+        0x28,
+        0x33,
+        0x3a,
+        0xdd,
+        0xd4,
+        0xcf,
+        0xc6,
+        0xf9,
+        0xf0,
+        0xeb,
+        0xe2,
+        0x95,
+        0x9c,
+        0x87,
+        0x8e,
+        0xb1,
+        0xb8,
+        0xa3,
+        0xaa,
+        0xec,
+        0xe5,
+        0xfe,
+        0xf7,
+        0xc8,
+        0xc1,
+        0xda,
+        0xd3,
+        0xa4,
+        0xad,
+        0xb6,
+        0xbf,
+        0x80,
+        0x89,
+        0x92,
+        0x9b,
+        0x7c,
+        0x75,
+        0x6e,
+        0x67,
+        0x58,
+        0x51,
+        0x4a,
+        0x43,
+        0x34,
+        0x3d,
+        0x26,
+        0x2f,
+        0x10,
+        0x19,
+        0x02,
+        0x0b,
+        0xd7,
+        0xde,
+        0xc5,
+        0xcc,
+        0xf3,
+        0xfa,
+        0xe1,
+        0xe8,
+        0x9f,
+        0x96,
+        0x8d,
+        0x84,
+        0xbb,
+        0xb2,
+        0xa9,
+        0xa0,
+        0x47,
+        0x4e,
+        0x55,
+        0x5c,
+        0x63,
+        0x6a,
+        0x71,
+        0x78,
+        0x0f,
+        0x06,
+        0x1d,
+        0x14,
+        0x2b,
+        0x22,
+        0x39,
+        0x30,
+        0x9a,
+        0x93,
+        0x88,
+        0x81,
+        0xbe,
+        0xb7,
+        0xac,
+        0xa5,
+        0xd2,
+        0xdb,
+        0xc0,
+        0xc9,
+        0xf6,
+        0xff,
+        0xe4,
+        0xed,
+        0x0a,
+        0x03,
+        0x18,
+        0x11,
+        0x2e,
+        0x27,
+        0x3c,
+        0x35,
+        0x42,
+        0x4b,
+        0x50,
+        0x59,
+        0x66,
+        0x6f,
+        0x74,
+        0x7d,
+        0xa1,
+        0xa8,
+        0xb3,
+        0xba,
+        0x85,
+        0x8c,
+        0x97,
+        0x9e,
+        0xe9,
+        0xe0,
+        0xfb,
+        0xf2,
+        0xcd,
+        0xc4,
+        0xdf,
+        0xd6,
+        0x31,
+        0x38,
+        0x23,
+        0x2a,
+        0x15,
+        0x1c,
+        0x07,
+        0x0e,
+        0x79,
+        0x70,
+        0x6b,
+        0x62,
+        0x5d,
+        0x54,
+        0x4f,
+        0x46,
     };
 
     /**
@@ -152,22 +1594,262 @@ public class AES {
      * the MixColums step during decryption.
      */
     private static final int[] MULT11 = {
-        0x00, 0x0b, 0x16, 0x1d, 0x2c, 0x27, 0x3a, 0x31, 0x58, 0x53, 0x4e, 0x45, 0x74, 0x7f, 0x62, 0x69,
-        0xb0, 0xbb, 0xa6, 0xad, 0x9c, 0x97, 0x8a, 0x81, 0xe8, 0xe3, 0xfe, 0xf5, 0xc4, 0xcf, 0xd2, 0xd9,
-        0x7b, 0x70, 0x6d, 0x66, 0x57, 0x5c, 0x41, 0x4a, 0x23, 0x28, 0x35, 0x3e, 0x0f, 0x04, 0x19, 0x12,
-        0xcb, 0xc0, 0xdd, 0xd6, 0xe7, 0xec, 0xf1, 0xfa, 0x93, 0x98, 0x85, 0x8e, 0xbf, 0xb4, 0xa9, 0xa2,
-        0xf6, 0xfd, 0xe0, 0xeb, 0xda, 0xd1, 0xcc, 0xc7, 0xae, 0xa5, 0xb8, 0xb3, 0x82, 0x89, 0x94, 0x9f,
-        0x46, 0x4d, 0x50, 0x5b, 0x6a, 0x61, 0x7c, 0x77, 0x1e, 0x15, 0x08, 0x03, 0x32, 0x39, 0x24, 0x2f,
-        0x8d, 0x86, 0x9b, 0x90, 0xa1, 0xaa, 0xb7, 0xbc, 0xd5, 0xde, 0xc3, 0xc8, 0xf9, 0xf2, 0xef, 0xe4,
-        0x3d, 0x36, 0x2b, 0x20, 0x11, 0x1a, 0x07, 0x0c, 0x65, 0x6e, 0x73, 0x78, 0x49, 0x42, 0x5f, 0x54,
-        0xf7, 0xfc, 0xe1, 0xea, 0xdb, 0xd0, 0xcd, 0xc6, 0xaf, 0xa4, 0xb9, 0xb2, 0x83, 0x88, 0x95, 0x9e,
-        0x47, 0x4c, 0x51, 0x5a, 0x6b, 0x60, 0x7d, 0x76, 0x1f, 0x14, 0x09, 0x02, 0x33, 0x38, 0x25, 0x2e,
-        0x8c, 0x87, 0x9a, 0x91, 0xa0, 0xab, 0xb6, 0xbd, 0xd4, 0xdf, 0xc2, 0xc9, 0xf8, 0xf3, 0xee, 0xe5,
-        0x3c, 0x37, 0x2a, 0x21, 0x10, 0x1b, 0x06, 0x0d, 0x64, 0x6f, 0x72, 0x79, 0x48, 0x43, 0x5e, 0x55,
-        0x01, 0x0a, 0x17, 0x1c, 0x2d, 0x26, 0x3b, 0x30, 0x59, 0x52, 0x4f, 0x44, 0x75, 0x7e, 0x63, 0x68,
-        0xb1, 0xba, 0xa7, 0xac, 0x9d, 0x96, 0x8b, 0x80, 0xe9, 0xe2, 0xff, 0xf4, 0xc5, 0xce, 0xd3, 0xd8,
-        0x7a, 0x71, 0x6c, 0x67, 0x56, 0x5d, 0x40, 0x4b, 0x22, 0x29, 0x34, 0x3f, 0x0e, 0x05, 0x18, 0x13,
-        0xca, 0xc1, 0xdc, 0xd7, 0xe6, 0xed, 0xf0, 0xfb, 0x92, 0x99, 0x84, 0x8f, 0xbe, 0xb5, 0xa8, 0xa3
+        0x00,
+        0x0b,
+        0x16,
+        0x1d,
+        0x2c,
+        0x27,
+        0x3a,
+        0x31,
+        0x58,
+        0x53,
+        0x4e,
+        0x45,
+        0x74,
+        0x7f,
+        0x62,
+        0x69,
+        0xb0,
+        0xbb,
+        0xa6,
+        0xad,
+        0x9c,
+        0x97,
+        0x8a,
+        0x81,
+        0xe8,
+        0xe3,
+        0xfe,
+        0xf5,
+        0xc4,
+        0xcf,
+        0xd2,
+        0xd9,
+        0x7b,
+        0x70,
+        0x6d,
+        0x66,
+        0x57,
+        0x5c,
+        0x41,
+        0x4a,
+        0x23,
+        0x28,
+        0x35,
+        0x3e,
+        0x0f,
+        0x04,
+        0x19,
+        0x12,
+        0xcb,
+        0xc0,
+        0xdd,
+        0xd6,
+        0xe7,
+        0xec,
+        0xf1,
+        0xfa,
+        0x93,
+        0x98,
+        0x85,
+        0x8e,
+        0xbf,
+        0xb4,
+        0xa9,
+        0xa2,
+        0xf6,
+        0xfd,
+        0xe0,
+        0xeb,
+        0xda,
+        0xd1,
+        0xcc,
+        0xc7,
+        0xae,
+        0xa5,
+        0xb8,
+        0xb3,
+        0x82,
+        0x89,
+        0x94,
+        0x9f,
+        0x46,
+        0x4d,
+        0x50,
+        0x5b,
+        0x6a,
+        0x61,
+        0x7c,
+        0x77,
+        0x1e,
+        0x15,
+        0x08,
+        0x03,
+        0x32,
+        0x39,
+        0x24,
+        0x2f,
+        0x8d,
+        0x86,
+        0x9b,
+        0x90,
+        0xa1,
+        0xaa,
+        0xb7,
+        0xbc,
+        0xd5,
+        0xde,
+        0xc3,
+        0xc8,
+        0xf9,
+        0xf2,
+        0xef,
+        0xe4,
+        0x3d,
+        0x36,
+        0x2b,
+        0x20,
+        0x11,
+        0x1a,
+        0x07,
+        0x0c,
+        0x65,
+        0x6e,
+        0x73,
+        0x78,
+        0x49,
+        0x42,
+        0x5f,
+        0x54,
+        0xf7,
+        0xfc,
+        0xe1,
+        0xea,
+        0xdb,
+        0xd0,
+        0xcd,
+        0xc6,
+        0xaf,
+        0xa4,
+        0xb9,
+        0xb2,
+        0x83,
+        0x88,
+        0x95,
+        0x9e,
+        0x47,
+        0x4c,
+        0x51,
+        0x5a,
+        0x6b,
+        0x60,
+        0x7d,
+        0x76,
+        0x1f,
+        0x14,
+        0x09,
+        0x02,
+        0x33,
+        0x38,
+        0x25,
+        0x2e,
+        0x8c,
+        0x87,
+        0x9a,
+        0x91,
+        0xa0,
+        0xab,
+        0xb6,
+        0xbd,
+        0xd4,
+        0xdf,
+        0xc2,
+        0xc9,
+        0xf8,
+        0xf3,
+        0xee,
+        0xe5,
+        0x3c,
+        0x37,
+        0x2a,
+        0x21,
+        0x10,
+        0x1b,
+        0x06,
+        0x0d,
+        0x64,
+        0x6f,
+        0x72,
+        0x79,
+        0x48,
+        0x43,
+        0x5e,
+        0x55,
+        0x01,
+        0x0a,
+        0x17,
+        0x1c,
+        0x2d,
+        0x26,
+        0x3b,
+        0x30,
+        0x59,
+        0x52,
+        0x4f,
+        0x44,
+        0x75,
+        0x7e,
+        0x63,
+        0x68,
+        0xb1,
+        0xba,
+        0xa7,
+        0xac,
+        0x9d,
+        0x96,
+        0x8b,
+        0x80,
+        0xe9,
+        0xe2,
+        0xff,
+        0xf4,
+        0xc5,
+        0xce,
+        0xd3,
+        0xd8,
+        0x7a,
+        0x71,
+        0x6c,
+        0x67,
+        0x56,
+        0x5d,
+        0x40,
+        0x4b,
+        0x22,
+        0x29,
+        0x34,
+        0x3f,
+        0x0e,
+        0x05,
+        0x18,
+        0x13,
+        0xca,
+        0xc1,
+        0xdc,
+        0xd7,
+        0xe6,
+        0xed,
+        0xf0,
+        0xfb,
+        0x92,
+        0x99,
+        0x84,
+        0x8f,
+        0xbe,
+        0xb5,
+        0xa8,
+        0xa3,
     };
 
     /**
@@ -175,22 +1857,262 @@ public class AES {
      * the MixColums step during decryption.
      */
     private static final int[] MULT13 = {
-        0x00, 0x0d, 0x1a, 0x17, 0x34, 0x39, 0x2e, 0x23, 0x68, 0x65, 0x72, 0x7f, 0x5c, 0x51, 0x46, 0x4b,
-        0xd0, 0xdd, 0xca, 0xc7, 0xe4, 0xe9, 0xfe, 0xf3, 0xb8, 0xb5, 0xa2, 0xaf, 0x8c, 0x81, 0x96, 0x9b,
-        0xbb, 0xb6, 0xa1, 0xac, 0x8f, 0x82, 0x95, 0x98, 0xd3, 0xde, 0xc9, 0xc4, 0xe7, 0xea, 0xfd, 0xf0,
-        0x6b, 0x66, 0x71, 0x7c, 0x5f, 0x52, 0x45, 0x48, 0x03, 0x0e, 0x19, 0x14, 0x37, 0x3a, 0x2d, 0x20,
-        0x6d, 0x60, 0x77, 0x7a, 0x59, 0x54, 0x43, 0x4e, 0x05, 0x08, 0x1f, 0x12, 0x31, 0x3c, 0x2b, 0x26,
-        0xbd, 0xb0, 0xa7, 0xaa, 0x89, 0x84, 0x93, 0x9e, 0xd5, 0xd8, 0xcf, 0xc2, 0xe1, 0xec, 0xfb, 0xf6,
-        0xd6, 0xdb, 0xcc, 0xc1, 0xe2, 0xef, 0xf8, 0xf5, 0xbe, 0xb3, 0xa4, 0xa9, 0x8a, 0x87, 0x90, 0x9d,
-        0x06, 0x0b, 0x1c, 0x11, 0x32, 0x3f, 0x28, 0x25, 0x6e, 0x63, 0x74, 0x79, 0x5a, 0x57, 0x40, 0x4d,
-        0xda, 0xd7, 0xc0, 0xcd, 0xee, 0xe3, 0xf4, 0xf9, 0xb2, 0xbf, 0xa8, 0xa5, 0x86, 0x8b, 0x9c, 0x91,
-        0x0a, 0x07, 0x10, 0x1d, 0x3e, 0x33, 0x24, 0x29, 0x62, 0x6f, 0x78, 0x75, 0x56, 0x5b, 0x4c, 0x41,
-        0x61, 0x6c, 0x7b, 0x76, 0x55, 0x58, 0x4f, 0x42, 0x09, 0x04, 0x13, 0x1e, 0x3d, 0x30, 0x27, 0x2a,
-        0xb1, 0xbc, 0xab, 0xa6, 0x85, 0x88, 0x9f, 0x92, 0xd9, 0xd4, 0xc3, 0xce, 0xed, 0xe0, 0xf7, 0xfa,
-        0xb7, 0xba, 0xad, 0xa0, 0x83, 0x8e, 0x99, 0x94, 0xdf, 0xd2, 0xc5, 0xc8, 0xeb, 0xe6, 0xf1, 0xfc,
-        0x67, 0x6a, 0x7d, 0x70, 0x53, 0x5e, 0x49, 0x44, 0x0f, 0x02, 0x15, 0x18, 0x3b, 0x36, 0x21, 0x2c,
-        0x0c, 0x01, 0x16, 0x1b, 0x38, 0x35, 0x22, 0x2f, 0x64, 0x69, 0x7e, 0x73, 0x50, 0x5d, 0x4a, 0x47,
-        0xdc, 0xd1, 0xc6, 0xcb, 0xe8, 0xe5, 0xf2, 0xff, 0xb4, 0xb9, 0xae, 0xa3, 0x80, 0x8d, 0x9a, 0x97
+        0x00,
+        0x0d,
+        0x1a,
+        0x17,
+        0x34,
+        0x39,
+        0x2e,
+        0x23,
+        0x68,
+        0x65,
+        0x72,
+        0x7f,
+        0x5c,
+        0x51,
+        0x46,
+        0x4b,
+        0xd0,
+        0xdd,
+        0xca,
+        0xc7,
+        0xe4,
+        0xe9,
+        0xfe,
+        0xf3,
+        0xb8,
+        0xb5,
+        0xa2,
+        0xaf,
+        0x8c,
+        0x81,
+        0x96,
+        0x9b,
+        0xbb,
+        0xb6,
+        0xa1,
+        0xac,
+        0x8f,
+        0x82,
+        0x95,
+        0x98,
+        0xd3,
+        0xde,
+        0xc9,
+        0xc4,
+        0xe7,
+        0xea,
+        0xfd,
+        0xf0,
+        0x6b,
+        0x66,
+        0x71,
+        0x7c,
+        0x5f,
+        0x52,
+        0x45,
+        0x48,
+        0x03,
+        0x0e,
+        0x19,
+        0x14,
+        0x37,
+        0x3a,
+        0x2d,
+        0x20,
+        0x6d,
+        0x60,
+        0x77,
+        0x7a,
+        0x59,
+        0x54,
+        0x43,
+        0x4e,
+        0x05,
+        0x08,
+        0x1f,
+        0x12,
+        0x31,
+        0x3c,
+        0x2b,
+        0x26,
+        0xbd,
+        0xb0,
+        0xa7,
+        0xaa,
+        0x89,
+        0x84,
+        0x93,
+        0x9e,
+        0xd5,
+        0xd8,
+        0xcf,
+        0xc2,
+        0xe1,
+        0xec,
+        0xfb,
+        0xf6,
+        0xd6,
+        0xdb,
+        0xcc,
+        0xc1,
+        0xe2,
+        0xef,
+        0xf8,
+        0xf5,
+        0xbe,
+        0xb3,
+        0xa4,
+        0xa9,
+        0x8a,
+        0x87,
+        0x90,
+        0x9d,
+        0x06,
+        0x0b,
+        0x1c,
+        0x11,
+        0x32,
+        0x3f,
+        0x28,
+        0x25,
+        0x6e,
+        0x63,
+        0x74,
+        0x79,
+        0x5a,
+        0x57,
+        0x40,
+        0x4d,
+        0xda,
+        0xd7,
+        0xc0,
+        0xcd,
+        0xee,
+        0xe3,
+        0xf4,
+        0xf9,
+        0xb2,
+        0xbf,
+        0xa8,
+        0xa5,
+        0x86,
+        0x8b,
+        0x9c,
+        0x91,
+        0x0a,
+        0x07,
+        0x10,
+        0x1d,
+        0x3e,
+        0x33,
+        0x24,
+        0x29,
+        0x62,
+        0x6f,
+        0x78,
+        0x75,
+        0x56,
+        0x5b,
+        0x4c,
+        0x41,
+        0x61,
+        0x6c,
+        0x7b,
+        0x76,
+        0x55,
+        0x58,
+        0x4f,
+        0x42,
+        0x09,
+        0x04,
+        0x13,
+        0x1e,
+        0x3d,
+        0x30,
+        0x27,
+        0x2a,
+        0xb1,
+        0xbc,
+        0xab,
+        0xa6,
+        0x85,
+        0x88,
+        0x9f,
+        0x92,
+        0xd9,
+        0xd4,
+        0xc3,
+        0xce,
+        0xed,
+        0xe0,
+        0xf7,
+        0xfa,
+        0xb7,
+        0xba,
+        0xad,
+        0xa0,
+        0x83,
+        0x8e,
+        0x99,
+        0x94,
+        0xdf,
+        0xd2,
+        0xc5,
+        0xc8,
+        0xeb,
+        0xe6,
+        0xf1,
+        0xfc,
+        0x67,
+        0x6a,
+        0x7d,
+        0x70,
+        0x53,
+        0x5e,
+        0x49,
+        0x44,
+        0x0f,
+        0x02,
+        0x15,
+        0x18,
+        0x3b,
+        0x36,
+        0x21,
+        0x2c,
+        0x0c,
+        0x01,
+        0x16,
+        0x1b,
+        0x38,
+        0x35,
+        0x22,
+        0x2f,
+        0x64,
+        0x69,
+        0x7e,
+        0x73,
+        0x50,
+        0x5d,
+        0x4a,
+        0x47,
+        0xdc,
+        0xd1,
+        0xc6,
+        0xcb,
+        0xe8,
+        0xe5,
+        0xf2,
+        0xff,
+        0xb4,
+        0xb9,
+        0xae,
+        0xa3,
+        0x80,
+        0x8d,
+        0x9a,
+        0x97,
     };
 
     /**
@@ -198,22 +2120,262 @@ public class AES {
      * the MixColums step during decryption.
      */
     private static final int[] MULT14 = {
-        0x00, 0x0e, 0x1c, 0x12, 0x38, 0x36, 0x24, 0x2a, 0x70, 0x7e, 0x6c, 0x62, 0x48, 0x46, 0x54, 0x5a,
-        0xe0, 0xee, 0xfc, 0xf2, 0xd8, 0xd6, 0xc4, 0xca, 0x90, 0x9e, 0x8c, 0x82, 0xa8, 0xa6, 0xb4, 0xba,
-        0xdb, 0xd5, 0xc7, 0xc9, 0xe3, 0xed, 0xff, 0xf1, 0xab, 0xa5, 0xb7, 0xb9, 0x93, 0x9d, 0x8f, 0x81,
-        0x3b, 0x35, 0x27, 0x29, 0x03, 0x0d, 0x1f, 0x11, 0x4b, 0x45, 0x57, 0x59, 0x73, 0x7d, 0x6f, 0x61,
-        0xad, 0xa3, 0xb1, 0xbf, 0x95, 0x9b, 0x89, 0x87, 0xdd, 0xd3, 0xc1, 0xcf, 0xe5, 0xeb, 0xf9, 0xf7,
-        0x4d, 0x43, 0x51, 0x5f, 0x75, 0x7b, 0x69, 0x67, 0x3d, 0x33, 0x21, 0x2f, 0x05, 0x0b, 0x19, 0x17,
-        0x76, 0x78, 0x6a, 0x64, 0x4e, 0x40, 0x52, 0x5c, 0x06, 0x08, 0x1a, 0x14, 0x3e, 0x30, 0x22, 0x2c,
-        0x96, 0x98, 0x8a, 0x84, 0xae, 0xa0, 0xb2, 0xbc, 0xe6, 0xe8, 0xfa, 0xf4, 0xde, 0xd0, 0xc2, 0xcc,
-        0x41, 0x4f, 0x5d, 0x53, 0x79, 0x77, 0x65, 0x6b, 0x31, 0x3f, 0x2d, 0x23, 0x09, 0x07, 0x15, 0x1b,
-        0xa1, 0xaf, 0xbd, 0xb3, 0x99, 0x97, 0x85, 0x8b, 0xd1, 0xdf, 0xcd, 0xc3, 0xe9, 0xe7, 0xf5, 0xfb,
-        0x9a, 0x94, 0x86, 0x88, 0xa2, 0xac, 0xbe, 0xb0, 0xea, 0xe4, 0xf6, 0xf8, 0xd2, 0xdc, 0xce, 0xc0,
-        0x7a, 0x74, 0x66, 0x68, 0x42, 0x4c, 0x5e, 0x50, 0x0a, 0x04, 0x16, 0x18, 0x32, 0x3c, 0x2e, 0x20,
-        0xec, 0xe2, 0xf0, 0xfe, 0xd4, 0xda, 0xc8, 0xc6, 0x9c, 0x92, 0x80, 0x8e, 0xa4, 0xaa, 0xb8, 0xb6,
-        0x0c, 0x02, 0x10, 0x1e, 0x34, 0x3a, 0x28, 0x26, 0x7c, 0x72, 0x60, 0x6e, 0x44, 0x4a, 0x58, 0x56,
-        0x37, 0x39, 0x2b, 0x25, 0x0f, 0x01, 0x13, 0x1d, 0x47, 0x49, 0x5b, 0x55, 0x7f, 0x71, 0x63, 0x6d,
-        0xd7, 0xd9, 0xcb, 0xc5, 0xef, 0xe1, 0xf3, 0xfd, 0xa7, 0xa9, 0xbb, 0xb5, 0x9f, 0x91, 0x83, 0x8d
+        0x00,
+        0x0e,
+        0x1c,
+        0x12,
+        0x38,
+        0x36,
+        0x24,
+        0x2a,
+        0x70,
+        0x7e,
+        0x6c,
+        0x62,
+        0x48,
+        0x46,
+        0x54,
+        0x5a,
+        0xe0,
+        0xee,
+        0xfc,
+        0xf2,
+        0xd8,
+        0xd6,
+        0xc4,
+        0xca,
+        0x90,
+        0x9e,
+        0x8c,
+        0x82,
+        0xa8,
+        0xa6,
+        0xb4,
+        0xba,
+        0xdb,
+        0xd5,
+        0xc7,
+        0xc9,
+        0xe3,
+        0xed,
+        0xff,
+        0xf1,
+        0xab,
+        0xa5,
+        0xb7,
+        0xb9,
+        0x93,
+        0x9d,
+        0x8f,
+        0x81,
+        0x3b,
+        0x35,
+        0x27,
+        0x29,
+        0x03,
+        0x0d,
+        0x1f,
+        0x11,
+        0x4b,
+        0x45,
+        0x57,
+        0x59,
+        0x73,
+        0x7d,
+        0x6f,
+        0x61,
+        0xad,
+        0xa3,
+        0xb1,
+        0xbf,
+        0x95,
+        0x9b,
+        0x89,
+        0x87,
+        0xdd,
+        0xd3,
+        0xc1,
+        0xcf,
+        0xe5,
+        0xeb,
+        0xf9,
+        0xf7,
+        0x4d,
+        0x43,
+        0x51,
+        0x5f,
+        0x75,
+        0x7b,
+        0x69,
+        0x67,
+        0x3d,
+        0x33,
+        0x21,
+        0x2f,
+        0x05,
+        0x0b,
+        0x19,
+        0x17,
+        0x76,
+        0x78,
+        0x6a,
+        0x64,
+        0x4e,
+        0x40,
+        0x52,
+        0x5c,
+        0x06,
+        0x08,
+        0x1a,
+        0x14,
+        0x3e,
+        0x30,
+        0x22,
+        0x2c,
+        0x96,
+        0x98,
+        0x8a,
+        0x84,
+        0xae,
+        0xa0,
+        0xb2,
+        0xbc,
+        0xe6,
+        0xe8,
+        0xfa,
+        0xf4,
+        0xde,
+        0xd0,
+        0xc2,
+        0xcc,
+        0x41,
+        0x4f,
+        0x5d,
+        0x53,
+        0x79,
+        0x77,
+        0x65,
+        0x6b,
+        0x31,
+        0x3f,
+        0x2d,
+        0x23,
+        0x09,
+        0x07,
+        0x15,
+        0x1b,
+        0xa1,
+        0xaf,
+        0xbd,
+        0xb3,
+        0x99,
+        0x97,
+        0x85,
+        0x8b,
+        0xd1,
+        0xdf,
+        0xcd,
+        0xc3,
+        0xe9,
+        0xe7,
+        0xf5,
+        0xfb,
+        0x9a,
+        0x94,
+        0x86,
+        0x88,
+        0xa2,
+        0xac,
+        0xbe,
+        0xb0,
+        0xea,
+        0xe4,
+        0xf6,
+        0xf8,
+        0xd2,
+        0xdc,
+        0xce,
+        0xc0,
+        0x7a,
+        0x74,
+        0x66,
+        0x68,
+        0x42,
+        0x4c,
+        0x5e,
+        0x50,
+        0x0a,
+        0x04,
+        0x16,
+        0x18,
+        0x32,
+        0x3c,
+        0x2e,
+        0x20,
+        0xec,
+        0xe2,
+        0xf0,
+        0xfe,
+        0xd4,
+        0xda,
+        0xc8,
+        0xc6,
+        0x9c,
+        0x92,
+        0x80,
+        0x8e,
+        0xa4,
+        0xaa,
+        0xb8,
+        0xb6,
+        0x0c,
+        0x02,
+        0x10,
+        0x1e,
+        0x34,
+        0x3a,
+        0x28,
+        0x26,
+        0x7c,
+        0x72,
+        0x60,
+        0x6e,
+        0x44,
+        0x4a,
+        0x58,
+        0x56,
+        0x37,
+        0x39,
+        0x2b,
+        0x25,
+        0x0f,
+        0x01,
+        0x13,
+        0x1d,
+        0x47,
+        0x49,
+        0x5b,
+        0x55,
+        0x7f,
+        0x71,
+        0x63,
+        0x6d,
+        0xd7,
+        0xd9,
+        0xcb,
+        0xc5,
+        0xef,
+        0xe1,
+        0xf3,
+        0xfd,
+        0xa7,
+        0xa9,
+        0xbb,
+        0xb5,
+        0x9f,
+        0x91,
+        0x83,
+        0x8d,
     };
 
     /**
@@ -256,8 +2418,6 @@ public static BigInteger scheduleCore(BigInteger t, int rconCounter) {
             rBytes = new StringBuilder(rBytes.substring(0, i * 2) + currentByteBits + rBytes.substring((i + 1) * 2));
         }
 
-        // t = new BigInteger(rBytes, 16);
-        // return t;
         return new BigInteger(rBytes.toString(), 16);
     }
 
@@ -270,35 +2430,32 @@ public static BigInteger scheduleCore(BigInteger t, int rconCounter) {
     public static BigInteger[] keyExpansion(BigInteger initialKey) {
         BigInteger[] roundKeys = {
             initialKey,
-            new BigInteger("0"),
-            new BigInteger("0"),
-            new BigInteger("0"),
-            new BigInteger("0"),
-            new BigInteger("0"),
-            new BigInteger("0"),
-            new BigInteger("0"),
-            new BigInteger("0"),
-            new BigInteger("0"),
-            new BigInteger("0"),};
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+            BigInteger.ZERO,
+        };
 
         // initialize rcon iteration
         int rconCounter = 1;
 
         for (int i = 1; i < 11; i++) {
-
             // get the previous 32 bits the key
             BigInteger t = roundKeys[i - 1].remainder(new BigInteger("100000000", 16));
 
             // split previous key into 8-bit segments
             BigInteger[] prevKey = {
                 roundKeys[i - 1].remainder(new BigInteger("100000000", 16)),
-                roundKeys[i - 1]
-                .remainder(new BigInteger("10000000000000000", 16))
-                .divide(new BigInteger("100000000", 16)),
-                roundKeys[i - 1]
-                .remainder(new BigInteger("1000000000000000000000000", 16))
-                .divide(new BigInteger("10000000000000000", 16)),
-                roundKeys[i - 1].divide(new BigInteger("1000000000000000000000000", 16)),};
+                roundKeys[i - 1].remainder(new BigInteger("10000000000000000", 16)).divide(new BigInteger("100000000", 16)),
+                roundKeys[i - 1].remainder(new BigInteger("1000000000000000000000000", 16)).divide(new BigInteger("10000000000000000", 16)),
+                roundKeys[i - 1].divide(new BigInteger("1000000000000000000000000", 16)),
+            };
 
             // run schedule core
             t = scheduleCore(t, rconCounter);
@@ -326,7 +2483,6 @@ public static BigInteger[] keyExpansion(BigInteger initialKey) {
      * @return array of 8-bit integers
      */
     public static int[] splitBlockIntoCells(BigInteger block) {
-
         int[] cells = new int[16];
         StringBuilder blockBits = new StringBuilder(block.toString(2));
 
@@ -352,7 +2508,6 @@ public static int[] splitBlockIntoCells(BigInteger block) {
      * @return block of merged cells
      */
     public static BigInteger mergeCellsIntoBlock(int[] cells) {
-
         StringBuilder blockBits = new StringBuilder();
         for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
             StringBuilder cellBits = new StringBuilder(Integer.toBinaryString(cells[i]));
@@ -382,7 +2537,6 @@ public static BigInteger addRoundKey(BigInteger ciphertext, BigInteger key) {
      * @return subtraction Output
      */
     public static BigInteger subBytes(BigInteger ciphertext) {
-
         int[] cells = splitBlockIntoCells(ciphertext);
 
         for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
@@ -399,7 +2553,6 @@ public static BigInteger subBytes(BigInteger ciphertext) {
      * @return subtraction Output
      */
     public static BigInteger subBytesDec(BigInteger ciphertext) {
-
         int[] cells = splitBlockIntoCells(ciphertext);
 
         for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
@@ -483,12 +2636,16 @@ public static BigInteger shiftRowsDec(BigInteger ciphertext) {
      * Applies the Rijndael MixColumns to the input and returns the result.
      */
     public static BigInteger mixColumns(BigInteger ciphertext) {
-
         int[] cells = splitBlockIntoCells(ciphertext);
         int[] outputCells = new int[16];
 
         for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
-            int[] row = {cells[i * 4], cells[i * 4 + 1], cells[i * 4 + 2], cells[i * 4 + 3]};
+            int[] row = {
+                cells[i * 4],
+                cells[i * 4 + 1],
+                cells[i * 4 + 2],
+                cells[i * 4 + 3],
+            };
 
             outputCells[i * 4] = MULT2[row[0]] ^ MULT3[row[1]] ^ row[2] ^ row[3];
             outputCells[i * 4 + 1] = row[0] ^ MULT2[row[1]] ^ MULT3[row[2]] ^ row[3];
@@ -503,12 +2660,16 @@ public static BigInteger mixColumns(BigInteger ciphertext) {
      * returns the result.
      */
     public static BigInteger mixColumnsDec(BigInteger ciphertext) {
-
         int[] cells = splitBlockIntoCells(ciphertext);
         int[] outputCells = new int[16];
 
         for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
-            int[] row = {cells[i * 4], cells[i * 4 + 1], cells[i * 4 + 2], cells[i * 4 + 3]};
+            int[] row = {
+                cells[i * 4],
+                cells[i * 4 + 1],
+                cells[i * 4 + 2],
+                cells[i * 4 + 3],
+            };
 
             outputCells[i * 4] = MULT14[row[0]] ^ MULT11[row[1]] ^ MULT13[row[2]] ^ MULT9[row[3]];
             outputCells[i * 4 + 1] = MULT9[row[0]] ^ MULT14[row[1]] ^ MULT11[row[2]] ^ MULT13[row[3]];
@@ -554,7 +2715,6 @@ public static BigInteger encrypt(BigInteger plainText, BigInteger key) {
      * @return decryptedText
      */
     public static BigInteger decrypt(BigInteger cipherText, BigInteger key) {
-
         BigInteger[] roundKeys = keyExpansion(key);
 
         // Invert final round
@@ -577,34 +2737,44 @@ public static BigInteger decrypt(BigInteger cipherText, BigInteger key) {
     }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-
         try (Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in)) {
             System.out.println("Enter (e) letter for encrpyt or (d) letter for decrypt :");
             char choice = input.nextLine().charAt(0);
             String in;
             switch (choice) {
                 case 'E', 'e' -> {
-                    System.out.println("Choose a plaintext block (128-Bit Integer in base 16):");
+                    System.out.println(
+                        "Choose a plaintext block (128-Bit Integer in base 16):"
+                    );
                     in = input.nextLine();
                     BigInteger plaintext = new BigInteger(in, 16);
-                    System.out.println("Choose a Key (128-Bit Integer in base 16):");
+                    System.out.println(
+                        "Choose a Key (128-Bit Integer in base 16):"
+                    );
                     in = input.nextLine();
                     BigInteger encryptionKey = new BigInteger(in, 16);
                     System.out.println(
-                            "The encrypted message is: \n" + encrypt(plaintext, encryptionKey).toString(16));
+                        "The encrypted message is: \n"
+                        + encrypt(plaintext, encryptionKey).toString(16)
+                    );
                 }
                 case 'D', 'd' -> {
-                    System.out.println("Enter your ciphertext block (128-Bit Integer in base 16):");
+                    System.out.println(
+                        "Enter your ciphertext block (128-Bit Integer in base 16):"
+                    );
                     in = input.nextLine();
                     BigInteger ciphertext = new BigInteger(in, 16);
-                    System.out.println("Choose a Key (128-Bit Integer in base 16):");
+                    System.out.println(
+                        "Choose a Key (128-Bit Integer in base 16):"
+                    );
                     in = input.nextLine();
                     BigInteger decryptionKey = new BigInteger(in, 16);
                     System.out.println(
-                            "The deciphered message is:\n" + decrypt(ciphertext, decryptionKey).toString(16));
+                        "The deciphered message is:\n"
+                        + decrypt(ciphertext, decryptionKey).toString(16)
+                    );
                 }
-                default ->
-                    System.out.println("** End **");
+                default -> System.out.println("** End **");
             }
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryption.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryption.java
index 81fa79cc90f4..14582205442f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryption.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryption.java
@@ -1,8 +1,15 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
 
-import javax.crypto.*;
+import java.security.InvalidAlgorithmParameterException;
 import java.security.InvalidKeyException;
 import java.security.NoSuchAlgorithmException;
+import javax.crypto.BadPaddingException;
+import javax.crypto.Cipher;
+import javax.crypto.IllegalBlockSizeException;
+import javax.crypto.KeyGenerator;
+import javax.crypto.NoSuchPaddingException;
+import javax.crypto.SecretKey;
+import javax.crypto.spec.GCMParameterSpec;
 
 /**
  * This example program shows how AES encryption and decryption can be done in
@@ -10,13 +17,16 @@
  * hence in the following program we display it in hexadecimal format of the
  * underlying bytes.
  */
-public class AESEncryption {
+public final class AESEncryption {
+    private AESEncryption() {
+    }
 
     private static final char[] HEX_ARRAY = "0123456789ABCDEF".toCharArray();
+    private static Cipher aesCipher;
 
     /**
      * 1. Generate a plain text for encryption 2. Get a secret key (printed in
-     * hexadecimal form). In actual use this must by encrypted and kept safe.
+     * hexadecimal form). In actual use this must be encrypted and kept safe.
      * The same key is required for decryption.
      */
     public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
@@ -54,11 +64,9 @@ public static SecretKey getSecretEncryptionKey() throws NoSuchAlgorithmException
      * @throws BadPaddingException (from Cipher)
      * @throws IllegalBlockSizeException (from Cipher)
      */
-    public static byte[] encryptText(String plainText, SecretKey secKey)
-            throws NoSuchAlgorithmException, NoSuchPaddingException, InvalidKeyException,
-            IllegalBlockSizeException, BadPaddingException {
+    public static byte[] encryptText(String plainText, SecretKey secKey) throws NoSuchAlgorithmException, NoSuchPaddingException, InvalidKeyException, IllegalBlockSizeException, BadPaddingException {
         // AES defaults to AES/ECB/PKCS5Padding in Java 7
-        Cipher aesCipher = Cipher.getInstance("AES");
+        aesCipher = Cipher.getInstance("AES/GCM/NoPadding");
         aesCipher.init(Cipher.ENCRYPT_MODE, secKey);
         return aesCipher.doFinal(plainText.getBytes());
     }
@@ -68,13 +76,12 @@ public static byte[] encryptText(String plainText, SecretKey secKey)
      *
      * @return plainText
      */
-    public static String decryptText(byte[] byteCipherText, SecretKey secKey)
-            throws NoSuchAlgorithmException, NoSuchPaddingException, InvalidKeyException,
-            IllegalBlockSizeException, BadPaddingException {
+    public static String decryptText(byte[] byteCipherText, SecretKey secKey) throws NoSuchAlgorithmException, NoSuchPaddingException, InvalidKeyException, IllegalBlockSizeException, BadPaddingException, InvalidAlgorithmParameterException {
         // AES defaults to AES/ECB/PKCS5Padding in Java 7
-        Cipher aesCipher = Cipher.getInstance("AES");
-        aesCipher.init(Cipher.DECRYPT_MODE, secKey);
-        byte[] bytePlainText = aesCipher.doFinal(byteCipherText);
+        Cipher decryptionCipher = Cipher.getInstance("AES/GCM/NoPadding");
+        GCMParameterSpec gcmParameterSpec = new GCMParameterSpec(128, aesCipher.getIV());
+        decryptionCipher.init(Cipher.DECRYPT_MODE, secKey, gcmParameterSpec);
+        byte[] bytePlainText = decryptionCipher.doFinal(byteCipherText);
         return new String(bytePlainText);
     }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java
index d08c50533fd7..979f18532eaa 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java
@@ -1,72 +1,87 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
 
-class AffineCipher {
+/**
+ * The AffineCipher class implements the Affine cipher, a type of monoalphabetic substitution cipher.
+ * It encrypts and decrypts messages using a linear transformation defined by the formula:
+ *
+ *     E(x) = (a * x + b) mod m
+ *     D(y) = a^-1 * (y - b) mod m
+ *
+ * where:
+ * - E(x) is the encrypted character,
+ * - D(y) is the decrypted character,
+ * - a is the multiplicative key (must be coprime to m),
+ * - b is the additive key,
+ * - x is the index of the plaintext character,
+ * - y is the index of the ciphertext character,
+ * - m is the size of the alphabet (26 for the English alphabet).
+ *
+ * The class provides methods for encrypting and decrypting messages, as well as a main method to demonstrate its usage.
+ */
+final class AffineCipher {
+    private AffineCipher() {
+    }
 
     // Key values of a and b
     static int a = 17;
     static int b = 20;
 
+    /**
+     * Encrypts a message using the Affine cipher.
+     *
+     * @param msg the plaintext message as a character array
+     * @return the encrypted ciphertext
+     */
     static String encryptMessage(char[] msg) {
-        /// Cipher Text initially empty
-        String cipher = "";
+        // Cipher Text initially empty
+        StringBuilder cipher = new StringBuilder();
         for (int i = 0; i < msg.length; i++) {
             // Avoid space to be encrypted
-            /* applying encryption formula ( a x + b ) mod m
+            /* applying encryption formula ( a * x + b ) mod m
             {here x is msg[i] and m is 26} and added 'A' to
-            bring it in range of ascii alphabet[ 65-90 | A-Z ] */
+            bring it in the range of ASCII alphabet [65-90 | A-Z] */
             if (msg[i] != ' ') {
-                cipher = cipher
-                        + (char) ((((a * (msg[i] - 'A')) + b) % 26) + 'A');
-            } else // else simply append space character
-            {
-                cipher += msg[i];
+                cipher.append((char) ((((a * (msg[i] - 'A')) + b) % 26) + 'A'));
+            } else { // else simply append space character
+                cipher.append(msg[i]);
             }
         }
-        return cipher;
+        return cipher.toString();
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Decrypts a ciphertext using the Affine cipher.
+     *
+     * @param cipher the ciphertext to decrypt
+     * @return the decrypted plaintext message
+     */
     static String decryptCipher(String cipher) {
-        String msg = "";
-        int a_inv = 0;
-        int flag = 0;
+        StringBuilder msg = new StringBuilder();
+        int aInv = 0;
+        int flag;
 
-        //Find a^-1 (the multiplicative inverse of a
-        //in the group of integers modulo m.)
+        // Find a^-1 (the multiplicative inverse of a in the group of integers modulo m.)
         for (int i = 0; i < 26; i++) {
             flag = (a * i) % 26;
 
-            // Check if (a*i)%26 == 1,
+            // Check if (a * i) % 26 == 1,
             // then i will be the multiplicative inverse of a
             if (flag == 1) {
-                a_inv = i;
+                aInv = i;
+                break;
             }
         }
         for (int i = 0; i < cipher.length(); i++) {
-            /*Applying decryption formula a^-1 ( x - b ) mod m
+            /* Applying decryption formula a^-1 * (x - b) mod m
             {here x is cipher[i] and m is 26} and added 'A'
-            to bring it in range of ASCII alphabet[ 65-90 | A-Z ] */
+            to bring it in the range of ASCII alphabet [65-90 | A-Z] */
             if (cipher.charAt(i) != ' ') {
-                msg = msg + (char) (((a_inv
-                        * ((cipher.charAt(i) + 'A' - b)) % 26)) + 'A');
-            } else //else simply append space character
-            {
-                msg += cipher.charAt(i);
+                msg.append((char) (((aInv * ((cipher.charAt(i) - 'A') - b + 26)) % 26) + 'A'));
+            } else { // else simply append space character
+                msg.append(cipher.charAt(i));
             }
         }
 
-        return msg;
-    }
-
-    // Driver code
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String msg = "AFFINE CIPHER";
-
-        // Calling encryption function
-        String cipherText = encryptMessage(msg.toCharArray());
-        System.out.println("Encrypted Message is : " + cipherText);
-
-        // Calling Decryption function
-        System.out.println("Decrypted Message is: " + decryptCipher(cipherText));
-
+        return msg.toString();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashCipher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9169aa82bd75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashCipher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+/**
+ * The Atbash cipher is a classic substitution cipher that substitutes each letter
+ * with its opposite letter in the alphabet.
+ *
+ * For example:
+ * - 'A' becomes 'Z', 'B' becomes 'Y', 'C' becomes 'X', and so on.
+ * - Similarly, 'a' becomes 'z', 'b' becomes 'y', and so on.
+ *
+ * The cipher works identically for both uppercase and lowercase letters.
+ * Non-alphabetical characters remain unchanged in the output.
+ *
+ * This cipher is symmetric, meaning that applying the cipher twice will return
+ * the original text. Therefore, the same function is used for both encryption and decryption.
+ *
+ * <p>Usage Example:</p>
+ * <pre>
+ * AtbashCipher cipher = new AtbashCipher("Hello World!");
+ * String encrypted = cipher.convert(); // Output: "Svool Dliow!"
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/Krounosity">Krounosity</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atbash">Atbash Cipher (Wikipedia)</a>
+ */
+public class AtbashCipher {
+
+    private String toConvert;
+
+    public AtbashCipher() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor with a string parameter.
+     *
+     * @param str The string to be converted using the Atbash cipher
+     */
+    public AtbashCipher(String str) {
+        this.toConvert = str;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current string set for conversion.
+     *
+     * @return The string to be converted
+     */
+    public String getString() {
+        return toConvert;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sets the string to be converted using the Atbash cipher.
+     *
+     * @param str The new string to convert
+     */
+    public void setString(String str) {
+        this.toConvert = str;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a character is uppercase.
+     *
+     * @param ch The character to check
+     * @return {@code true} if the character is uppercase, {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    private boolean isCapital(char ch) {
+        return ch >= 'A' && ch <= 'Z';
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a character is lowercase.
+     *
+     * @param ch The character to check
+     * @return {@code true} if the character is lowercase, {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    private boolean isSmall(char ch) {
+        return ch >= 'a' && ch <= 'z';
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts the input string using the Atbash cipher.
+     * Alphabetic characters are substituted with their opposite in the alphabet,
+     * while non-alphabetic characters remain unchanged.
+     *
+     * @return The converted string after applying the Atbash cipher
+     */
+    public String convert() {
+        StringBuilder convertedString = new StringBuilder();
+
+        for (char ch : toConvert.toCharArray()) {
+            if (isSmall(ch)) {
+                convertedString.append((char) ('z' - (ch - 'a')));
+            } else if (isCapital(ch)) {
+                convertedString.append((char) ('Z' - (ch - 'A')));
+            } else {
+                convertedString.append(ch);
+            }
+        }
+        return convertedString.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Autokey.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Autokey.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bb67f512accf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Autokey.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+/**
+ * The Autokey Cipher is an interesting and historically significant encryption method,
+ * as it improves upon the classic Vigenère Cipher by using the plaintext itself to
+ * extend the key. This makes it harder to break using frequency analysis, as it
+ * doesn’t rely solely on a repeated key.
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autokey_cipher
+ *
+ * @author bennybebo
+ */
+public class Autokey {
+
+    // Encrypts the plaintext using the Autokey cipher
+    public String encrypt(String plaintext, String keyword) {
+        plaintext = plaintext.toUpperCase().replaceAll("[^A-Z]", ""); // Sanitize input
+        keyword = keyword.toUpperCase();
+
+        StringBuilder extendedKey = new StringBuilder(keyword);
+        extendedKey.append(plaintext); // Extend key with plaintext
+
+        StringBuilder ciphertext = new StringBuilder();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < plaintext.length(); i++) {
+            char plainChar = plaintext.charAt(i);
+            char keyChar = extendedKey.charAt(i);
+
+            int encryptedChar = (plainChar - 'A' + keyChar - 'A') % 26 + 'A';
+            ciphertext.append((char) encryptedChar);
+        }
+
+        return ciphertext.toString();
+    }
+
+    // Decrypts the ciphertext using the Autokey cipher
+    public String decrypt(String ciphertext, String keyword) {
+        ciphertext = ciphertext.toUpperCase().replaceAll("[^A-Z]", ""); // Sanitize input
+        keyword = keyword.toUpperCase();
+
+        StringBuilder plaintext = new StringBuilder();
+        StringBuilder extendedKey = new StringBuilder(keyword);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < ciphertext.length(); i++) {
+            char cipherChar = ciphertext.charAt(i);
+            char keyChar = extendedKey.charAt(i);
+
+            int decryptedChar = (cipherChar - 'A' - (keyChar - 'A') + 26) % 26 + 'A';
+            plaintext.append((char) decryptedChar);
+
+            extendedKey.append((char) decryptedChar); // Extend key with each decrypted char
+        }
+
+        return plaintext.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..16dfd6e674af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * The Baconian Cipher is a substitution cipher where each letter is represented
+ * by a group of five binary digits (A's and B's). It can also be used to hide
+ * messages within other texts, making it a simple form of steganography.
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacon%27s_cipher
+ *
+ * @author Bennybebo
+ */
+public class BaconianCipher {
+
+    private static final Map<Character, String> BACONIAN_MAP = new HashMap<>();
+    private static final Map<String, Character> REVERSE_BACONIAN_MAP = new HashMap<>();
+
+    static {
+        // Initialize the Baconian cipher mappings
+        String[] baconianAlphabet = {"AAAAA", "AAAAB", "AAABA", "AAABB", "AABAA", "AABAB", "AABBA", "AABBB", "ABAAA", "ABAAB", "ABABA", "ABABB", "ABBAA", "ABBAB", "ABBBA", "ABBBB", "BAAAA", "BAAAB", "BAABA", "BAABB", "BABAA", "BABAB", "BABBA", "BABBB", "BBAAA", "BBAAB"};
+        char letter = 'A';
+        for (String code : baconianAlphabet) {
+            BACONIAN_MAP.put(letter, code);
+            REVERSE_BACONIAN_MAP.put(code, letter);
+            letter++;
+        }
+
+        // Handle I/J as the same letter
+        BACONIAN_MAP.put('I', BACONIAN_MAP.get('J'));
+        REVERSE_BACONIAN_MAP.put(BACONIAN_MAP.get('I'), 'I');
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Encrypts the given plaintext using the Baconian cipher.
+     *
+     * @param plaintext The plaintext message to encrypt.
+     * @return The ciphertext as a binary (A/B) sequence.
+     */
+    public String encrypt(String plaintext) {
+        StringBuilder ciphertext = new StringBuilder();
+        plaintext = plaintext.toUpperCase().replaceAll("[^A-Z]", ""); // Remove non-letter characters
+
+        for (char letter : plaintext.toCharArray()) {
+            ciphertext.append(BACONIAN_MAP.get(letter));
+        }
+
+        return ciphertext.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decrypts the given ciphertext encoded in binary (A/B) format using the Baconian cipher.
+     *
+     * @param ciphertext The ciphertext to decrypt.
+     * @return The decrypted plaintext message.
+     */
+    public String decrypt(String ciphertext) {
+        StringBuilder plaintext = new StringBuilder();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < ciphertext.length(); i += 5) {
+            String code = ciphertext.substring(i, i + 5);
+            if (REVERSE_BACONIAN_MAP.containsKey(code)) {
+                plaintext.append(REVERSE_BACONIAN_MAP.get(code));
+            } else {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid Baconian code: " + code);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return plaintext.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Blowfish.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Blowfish.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ea1807e62710
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Blowfish.java
@@ -0,0 +1,1244 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+/*
+ * Java program for Blowfish Algorithm
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blowfish_(cipher)
+ *
+ * Author: Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ *
+ * */
+
+public class Blowfish {
+
+    // Initializing substitution boxes
+    String[][] sBox = {
+        {
+            "d1310ba6",
+            "98dfb5ac",
+            "2ffd72db",
+            "d01adfb7",
+            "b8e1afed",
+            "6a267e96",
+            "ba7c9045",
+            "f12c7f99",
+            "24a19947",
+            "b3916cf7",
+            "0801f2e2",
+            "858efc16",
+            "636920d8",
+            "71574e69",
+            "a458fea3",
+            "f4933d7e",
+            "0d95748f",
+            "728eb658",
+            "718bcd58",
+            "82154aee",
+            "7b54a41d",
+            "c25a59b5",
+            "9c30d539",
+            "2af26013",
+            "c5d1b023",
+            "286085f0",
+            "ca417918",
+            "b8db38ef",
+            "8e79dcb0",
+            "603a180e",
+            "6c9e0e8b",
+            "b01e8a3e",
+            "d71577c1",
+            "bd314b27",
+            "78af2fda",
+            "55605c60",
+            "e65525f3",
+            "aa55ab94",
+            "57489862",
+            "63e81440",
+            "55ca396a",
+            "2aab10b6",
+            "b4cc5c34",
+            "1141e8ce",
+            "a15486af",
+            "7c72e993",
+            "b3ee1411",
+            "636fbc2a",
+            "2ba9c55d",
+            "741831f6",
+            "ce5c3e16",
+            "9b87931e",
+            "afd6ba33",
+            "6c24cf5c",
+            "7a325381",
+            "28958677",
+            "3b8f4898",
+            "6b4bb9af",
+            "c4bfe81b",
+            "66282193",
+            "61d809cc",
+            "fb21a991",
+            "487cac60",
+            "5dec8032",
+            "ef845d5d",
+            "e98575b1",
+            "dc262302",
+            "eb651b88",
+            "23893e81",
+            "d396acc5",
+            "0f6d6ff3",
+            "83f44239",
+            "2e0b4482",
+            "a4842004",
+            "69c8f04a",
+            "9e1f9b5e",
+            "21c66842",
+            "f6e96c9a",
+            "670c9c61",
+            "abd388f0",
+            "6a51a0d2",
+            "d8542f68",
+            "960fa728",
+            "ab5133a3",
+            "6eef0b6c",
+            "137a3be4",
+            "ba3bf050",
+            "7efb2a98",
+            "a1f1651d",
+            "39af0176",
+            "66ca593e",
+            "82430e88",
+            "8cee8619",
+            "456f9fb4",
+            "7d84a5c3",
+            "3b8b5ebe",
+            "e06f75d8",
+            "85c12073",
+            "401a449f",
+            "56c16aa6",
+            "4ed3aa62",
+            "363f7706",
+            "1bfedf72",
+            "429b023d",
+            "37d0d724",
+            "d00a1248",
+            "db0fead3",
+            "49f1c09b",
+            "075372c9",
+            "80991b7b",
+            "25d479d8",
+            "f6e8def7",
+            "e3fe501a",
+            "b6794c3b",
+            "976ce0bd",
+            "04c006ba",
+            "c1a94fb6",
+            "409f60c4",
+            "5e5c9ec2",
+            "196a2463",
+            "68fb6faf",
+            "3e6c53b5",
+            "1339b2eb",
+            "3b52ec6f",
+            "6dfc511f",
+            "9b30952c",
+            "cc814544",
+            "af5ebd09",
+            "bee3d004",
+            "de334afd",
+            "660f2807",
+            "192e4bb3",
+            "c0cba857",
+            "45c8740f",
+            "d20b5f39",
+            "b9d3fbdb",
+            "5579c0bd",
+            "1a60320a",
+            "d6a100c6",
+            "402c7279",
+            "679f25fe",
+            "fb1fa3cc",
+            "8ea5e9f8",
+            "db3222f8",
+            "3c7516df",
+            "fd616b15",
+            "2f501ec8",
+            "ad0552ab",
+            "323db5fa",
+            "fd238760",
+            "53317b48",
+            "3e00df82",
+            "9e5c57bb",
+            "ca6f8ca0",
+            "1a87562e",
+            "df1769db",
+            "d542a8f6",
+            "287effc3",
+            "ac6732c6",
+            "8c4f5573",
+            "695b27b0",
+            "bbca58c8",
+            "e1ffa35d",
+            "b8f011a0",
+            "10fa3d98",
+            "fd2183b8",
+            "4afcb56c",
+            "2dd1d35b",
+            "9a53e479",
+            "b6f84565",
+            "d28e49bc",
+            "4bfb9790",
+            "e1ddf2da",
+            "a4cb7e33",
+            "62fb1341",
+            "cee4c6e8",
+            "ef20cada",
+            "36774c01",
+            "d07e9efe",
+            "2bf11fb4",
+            "95dbda4d",
+            "ae909198",
+            "eaad8e71",
+            "6b93d5a0",
+            "d08ed1d0",
+            "afc725e0",
+            "8e3c5b2f",
+            "8e7594b7",
+            "8ff6e2fb",
+            "f2122b64",
+            "8888b812",
+            "900df01c",
+            "4fad5ea0",
+            "688fc31c",
+            "d1cff191",
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+            "c6913667",
+            "8df9317c",
+            "e0b12b4f",
+            "f79e59b7",
+            "43f5bb3a",
+            "f2d519ff",
+            "27d9459c",
+            "bf97222c",
+            "15e6fc2a",
+            "0f91fc71",
+            "9b941525",
+            "fae59361",
+            "ceb69ceb",
+            "c2a86459",
+            "12baa8d1",
+            "b6c1075e",
+            "e3056a0c",
+            "10d25065",
+            "cb03a442",
+            "e0ec6e0e",
+            "1698db3b",
+            "4c98a0be",
+            "3278e964",
+            "9f1f9532",
+            "e0d392df",
+            "d3a0342b",
+            "8971f21e",
+            "1b0a7441",
+            "4ba3348c",
+            "c5be7120",
+            "c37632d8",
+            "df359f8d",
+            "9b992f2e",
+            "e60b6f47",
+            "0fe3f11d",
+            "e54cda54",
+            "1edad891",
+            "ce6279cf",
+            "cd3e7e6f",
+            "1618b166",
+            "fd2c1d05",
+            "848fd2c5",
+            "f6fb2299",
+            "f523f357",
+            "a6327623",
+            "93a83531",
+            "56cccd02",
+            "acf08162",
+            "5a75ebb5",
+            "6e163697",
+            "88d273cc",
+            "de966292",
+            "81b949d0",
+            "4c50901b",
+            "71c65614",
+            "e6c6c7bd",
+            "327a140a",
+            "45e1d006",
+            "c3f27b9a",
+            "c9aa53fd",
+            "62a80f00",
+            "bb25bfe2",
+            "35bdd2f6",
+            "71126905",
+            "b2040222",
+            "b6cbcf7c",
+            "cd769c2b",
+            "53113ec0",
+            "1640e3d3",
+            "38abbd60",
+            "2547adf0",
+            "ba38209c",
+            "f746ce76",
+            "77afa1c5",
+            "20756060",
+            "85cbfe4e",
+            "8ae88dd8",
+            "7aaaf9b0",
+            "4cf9aa7e",
+            "1948c25c",
+            "02fb8a8c",
+            "01c36ae4",
+            "d6ebe1f9",
+            "90d4f869",
+            "a65cdea0",
+            "3f09252d",
+            "c208e69f",
+            "b74e6132",
+            "ce77e25b",
+            "578fdfe3",
+            "3ac372e6",
+        },
+    };
+
+    // Initializing subkeys with digits of pi
+    String[] subKeys = {
+        "243f6a88",
+        "85a308d3",
+        "13198a2e",
+        "03707344",
+        "a4093822",
+        "299f31d0",
+        "082efa98",
+        "ec4e6c89",
+        "452821e6",
+        "38d01377",
+        "be5466cf",
+        "34e90c6c",
+        "c0ac29b7",
+        "c97c50dd",
+        "3f84d5b5",
+        "b5470917",
+        "9216d5d9",
+        "8979fb1b",
+    };
+
+    // Initializing modVal to 2^32
+    long modVal = 4294967296L;
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns binary representation of the hexadecimal number passed as parameter
+     *
+     * @param hex Number for which binary representation is required
+     * @return String object which is a binary representation of the hex number passed as parameter
+     */
+    private String hexToBin(String hex) {
+        StringBuilder binary = new StringBuilder();
+        long num;
+        String binary4B;
+        int n = hex.length();
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            num = Long.parseUnsignedLong(hex.charAt(i) + "", 16);
+            binary4B = Long.toBinaryString(num);
+
+            binary4B = "0000" + binary4B;
+
+            binary4B = binary4B.substring(binary4B.length() - 4);
+            binary.append(binary4B);
+        }
+        return binary.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns hexadecimal representation of the binary number passed as parameter
+     *
+     * @param binary Number for which hexadecimal representation is required
+     * @return String object which is a hexadecimal representation of the binary number passed as
+     *     parameter
+     */
+    private String binToHex(String binary) {
+        long num = Long.parseUnsignedLong(binary, 2);
+        StringBuilder hex = new StringBuilder(Long.toHexString(num));
+        while (hex.length() < (binary.length() / 4)) {
+            hex.insert(0, "0");
+        }
+
+        return hex.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns a string obtained by XOR-ing two strings of same length passed a method
+     * parameters
+     *
+     * @param String a and b are string objects which will be XORed and are to be of same length
+     * @return String object obtained by XOR operation on String a and String b
+     * */
+    private String xor(String a, String b) {
+        a = hexToBin(a);
+        b = hexToBin(b);
+        StringBuilder ans = new StringBuilder();
+        for (int i = 0; i < a.length(); i++) {
+            ans.append((char) (((a.charAt(i) - '0') ^ (b.charAt(i) - '0')) + '0'));
+        }
+        ans = new StringBuilder(binToHex(ans.toString()));
+        return ans.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns addition of two hexadecimal numbers passed as parameters and moded with
+     * 2^32
+     *
+     * @param String a and b are hexadecimal numbers
+     * @return String object which is a is addition that is then moded with 2^32 of hex numbers
+     *     passed as parameters
+     */
+    private String addBin(String a, String b) {
+        String ans = "";
+        long n1 = Long.parseUnsignedLong(a, 16);
+        long n2 = Long.parseUnsignedLong(b, 16);
+        n1 = (n1 + n2) % modVal;
+        ans = Long.toHexString(n1);
+        ans = "00000000" + ans;
+        return ans.substring(ans.length() - 8);
+    }
+
+    /*F-function splits the 32-bit input into four 8-bit quarters
+         and uses the quarters as input to the S-boxes.
+         The S-boxes accept 8-bit input and produce 32-bit output.
+         The outputs are added modulo 232 and XORed to produce the final 32-bit output
+        */
+    private String f(String plainText) {
+        String[] a = new String[4];
+        String ans = "";
+        for (int i = 0; i < 8; i += 2) {
+            // column number for S-box is a 8-bit value
+            long col = Long.parseUnsignedLong(hexToBin(plainText.substring(i, i + 2)), 2);
+            a[i / 2] = sBox[i / 2][(int) col];
+        }
+        ans = addBin(a[0], a[1]);
+        ans = xor(ans, a[2]);
+        ans = addBin(ans, a[3]);
+        return ans;
+    }
+
+    // generate subkeys
+    private void keyGenerate(String key) {
+        int j = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < subKeys.length; i++) {
+            // XOR-ing 32-bit parts of the key with initial subkeys
+            subKeys[i] = xor(subKeys[i], key.substring(j, j + 8));
+
+            j = (j + 8) % key.length();
+        }
+    }
+
+    // round function
+    private String round(int time, String plainText) {
+        String left;
+        String right;
+        left = plainText.substring(0, 8);
+        right = plainText.substring(8, 16);
+        left = xor(left, subKeys[time]);
+
+        // output from F function
+        String fOut = f(left);
+
+        right = xor(fOut, right);
+
+        // swap left and right
+        return right + left;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns cipher text for the plaintext passed as the first parameter generated
+     * using the key passed as the second parameter
+     *
+     * @param String plainText is the text which is to be encrypted
+     * @param String key is the key which is to be used for generating cipher text
+     * @return String cipherText is the encrypted value
+     */
+    String encrypt(String plainText, String key) {
+        // generating key
+        keyGenerate(key);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
+            plainText = round(i, plainText);
+        }
+
+        // postprocessing
+        String right = plainText.substring(0, 8);
+        String left = plainText.substring(8, 16);
+        right = xor(right, subKeys[16]);
+        left = xor(left, subKeys[17]);
+        return left + right;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns plaintext for the ciphertext passed as the first parameter decoded
+     * using the key passed as the second parameter
+     *
+     * @param String ciphertext is the text which is to be decrypted
+     * @param String key is the key which is to be used for generating cipher text
+     * @return String plainText is the decrypted text
+     */
+    String decrypt(String cipherText, String key) {
+        // generating key
+        keyGenerate(key);
+
+        for (int i = 17; i > 1; i--) {
+            cipherText = round(i, cipherText);
+        }
+
+        // postprocessing
+        String right = cipherText.substring(0, 8);
+        String left = cipherText.substring(8, 16);
+        right = xor(right, subKeys[1]);
+        left = xor(left, subKeys[0]);
+        return left + right;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Caesar.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Caesar.java
index bc2fd369d13d..23535bc2b5d2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Caesar.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Caesar.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
  * A Java implementation of Caesar Cipher. /It is a type of substitution cipher
  * in which each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a letter some fixed
@@ -11,6 +9,9 @@
  * @author khalil2535
  */
 public class Caesar {
+    private static char normalizeShift(final int shift) {
+        return (char) (shift % 26);
+    }
 
     /**
      * Encrypt text by shifting every Latin char by add number shift for ASCII
@@ -18,28 +19,24 @@ public class Caesar {
      *
      * @return Encrypted message
      */
-    public static String encode(String message, int shift) {
+    public String encode(String message, int shift) {
         StringBuilder encoded = new StringBuilder();
 
-        shift %= 26;
+        final char shiftChar = normalizeShift(shift);
 
         final int length = message.length();
         for (int i = 0; i < length; i++) {
-
-            //            int current = message.charAt(i); //using char to shift characters because ascii
+            //            int current = message.charAt(i); //using char to shift characters because
+            //            ascii
             // is in-order latin alphabet
             char current = message.charAt(i); // Java law : char + int = char
 
-            if (IsCapitalLatinLetter(current)) {
-
-                current += shift;
+            if (isCapitalLatinLetter(current)) {
+                current += shiftChar;
                 encoded.append((char) (current > 'Z' ? current - 26 : current)); // 26 = number of latin letters
-
-            } else if (IsSmallLatinLetter(current)) {
-
-                current += shift;
+            } else if (isSmallLatinLetter(current)) {
+                current += shiftChar;
                 encoded.append((char) (current > 'z' ? current - 26 : current)); // 26 = number of latin letters
-
             } else {
                 encoded.append(current);
             }
@@ -53,24 +50,20 @@ public static String encode(String message, int shift) {
      *
      * @return message
      */
-    public static String decode(String encryptedMessage, int shift) {
+    public String decode(String encryptedMessage, int shift) {
         StringBuilder decoded = new StringBuilder();
 
-        shift %= 26;
+        final char shiftChar = normalizeShift(shift);
 
         final int length = encryptedMessage.length();
         for (int i = 0; i < length; i++) {
             char current = encryptedMessage.charAt(i);
-            if (IsCapitalLatinLetter(current)) {
-
-                current -= shift;
+            if (isCapitalLatinLetter(current)) {
+                current -= shiftChar;
                 decoded.append((char) (current < 'A' ? current + 26 : current)); // 26 = number of latin letters
-
-            } else if (IsSmallLatinLetter(current)) {
-
-                current -= shift;
+            } else if (isSmallLatinLetter(current)) {
+                current -= shiftChar;
                 decoded.append((char) (current < 'a' ? current + 26 : current)); // 26 = number of latin letters
-
             } else {
                 decoded.append(current);
             }
@@ -81,60 +74,26 @@ public static String decode(String encryptedMessage, int shift) {
     /**
      * @return true if character is capital Latin letter or false for others
      */
-    private static boolean IsCapitalLatinLetter(char c) {
+    private static boolean isCapitalLatinLetter(char c) {
         return c >= 'A' && c <= 'Z';
     }
 
     /**
      * @return true if character is small Latin letter or false for others
      */
-    private static boolean IsSmallLatinLetter(char c) {
+    private static boolean isSmallLatinLetter(char c) {
         return c >= 'a' && c <= 'z';
     }
+
     /**
      *  @return string array which contains all the possible decoded combination.
      */
-    public static String[] bruteforce(String encryptedMessage) {
+    public String[] bruteforce(String encryptedMessage) {
         String[] listOfAllTheAnswers = new String[27];
-        for (int i=0; i<=26; i++) {
+        for (int i = 0; i <= 26; i++) {
             listOfAllTheAnswers[i] = decode(encryptedMessage, i);
         }
 
         return listOfAllTheAnswers;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int shift = 0;
-        System.out.println("Please enter the message (Latin Alphabet)");
-        String message = input.nextLine();
-        System.out.println(message);
-        System.out.println("(E)ncode or (D)ecode or (B)ruteforce?");
-        char choice = input.next().charAt(0);
-        switch (choice) {
-            case 'E':
-            case 'e':
-                System.out.println("Please enter the shift number");
-                shift = input.nextInt() % 26;
-                System.out.println(
-                        "ENCODED MESSAGE IS \n" + encode(message, shift)); // send our function to handle
-                break;
-            case 'D':
-            case 'd':
-                System.out.println("Please enter the shift number");
-                shift = input.nextInt() % 26;
-                System.out.println("DECODED MESSAGE IS \n" + decode(message, shift));
-                break;
-            case 'B':
-            case 'b':
-                String[] listOfAllTheAnswers = bruteforce(message);
-                for (int i =0; i<=26; i++) {
-                    System.out.println("FOR SHIFT " + String.valueOf(i) + " decoded message is " + listOfAllTheAnswers[i]);
-                }
-            default:
-                System.out.println("default case");
-        }
-        
-        input.close();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java
index 4c699a28eba0..b6b889b079ca 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java
@@ -7,13 +7,15 @@
  *
  * @author <a href="https://github.com/freitzzz">freitzzz</a>
  */
-public class ColumnarTranspositionCipher {
+public final class ColumnarTranspositionCipher {
+    private ColumnarTranspositionCipher() {
+    }
 
     private static String keyword;
     private static Object[][] table;
     private static String abecedarium;
-    public static final String ABECEDARIUM
-            = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFG" + "HIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ0123456789,.;:-@";
+    public static final String ABECEDARIUM = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFG"
+        + "HIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ0123456789,.;:-@";
     private static final String ENCRYPTION_FIELD = "≈";
     private static final char ENCRYPTION_FIELD_CHAR = '≈';
 
@@ -25,13 +27,13 @@ public class ColumnarTranspositionCipher {
      * @return a String with the word encrypted by the Columnar Transposition
      * Cipher Rule
      */
-    public static String encrpyter(String word, String keyword) {
+    public static String encrypt(final String word, final String keyword) {
         ColumnarTranspositionCipher.keyword = keyword;
-        abecedariumBuilder(500);
+        abecedariumBuilder();
         table = tableBuilder(word);
         Object[][] sortedTable = sortTable(table);
         StringBuilder wordEncrypted = new StringBuilder();
-        for (int i = 0; i < sortedTable[i].length; i++) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < sortedTable[0].length; i++) {
             for (int j = 1; j < sortedTable.length; j++) {
                 wordEncrypted.append(sortedTable[j][i]);
             }
@@ -49,11 +51,12 @@ public static String encrpyter(String word, String keyword) {
      * @return a String with the word encrypted by the Columnar Transposition
      * Cipher Rule
      */
-    public static String encrpyter(String word, String keyword, String abecedarium) {
+    public static String encrypt(String word, String keyword, String abecedarium) {
         ColumnarTranspositionCipher.keyword = keyword;
         ColumnarTranspositionCipher.abecedarium = Objects.requireNonNullElse(abecedarium, ABECEDARIUM);
         table = tableBuilder(word);
         Object[][] sortedTable = sortTable(table);
+
         StringBuilder wordEncrypted = new StringBuilder();
         for (int i = 0; i < sortedTable[0].length; i++) {
             for (int j = 1; j < sortedTable.length; j++) {
@@ -70,7 +73,7 @@ public static String encrpyter(String word, String keyword, String abecedarium)
      * @return a String decrypted with the word encrypted by the Columnar
      * Transposition Cipher Rule
      */
-    public static String decrypter() {
+    public static String decrypt() {
         StringBuilder wordDecrypted = new StringBuilder();
         for (int i = 1; i < table.length; i++) {
             for (Object item : table[i]) {
@@ -89,14 +92,14 @@ public static String decrypter() {
      */
     private static Object[][] tableBuilder(String word) {
         Object[][] table = new Object[numberOfRows(word) + 1][keyword.length()];
-        char[] wordInChards = word.toCharArray();
-        // Fils in the respective numbers
+        char[] wordInChars = word.toCharArray();
+        // Fills in the respective numbers for the column
         table[0] = findElements();
         int charElement = 0;
         for (int i = 1; i < table.length; i++) {
             for (int j = 0; j < table[i].length; j++) {
-                if (charElement < wordInChards.length) {
-                    table[i][j] = wordInChards[charElement];
+                if (charElement < wordInChars.length) {
+                    table[i][j] = wordInChars[charElement];
                     charElement++;
                 } else {
                     table[i][j] = ENCRYPTION_FIELD_CHAR;
@@ -114,7 +117,7 @@ private static Object[][] tableBuilder(String word) {
      * order to respect the Columnar Transposition Cipher Rule.
      */
     private static int numberOfRows(String word) {
-        if (word.length() / keyword.length() > word.length() / keyword.length()) {
+        if (word.length() % keyword.length() != 0) {
             return (word.length() / keyword.length()) + 1;
         } else {
             return word.length() / keyword.length();
@@ -163,8 +166,7 @@ private static Object[] getColumn(Object[][] table, int rows, int column) {
         return columnArray;
     }
 
-    private static void switchColumns(
-            Object[][] table, int firstColumnIndex, int secondColumnIndex, Object[] columnToSwitch) {
+    private static void switchColumns(Object[][] table, int firstColumnIndex, int secondColumnIndex, Object[] columnToSwitch) {
         for (int i = 0; i < table.length; i++) {
             table[i][secondColumnIndex] = table[i][firstColumnIndex];
             table[i][firstColumnIndex] = columnToSwitch[i];
@@ -172,37 +174,13 @@ private static void switchColumns(
     }
 
     /**
-     * Creates an abecedarium with a specified ascii inded
-     *
-     * @param value Number of characters being used based on the ASCII Table
+     * Creates an abecedarium with all available ascii values.
      */
-    private static void abecedariumBuilder(int value) {
+    private static void abecedariumBuilder() {
         StringBuilder t = new StringBuilder();
-        for (int i = 0; i < value; i++) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) {
             t.append((char) i);
         }
         abecedarium = t.toString();
     }
-
-    private static void showTable() {
-        for (Object[] table1 : table) {
-            for (Object item : table1) {
-                System.out.print(item + " ");
-            }
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String keywordForExample = "asd215";
-        String wordBeingEncrypted = "This is a test of the Columnar Transposition Cipher";
-        System.out.println("### Example of Columnar Transposition Cipher ###\n");
-        System.out.println("Word being encryped ->>> " + wordBeingEncrypted);
-        System.out.println(
-                "Word encrypted ->>> "
-                + ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrpyter(wordBeingEncrypted, keywordForExample));
-        System.out.println("Word decryped ->>> " + ColumnarTranspositionCipher.decrypter());
-        System.out.println("\n### Encrypted Table ###");
-        showTable();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DES.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DES.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7f3eed70f3c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DES.java
@@ -0,0 +1,250 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+/**
+ * This class is build to demonstrate the application of the DES-algorithm
+ * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard) on a plain English message. The supplied
+ * key must be in form of a 64 bit binary String.
+ */
+public class DES {
+
+    private String key;
+    private final String[] subKeys;
+
+    private void sanitize(String key) {
+        int length = key.length();
+        if (length != 64) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("DES key must be supplied as a 64 character binary string");
+        }
+    }
+
+    DES(String key) {
+        sanitize(key);
+        this.key = key;
+        subKeys = getSubkeys(key);
+    }
+
+    public String getKey() {
+        return this.key;
+    }
+
+    public void setKey(String key) {
+        sanitize(key);
+        this.key = key;
+    }
+
+    // Permutation table to convert initial 64-bit key to 56 bit key
+    private static final int[] PC1 = {57, 49, 41, 33, 25, 17, 9, 1, 58, 50, 42, 34, 26, 18, 10, 2, 59, 51, 43, 35, 27, 19, 11, 3, 60, 52, 44, 36, 63, 55, 47, 39, 31, 23, 15, 7, 62, 54, 46, 38, 30, 22, 14, 6, 61, 53, 45, 37, 29, 21, 13, 5, 28, 20, 12, 4};
+
+    // Lookup table used to shift the initial key, in order to generate the subkeys
+    private static final int[] KEY_SHIFTS = {1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1};
+
+    // Table to convert the 56 bit subkeys to 48 bit subkeys
+    private static final int[] PC2 = {14, 17, 11, 24, 1, 5, 3, 28, 15, 6, 21, 10, 23, 19, 12, 4, 26, 8, 16, 7, 27, 20, 13, 2, 41, 52, 31, 37, 47, 55, 30, 40, 51, 45, 33, 48, 44, 49, 39, 56, 34, 53, 46, 42, 50, 36, 29, 32};
+
+    // Initial permutation of each 64 but message block
+    private static final int[] IP = {58, 50, 42, 34, 26, 18, 10, 2, 60, 52, 44, 36, 28, 20, 12, 4, 62, 54, 46, 38, 30, 22, 14, 6, 64, 56, 48, 40, 32, 24, 16, 8, 57, 49, 41, 33, 25, 17, 9, 1, 59, 51, 43, 35, 27, 19, 11, 3, 61, 53, 45, 37, 29, 21, 13, 5, 63, 55, 47, 39, 31, 23, 15, 7};
+
+    // Expansion table to convert right half of message blocks from 32 bits to 48 bits
+    private static final int[] EXPANSION = {32, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 1};
+
+    // The eight substitution boxes are defined below
+    private static final int[][] S1 = {{14, 4, 13, 1, 2, 15, 11, 8, 3, 10, 6, 12, 5, 9, 0, 7}, {0, 15, 7, 4, 14, 2, 13, 1, 10, 6, 12, 11, 9, 5, 3, 8}, {4, 1, 14, 8, 13, 6, 2, 11, 15, 12, 9, 7, 3, 10, 5, 0}, {15, 12, 8, 2, 4, 9, 1, 7, 5, 11, 3, 14, 10, 0, 6, 13}};
+
+    private static final int[][] S2 = {{15, 1, 8, 14, 6, 11, 3, 4, 9, 7, 2, 13, 12, 0, 5, 10}, {3, 13, 4, 7, 15, 2, 8, 14, 12, 0, 1, 10, 6, 9, 11, 5}, {0, 14, 7, 11, 10, 4, 13, 1, 5, 8, 12, 6, 9, 3, 2, 15}, {13, 8, 10, 1, 3, 15, 4, 2, 11, 6, 7, 12, 0, 5, 14, 9}};
+
+    private static final int[][] S3 = {{10, 0, 9, 14, 6, 3, 15, 5, 1, 13, 12, 7, 11, 4, 2, 8}, {13, 7, 0, 9, 3, 4, 6, 10, 2, 8, 5, 14, 12, 11, 15, 1}, {13, 6, 4, 9, 8, 15, 3, 0, 11, 1, 2, 12, 5, 10, 14, 7}, {1, 10, 13, 0, 6, 9, 8, 7, 4, 15, 14, 3, 11, 5, 2, 12}};
+
+    private static final int[][] S4 = {{7, 13, 14, 3, 0, 6, 9, 10, 1, 2, 8, 5, 11, 12, 4, 15}, {13, 8, 11, 5, 6, 15, 0, 3, 4, 7, 2, 12, 1, 10, 14, 9}, {10, 6, 9, 0, 12, 11, 7, 13, 15, 1, 3, 14, 5, 2, 8, 4}, {3, 15, 0, 6, 10, 1, 13, 8, 9, 4, 5, 11, 12, 7, 2, 14}};
+
+    private static final int[][] S5 = {{2, 12, 4, 1, 7, 10, 11, 6, 8, 5, 3, 15, 13, 0, 14, 9}, {14, 11, 2, 12, 4, 7, 13, 1, 5, 0, 15, 10, 3, 9, 8, 6}, {4, 2, 1, 11, 10, 13, 7, 8, 15, 9, 12, 5, 6, 3, 0, 14}, {11, 8, 12, 7, 1, 14, 2, 13, 6, 15, 0, 9, 10, 4, 5, 3}};
+
+    private static final int[][] S6 = {{12, 1, 10, 15, 9, 2, 6, 8, 0, 13, 3, 4, 14, 7, 5, 11}, {10, 15, 4, 2, 7, 12, 9, 5, 6, 1, 13, 14, 0, 11, 3, 8}, {9, 14, 15, 5, 2, 8, 12, 3, 7, 0, 4, 10, 1, 13, 11, 6}, {4, 3, 2, 12, 9, 5, 15, 10, 11, 14, 1, 7, 6, 0, 8, 13}};
+
+    private static final int[][] S7 = {{4, 11, 2, 14, 15, 0, 8, 13, 3, 12, 9, 7, 5, 10, 6, 1}, {13, 0, 11, 7, 4, 9, 1, 10, 14, 3, 5, 12, 2, 15, 8, 6}, {1, 4, 11, 13, 12, 3, 7, 14, 10, 15, 6, 8, 0, 5, 9, 2}, {6, 11, 13, 8, 1, 4, 10, 7, 9, 5, 0, 15, 14, 2, 3, 12}};
+
+    private static final int[][] S8 = {{13, 2, 8, 4, 6, 15, 11, 1, 10, 9, 3, 14, 5, 0, 12, 7}, {1, 15, 13, 8, 10, 3, 7, 4, 12, 5, 6, 11, 0, 14, 9, 2}, {7, 11, 4, 1, 9, 12, 14, 2, 0, 6, 10, 13, 15, 3, 5, 8}, {2, 1, 14, 7, 4, 10, 8, 13, 15, 12, 9, 0, 3, 5, 6, 11}};
+
+    private static final int[][][] S = {S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8};
+
+    // Permutation table, used in the Feistel function post s-box usage
+    static final int[] PERMUTATION = {16, 7, 20, 21, 29, 12, 28, 17, 1, 15, 23, 26, 5, 18, 31, 10, 2, 8, 24, 14, 32, 27, 3, 9, 19, 13, 30, 6, 22, 11, 4, 25};
+
+    // Table used for final inversion of the message box after 16 rounds of Feistel Function
+    static final int[] IP_INVERSE = {40, 8, 48, 16, 56, 24, 64, 32, 39, 7, 47, 15, 55, 23, 63, 31, 38, 6, 46, 14, 54, 22, 62, 30, 37, 5, 45, 13, 53, 21, 61, 29, 36, 4, 44, 12, 52, 20, 60, 28, 35, 3, 43, 11, 51, 19, 59, 27, 34, 2, 42, 10, 50, 18, 58, 26, 33, 1, 41, 9, 49, 17, 57, 25};
+
+    private String[] getSubkeys(String originalKey) {
+        StringBuilder permutedKey = new StringBuilder(); // Initial permutation of keys via pc1
+        int i;
+        int j;
+        for (i = 0; i < 56; i++) {
+            permutedKey.append(originalKey.charAt(PC1[i] - 1));
+        }
+        String[] subKeys = new String[16];
+        String initialPermutedKey = permutedKey.toString();
+        String c0 = initialPermutedKey.substring(0, 28);
+        String d0 = initialPermutedKey.substring(28);
+
+        // We will now operate on the left and right halves of the permutedKey
+        for (i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
+            String cN = c0.substring(KEY_SHIFTS[i]) + c0.substring(0, KEY_SHIFTS[i]);
+            String dN = d0.substring(KEY_SHIFTS[i]) + d0.substring(0, KEY_SHIFTS[i]);
+            subKeys[i] = cN + dN;
+            c0 = cN; // Re-assign the values to create running permutation
+            d0 = dN;
+        }
+
+        // Let us shrink the keys to 48 bits (well, characters here) using pc2
+        for (i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
+            String key = subKeys[i];
+            permutedKey.setLength(0);
+            for (j = 0; j < 48; j++) {
+                permutedKey.append(key.charAt(PC2[j] - 1));
+            }
+            subKeys[i] = permutedKey.toString();
+        }
+
+        return subKeys;
+    }
+
+    private String xOR(String a, String b) {
+        int i;
+        int l = a.length();
+        StringBuilder xor = new StringBuilder();
+        for (i = 0; i < l; i++) {
+            int firstBit = a.charAt(i) - 48; // 48 is '0' in ascii
+            int secondBit = b.charAt(i) - 48;
+            xor.append((firstBit ^ secondBit));
+        }
+        return xor.toString();
+    }
+
+    private String createPaddedString(String s, int desiredLength, char pad) {
+        int i;
+        int l = s.length();
+        StringBuilder paddedString = new StringBuilder();
+        int diff = desiredLength - l;
+        for (i = 0; i < diff; i++) {
+            paddedString.append(pad);
+        }
+        return paddedString.toString();
+    }
+
+    private String pad(String s, int desiredLength) {
+        return createPaddedString(s, desiredLength, '0') + s;
+    }
+
+    private String padLast(String s, int desiredLength) {
+        return s + createPaddedString(s, desiredLength, '\u0000');
+    }
+
+    private String feistel(String messageBlock, String key) {
+        int i;
+        StringBuilder expandedKey = new StringBuilder();
+        for (i = 0; i < 48; i++) {
+            expandedKey.append(messageBlock.charAt(EXPANSION[i] - 1));
+        }
+        String mixedKey = xOR(expandedKey.toString(), key);
+        StringBuilder substitutedString = new StringBuilder();
+
+        // Let us now use the s-boxes to transform each 6 bit (length here) block to 4 bits
+        for (i = 0; i < 48; i += 6) {
+            String block = mixedKey.substring(i, i + 6);
+            int row = (block.charAt(0) - 48) * 2 + (block.charAt(5) - 48);
+            int col = (block.charAt(1) - 48) * 8 + (block.charAt(2) - 48) * 4 + (block.charAt(3) - 48) * 2 + (block.charAt(4) - 48);
+            String substitutedBlock = pad(Integer.toBinaryString(S[i / 6][row][col]), 4);
+            substitutedString.append(substitutedBlock);
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder permutedString = new StringBuilder();
+        for (i = 0; i < 32; i++) {
+            permutedString.append(substitutedString.charAt(PERMUTATION[i] - 1));
+        }
+
+        return permutedString.toString();
+    }
+
+    private String encryptBlock(String message, String[] keys) {
+        StringBuilder permutedMessage = new StringBuilder();
+        int i;
+        for (i = 0; i < 64; i++) {
+            permutedMessage.append(message.charAt(IP[i] - 1));
+        }
+        String e0 = permutedMessage.substring(0, 32);
+        String f0 = permutedMessage.substring(32);
+
+        // Iterate 16 times
+        for (i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
+            String eN = f0; // Previous Right block
+            String fN = xOR(e0, feistel(f0, keys[i]));
+            e0 = eN;
+            f0 = fN;
+        }
+
+        String combinedBlock = f0 + e0; // Reverse the 16th block
+        permutedMessage.setLength(0);
+        for (i = 0; i < 64; i++) {
+            permutedMessage.append(combinedBlock.charAt(IP_INVERSE[i] - 1));
+        }
+        return permutedMessage.toString();
+    }
+
+    // To decode, we follow the same process as encoding, but with reversed keys
+    private String decryptBlock(String message, String[] keys) {
+        String[] reversedKeys = new String[keys.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < keys.length; i++) {
+            reversedKeys[i] = keys[keys.length - i - 1];
+        }
+        return encryptBlock(message, reversedKeys);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @param message Message to be encrypted
+     * @return The encrypted message, as a binary string
+     */
+    public String encrypt(String message) {
+        StringBuilder encryptedMessage = new StringBuilder();
+        int l = message.length();
+        int i;
+        int j;
+        if (l % 8 != 0) {
+            int desiredLength = (l / 8 + 1) * 8;
+            l = desiredLength;
+            message = padLast(message, desiredLength);
+        }
+
+        for (i = 0; i < l; i += 8) {
+            String block = message.substring(i, i + 8);
+            StringBuilder bitBlock = new StringBuilder();
+            byte[] bytes = block.getBytes();
+            for (j = 0; j < 8; j++) {
+                bitBlock.append(pad(Integer.toBinaryString(bytes[j]), 8));
+            }
+            encryptedMessage.append(encryptBlock(bitBlock.toString(), subKeys));
+        }
+        return encryptedMessage.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @param message The encrypted string. Expects it to be a multiple of 64 bits, in binary format
+     * @return The decrypted String, in plain English
+     */
+    public String decrypt(String message) {
+        StringBuilder decryptedMessage = new StringBuilder();
+        int l = message.length();
+        int i;
+        int j;
+        if (l % 64 != 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Encrypted message should be a multiple of 64 characters in length");
+        }
+        for (i = 0; i < l; i += 64) {
+            String block = message.substring(i, i + 64);
+            String result = decryptBlock(block, subKeys);
+            byte[] res = new byte[8];
+            for (j = 0; j < 64; j += 8) {
+                res[j / 8] = (byte) Integer.parseInt(result.substring(j, j + 8), 2);
+            }
+            decryptedMessage.append(new String(res));
+        }
+        return decryptedMessage.toString().replace("\0", ""); // Get rid of the null bytes used for padding
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DiffieHellman.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DiffieHellman.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7470b40e001a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DiffieHellman.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+
+public final class DiffieHellman {
+
+    private final BigInteger base;
+    private final BigInteger secret;
+    private final BigInteger prime;
+
+    // Constructor to initialize base, secret, and prime
+    public DiffieHellman(BigInteger base, BigInteger secret, BigInteger prime) {
+        // Check for non-null and positive values
+        if (base == null || secret == null || prime == null || base.signum() <= 0 || secret.signum() <= 0 || prime.signum() <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Base, secret, and prime must be non-null and positive values.");
+        }
+        this.base = base;
+        this.secret = secret;
+        this.prime = prime;
+    }
+
+    // Method to calculate public value (g^x mod p)
+    public BigInteger calculatePublicValue() {
+        // Returns g^x mod p
+        return base.modPow(secret, prime);
+    }
+
+    // Method to calculate the shared secret key (otherPublic^secret mod p)
+    public BigInteger calculateSharedSecret(BigInteger otherPublicValue) {
+        if (otherPublicValue == null || otherPublicValue.signum() <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Other public value must be non-null and positive.");
+        }
+        // Returns b^x mod p or a^y mod p
+        return otherPublicValue.modPow(secret, prime);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECC.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECC.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7b1e37f0e1e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECC.java
@@ -0,0 +1,236 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import java.security.SecureRandom;
+
+/**
+ * ECC - Elliptic Curve Cryptography
+ * Elliptic Curve Cryptography is a public-key cryptography method that uses the algebraic structure of
+ * elliptic curves over finite fields. ECC provides a higher level of security with smaller key sizes compared
+ * to other public-key methods like RSA, making it particularly suitable for environments where computational
+ * resources are limited, such as mobile devices and embedded systems.
+ *
+ * This class implements elliptic curve cryptography, providing encryption and decryption
+ * functionalities based on public and private key pairs.
+ *
+ * @author xuyang
+ */
+public class ECC {
+
+    private BigInteger privateKey; // Private key used for decryption
+    private ECPoint publicKey; // Public key used for encryption
+    private EllipticCurve curve; // Elliptic curve used in cryptography
+    private ECPoint basePoint; // Base point G on the elliptic curve
+
+    public ECC(int bits) {
+        generateKeys(bits); // Generates public-private key pair
+    }
+
+    public EllipticCurve getCurve() {
+        return curve; // Returns the elliptic curve
+    }
+
+    public void setCurve(EllipticCurve curve) {
+        this.curve = curve;
+    }
+
+    // Getter and Setter for private key
+    public BigInteger getPrivateKey() {
+        return privateKey;
+    }
+
+    public void setPrivateKey(BigInteger privateKey) {
+        this.privateKey = privateKey;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Encrypts the message using the public key.
+     * The message is transformed into an ECPoint and encrypted with elliptic curve operations.
+     *
+     * @param message The plain message to be encrypted
+     * @return The encrypted message as an array of ECPoints (R, S)
+     */
+    public ECPoint[] encrypt(String message) {
+        BigInteger m = new BigInteger(message.getBytes()); // Convert message to BigInteger
+        SecureRandom r = new SecureRandom(); // Generate random value for k
+        BigInteger k = new BigInteger(curve.getFieldSize(), r); // Generate random scalar k
+
+        // Calculate point r = k * G, where G is the base point
+        ECPoint rPoint = basePoint.multiply(k, curve.getP(), curve.getA());
+
+        // Calculate point s = k * publicKey + encodedMessage
+        ECPoint sPoint = publicKey.multiply(k, curve.getP(), curve.getA()).add(curve.encodeMessage(m), curve.getP(), curve.getA());
+
+        return new ECPoint[] {rPoint, sPoint}; // Return encrypted message as two ECPoints
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decrypts the encrypted message using the private key.
+     * The decryption process is the reverse of encryption, recovering the original message.
+     *
+     * @param encryptedMessage The encrypted message as an array of ECPoints (R, S)
+     * @return The decrypted plain message as a String
+     */
+    public String decrypt(ECPoint[] encryptedMessage) {
+        ECPoint rPoint = encryptedMessage[0]; // First part of ciphertext
+        ECPoint sPoint = encryptedMessage[1]; // Second part of ciphertext
+
+        // Perform decryption: s - r * privateKey
+        ECPoint decodedMessage = sPoint.subtract(rPoint.multiply(privateKey, curve.getP(), curve.getA()), curve.getP(), curve.getA());
+
+        BigInteger m = curve.decodeMessage(decodedMessage); // Decode the message from ECPoint
+
+        return new String(m.toByteArray()); // Convert BigInteger back to String
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates a new public-private key pair for encryption and decryption.
+     *
+     * @param bits The size (in bits) of the keys to generate
+     */
+    public final void generateKeys(int bits) {
+        SecureRandom r = new SecureRandom();
+        curve = new EllipticCurve(bits); // Initialize a new elliptic curve
+        basePoint = curve.getBasePoint(); // Set the base point G
+
+        // Generate private key as a random BigInteger
+        privateKey = new BigInteger(bits, r);
+
+        // Generate public key as the point publicKey = privateKey * G
+        publicKey = basePoint.multiply(privateKey, curve.getP(), curve.getA());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Class representing an elliptic curve with the form y^2 = x^3 + ax + b.
+     */
+    public static class EllipticCurve {
+        private final BigInteger a; // Coefficient a in the curve equation
+        private final BigInteger b; // Coefficient b in the curve equation
+        private final BigInteger p; // Prime number p, defining the finite field
+        private final ECPoint basePoint; // Base point G on the curve
+
+        // Constructor with explicit parameters for a, b, p, and base point
+        public EllipticCurve(BigInteger a, BigInteger b, BigInteger p, ECPoint basePoint) {
+            this.a = a;
+            this.b = b;
+            this.p = p;
+            this.basePoint = basePoint;
+        }
+
+        // Constructor that randomly generates the curve parameters
+        public EllipticCurve(int bits) {
+            SecureRandom r = new SecureRandom();
+            this.p = BigInteger.probablePrime(bits, r); // Random prime p
+            this.a = new BigInteger(bits, r); // Random coefficient a
+            this.b = new BigInteger(bits, r); // Random coefficient b
+            this.basePoint = new ECPoint(BigInteger.valueOf(4), BigInteger.valueOf(8)); // Fixed base point G
+        }
+
+        public ECPoint getBasePoint() {
+            return basePoint;
+        }
+
+        public BigInteger getP() {
+            return p;
+        }
+
+        public BigInteger getA() {
+            return a;
+        }
+
+        public BigInteger getB() {
+            return b;
+        }
+
+        public int getFieldSize() {
+            return p.bitLength();
+        }
+
+        public ECPoint encodeMessage(BigInteger message) {
+            // Simple encoding of a message as an ECPoint (this is a simplified example)
+            return new ECPoint(message, message);
+        }
+
+        public BigInteger decodeMessage(ECPoint point) {
+            return point.getX(); // Decode the message from ECPoint (simplified)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Class representing a point on the elliptic curve.
+     */
+    public static class ECPoint {
+        private final BigInteger x; // X-coordinate of the point
+        private final BigInteger y; // Y-coordinate of the point
+
+        public ECPoint(BigInteger x, BigInteger y) {
+            this.x = x;
+            this.y = y;
+        }
+
+        public BigInteger getX() {
+            return x;
+        }
+
+        public BigInteger getY() {
+            return y;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public String toString() {
+            return "ECPoint(x=" + x.toString() + ", y=" + y.toString() + ")";
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Add two points on the elliptic curve.
+         */
+        public ECPoint add(ECPoint other, BigInteger p, BigInteger a) {
+            if (this.x.equals(BigInteger.ZERO) && this.y.equals(BigInteger.ZERO)) {
+                return other; // If this point is the identity, return the other point
+            }
+            if (other.x.equals(BigInteger.ZERO) && other.y.equals(BigInteger.ZERO)) {
+                return this; // If the other point is the identity, return this point
+            }
+
+            BigInteger lambda;
+            if (this.equals(other)) {
+                // Special case: point doubling
+                lambda = this.x.pow(2).multiply(BigInteger.valueOf(3)).add(a).multiply(this.y.multiply(BigInteger.valueOf(2)).modInverse(p)).mod(p);
+            } else {
+                // General case: adding two different points
+                lambda = other.y.subtract(this.y).multiply(other.x.subtract(this.x).modInverse(p)).mod(p);
+            }
+
+            BigInteger xr = lambda.pow(2).subtract(this.x).subtract(other.x).mod(p);
+            BigInteger yr = lambda.multiply(this.x.subtract(xr)).subtract(this.y).mod(p);
+
+            return new ECPoint(xr, yr);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Subtract two points on the elliptic curve.
+         */
+        public ECPoint subtract(ECPoint other, BigInteger p, BigInteger a) {
+            ECPoint negOther = new ECPoint(other.x, p.subtract(other.y)); // Negate the Y coordinate
+            return this.add(negOther, p, a); // Add the negated point
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Multiply a point by a scalar (repeated addition).
+         */
+        public ECPoint multiply(BigInteger k, BigInteger p, BigInteger a) {
+            ECPoint result = new ECPoint(BigInteger.ZERO, BigInteger.ZERO); // Identity point
+            ECPoint addend = this;
+
+            while (k.signum() > 0) {
+                if (k.testBit(0)) {
+                    result = result.add(addend, p, a); // Add the current point
+                }
+                addend = addend.add(addend, p, a); // Double the point
+                k = k.shiftRight(1); // Divide k by 2
+            }
+
+            return result;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipher.java
index c0f6aef12ea8..01b1aeb8bc6c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipher.java
@@ -1,170 +1,103 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-/*
- * Java Implementation of Hill Cipher
- * Hill cipher is a polyalphabetic substitution cipher. Each letter is represented by a number belonging to the set Z26 where A=0 , B=1, ..... Z=25.
- * To encrypt a message, each block of n letters (since matrix size is n x n) is multiplied by an invertible n × n matrix, against modulus 26.
- * To decrypt the message, each block is multiplied by the inverse of the matrix used for encryption.
- * The cipher key and plaintext/ciphertext are user inputs.
- * @author Ojasva Jain
- */
 public class HillCipher {
 
-    static Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
+    // Encrypts the message using the key matrix
+    public String encrypt(String message, int[][] keyMatrix) {
+        message = message.toUpperCase().replaceAll("[^A-Z]", "");
+        int matrixSize = keyMatrix.length;
+        validateDeterminant(keyMatrix, matrixSize);
 
-    /* Following function encrypts the message
-     */
-    static void encrypt(String message) {
-        message = message.toUpperCase();
-        // Get key matrix
-        System.out.println("Enter key matrix size");
-        int n = in.nextInt();
-        System.out.println("Enter Key/encryptionKey matrix ");
-        int keyMatrix[][] = new int[n][n];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-                keyMatrix[i][j] = in.nextInt();
-            }
-        }
-        //check if det = 0
-        if (determinant(keyMatrix, n) % 26 == 0) {
-            System.out.println("Invalid key, as determinant = 0. Program Terminated");
-            return;
-        }
+        StringBuilder cipherText = new StringBuilder();
+        int[] messageVector = new int[matrixSize];
+        int[] cipherVector = new int[matrixSize];
+        int index = 0;
 
-        int[][] messageVector = new int[n][1];
-        String CipherText = "";
-        int cipherMatrix[][] = new int[n][1];
-        int j = 0;
-        while (j < message.length()) {
-            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-                if (j >= message.length()) {
-                    messageVector[i][0] = 23;
+        while (index < message.length()) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < matrixSize; i++) {
+                if (index < message.length()) {
+                    messageVector[i] = message.charAt(index++) - 'A';
                 } else {
-                    messageVector[i][0] = (message.charAt(j)) % 65;
+                    messageVector[i] = 'X' - 'A'; // Padding with 'X' if needed
                 }
-                System.out.println(messageVector[i][0]);
-                j++;
             }
-            int x, i;
-            for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-                cipherMatrix[i][0] = 0;
 
-                for (x = 0; x < n; x++) {
-                    cipherMatrix[i][0] += keyMatrix[i][x] * messageVector[x][0];
+            for (int i = 0; i < matrixSize; i++) {
+                cipherVector[i] = 0;
+                for (int j = 0; j < matrixSize; j++) {
+                    cipherVector[i] += keyMatrix[i][j] * messageVector[j];
                 }
-                System.out.println(cipherMatrix[i][0]);
-                cipherMatrix[i][0] = cipherMatrix[i][0] % 26;
-            }
-            for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-                CipherText += (char) (cipherMatrix[i][0] + 65);
+                cipherVector[i] = cipherVector[i] % 26;
+                cipherText.append((char) (cipherVector[i] + 'A'));
             }
         }
-        System.out.println("Ciphertext: " + CipherText);
+
+        return cipherText.toString();
     }
 
-    //Following function decrypts a message
-    static void decrypt(String message) {
-        message = message.toUpperCase();
-        // Get key matrix
-        System.out.println("Enter key matrix size");
-        int n = in.nextInt();
-        System.out.println("Enter inverseKey/decryptionKey matrix ");
-        int keyMatrix[][] = new int[n][n];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-                keyMatrix[i][j] = in.nextInt();
-            }
-        }
-        //check if det = 0
-        if (determinant(keyMatrix, n) % 26 == 0) {
-            System.out.println("Invalid key, as determinant = 0. Program Terminated");
-            return;
-        }
-        //solving for the required plaintext message
-        int[][] messageVector = new int[n][1];
-        String PlainText = "";
-        int plainMatrix[][] = new int[n][1];
-        int j = 0;
-        while (j < message.length()) {
-            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-                if (j >= message.length()) {
-                    messageVector[i][0] = 23;
+    // Decrypts the message using the inverse key matrix
+    public String decrypt(String message, int[][] inverseKeyMatrix) {
+        message = message.toUpperCase().replaceAll("[^A-Z]", "");
+        int matrixSize = inverseKeyMatrix.length;
+        validateDeterminant(inverseKeyMatrix, matrixSize);
+
+        StringBuilder plainText = new StringBuilder();
+        int[] messageVector = new int[matrixSize];
+        int[] plainVector = new int[matrixSize];
+        int index = 0;
+
+        while (index < message.length()) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < matrixSize; i++) {
+                if (index < message.length()) {
+                    messageVector[i] = message.charAt(index++) - 'A';
                 } else {
-                    messageVector[i][0] = (message.charAt(j)) % 65;
+                    messageVector[i] = 'X' - 'A'; // Padding with 'X' if needed
                 }
-                System.out.println(messageVector[i][0]);
-                j++;
             }
-            int x, i;
-            for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-                plainMatrix[i][0] = 0;
 
-                for (x = 0; x < n; x++) {
-                    plainMatrix[i][0] += keyMatrix[i][x] * messageVector[x][0];
+            for (int i = 0; i < matrixSize; i++) {
+                plainVector[i] = 0;
+                for (int j = 0; j < matrixSize; j++) {
+                    plainVector[i] += inverseKeyMatrix[i][j] * messageVector[j];
                 }
-
-                plainMatrix[i][0] = plainMatrix[i][0] % 26;
-            }
-            for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-                PlainText += (char) (plainMatrix[i][0] + 65);
+                plainVector[i] = plainVector[i] % 26;
+                plainText.append((char) (plainVector[i] + 'A'));
             }
         }
-        System.out.println("Plaintext: " + PlainText);
+
+        return plainText.toString();
     }
 
-    // Determinant calculator
-    public static int determinant(int a[][], int n) {
-        int det = 0, sign = 1, p = 0, q = 0;
+    // Validates that the determinant of the key matrix is not zero modulo 26
+    private void validateDeterminant(int[][] keyMatrix, int n) {
+        int det = determinant(keyMatrix, n) % 26;
+        if (det == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid key matrix. Determinant is zero modulo 26.");
+        }
+    }
 
+    // Computes the determinant of a matrix recursively
+    private int determinant(int[][] matrix, int n) {
+        int det = 0;
         if (n == 1) {
-            det = a[0][0];
-        } else {
-            int b[][] = new int[n - 1][n - 1];
-            for (int x = 0; x < n; x++) {
-                p = 0;
-                q = 0;
-                for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
-                    for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-                        if (j != x) {
-                            b[p][q++] = a[i][j];
-                            if (q % (n - 1) == 0) {
-                                p++;
-                                q = 0;
-                            }
-                        }
+            return matrix[0][0];
+        }
+        int sign = 1;
+        int[][] subMatrix = new int[n - 1][n - 1];
+        for (int x = 0; x < n; x++) {
+            int subI = 0;
+            for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+                int subJ = 0;
+                for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                    if (j != x) {
+                        subMatrix[subI][subJ++] = matrix[i][j];
                     }
                 }
-                det = det + a[0][x] * determinant(b, n - 1) * sign;
-                sign = -sign;
+                subI++;
             }
+            det += sign * matrix[0][x] * determinant(subMatrix, n - 1);
+            sign = -sign;
         }
         return det;
     }
-
-    // Function to implement Hill Cipher
-    static void hillcipher(String message) {
-        message.toUpperCase();
-        System.out.println("What do you want to process from the message?");
-        System.out.println("Press 1: To Encrypt");
-        System.out.println("Press 2: To Decrypt");
-        short sc = in.nextShort();
-        if (sc == 1) {
-            encrypt(message);
-        } else if (sc == 2) {
-            decrypt(message);
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("Invalid input, program terminated.");
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Driver code
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Get the message to be encrypted
-        System.out.println("Enter message");
-        String message = in.nextLine();
-        hillcipher(message);
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/MonoAlphabetic.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/MonoAlphabetic.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1d5b7110a6f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/MonoAlphabetic.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+public final class MonoAlphabetic {
+
+    private MonoAlphabetic() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Utility class");
+    }
+
+    // Encryption method
+    public static String encrypt(String data, String key) {
+        if (!data.matches("[A-Z]+")) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input data contains invalid characters. Only uppercase A-Z are allowed.");
+        }
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
+
+        // Encrypt each character
+        for (char c : data.toCharArray()) {
+            int idx = charToPos(c); // Get the index of the character
+            sb.append(key.charAt(idx)); // Map to the corresponding character in the key
+        }
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
+
+    // Decryption method
+    public static String decrypt(String data, String key) {
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
+
+        // Decrypt each character
+        for (char c : data.toCharArray()) {
+            int idx = key.indexOf(c); // Find the index of the character in the key
+            if (idx == -1) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input data contains invalid characters.");
+            }
+            sb.append(posToChar(idx)); // Convert the index back to the original character
+        }
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
+
+    // Helper method: Convert a character to its position in the alphabet
+    private static int charToPos(char c) {
+        return c - 'A'; // Subtract 'A' to get position (0 for A, 1 for B, etc.)
+    }
+
+    // Helper method: Convert a position in the alphabet to a character
+    private static char posToChar(int pos) {
+        return (char) (pos + 'A'); // Add 'A' to convert position back to character
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ce443545db1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * A Java implementation of Permutation Cipher.
+ * It is a type of transposition cipher in which the plaintext is divided into blocks
+ * and the characters within each block are rearranged according to a fixed permutation key.
+ *
+ * For example, with key {3, 1, 2} and plaintext "HELLO", the text is divided into blocks
+ * of 3 characters: "HEL" and "LO" (with padding). The characters are then rearranged
+ * according to the key positions.
+ *
+ * @author GitHub Copilot
+ */
+public class PermutationCipher {
+
+    private static final char PADDING_CHAR = 'X';
+
+    /**
+     * Encrypts the given plaintext using the permutation cipher with the specified key.
+     *
+     * @param plaintext the text to encrypt
+     * @param key the permutation key (array of integers representing positions)
+     * @return the encrypted text
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the key is invalid
+     */
+    public String encrypt(String plaintext, int[] key) {
+        validateKey(key);
+
+        if (plaintext == null || plaintext.isEmpty()) {
+            return plaintext;
+        }
+
+        // Remove spaces and convert to uppercase for consistent processing
+        String cleanText = plaintext.replaceAll("\\s+", "").toUpperCase();
+
+        // Pad the text to make it divisible by key length
+        String paddedText = padText(cleanText, key.length);
+
+        StringBuilder encrypted = new StringBuilder();
+
+        // Process text in blocks of key length
+        for (int i = 0; i < paddedText.length(); i += key.length) {
+            String block = paddedText.substring(i, Math.min(i + key.length, paddedText.length()));
+            encrypted.append(permuteBlock(block, key));
+        }
+
+        return encrypted.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decrypts the given ciphertext using the permutation cipher with the specified key.
+     *
+     * @param ciphertext the text to decrypt
+     * @param key the permutation key (array of integers representing positions)
+     * @return the decrypted text
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the key is invalid
+     */
+    public String decrypt(String ciphertext, int[] key) {
+        validateKey(key);
+
+        if (ciphertext == null || ciphertext.isEmpty()) {
+            return ciphertext;
+        }
+
+        // Create the inverse permutation
+        int[] inverseKey = createInverseKey(key);
+
+        StringBuilder decrypted = new StringBuilder();
+
+        // Process text in blocks of key length
+        for (int i = 0; i < ciphertext.length(); i += key.length) {
+            String block = ciphertext.substring(i, Math.min(i + key.length, ciphertext.length()));
+            decrypted.append(permuteBlock(block, inverseKey));
+        }
+
+        // Remove padding characters from the end
+        return removePadding(decrypted.toString());
+    }
+    /**
+     * Validates that the permutation key is valid.
+     * A valid key must contain all integers from 1 to n exactly once, where n is the key length.
+     *
+     * @param key the permutation key to validate
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the key is invalid
+     */
+    private void validateKey(int[] key) {
+        if (key == null || key.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key cannot be null or empty");
+        }
+
+        Set<Integer> keySet = new HashSet<>();
+        for (int position : key) {
+            if (position < 1 || position > key.length) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key must contain integers from 1 to " + key.length);
+            }
+            if (!keySet.add(position)) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key must contain each position exactly once");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Pads the text with padding characters to make its length divisible by the block size.
+     *
+     * @param text the text to pad
+     * @param blockSize the size of each block
+     * @return the padded text
+     */
+    private String padText(String text, int blockSize) {
+        int remainder = text.length() % blockSize;
+        if (remainder == 0) {
+            return text;
+        }
+
+        int paddingNeeded = blockSize - remainder;
+        StringBuilder padded = new StringBuilder(text);
+        for (int i = 0; i < paddingNeeded; i++) {
+            padded.append(PADDING_CHAR);
+        }
+
+        return padded.toString();
+    }
+    /**
+     * Applies the permutation to a single block of text.
+     *
+     * @param block the block to permute
+     * @param key the permutation key
+     * @return the permuted block
+     */
+    private String permuteBlock(String block, int[] key) {
+        if (block.length() != key.length) {
+            // Handle case where block is shorter than key (shouldn't happen with proper padding)
+            block = padText(block, key.length);
+        }
+
+        char[] result = new char[key.length];
+        char[] blockChars = block.toCharArray();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < key.length; i++) {
+            // Key positions are 1-based, so subtract 1 for 0-based array indexing
+            result[i] = blockChars[key[i] - 1];
+        }
+
+        return new String(result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Creates the inverse permutation key for decryption.
+     *
+     * @param key the original permutation key
+     * @return the inverse key
+     */
+    private int[] createInverseKey(int[] key) {
+        int[] inverse = new int[key.length];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < key.length; i++) {
+            // The inverse key maps each position to where it should go
+            inverse[key[i] - 1] = i + 1;
+        }
+
+        return inverse;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes padding characters from the end of the decrypted text.
+     *
+     * @param text the text to remove padding from
+     * @return the text without padding
+     */
+    private String removePadding(String text) {
+        if (text.isEmpty()) {
+            return text;
+        }
+
+        int i = text.length() - 1;
+        while (i >= 0 && text.charAt(i) == PADDING_CHAR) {
+            i--;
+        }
+
+        return text.substring(0, i + 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Gets the padding character used by this cipher.
+     *
+     * @return the padding character
+     */
+    public char getPaddingChar() {
+        return PADDING_CHAR;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairCipher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..76ceb6dbce31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairCipher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+public class PlayfairCipher {
+
+    private char[][] matrix;
+    private String key;
+
+    public PlayfairCipher(String key) {
+        this.key = key;
+        generateMatrix();
+    }
+
+    public String encrypt(String plaintext) {
+        plaintext = prepareText(plaintext.replace("J", "I"));
+        StringBuilder ciphertext = new StringBuilder();
+        for (int i = 0; i < plaintext.length(); i += 2) {
+            char char1 = plaintext.charAt(i);
+            char char2 = plaintext.charAt(i + 1);
+            int[] pos1 = findPosition(char1);
+            int[] pos2 = findPosition(char2);
+            int row1 = pos1[0];
+            int col1 = pos1[1];
+            int row2 = pos2[0];
+            int col2 = pos2[1];
+            if (row1 == row2) {
+                ciphertext.append(matrix[row1][(col1 + 1) % 5]);
+                ciphertext.append(matrix[row2][(col2 + 1) % 5]);
+            } else if (col1 == col2) {
+                ciphertext.append(matrix[(row1 + 1) % 5][col1]);
+                ciphertext.append(matrix[(row2 + 1) % 5][col2]);
+            } else {
+                ciphertext.append(matrix[row1][col2]);
+                ciphertext.append(matrix[row2][col1]);
+            }
+        }
+        return ciphertext.toString();
+    }
+
+    public String decrypt(String ciphertext) {
+        StringBuilder plaintext = new StringBuilder();
+        for (int i = 0; i < ciphertext.length(); i += 2) {
+            char char1 = ciphertext.charAt(i);
+            char char2 = ciphertext.charAt(i + 1);
+            int[] pos1 = findPosition(char1);
+            int[] pos2 = findPosition(char2);
+            int row1 = pos1[0];
+            int col1 = pos1[1];
+            int row2 = pos2[0];
+            int col2 = pos2[1];
+            if (row1 == row2) {
+                plaintext.append(matrix[row1][(col1 + 4) % 5]);
+                plaintext.append(matrix[row2][(col2 + 4) % 5]);
+            } else if (col1 == col2) {
+                plaintext.append(matrix[(row1 + 4) % 5][col1]);
+                plaintext.append(matrix[(row2 + 4) % 5][col2]);
+            } else {
+                plaintext.append(matrix[row1][col2]);
+                plaintext.append(matrix[row2][col1]);
+            }
+        }
+        return plaintext.toString();
+    }
+
+    private void generateMatrix() {
+        String keyWithoutDuplicates = removeDuplicateChars(key + "ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ");
+        matrix = new char[5][5];
+        int index = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
+                matrix[i][j] = keyWithoutDuplicates.charAt(index);
+                index++;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private String removeDuplicateChars(String str) {
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
+        for (int i = 0; i < str.length(); i++) {
+            if (result.indexOf(String.valueOf(str.charAt(i))) == -1) {
+                result.append(str.charAt(i));
+            }
+        }
+        return result.toString();
+    }
+
+    private String prepareText(String text) {
+        text = text.toUpperCase().replaceAll("[^A-Z]", "");
+        StringBuilder preparedText = new StringBuilder();
+        char prevChar = '\0';
+        for (char c : text.toCharArray()) {
+            if (c != prevChar) {
+                preparedText.append(c);
+                prevChar = c;
+            } else {
+                preparedText.append('X').append(c);
+                prevChar = '\0';
+            }
+        }
+        if (preparedText.length() % 2 != 0) {
+            preparedText.append('X');
+        }
+        return preparedText.toString();
+    }
+
+    private int[] findPosition(char c) {
+        int[] pos = new int[2];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
+                if (matrix[i][j] == c) {
+                    pos[0] = i;
+                    pos[1] = j;
+                    return pos;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return pos;
+    }
+
+    public void printMatrix() {
+        System.out.println("\nPlayfair Cipher Matrix:");
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
+                System.out.print(matrix[i][j] + " ");
+            }
+            System.out.println();
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Polybius.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Polybius.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6b3cd6ccae81
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Polybius.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+/**
+ * A Java implementation of Polybius Cipher
+ * Polybius is a substitution cipher method
+ * It was invented by a greek philosopher that name is Polybius
+ * Letters in alphabet takes place to two dimension table.
+ * Encrypted text is created according to row and column in two dimension table
+ * Decrypted text is generated by looking at the row and column respectively
+ * Additionally, some letters in english alphabet deliberately throws such as U because U is very
+ * similar with V
+ *
+ * @author Hikmet ÇAKIR
+ * @since 08-07-2022+03:00
+ */
+public final class Polybius {
+    private Polybius() {
+    }
+
+    private static final char[][] KEY = {
+        //         0    1    2    3    4
+        /* 0 */ {'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E'},
+        /* 1 */ {'F', 'G', 'H', 'I', 'J'},
+        /* 2 */ {'K', 'L', 'M', 'N', 'O'},
+        /* 3 */ {'P', 'Q', 'R', 'S', 'T'},
+        /* 4 */ {'V', 'W', 'X', 'Y', 'Z'},
+    };
+
+    private static String findLocationByCharacter(final char character) {
+        final StringBuilder location = new StringBuilder();
+        for (int i = 0; i < KEY.length; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < KEY[i].length; j++) {
+                if (character == KEY[i][j]) {
+                    location.append(i).append(j);
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return location.toString();
+    }
+
+    public static String encrypt(final String plaintext) {
+        final char[] chars = plaintext.toUpperCase().toCharArray();
+        final StringBuilder ciphertext = new StringBuilder();
+        for (char aChar : chars) {
+            String location = findLocationByCharacter(aChar);
+            ciphertext.append(location);
+        }
+        return ciphertext.toString();
+    }
+
+    public static String decrypt(final String ciphertext) {
+        final char[] chars = ciphertext.toCharArray();
+        final StringBuilder plaintext = new StringBuilder();
+        for (int i = 0; i < chars.length; i += 2) {
+            int pozitionX = Character.getNumericValue(chars[i]);
+            int pozitionY = Character.getNumericValue(chars[i + 1]);
+            plaintext.append(KEY[pozitionX][pozitionY]);
+        }
+        return plaintext.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java
index 39683b3e79b3..d7eaea757001 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java
@@ -2,71 +2,72 @@
 
 import java.util.Scanner;
 
-class ProductCipher {
+final class ProductCipher {
+    private ProductCipher() {
+    }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter the input to be encrypted: ");
-        String substitutionInput = sc.nextLine();
-        System.out.println(" ");
-        System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
-        int n = sc.nextInt();
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        try (Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in)) {
+            System.out.println("Enter the input to be encrypted: ");
+            String substitutionInput = sc.nextLine();
+            System.out.println(" ");
+            System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
+            int n = sc.nextInt();
 
-        // Substitution encryption
-        StringBuffer substitutionOutput = new StringBuffer();
-        for (int i = 0; i < substitutionInput.length(); i++) {
-            char c = substitutionInput.charAt(i);
-            substitutionOutput.append((char) (c + 5));
-        }
-        System.out.println(" ");
-        System.out.println("Substituted text: ");
-        System.out.println(substitutionOutput);
+            // Substitution encryption
+            StringBuffer substitutionOutput = new StringBuffer();
+            for (int i = 0; i < substitutionInput.length(); i++) {
+                char c = substitutionInput.charAt(i);
+                substitutionOutput.append((char) (c + 5));
+            }
+            System.out.println(" ");
+            System.out.println("Substituted text: ");
+            System.out.println(substitutionOutput);
 
-        // Transposition encryption
-        String transpositionInput = substitutionOutput.toString();
-        int modulus;
-        if ((modulus = transpositionInput.length() % n) != 0) {
-            modulus = n - modulus;
+            // Transposition encryption
+            String transpositionInput = substitutionOutput.toString();
+            int modulus = transpositionInput.length() % n;
+            if (modulus != 0) {
+                modulus = n - modulus;
 
-            for (; modulus != 0; modulus--) {
-                transpositionInput += "/";
+                for (; modulus != 0; modulus--) {
+                    transpositionInput += "/";
+                }
             }
-        }
-        StringBuffer transpositionOutput = new StringBuffer();
-        System.out.println(" ");
-        System.out.println("Transposition Matrix: ");
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < transpositionInput.length() / n; j++) {
-                char c = transpositionInput.charAt(i + (j * n));
-                System.out.print(c);
-                transpositionOutput.append(c);
+            StringBuffer transpositionOutput = new StringBuffer();
+            System.out.println(" ");
+            System.out.println("Transposition Matrix: ");
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                for (int j = 0; j < transpositionInput.length() / n; j++) {
+                    char c = transpositionInput.charAt(i + (j * n));
+                    System.out.print(c);
+                    transpositionOutput.append(c);
+                }
+                System.out.println();
             }
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-        System.out.println(" ");
-        System.out.println("Final encrypted text: ");
-        System.out.println(transpositionOutput);
+            System.out.println(" ");
+            System.out.println("Final encrypted text: ");
+            System.out.println(transpositionOutput);
 
-        // Transposition decryption
-        n = transpositionOutput.length() / n;
-        StringBuffer transpositionPlaintext = new StringBuffer();
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < transpositionOutput.length() / n; j++) {
-                char c = transpositionOutput.charAt(i + (j * n));
-                transpositionPlaintext.append(c);
+            // Transposition decryption
+            n = transpositionOutput.length() / n;
+            StringBuffer transpositionPlaintext = new StringBuffer();
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                for (int j = 0; j < transpositionOutput.length() / n; j++) {
+                    char c = transpositionOutput.charAt(i + (j * n));
+                    transpositionPlaintext.append(c);
+                }
             }
-        }
 
-        // Substitution decryption
-        StringBuffer plaintext = new StringBuffer();
-        for (int i = 0; i < transpositionPlaintext.length(); i++) {
-            char c = transpositionPlaintext.charAt(i);
-            plaintext.append((char) (c - 5));
-        }
+            // Substitution decryption
+            StringBuffer plaintext = new StringBuffer();
+            for (int i = 0; i < transpositionPlaintext.length(); i++) {
+                char c = transpositionPlaintext.charAt(i);
+                plaintext.append((char) (c - 5));
+            }
 
-        System.out.println("Plaintext: ");
-        System.out.println(plaintext);
-        sc.close();
+            System.out.println("Plaintext: ");
+            System.out.println(plaintext);
+        }
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java
index 27b4b457f5bb..28af1a62032a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java
@@ -1,76 +1,119 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
 
-import javax.swing.*;
 import java.math.BigInteger;
 import java.security.SecureRandom;
 
 /**
- * @author Nguyen Duy Tiep on 23-Oct-17.
+ * RSA is an asymmetric cryptographic algorithm used for secure data encryption and decryption.
+ * It relies on a pair of keys: a public key (used for encryption) and a private key
+ * (used for decryption). The algorithm is based on the difficulty of factoring large prime numbers.
+ *
+ * This implementation includes key generation, encryption, and decryption methods that can handle both
+ * text-based messages and BigInteger inputs. For more details on RSA:
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA_(cryptosystem)">RSA Cryptosystem - Wikipedia</a>.
+ *
+ * Example Usage:
+ * <pre>
+ * RSA rsa = new RSA(1024);
+ * String encryptedMessage = rsa.encrypt("Hello RSA!");
+ * String decryptedMessage = rsa.decrypt(encryptedMessage);
+ * System.out.println(decryptedMessage);  // Output: Hello RSA!
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * Note: The key size directly affects the security and performance of the RSA algorithm.
+ * Larger keys are more secure but slower to compute.
+ *
+ * @author Nguyen Duy Tiep
+ * @version 23-Oct-17
  */
-public final class RSA {
+public class RSA {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        RSA rsa = new RSA(1024);
-        String text1 = JOptionPane.showInputDialog("Enter a message to encrypt :");
-
-        String ciphertext = rsa.encrypt(text1);
-        JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null, "Your encrypted message : " + ciphertext);
-
-        JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null, "Your message after decrypt : " + rsa.decrypt(ciphertext));
-    }
-
-    private BigInteger modulus, privateKey, publicKey;
+    private BigInteger modulus;
+    private BigInteger privateKey;
+    private BigInteger publicKey;
 
+    /**
+     * Constructor that generates RSA keys with the specified number of bits.
+     *
+     * @param bits The bit length of the keys to be generated. Common sizes include 512, 1024, 2048, etc.
+     */
     public RSA(int bits) {
         generateKeys(bits);
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return encrypted message
+     * Encrypts a text message using the RSA public key.
+     *
+     * @param message The plaintext message to be encrypted.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the message is empty.
+     * @return The encrypted message represented as a String.
      */
     public synchronized String encrypt(String message) {
+        if (message.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Message is empty");
+        }
         return (new BigInteger(message.getBytes())).modPow(publicKey, modulus).toString();
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return encrypted message as big integer
+     * Encrypts a BigInteger message using the RSA public key.
+     *
+     * @param message The plaintext message as a BigInteger.
+     * @return The encrypted message as a BigInteger.
      */
     public synchronized BigInteger encrypt(BigInteger message) {
         return message.modPow(publicKey, modulus);
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return plain message
+     * Decrypts an encrypted message (as String) using the RSA private key.
+     *
+     * @param encryptedMessage The encrypted message to be decrypted, represented as a String.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the message is empty.
+     * @return The decrypted plaintext message as a String.
      */
     public synchronized String decrypt(String encryptedMessage) {
+        if (encryptedMessage.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Message is empty");
+        }
         return new String((new BigInteger(encryptedMessage)).modPow(privateKey, modulus).toByteArray());
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return plain message as big integer
+     * Decrypts an encrypted BigInteger message using the RSA private key.
+     *
+     * @param encryptedMessage The encrypted message as a BigInteger.
+     * @return The decrypted plaintext message as a BigInteger.
      */
     public synchronized BigInteger decrypt(BigInteger encryptedMessage) {
         return encryptedMessage.modPow(privateKey, modulus);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Generate a new public and private key set.
+     * Generates a new RSA key pair (public and private keys) with the specified bit length.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Generate two large prime numbers p and q.
+     * 2. Compute the modulus n = p * q.
+     * 3. Compute Euler's totient function: φ(n) = (p-1) * (q-1).
+     * 4. Choose a public key e (starting from 3) that is coprime with φ(n).
+     * 5. Compute the private key d as the modular inverse of e mod φ(n).
+     * The public key is (e, n) and the private key is (d, n).
+     *
+     * @param bits The bit length of the keys to be generated.
      */
-    public synchronized void generateKeys(int bits) {
-        SecureRandom r = new SecureRandom();
-        BigInteger p = new BigInteger(bits / 2, 100, r);
-        BigInteger q = new BigInteger(bits / 2, 100, r);
+    public final synchronized void generateKeys(int bits) {
+        SecureRandom random = new SecureRandom();
+        BigInteger p = new BigInteger(bits / 2, 100, random);
+        BigInteger q = new BigInteger(bits / 2, 100, random);
         modulus = p.multiply(q);
 
-        BigInteger m = (p.subtract(BigInteger.ONE)).multiply(q.subtract(BigInteger.ONE));
-
-        publicKey = new BigInteger("3");
+        BigInteger phi = (p.subtract(BigInteger.ONE)).multiply(q.subtract(BigInteger.ONE));
 
-        while (m.gcd(publicKey).intValue() > 1) {
-            publicKey = publicKey.add(new BigInteger("2"));
+        publicKey = BigInteger.valueOf(3L);
+        while (phi.gcd(publicKey).intValue() > 1) {
+            publicKey = publicKey.add(BigInteger.TWO);
         }
 
-        privateKey = publicKey.modInverse(m);
+        privateKey = publicKey.modInverse(phi);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceCipher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f81252980468
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceCipher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * The rail fence cipher (also called a zigzag cipher) is a classical type of transposition cipher.
+ * It derives its name from the manner in which encryption is performed, in analogy to a fence built with horizontal rails.
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_fence_cipher
+ * @author https://github.com/Krounosity
+ */
+
+public class RailFenceCipher {
+
+    // Encrypts the input string using the rail fence cipher method with the given number of rails.
+    public String encrypt(String str, int rails) {
+
+        // Base case of single rail or rails are more than the number of characters in the string
+        if (rails == 1 || rails >= str.length()) {
+            return str;
+        }
+
+        // Boolean flag to determine if the movement is downward or upward in the rail matrix.
+        boolean down = true;
+        // Create a 2D array to represent the rails (rows) and the length of the string (columns).
+        char[][] strRail = new char[rails][str.length()];
+
+        // Initialize all positions in the rail matrix with a placeholder character ('\n').
+        for (int i = 0; i < rails; i++) {
+            Arrays.fill(strRail[i], '\n');
+        }
+
+        int row = 0; // Start at the first row
+        int col = 0; // Start at the first column
+
+        int i = 0;
+
+        // Fill the rail matrix with characters from the string based on the rail pattern.
+        while (col < str.length()) {
+            // Change direction to down when at the first row.
+            if (row == 0) {
+                down = true;
+            }
+            // Change direction to up when at the last row.
+            else if (row == rails - 1) {
+                down = false;
+            }
+
+            // Place the character in the current position of the rail matrix.
+            strRail[row][col] = str.charAt(i);
+            col++; // Move to the next column.
+            // Move to the next row based on the direction.
+            if (down) {
+                row++;
+            } else {
+                row--;
+            }
+
+            i++;
+        }
+
+        // Construct the encrypted string by reading characters row by row.
+        StringBuilder encryptedString = new StringBuilder();
+        for (char[] chRow : strRail) {
+            for (char ch : chRow) {
+                if (ch != '\n') {
+                    encryptedString.append(ch);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return encryptedString.toString();
+    }
+    // Decrypts the input string using the rail fence cipher method with the given number of rails.
+    public String decrypt(String str, int rails) {
+
+        // Base case of single rail or rails are more than the number of characters in the string
+        if (rails == 1 || rails >= str.length()) {
+            return str;
+        }
+        // Boolean flag to determine if the movement is downward or upward in the rail matrix.
+        boolean down = true;
+
+        // Create a 2D array to represent the rails (rows) and the length of the string (columns).
+        char[][] strRail = new char[rails][str.length()];
+
+        int row = 0; // Start at the first row
+        int col = 0; // Start at the first column
+
+        // Mark the pattern on the rail matrix using '*'.
+        while (col < str.length()) {
+            // Change direction to down when at the first row.
+            if (row == 0) {
+                down = true;
+            }
+            // Change direction to up when at the last row.
+            else if (row == rails - 1) {
+                down = false;
+            }
+
+            // Mark the current position in the rail matrix.
+            strRail[row][col] = '*';
+            col++; // Move to the next column.
+            // Move to the next row based on the direction.
+            if (down) {
+                row++;
+            } else {
+                row--;
+            }
+        }
+
+        int index = 0; // Index to track characters from the input string.
+        // Fill the rail matrix with characters from the input string based on the marked pattern.
+        for (int i = 0; i < rails; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < str.length(); j++) {
+                if (strRail[i][j] == '*') {
+                    strRail[i][j] = str.charAt(index++);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Construct the decrypted string by following the zigzag pattern.
+        StringBuilder decryptedString = new StringBuilder();
+        row = 0; // Reset to the first row
+        col = 0; // Reset to the first column
+
+        while (col < str.length()) {
+            // Change direction to down when at the first row.
+            if (row == 0) {
+                down = true;
+            }
+            // Change direction to up when at the last row.
+            else if (row == rails - 1) {
+                down = false;
+            }
+            // Append the character from the rail matrix to the decrypted string.
+            decryptedString.append(strRail[row][col]);
+            col++; // Move to the next column.
+            // Move to the next row based on the direction.
+            if (down) {
+                row++;
+            } else {
+                row--;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return decryptedString.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java
index 56e5baf38447..f6c88ef730ec 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java
@@ -19,8 +19,8 @@ public class SimpleSubCipher {
      * @param cipherSmall
      * @return Encrypted message
      */
-    public static String encode(String message, String cipherSmall) {
-        String encoded = "";
+    public String encode(String message, String cipherSmall) {
+        StringBuilder encoded = new StringBuilder();
 
         // This map is used to encode
         Map<Character, Character> cipherMap = new HashMap<>();
@@ -39,13 +39,13 @@ public static String encode(String message, String cipherSmall) {
 
         for (int i = 0; i < message.length(); i++) {
             if (Character.isAlphabetic(message.charAt(i))) {
-                encoded += cipherMap.get(message.charAt(i));
+                encoded.append(cipherMap.get(message.charAt(i)));
             } else {
-                encoded += message.charAt(i);
+                encoded.append(message.charAt(i));
             }
         }
 
-        return encoded;
+        return encoded.toString();
     }
 
     /**
@@ -56,10 +56,10 @@ public static String encode(String message, String cipherSmall) {
      * @param cipherSmall
      * @return message
      */
-    public static String decode(String encryptedMessage, String cipherSmall) {
-        String decoded = "";
+    public String decode(String encryptedMessage, String cipherSmall) {
+        StringBuilder decoded = new StringBuilder();
 
-        Map<Character, Character> cipherMap = new HashMap<Character, Character>();
+        Map<Character, Character> cipherMap = new HashMap<>();
 
         char beginSmallLetter = 'a';
         char beginCapitalLetter = 'A';
@@ -74,19 +74,12 @@ public static String decode(String encryptedMessage, String cipherSmall) {
 
         for (int i = 0; i < encryptedMessage.length(); i++) {
             if (Character.isAlphabetic(encryptedMessage.charAt(i))) {
-                decoded += cipherMap.get(encryptedMessage.charAt(i));
+                decoded.append(cipherMap.get(encryptedMessage.charAt(i)));
             } else {
-                decoded += encryptedMessage.charAt(i);
+                decoded.append(encryptedMessage.charAt(i));
             }
         }
 
-        return decoded;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String a = encode("defend the east wall of the castle", "phqgiumeaylnofdxjkrcvstzwb");
-        String b = decode(a, "phqgiumeaylnofdxjkrcvstzwb");
-        System.out.println(b);
+        return decoded.toString();
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubstitutionCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubstitutionCipher.java
deleted file mode 100644
index ac68c7a4a907..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubstitutionCipher.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,92 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
-
-import java.util.HashMap;
-import java.util.Map;
-
-/**
- * The simple substitution cipher is a cipher that has been in use for many
- * hundreds of years (an excellent history is given in Simon Singhs 'the Code
- * Book'). It basically consists of substituting every plaintext character for a
- * different ciphertext character. It differs from the Caesar cipher in that the
- * cipher alphabet is not simply the alphabet shifted, it is completely jumbled.
- *
- * @author Hassan Elseoudy
- */
-public class SimpleSubstitutionCipher {
-
-    /**
-     * Encrypt text by replacing each element with its opposite character.
-     *
-     * @return Encrypted message
-     */
-    public static String encode(String message, String cipherSmall) {
-        StringBuilder encoded = new StringBuilder();
-
-        // This map is used to encode
-        Map<Character, Character> cipherMap = new HashMap<>();
-
-        char beginSmallLetter = 'a';
-        char beginCapitalLetter = 'A';
-
-        cipherSmall = cipherSmall.toLowerCase();
-        String cipherCapital = cipherSmall.toUpperCase();
-
-        // To handle Small and Capital letters
-        for (int i = 0; i < cipherSmall.length(); i++) {
-            cipherMap.put(beginSmallLetter++, cipherSmall.charAt(i));
-            cipherMap.put(beginCapitalLetter++, cipherCapital.charAt(i));
-        }
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < message.length(); i++) {
-            if (Character.isAlphabetic(message.charAt(i))) {
-                encoded.append(cipherMap.get(message.charAt(i)));
-            } else {
-                encoded.append(message.charAt(i));
-            }
-        }
-
-        return encoded.toString();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Decrypt message by replacing each element with its opposite character in
-     * cipher.
-     *
-     * @return message
-     */
-    public static String decode(String encryptedMessage, String cipherSmall) {
-        StringBuilder decoded = new StringBuilder();
-
-        Map<Character, Character> cipherMap = new HashMap<>();
-
-        char beginSmallLetter = 'a';
-        char beginCapitalLetter = 'A';
-
-        cipherSmall = cipherSmall.toLowerCase();
-        String cipherCapital = cipherSmall.toUpperCase();
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < cipherSmall.length(); i++) {
-            cipherMap.put(cipherSmall.charAt(i), beginSmallLetter++);
-            cipherMap.put(cipherCapital.charAt(i), beginCapitalLetter++);
-        }
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < encryptedMessage.length(); i++) {
-            if (Character.isAlphabetic(encryptedMessage.charAt(i))) {
-                decoded.append(cipherMap.get(encryptedMessage.charAt(i)));
-            } else {
-                decoded.append(encryptedMessage.charAt(i));
-            }
-        }
-
-        return decoded.toString();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * TODO remove main and make JUnit Testing
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String a = encode("defend the east wall of the castle", "phqgiumeaylnofdxjkrcvstzwb");
-        String b = decode(a, "phqgiumeaylnofdxjkrcvstzwb");
-        System.out.println(b);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java
index ced26792cd5b..0f117853bb85 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java
@@ -1,62 +1,106 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
 
 /**
- * A Java implementation of Vigenere Cipher.
+ * A Java implementation of the Vigenère Cipher.
+ *
+ * The Vigenère Cipher is a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that uses a
+ * keyword to shift letters in the plaintext by different amounts, depending
+ * on the corresponding character in the keyword. It wraps around the alphabet,
+ * ensuring the shifts are within 'A'-'Z' or 'a'-'z'.
+ *
+ * Non-alphabetic characters (like spaces, punctuation) are kept unchanged.
+ *
+ * Encryption Example:
+ * - Plaintext: "Hello World!"
+ * - Key: "suchsecret"
+ * - Encrypted Text: "Zynsg Yfvev!"
+ *
+ * Decryption Example:
+ * - Ciphertext: "Zynsg Yfvev!"
+ * - Key: "suchsecret"
+ * - Decrypted Text: "Hello World!"
+ *
+ * Wikipedia Reference:
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigen%C3%A8re_cipher">Vigenère Cipher - Wikipedia</a>
  *
  * @author straiffix
  * @author beingmartinbmc
  */
 public class Vigenere {
 
-    public static String encrypt(final String message, final String key) {
+    /**
+     * Encrypts a given message using the Vigenère Cipher with the specified key.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Iterate over each character in the message.
+     * 2. If the character is a letter, shift it by the corresponding character in the key.
+     * 3. Preserve the case of the letter.
+     * 4. Preserve non-alphabetic characters.
+     * 5. Move to the next character in the key (cyclic).
+     * 6. Return the encrypted message.
+     *
+     * @param message The plaintext message to encrypt.
+     * @param key The keyword used for encryption.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the key is empty.
+     * @return The encrypted message.
+     */
+    public String encrypt(final String message, final String key) {
+        if (key.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key cannot be empty.");
+        }
 
         StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
-
-        for (int i = 0, j = 0; i < message.length(); i++) {
+        int j = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < message.length(); i++) {
             char c = message.charAt(i);
             if (Character.isLetter(c)) {
                 if (Character.isUpperCase(c)) {
                     result.append((char) ((c + key.toUpperCase().charAt(j) - 2 * 'A') % 26 + 'A'));
-
                 } else {
                     result.append((char) ((c + key.toLowerCase().charAt(j) - 2 * 'a') % 26 + 'a'));
                 }
+                j = ++j % key.length();
             } else {
                 result.append(c);
             }
-            j = ++j % key.length();
         }
         return result.toString();
     }
 
-    public static String decrypt(final String message, final String key) {
-        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
-
-        for (int i = 0, j = 0; i < message.length(); i++) {
+    /**
+     * Decrypts a given message encrypted with the Vigenère Cipher using the specified key.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Iterate over each character in the message.
+     * 2. If the character is a letter, shift it back by the corresponding character in the key.
+     * 3. Preserve the case of the letter.
+     * 4. Preserve non-alphabetic characters.
+     * 5. Move to the next character in the key (cyclic).
+     * 6. Return the decrypted message.
+     *
+     * @param message The encrypted message to decrypt.
+     * @param key The keyword used for decryption.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the key is empty.
+     * @return The decrypted plaintext message.
+     */
+    public String decrypt(final String message, final String key) {
+        if (key.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key cannot be empty.");
+        }
 
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
+        int j = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < message.length(); i++) {
             char c = message.charAt(i);
             if (Character.isLetter(c)) {
                 if (Character.isUpperCase(c)) {
                     result.append((char) ('Z' - (25 - (c - key.toUpperCase().charAt(j))) % 26));
-
                 } else {
                     result.append((char) ('z' - (25 - (c - key.toLowerCase().charAt(j))) % 26));
                 }
+                j = ++j % key.length();
             } else {
                 result.append(c);
             }
-
-            j = ++j % key.length();
         }
         return result.toString();
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String text = "Hello World!";
-        String key = "itsakey";
-        System.out.println(text);
-        String ciphertext = encrypt(text, key);
-        System.out.println(ciphertext);
-        System.out.println(decrypt(ciphertext, key));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a612ccfbcdef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import java.nio.charset.Charset;
+import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
+import java.util.HexFormat;
+
+/**
+ * A simple implementation of the XOR cipher that allows both encryption and decryption
+ * using a given key. This cipher works by applying the XOR bitwise operation between
+ * the bytes of the input text and the corresponding bytes of the key (repeating the key
+ * if necessary).
+ *
+ * Usage:
+ * - Encryption: Converts plaintext into a hexadecimal-encoded ciphertext.
+ * - Decryption: Converts the hexadecimal ciphertext back into plaintext.
+ *
+ * Characteristics:
+ * - Symmetric: The same key is used for both encryption and decryption.
+ * - Simple but vulnerable: XOR encryption is insecure for real-world cryptography,
+ *   especially when the same key is reused.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * Plaintext: "Hello!"
+ * Key: "key"
+ * Encrypted: "27090c03120b"
+ * Decrypted: "Hello!"
+ *
+ * Reference: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XOR_cipher">XOR Cipher - Wikipedia</a>
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/lcsjunior">lcsjunior</a>
+ */
+public final class XORCipher {
+
+    // Default character encoding for string conversion
+    private static final Charset CS_DEFAULT = StandardCharsets.UTF_8;
+
+    private XORCipher() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Applies the XOR operation between the input bytes and the key bytes.
+     * If the key is shorter than the input, it wraps around (cyclically).
+     *
+     * @param inputBytes The input byte array (plaintext or ciphertext).
+     * @param keyBytes The key byte array used for XOR operation.
+     * @return A new byte array containing the XOR result.
+     */
+    public static byte[] xor(final byte[] inputBytes, final byte[] keyBytes) {
+        byte[] outputBytes = new byte[inputBytes.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < inputBytes.length; ++i) {
+            outputBytes[i] = (byte) (inputBytes[i] ^ keyBytes[i % keyBytes.length]);
+        }
+        return outputBytes;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Encrypts the given plaintext using the XOR cipher with the specified key.
+     * The result is a hexadecimal-encoded string representing the ciphertext.
+     *
+     * @param plainText The input plaintext to encrypt.
+     * @param key The encryption key.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the key is empty.
+     * @return A hexadecimal string representing the encrypted text.
+     */
+    public static String encrypt(final String plainText, final String key) {
+        if (key.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key must not be empty");
+        }
+
+        byte[] plainTextBytes = plainText.getBytes(CS_DEFAULT);
+        byte[] keyBytes = key.getBytes(CS_DEFAULT);
+        byte[] xorResult = xor(plainTextBytes, keyBytes);
+        return HexFormat.of().formatHex(xorResult);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decrypts the given ciphertext (in hexadecimal format) using the XOR cipher
+     * with the specified key. The result is the original plaintext.
+     *
+     * @param cipherText The hexadecimal string representing the encrypted text.
+     * @param key The decryption key (must be the same as the encryption key).
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the key is empty.
+     * @return The decrypted plaintext.
+     */
+    public static String decrypt(final String cipherText, final String key) {
+        if (key.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key must not be empty");
+        }
+
+        byte[] cipherBytes = HexFormat.of().parseHex(cipherText);
+        byte[] keyBytes = key.getBytes(CS_DEFAULT);
+        byte[] xorResult = xor(cipherBytes, keyBytes);
+        return new String(xorResult, CS_DEFAULT);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5Cipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5Cipher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cc2e9105229a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5Cipher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5;
+
+import java.util.BitSet;
+
+/**
+ * The A5Cipher class implements the A5/1 stream cipher, which is a widely used
+ * encryption algorithm, particularly in mobile communications.
+ *
+ * This implementation uses a key stream generator to produce a stream of bits
+ * that are XORed with the plaintext bits to produce the ciphertext.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * For more details about the A5/1 algorithm, refer to
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A5/1">Wikipedia</a>.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public class A5Cipher {
+
+    private final A5KeyStreamGenerator keyStreamGenerator;
+    private static final int KEY_STREAM_LENGTH = 228; // Length of the key stream in bits (28.5 bytes)
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an A5Cipher instance with the specified session key and frame counter.
+     *
+     * @param sessionKey a BitSet representing the session key used for encryption.
+     * @param frameCounter a BitSet representing the frame counter that helps in key stream generation.
+     */
+    public A5Cipher(BitSet sessionKey, BitSet frameCounter) {
+        keyStreamGenerator = new A5KeyStreamGenerator();
+        keyStreamGenerator.initialize(sessionKey, frameCounter);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Encrypts the given plaintext bits using the A5/1 cipher algorithm.
+     *
+     * This method generates a key stream and XORs it with the provided plaintext
+     * bits to produce the ciphertext.
+     *
+     * @param plainTextBits a BitSet representing the plaintext bits to be encrypted.
+     * @return a BitSet containing the encrypted ciphertext bits.
+     */
+    public BitSet encrypt(BitSet plainTextBits) {
+        // create a copy
+        var result = new BitSet(KEY_STREAM_LENGTH);
+        result.xor(plainTextBits);
+
+        var key = keyStreamGenerator.getNextKeyStream();
+        result.xor(key);
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Resets the internal counter of the key stream generator.
+     *
+     * This method can be called to re-initialize the state of the key stream
+     * generator, allowing for new key streams to be generated for subsequent
+     * encryptions.
+     */
+    public void resetCounter() {
+        keyStreamGenerator.reInitialize();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5KeyStreamGenerator.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5KeyStreamGenerator.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ee837ef4241a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5KeyStreamGenerator.java
@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5;
+
+import java.util.BitSet;
+
+/**
+ * The A5KeyStreamGenerator class is responsible for generating key streams
+ * for the A5/1 encryption algorithm using a combination of Linear Feedback Shift Registers (LFSRs).
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * This class extends the CompositeLFSR and initializes a set of LFSRs with
+ * a session key and a frame counter to produce a pseudo-random key stream.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Note: Proper exception handling for invalid usage is to be implemented.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public class A5KeyStreamGenerator extends CompositeLFSR {
+
+    private BitSet initialFrameCounter;
+    private BitSet frameCounter;
+    private BitSet sessionKey;
+    private static final int INITIAL_CLOCKING_CYCLES = 100;
+    private static final int KEY_STREAM_LENGTH = 228;
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes the A5KeyStreamGenerator with the specified session key and frame counter.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * This method sets up the internal state of the LFSRs using the provided
+     * session key and frame counter. It creates three LFSRs with specific
+     * configurations and initializes them.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param sessionKey a BitSet representing the session key used for key stream generation.
+     * @param frameCounter a BitSet representing the frame counter that influences the key stream.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public void initialize(BitSet sessionKey, BitSet frameCounter) {
+        this.sessionKey = sessionKey;
+        this.frameCounter = (BitSet) frameCounter.clone();
+        this.initialFrameCounter = (BitSet) frameCounter.clone();
+        registers.clear();
+        LFSR lfsr1 = new LFSR(19, 8, new int[] {13, 16, 17, 18});
+        LFSR lfsr2 = new LFSR(22, 10, new int[] {20, 21});
+        LFSR lfsr3 = new LFSR(23, 10, new int[] {7, 20, 21, 22});
+        registers.add(lfsr1);
+        registers.add(lfsr2);
+        registers.add(lfsr3);
+        registers.forEach(lfsr -> lfsr.initialize(sessionKey, frameCounter));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Re-initializes the key stream generator with the original session key
+     * and frame counter. This method restores the generator to its initial
+     * state.
+     */
+    public void reInitialize() {
+        this.initialize(sessionKey, initialFrameCounter);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates the next key stream of bits.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * This method performs an initial set of clocking cycles and then retrieves
+     * a key stream of the specified length. After generation, it re-initializes
+     * the internal registers.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @return a BitSet containing the generated key stream bits.
+     */
+    public BitSet getNextKeyStream() {
+        for (int cycle = 1; cycle <= INITIAL_CLOCKING_CYCLES; ++cycle) {
+            this.clock();
+        }
+
+        BitSet result = new BitSet(KEY_STREAM_LENGTH);
+        for (int cycle = 1; cycle <= KEY_STREAM_LENGTH; ++cycle) {
+            boolean outputBit = this.clock();
+            result.set(cycle - 1, outputBit);
+        }
+
+        reInitializeRegisters();
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Re-initializes the registers for the LFSRs.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * This method increments the frame counter and re-initializes each LFSR
+     * with the current session key and frame counter.
+     * </p>
+     */
+    private void reInitializeRegisters() {
+        incrementFrameCounter();
+        registers.forEach(lfsr -> lfsr.initialize(sessionKey, frameCounter));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Increments the current frame counter.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * This method uses a utility function to increment the frame counter,
+     * which influences the key stream generation process.
+     * </p>
+     */
+    private void incrementFrameCounter() {
+        Utils.increment(frameCounter, FRAME_COUNTER_LENGTH);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the current frame counter.
+     *
+     * @return a BitSet representing the current state of the frame counter.
+     */
+    public BitSet getFrameCounter() {
+        return frameCounter;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/BaseLFSR.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/BaseLFSR.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..18ad913784dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/BaseLFSR.java
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5;
+
+import java.util.BitSet;
+
+public interface BaseLFSR {
+    void initialize(BitSet sessionKey, BitSet frameCounter);
+    boolean clock();
+    int SESSION_KEY_LENGTH = 64;
+    int FRAME_COUNTER_LENGTH = 22;
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/CompositeLFSR.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/CompositeLFSR.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..029a93848c28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/CompositeLFSR.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.TreeMap;
+
+/**
+ * The CompositeLFSR class represents a composite implementation of
+ * Linear Feedback Shift Registers (LFSRs) for cryptographic purposes.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * This abstract class manages a collection of LFSR instances and
+ * provides a mechanism for irregular clocking based on the
+ * majority bit among the registers. It implements the BaseLFSR
+ * interface, requiring subclasses to define specific LFSR behaviors.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public abstract class CompositeLFSR implements BaseLFSR {
+
+    protected final List<LFSR> registers = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    /**
+     * Performs a clocking operation on the composite LFSR.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * This method determines the majority bit across all registers and
+     * clocks each register based on its clock bit. If a register's
+     * clock bit matches the majority bit, it is clocked (shifted).
+     * The method also computes and returns the XOR of the last bits
+     * of all registers.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @return the XOR value of the last bits of all registers.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public boolean clock() {
+        boolean majorityBit = getMajorityBit();
+        boolean result = false;
+        for (var register : registers) {
+            result ^= register.getLastBit();
+            if (register.getClockBit() == majorityBit) {
+                register.clock();
+            }
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the majority bit among all registers.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * This private method counts the number of true and false clock bits
+     * across all LFSR registers. It returns true if the count of true
+     * bits is greater than or equal to the count of false bits; otherwise,
+     * it returns false.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @return true if the majority clock bits are true; false otherwise.
+     */
+    private boolean getMajorityBit() {
+        Map<Boolean, Integer> bitCount = new TreeMap<>();
+        bitCount.put(Boolean.FALSE, 0);
+        bitCount.put(Boolean.TRUE, 0);
+
+        registers.forEach(lfsr -> bitCount.put(lfsr.getClockBit(), bitCount.get(lfsr.getClockBit()) + 1));
+        return bitCount.get(Boolean.FALSE) <= bitCount.get(Boolean.TRUE);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSR.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSR.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dc42ae0a7a5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSR.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5;
+
+import java.util.BitSet;
+
+public class LFSR implements BaseLFSR {
+
+    private final BitSet register;
+    private final int length;
+    private final int clockBitIndex;
+    private final int[] tappingBitsIndices;
+
+    public LFSR(int length, int clockBitIndex, int[] tappingBitsIndices) {
+        this.length = length;
+        this.clockBitIndex = clockBitIndex;
+        this.tappingBitsIndices = tappingBitsIndices;
+        register = new BitSet(length);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public void initialize(BitSet sessionKey, BitSet frameCounter) {
+        register.clear();
+        clock(sessionKey, SESSION_KEY_LENGTH);
+        clock(frameCounter, FRAME_COUNTER_LENGTH);
+    }
+
+    private void clock(BitSet key, int keyLength) {
+        // We start from reverse because LFSR 0 index is the left most bit
+        // while key 0 index is right most bit, so we reverse it
+        for (int i = keyLength - 1; i >= 0; --i) {
+            var newBit = key.get(i) ^ xorTappingBits();
+            pushBit(newBit);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean clock() {
+        return pushBit(xorTappingBits());
+    }
+
+    public boolean getClockBit() {
+        return register.get(clockBitIndex);
+    }
+
+    public boolean get(int bitIndex) {
+        return register.get(bitIndex);
+    }
+
+    public boolean getLastBit() {
+        return register.get(length - 1);
+    }
+
+    private boolean xorTappingBits() {
+        boolean result = false;
+        for (int i : tappingBitsIndices) {
+            result ^= register.get(i);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    private boolean pushBit(boolean bit) {
+        boolean discardedBit = rightShift();
+        register.set(0, bit);
+        return discardedBit;
+    }
+
+    private boolean rightShift() {
+        boolean discardedBit = get(length - 1);
+        for (int i = length - 1; i > 0; --i) {
+            register.set(i, get(i - 1));
+        }
+        register.set(0, false);
+        return discardedBit;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return register.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/Utils.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/Utils.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b4addf18dd9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/Utils.java
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5;
+
+// Source
+// http://www.java2s.com/example/java-utility-method/bitset/increment-bitset-bits-int-size-9fd84.html
+// package com.java2s;
+// License from project: Open Source License
+
+import java.util.BitSet;
+
+public final class Utils {
+    private Utils() {
+    }
+
+    public static boolean increment(BitSet bits, int size) {
+        int i = size - 1;
+        while (i >= 0 && bits.get(i)) {
+            bits.set(i--, false); /*from w w w  . j a  v a  2s  .c o  m*/
+        }
+        if (i < 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        bits.set(i, true);
+        return true;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ArithmeticCoding.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ArithmeticCoding.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b5ccf359d1be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ArithmeticCoding.java
@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+import java.math.MathContext;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * An implementation of the Arithmetic Coding algorithm.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Arithmetic coding is a form of entropy encoding used in lossless data
+ * compression. It encodes an entire message into a single number, a fraction n
+ * where (0.0 <= n < 1.0). Unlike Huffman coding, which assigns a specific
+ * bit sequence to each symbol, arithmetic coding represents the message as a
+ * sub-interval of the [0, 1) interval.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * This implementation uses BigDecimal for precision to handle the shrinking
+ * intervals, making it suitable for educational purposes to demonstrate the
+ * core logic.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity: O(n*m) for compression and decompression where n is the
+ * length of the input and m is the number of unique symbols, due to the need
+ * to calculate symbol probabilities.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * References:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_coding">Wikipedia:
+ * Arithmetic coding</a></li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class ArithmeticCoding {
+
+    private ArithmeticCoding() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compresses a string using the Arithmetic Coding algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param uncompressed The string to be compressed.
+     * @return The compressed representation as a BigDecimal number.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input string is null or empty.
+     */
+    public static BigDecimal compress(String uncompressed) {
+        if (uncompressed == null || uncompressed.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input string cannot be null or empty.");
+        }
+
+        Map<Character, Symbol> probabilityTable = calculateProbabilities(uncompressed);
+
+        BigDecimal low = BigDecimal.ZERO;
+        BigDecimal high = BigDecimal.ONE;
+
+        for (char symbol : uncompressed.toCharArray()) {
+            BigDecimal range = high.subtract(low);
+            Symbol sym = probabilityTable.get(symbol);
+
+            high = low.add(range.multiply(sym.high()));
+            low = low.add(range.multiply(sym.low()));
+        }
+
+        return low; // Return the lower bound of the final interval
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decompresses a BigDecimal number back into the original string.
+     *
+     * @param compressed       The compressed BigDecimal number.
+     * @param length           The length of the original uncompressed string.
+     * @param probabilityTable The probability table used during compression.
+     * @return The original, uncompressed string.
+     */
+    public static String decompress(BigDecimal compressed, int length, Map<Character, Symbol> probabilityTable) {
+        StringBuilder decompressed = new StringBuilder();
+
+        // Create a sorted list of symbols for deterministic decompression, matching the
+        // order used in calculateProbabilities
+        List<Map.Entry<Character, Symbol>> sortedSymbols = new ArrayList<>(probabilityTable.entrySet());
+        sortedSymbols.sort(Map.Entry.comparingByKey());
+
+        BigDecimal low = BigDecimal.ZERO;
+        BigDecimal high = BigDecimal.ONE;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < length; i++) {
+            BigDecimal range = high.subtract(low);
+
+            // Find which symbol the compressed value falls into
+            for (Map.Entry<Character, Symbol> entry : sortedSymbols) {
+                Symbol sym = entry.getValue();
+
+                // Calculate the actual range for this symbol in the current interval
+                BigDecimal symLow = low.add(range.multiply(sym.low()));
+                BigDecimal symHigh = low.add(range.multiply(sym.high()));
+
+                // Check if the compressed value falls within this symbol's range
+                if (compressed.compareTo(symLow) >= 0 && compressed.compareTo(symHigh) < 0) {
+                    decompressed.append(entry.getKey());
+
+                    // Update the interval for the next iteration
+                    low = symLow;
+                    high = symHigh;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return decompressed.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the frequency and probability range for each character in the
+     * input string in a deterministic order.
+     *
+     * @param text The input string.
+     * @return A map from each character to a Symbol object containing its
+     * probability range.
+     */
+    public static Map<Character, Symbol> calculateProbabilities(String text) {
+        Map<Character, Integer> frequencies = new HashMap<>();
+        for (char c : text.toCharArray()) {
+            frequencies.put(c, frequencies.getOrDefault(c, 0) + 1);
+        }
+
+        // Sort the characters to ensure a deterministic order for the probability table
+        List<Character> sortedKeys = new ArrayList<>(frequencies.keySet());
+        Collections.sort(sortedKeys);
+
+        Map<Character, Symbol> probabilityTable = new HashMap<>();
+        BigDecimal currentLow = BigDecimal.ZERO;
+        int total = text.length();
+
+        for (char symbol : sortedKeys) {
+            BigDecimal probability = BigDecimal.valueOf(frequencies.get(symbol)).divide(BigDecimal.valueOf(total), MathContext.DECIMAL128);
+            BigDecimal high = currentLow.add(probability);
+            probabilityTable.put(symbol, new Symbol(currentLow, high));
+            currentLow = high;
+        }
+
+        return probabilityTable;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper class to store the probability range [low, high) for a symbol.
+     */
+    public record Symbol(BigDecimal low, BigDecimal high) {
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransform.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransform.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a148517e5b55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransform.java
@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the Burrows-Wheeler Transform (BWT) and its inverse.
+ * <p>
+ * BWT is a reversible data transformation algorithm that rearranges a string into runs of
+ * similar characters. While not a compression algorithm itself, it significantly improves
+ * the compressibility of data for subsequent algorithms like Move-to-Front encoding and
+ * Run-Length Encoding.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>The transform works by:
+ * <ol>
+ *   <li>Generating all rotations of the input string</li>
+ *   <li>Sorting these rotations lexicographically</li>
+ *   <li>Taking the last column of the sorted matrix as output</li>
+ *   <li>Recording the index of the original string in the sorted matrix</li>
+ * </ol>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Important:</b> The input string should end with a unique end-of-string marker
+ * (typically '$') that:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Does not appear anywhere else in the text</li>
+ *   <li>Is lexicographically smaller than all other characters</li>
+ *   <li>Ensures unique rotations and enables correct inverse transformation</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * Without this marker, the inverse transform may not correctly reconstruct the original string.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Time Complexity:</b>
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Forward transform: O(n² log n) where n is the string length</li>
+ *   <li>Inverse transform: O(n) using the LF-mapping technique</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Example:</b></p>
+ * <pre>
+ * Input:  "banana$"
+ * Output: BWTResult("annb$aa", 4)
+ *         - "annb$aa" is the transformed string (groups similar characters)
+ *         - 4 is the index of the original string in the sorted rotations
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrows%E2%80%93Wheeler_transform">Burrows–Wheeler transform (Wikipedia)</a>
+ */
+public final class BurrowsWheelerTransform {
+
+    private BurrowsWheelerTransform() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A container for the result of the forward BWT.
+     * <p>
+     * Contains the transformed string and the index of the original string
+     * in the sorted rotations matrix, both of which are required for the
+     * inverse transformation.
+     * </p>
+     */
+    public static class BWTResult {
+        /** The transformed string (last column of the sorted rotation matrix) */
+        public final String transformed;
+
+        /** The index of the original string in the sorted rotations matrix */
+        public final int originalIndex;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a BWTResult with the transformed string and original index.
+         *
+         * @param transformed the transformed string (L-column)
+         * @param originalIndex the index of the original string in sorted rotations
+         */
+        public BWTResult(String transformed, int originalIndex) {
+            this.transformed = transformed;
+            this.originalIndex = originalIndex;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object obj) {
+            if (this == obj) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (obj == null || getClass() != obj.getClass()) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            BWTResult bwtResult = (BWTResult) obj;
+            return originalIndex == bwtResult.originalIndex && transformed.equals(bwtResult.transformed);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return 31 * transformed.hashCode() + originalIndex;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public String toString() {
+            return "BWTResult[transformed=" + transformed + ", originalIndex=" + originalIndex + "]";
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs the forward Burrows-Wheeler Transform on the input string.
+     * <p>
+     * The algorithm generates all cyclic rotations of the input, sorts them
+     * lexicographically, and returns the last column of this sorted matrix
+     * along with the position of the original string.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * <p><b>Note:</b> It is strongly recommended that the input string ends with
+     * a unique end-of-string marker (e.g., '$') that is lexicographically smaller
+     * than any other character in the string. This ensures correct inversion.</p>
+     *
+     * @param text the input string to transform; must not be {@code null}
+     * @return a {@link BWTResult} object containing the transformed string (L-column)
+     *         and the index of the original string in the sorted rotations matrix;
+     *         returns {@code BWTResult("", -1)} for empty input
+     * @throws NullPointerException if {@code text} is {@code null}
+     */
+    public static BWTResult transform(String text) {
+        if (text == null || text.isEmpty()) {
+            return new BWTResult("", -1);
+        }
+
+        int n = text.length();
+
+        // Generate all rotations of the input string
+        String[] rotations = new String[n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            rotations[i] = text.substring(i) + text.substring(0, i);
+        }
+
+        // Sort rotations lexicographically
+        Arrays.sort(rotations);
+        int originalIndex = Arrays.binarySearch(rotations, text);
+        StringBuilder lastColumn = new StringBuilder(n);
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            lastColumn.append(rotations[i].charAt(n - 1));
+        }
+
+        return new BWTResult(lastColumn.toString(), originalIndex);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs the inverse Burrows-Wheeler Transform using the LF-mapping technique.
+     * <p>
+     * The LF-mapping (Last-First mapping) is an efficient method to reconstruct
+     * the original string from the BWT output without explicitly reconstructing
+     * the entire sorted rotations matrix.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * <p>The algorithm works by:
+     * <ol>
+     *   <li>Creating the first column by sorting the BWT string</li>
+     *   <li>Building a mapping from first column indices to last column indices</li>
+     *   <li>Following this mapping starting from the original index to reconstruct the string</li>
+     * </ol>
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param bwtString the transformed string (L-column) from the forward transform; must not be {@code null}
+     * @param originalIndex the index of the original string row from the forward transform;
+     *                      use -1 for empty strings
+     * @return the original, untransformed string; returns empty string if input is empty or {@code originalIndex} is -1
+     * @throws NullPointerException if {@code bwtString} is {@code null}
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code originalIndex} is out of valid range (except -1)
+     */
+    public static String inverseTransform(String bwtString, int originalIndex) {
+        if (bwtString == null || bwtString.isEmpty() || originalIndex == -1) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        int n = bwtString.length();
+        if (originalIndex < 0 || originalIndex >= n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Original index must be between 0 and " + (n - 1) + ", got: " + originalIndex);
+        }
+
+        char[] lastColumn = bwtString.toCharArray();
+        char[] firstColumn = bwtString.toCharArray();
+        Arrays.sort(firstColumn);
+
+        // Create the "next" array for LF-mapping.
+        // next[i] stores the row index in the last column that corresponds to firstColumn[i]
+        int[] next = new int[n];
+
+        // Track the count of each character seen so far in the last column
+        Map<Character, Integer> countMap = new HashMap<>();
+
+        // Store the first occurrence index of each character in the first column
+        Map<Character, Integer> firstOccurrence = new HashMap<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (!firstOccurrence.containsKey(firstColumn[i])) {
+                firstOccurrence.put(firstColumn[i], i);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Build the LF-mapping
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            char c = lastColumn[i];
+            int count = countMap.getOrDefault(c, 0);
+            int firstIndex = firstOccurrence.get(c);
+            next[firstIndex + count] = i;
+            countMap.put(c, count + 1);
+        }
+
+        // Reconstruct the original string by following the LF-mapping
+        StringBuilder originalString = new StringBuilder(n);
+        int currentRow = originalIndex;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            originalString.append(firstColumn[currentRow]);
+            currentRow = next[currentRow];
+        }
+
+        return originalString.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ77.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ77.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d02307aa57b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ77.java
@@ -0,0 +1,168 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * An implementation of the Lempel-Ziv 77 (LZ77) compression algorithm.
+ * <p>
+ * LZ77 is a lossless data compression algorithm that works by finding repeated
+ * occurrences of data in a sliding window. It replaces subsequent occurrences
+ * with references (offset, length) to the first occurrence within the window.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * This implementation uses a simple sliding window and lookahead buffer approach.
+ * Output format is a sequence of tuples (offset, length, next_character).
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity: O(n*W) in this naive implementation, where n is the input length
+ * and W is the window size, due to the search for the longest match. More advanced
+ * data structures (like suffix trees) can improve this.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * References:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LZ77_and_LZ78#LZ77">Wikipedia: LZ77</a></li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class LZ77 {
+
+    private static final int DEFAULT_WINDOW_SIZE = 4096;
+    private static final int DEFAULT_LOOKAHEAD_BUFFER_SIZE = 16;
+    private static final char END_OF_STREAM = '\u0000';
+    private LZ77() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a token in the LZ77 compressed output.
+     * Stores the offset back into the window, the length of the match,
+     * and the next character after the match (or END_OF_STREAM if at end).
+     */
+    public record Token(int offset, int length, char nextChar) {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compresses the input text using the LZ77 algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param text The input string to compress. Must not be null.
+     * @param windowSize The size of the sliding window (search buffer). Must be positive.
+     * @param lookaheadBufferSize The size of the lookahead buffer. Must be positive.
+     * @return A list of {@link Token} objects representing the compressed data.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if windowSize or lookaheadBufferSize are not positive.
+     */
+    public static List<Token> compress(String text, int windowSize, int lookaheadBufferSize) {
+        if (text == null) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+        if (windowSize <= 0 || lookaheadBufferSize <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Window size and lookahead buffer size must be positive.");
+        }
+
+        List<Token> compressedOutput = new ArrayList<>();
+        int currentPosition = 0;
+
+        while (currentPosition < text.length()) {
+            int bestMatchDistance = 0;
+            int bestMatchLength = 0;
+
+            // Define the start of the search window
+            int searchBufferStart = Math.max(0, currentPosition - windowSize);
+            // Define the end of the lookahead buffer (don't go past text length)
+            int lookaheadEnd = Math.min(currentPosition + lookaheadBufferSize, text.length());
+
+            // Search for the longest match in the window
+            for (int i = searchBufferStart; i < currentPosition; i++) {
+                int currentMatchLength = 0;
+
+                // Check how far the match extends into the lookahead buffer
+                // This allows for overlapping matches (e.g., "aaa" can match with offset 1)
+                while (currentPosition + currentMatchLength < lookaheadEnd) {
+                    int sourceIndex = i + currentMatchLength;
+
+                    // Handle overlapping matches (run-length encoding within LZ77)
+                    // When we've matched beyond our starting position, wrap around using modulo
+                    if (sourceIndex >= currentPosition) {
+                        int offset = currentPosition - i;
+                        sourceIndex = i + (currentMatchLength % offset);
+                    }
+
+                    if (text.charAt(sourceIndex) == text.charAt(currentPosition + currentMatchLength)) {
+                        currentMatchLength++;
+                    } else {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // If this match is longer than the best found so far
+                if (currentMatchLength > bestMatchLength) {
+                    bestMatchLength = currentMatchLength;
+                    bestMatchDistance = currentPosition - i; // Calculate offset from current position
+                }
+            }
+
+            char nextChar;
+            if (currentPosition + bestMatchLength < text.length()) {
+                nextChar = text.charAt(currentPosition + bestMatchLength);
+            } else {
+                nextChar = END_OF_STREAM;
+            }
+
+            // Add the token to the output
+            compressedOutput.add(new Token(bestMatchDistance, bestMatchLength, nextChar));
+
+            // Move the current position forward
+            // If we're at the end and had a match, just move by the match length
+            if (nextChar == END_OF_STREAM) {
+                currentPosition += bestMatchLength;
+            } else {
+                currentPosition += bestMatchLength + 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return compressedOutput;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compresses the input text using the LZ77 algorithm with default buffer sizes.
+     *
+     * @param text The input string to compress. Must not be null.
+     * @return A list of {@link Token} objects representing the compressed data.
+     */
+    public static List<Token> compress(String text) {
+        return compress(text, DEFAULT_WINDOW_SIZE, DEFAULT_LOOKAHEAD_BUFFER_SIZE);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decompresses a list of LZ77 tokens back into the original string.
+     *
+     * @param compressedData The list of {@link Token} objects. Must not be null.
+     * @return The original, uncompressed string.
+     */
+    public static String decompress(List<Token> compressedData) {
+        if (compressedData == null) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder decompressedText = new StringBuilder();
+
+        for (Token token : compressedData) {
+            // Copy matched characters from the sliding window
+            if (token.length > 0) {
+                int startIndex = decompressedText.length() - token.offset;
+
+                // Handle overlapping matches (e.g., when length > offset)
+                for (int i = 0; i < token.length; i++) {
+                    decompressedText.append(decompressedText.charAt(startIndex + i));
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Append the next character (if not END_OF_STREAM)
+            if (token.nextChar != END_OF_STREAM) {
+                decompressedText.append(token.nextChar);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return decompressedText.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..904c379cc2a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78.java
@@ -0,0 +1,136 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * An implementation of the Lempel-Ziv 78 (LZ78) compression algorithm.
+ * <p>
+ * LZ78 is a dictionary-based lossless data compression algorithm. It processes
+ * input data sequentially, building a dictionary of phrases encountered so far.
+ * It outputs pairs (dictionary_index, next_character), representing
+ * the longest match found in the dictionary plus the character that follows it.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * This implementation builds the dictionary dynamically during compression.
+ * The dictionary index 0 represents the empty string (no prefix).
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity: O(n) on average for compression and decompression, assuming
+ * efficient dictionary lookups (using a HashMap), where n is the
+ * length of the input string.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * References:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LZ77_and_LZ78#LZ78">Wikipedia: LZ78</a></li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class LZ78 {
+
+    /**
+     * Special character used to mark end of stream when needed.
+     */
+    private static final char END_OF_STREAM = '\u0000';
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private LZ78() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a token in the LZ78 compressed output.
+     * Stores the index of the matching prefix in the dictionary and the next character.
+     * Index 0 represents the empty string (no prefix).
+     */
+    public record Token(int index, char nextChar) {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A node in the dictionary trie structure.
+     * Each node represents a phrase and can have child nodes for extended phrases.
+     */
+    private static final class TrieNode {
+        Map<Character, TrieNode> children = new HashMap<>();
+        int index = -1; // -1 means not assigned yet
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compresses the input text using the LZ78 algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param text The input string to compress. Must not be null.
+     * @return A list of {@link Token} objects representing the compressed data.
+     */
+    public static List<Token> compress(String text) {
+        if (text == null || text.isEmpty()) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+
+        List<Token> compressedOutput = new ArrayList<>();
+        TrieNode root = new TrieNode();
+        int nextDictionaryIndex = 1;
+
+        TrieNode currentNode = root;
+        int lastMatchedIndex = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < text.length(); i++) {
+            char currentChar = text.charAt(i);
+
+            if (currentNode.children.containsKey(currentChar)) {
+                currentNode = currentNode.children.get(currentChar);
+                lastMatchedIndex = currentNode.index;
+            } else {
+                // Output: (index of longest matching prefix, current character)
+                compressedOutput.add(new Token(lastMatchedIndex, currentChar));
+
+                TrieNode newNode = new TrieNode();
+                newNode.index = nextDictionaryIndex++;
+                currentNode.children.put(currentChar, newNode);
+
+                currentNode = root;
+                lastMatchedIndex = 0;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Handle remaining phrase at end of input
+        if (currentNode != root) {
+            compressedOutput.add(new Token(lastMatchedIndex, END_OF_STREAM));
+        }
+
+        return compressedOutput;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decompresses a list of LZ78 tokens back into the original string.
+     *
+     * @param compressedData The list of {@link Token} objects. Must not be null.
+     * @return The original, uncompressed string.
+     */
+    public static String decompress(List<Token> compressedData) {
+        if (compressedData == null || compressedData.isEmpty()) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder decompressedText = new StringBuilder();
+        Map<Integer, String> dictionary = new HashMap<>();
+        int nextDictionaryIndex = 1;
+
+        for (Token token : compressedData) {
+            String prefix = (token.index == 0) ? "" : dictionary.get(token.index);
+
+            if (token.nextChar == END_OF_STREAM) {
+                decompressedText.append(prefix);
+            } else {
+                String currentPhrase = prefix + token.nextChar;
+                decompressedText.append(currentPhrase);
+                dictionary.put(nextDictionaryIndex++, currentPhrase);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return decompressedText.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZW.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZW.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c8383815ad4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZW.java
@@ -0,0 +1,136 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * An implementation of the Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) algorithm.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * LZW is a universal lossless data compression algorithm created by Abraham
+ * Lempel, Jacob Ziv, and Terry Welch. It works by building a dictionary of
+ * strings encountered during compression and replacing occurrences of those
+ * strings with a shorter code.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * This implementation handles standard ASCII characters and provides methods for
+ * both compression and decompression.
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>Compressing "TOBEORNOTTOBEORTOBEORNOT" results in a list of integer
+ * codes.</li>
+ * <li>Decompressing that list of codes results back in the original
+ * string.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity: O(n) for both compression and decompression, where n is the
+ * length of the input string.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * References:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lempel%E2%80%93Ziv%E2%80%93Welch">Wikipedia:
+ * Lempel–Ziv–Welch</a></li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class LZW {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private LZW() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compresses a string using the LZW algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param uncompressed The string to be compressed. Can be null.
+     * @return A list of integers representing the compressed data. Returns an empty
+     * list if the input is null or empty.
+     */
+    public static List<Integer> compress(String uncompressed) {
+        if (uncompressed == null || uncompressed.isEmpty()) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+
+        // Initialize dictionary with single characters (ASCII 0-255)
+        int dictSize = 256;
+        Map<String, Integer> dictionary = new HashMap<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < dictSize; i++) {
+            dictionary.put("" + (char) i, i);
+        }
+
+        String w = "";
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (char c : uncompressed.toCharArray()) {
+            String wc = w + c;
+            if (dictionary.containsKey(wc)) {
+                // If the new string is in the dictionary, extend the current string
+                w = wc;
+            } else {
+                // Otherwise, output the code for the current string
+                result.add(dictionary.get(w));
+                // Add the new string to the dictionary
+                dictionary.put(wc, dictSize++);
+                // Start a new current string
+                w = "" + c;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Output the code for the last remaining string
+        result.add(dictionary.get(w));
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decompresses a list of integers back into a string using the LZW algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param compressed A list of integers representing the compressed data. Can be
+     *                   null.
+     * @return The original, uncompressed string. Returns an empty string if the
+     * input is null or empty.
+     */
+    public static String decompress(List<Integer> compressed) {
+        if (compressed == null || compressed.isEmpty()) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        // Initialize dictionary with single characters (ASCII 0-255)
+        int dictSize = 256;
+        Map<Integer, String> dictionary = new HashMap<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < dictSize; i++) {
+            dictionary.put(i, "" + (char) i);
+        }
+
+        // Decompress the first code
+        String w = "" + (char) (int) compressed.removeFirst();
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(w);
+
+        for (int k : compressed) {
+            String entry;
+            if (dictionary.containsKey(k)) {
+                // The code is in the dictionary
+                entry = dictionary.get(k);
+            } else if (k == dictSize) {
+                // Special case for sequences like "ababab"
+                entry = w + w.charAt(0);
+            } else {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Bad compressed k: " + k);
+            }
+
+            result.append(entry);
+
+            // Add new sequence to the dictionary
+            dictionary.put(dictSize++, w + entry.charAt(0));
+
+            w = entry;
+        }
+        return result.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/MoveToFront.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/MoveToFront.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fa8976df8262
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/MoveToFront.java
@@ -0,0 +1,164 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the Move-to-Front (MTF) transform and its inverse.
+ * <p>
+ * MTF is a data transformation algorithm that encodes each symbol in the input
+ * as its current position in a dynamically-maintained list, then moves that symbol
+ * to the front of the list. This transformation is particularly effective when used
+ * after the Burrows-Wheeler Transform (BWT), as BWT groups similar characters together.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>The transform converts runs of repeated characters into sequences of small integers
+ * (often zeros), which are highly compressible by subsequent entropy encoding algorithms
+ * like Run-Length Encoding (RLE) or Huffman coding. This technique is used in the
+ * bzip2 compression algorithm.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>How it works:</b>
+ * <ol>
+ *   <li>Maintain a list of symbols (the alphabet), initially in a fixed order</li>
+ *   <li>For each input symbol:
+ *     <ul>
+ *       <li>Output its current index in the list</li>
+ *       <li>Move that symbol to the front of the list</li>
+ *     </ul>
+ *   </li>
+ * </ol>
+ * This means frequently occurring symbols quickly move to the front and are encoded
+ * with small indices (often 0), while rare symbols remain near the back.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Time Complexity:</b>
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Forward transform: O(n × m) where n is input length and m is alphabet size</li>
+ *   <li>Inverse transform: O(n × m)</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * Note: Using {@link LinkedList} for O(1) insertions and O(m) search operations.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Example:</b></p>
+ * <pre>
+ * Input:    "annb$aa"
+ * Alphabet: "$abn" (initial order)
+ * Output:   [1, 3, 0, 3, 3, 3, 0]
+ *
+ * Step-by-step:
+ * - 'a': index 1 in [$,a,b,n] → output 1, list becomes [a,$,b,n]
+ * - 'n': index 3 in [a,$,b,n] → output 3, list becomes [n,a,$,b]
+ * - 'n': index 0 in [n,a,$,b] → output 0, list stays [n,a,$,b]
+ * - 'b': index 3 in [n,a,$,b] → output 3, list becomes [b,n,a,$]
+ * - etc.
+ *
+ * Notice how repeated 'n' characters produce zeros after the first occurrence!
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Move-to-front_transform">Move-to-front transform (Wikipedia)</a>
+ */
+public final class MoveToFront {
+
+    private MoveToFront() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs the forward Move-to-Front transform.
+     * <p>
+     * Converts the input string into a list of integers, where each integer represents
+     * the position of the corresponding character in a dynamically-maintained alphabet list.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * <p><b>Note:</b> All characters in the input text must exist in the provided alphabet,
+     * otherwise an {@link IllegalArgumentException} is thrown. The alphabet should contain
+     * all unique characters that may appear in the input.</p>
+     *
+     * @param text the input string to transform; if empty, returns an empty list
+     * @param initialAlphabet a string containing the initial ordered set of symbols
+     *                        (e.g., "$abn" or the full ASCII set); must not be empty
+     *                        when {@code text} is non-empty
+     * @return a list of integers representing the transformed data, where each integer
+     *         is the index of the corresponding input character in the current alphabet state
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code text} is non-empty and {@code initialAlphabet}
+     *                                  is {@code null} or empty
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if any character in {@code text} is not found in
+     *                                  {@code initialAlphabet}
+     */
+    public static List<Integer> transform(String text, String initialAlphabet) {
+        if (text == null || text.isEmpty()) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+        if (initialAlphabet == null || initialAlphabet.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Alphabet cannot be null or empty when text is not empty.");
+        }
+
+        List<Integer> output = new ArrayList<>(text.length());
+
+        // Use LinkedList for O(1) add-to-front and O(n) remove operations
+        // This is more efficient than ArrayList for the move-to-front pattern
+        List<Character> alphabet = initialAlphabet.chars().mapToObj(c -> (char) c).collect(Collectors.toCollection(LinkedList::new));
+
+        for (char c : text.toCharArray()) {
+            int index = alphabet.indexOf(c);
+            if (index == -1) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Symbol '" + c + "' not found in the initial alphabet.");
+            }
+
+            output.add(index);
+
+            // Move the character to the front
+            Character symbol = alphabet.remove(index);
+            alphabet.addFirst(symbol);
+        }
+        return output;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs the inverse Move-to-Front transform.
+     * <p>
+     * Reconstructs the original string from the list of indices produced by the
+     * forward transform. This requires the exact same initial alphabet that was
+     * used in the forward transform.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * <p><b>Important:</b> The {@code initialAlphabet} parameter must be identical
+     * to the one used in the forward transform, including character order, or the
+     * output will be incorrect.</p>
+     *
+     * @param indices The list of integers from the forward transform.
+     * @param initialAlphabet the exact same initial alphabet string used for the forward transform;
+     *                        if {@code null} or empty, returns an empty string
+     * @return the original, untransformed string
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if any index in {@code indices} is negative or
+     *                                  exceeds the current alphabet size
+     */
+    public static String inverseTransform(Collection<Integer> indices, String initialAlphabet) {
+        if (indices == null || indices.isEmpty() || initialAlphabet == null || initialAlphabet.isEmpty()) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder output = new StringBuilder(indices.size());
+
+        // Use LinkedList for O(1) add-to-front and O(n) remove operations
+        List<Character> alphabet = initialAlphabet.chars().mapToObj(c -> (char) c).collect(Collectors.toCollection(LinkedList::new));
+
+        for (int index : indices) {
+            if (index < 0 || index >= alphabet.size()) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Index " + index + " is out of bounds for the current alphabet of size " + alphabet.size() + ".");
+            }
+
+            // Get the symbol at the index
+            char symbol = alphabet.get(index);
+            output.append(symbol);
+
+            // Move the symbol to the front (mirroring the forward transform)
+            alphabet.remove(index);
+            alphabet.addFirst(symbol);
+        }
+        return output.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/RunLengthEncoding.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/RunLengthEncoding.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8d065f4648df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/RunLengthEncoding.java
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+/**
+ * An implementation of the Run-Length Encoding (RLE) algorithm.
+ *
+ * <p>Run-Length Encoding is a simple form of lossless data compression in which
+ * runs of data (sequences in which the same data value occurs in many
+ * consecutive data elements) are stored as a single data value and count,
+ * rather than as the original run.
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation provides methods for both compressing and decompressing
+ * a string. For example:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>Compressing "AAAABBBCCDAA" results in "4A3B2C1D2A".</li>
+ * <li>Decompressing "4A3B2C1D2A" results in "AAAABBBCCDAA".</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>Time Complexity: O(n) for both compression and decompression, where n is the
+ * length of the input string.
+ *
+ * <p>References:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-length_encoding">Wikipedia: Run-length encoding</a></li>
+ * </ul>
+ */
+public final class RunLengthEncoding {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private RunLengthEncoding() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compresses a string using the Run-Length Encoding algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param text The string to be compressed. Must not be null.
+     * @return The compressed string. Returns an empty string if the input is empty.
+     */
+    public static String compress(String text) {
+        if (text == null || text.isEmpty()) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder compressed = new StringBuilder();
+        int count = 1;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < text.length(); i++) {
+            // Check if it's the last character or if the next character is different
+            if (i == text.length() - 1 || text.charAt(i) != text.charAt(i + 1)) {
+                compressed.append(count);
+                compressed.append(text.charAt(i));
+                count = 1; // Reset count for the new character
+            } else {
+                count++;
+            }
+        }
+        return compressed.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decompresses a string that was compressed using the Run-Length Encoding algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param compressedText The compressed string. Must not be null.
+     * @return The original, uncompressed string.
+     */
+    public static String decompress(String compressedText) {
+        if (compressedText == null || compressedText.isEmpty()) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder decompressed = new StringBuilder();
+        int count = 0;
+
+        for (char ch : compressedText.toCharArray()) {
+            if (Character.isDigit(ch)) {
+                // Build the number for runs of 10 or more (e.g., "12A")
+                count = count * 10 + ch - '0';
+            } else {
+                // Append the character 'count' times
+                decompressed.append(String.valueOf(ch).repeat(Math.max(0, count)));
+                count = 0; // Reset count for the next sequence
+            }
+        }
+        return decompressed.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ShannonFano.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ShannonFano.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..aa5d7ad91b2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ShannonFano.java
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+
+/**
+ * An implementation of the Shannon-Fano algorithm for generating prefix codes.
+ *
+ * <p>Shannon-Fano coding is an entropy encoding technique for lossless data
+ * compression. It assigns variable-length codes to symbols based on their
+ * frequencies of occurrence. It is a precursor to Huffman coding and works by
+ * recursively partitioning a sorted list of symbols into two sub-lists with
+ * nearly equal total frequencies.
+ *
+ * <p>The algorithm works as follows:
+ * <ol>
+ * <li>Count the frequency of each symbol in the input data.</li>
+ * <li>Sort the symbols in descending order of their frequencies.</li>
+ * <li>Recursively divide the list of symbols into two parts with sums of
+ * frequencies as close as possible to each other.</li>
+ * <li>Assign a '0' bit to the codes in the first part and a '1' bit to the codes
+ * in the second part.</li>
+ * <li>Repeat the process for each part until a part contains only one symbol.</li>
+ * </ol>
+ *
+ * <p>Time Complexity: O(n^2) in this implementation due to the partitioning logic,
+ * or O(n log n) if a more optimized partitioning strategy is used.
+ * Sorting takes O(n log n), where n is the number of unique symbols.
+ *
+ * <p>References:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%C3%83%C2%A2%C3%A2%E2%80%9A%C2%AC"Fano_coding">Wikipedia: Shannonâ€"Fano coding</a></li>
+ * </ul>
+ */
+public final class ShannonFano {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private ShannonFano() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A private inner class to represent a symbol and its frequency.
+     * Implements Comparable to allow sorting based on frequency.
+     */
+    private static class Symbol implements Comparable<Symbol> {
+        final char character;
+        final int frequency;
+        String code = "";
+
+        Symbol(char character, int frequency) {
+            this.character = character;
+            this.frequency = frequency;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Symbol other) {
+            return Integer.compare(other.frequency, this.frequency); // Sort descending
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates Shannon-Fano codes for the symbols in a given text.
+     *
+     * @param text The input string for which to generate codes. Must not be null.
+     * @return A map where keys are characters and values are their corresponding Shannon-Fano codes.
+     */
+    public static Map<Character, String> generateCodes(String text) {
+        if (text == null || text.isEmpty()) {
+            return Collections.emptyMap();
+        }
+
+        Map<Character, Integer> frequencyMap = new HashMap<>();
+        for (char c : text.toCharArray()) {
+            frequencyMap.put(c, frequencyMap.getOrDefault(c, 0) + 1);
+        }
+
+        List<Symbol> symbols = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (Map.Entry<Character, Integer> entry : frequencyMap.entrySet()) {
+            symbols.add(new Symbol(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue()));
+        }
+
+        Collections.sort(symbols);
+
+        // Special case: only one unique symbol
+        if (symbols.size() == 1) {
+            symbols.getFirst().code = "0";
+        } else {
+            buildCodeTree(symbols, 0, symbols.size() - 1, "");
+        }
+
+        return symbols.stream().collect(Collectors.toMap(s -> s.character, s -> s.code));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively builds the Shannon-Fano code tree by partitioning the list of symbols.
+     * Uses index-based approach to avoid sublist creation issues.
+     *
+     * @param symbols The sorted list of symbols to be processed.
+     * @param start   The start index of the current partition.
+     * @param end     The end index of the current partition (inclusive).
+     * @param prefix  The current prefix code being built for the symbols in this partition.
+     */
+    private static void buildCodeTree(List<Symbol> symbols, int start, int end, String prefix) {
+        // The initial check in generateCodes ensures start <= end is always true here.
+        // The base case is when a partition has only one symbol.
+        if (start == end) {
+            symbols.get(start).code = prefix;
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Find the optimal split point
+        int splitIndex = findSplitIndex(symbols, start, end);
+
+        // Recursively process left and right partitions with updated prefixes
+        buildCodeTree(symbols, start, splitIndex, prefix + "0");
+        buildCodeTree(symbols, splitIndex + 1, end, prefix + "1");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the index that splits the range into two parts with the most balanced frequency sums.
+     * This method tries every possible split point and returns the index that minimizes the
+     * absolute difference between the two partition sums.
+     *
+     * @param symbols The sorted list of symbols.
+     * @param start   The start index of the range.
+     * @param end     The end index of the range (inclusive).
+     * @return The index of the last element in the first partition.
+     */
+    private static int findSplitIndex(List<Symbol> symbols, int start, int end) {
+        // Calculate total frequency for the entire range
+        long totalFrequency = 0;
+        for (int i = start; i <= end; i++) {
+            totalFrequency += symbols.get(i).frequency;
+        }
+
+        long leftSum = 0;
+        long minDifference = Long.MAX_VALUE;
+        int splitIndex = start;
+
+        // Try every possible split point and find the one with minimum difference
+        for (int i = start; i < end; i++) {
+            leftSum += symbols.get(i).frequency;
+            long rightSum = totalFrequency - leftSum;
+            long difference = Math.abs(leftSum - rightSum);
+
+            if (difference < minDifference) {
+                minDifference = difference;
+                splitIndex = i;
+            }
+        }
+        return splitIndex;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..199a6dd517d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to perform affine transformations of the form:
+ * y = slope * x + intercept.
+ *
+ * This class supports inversion and composition of affine transformations.
+ * It is immutable, meaning each instance represents a fixed transformation.
+ */
+public final class AffineConverter {
+    private final double slope;
+    private final double intercept;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an AffineConverter with the given slope and intercept.
+     *
+     * @param inSlope The slope of the affine transformation.
+     * @param inIntercept The intercept (constant term) of the affine transformation.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if either parameter is NaN.
+     */
+    public AffineConverter(final double inSlope, final double inIntercept) {
+        if (Double.isNaN(inSlope) || Double.isNaN(inIntercept)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Slope and intercept must be valid numbers.");
+        }
+        slope = inSlope;
+        intercept = inIntercept;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts the given input value using the affine transformation:
+     * result = slope * inValue + intercept.
+     *
+     * @param inValue The input value to convert.
+     * @return The transformed value.
+     */
+    public double convert(final double inValue) {
+        return slope * inValue + intercept;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a new AffineConverter representing the inverse of the current transformation.
+     * The inverse of y = slope * x + intercept is x = (y - intercept) / slope.
+     *
+     * @return A new AffineConverter representing the inverse transformation.
+     * @throws AssertionError if the slope is zero, as the inverse would be undefined.
+     */
+    public AffineConverter invert() {
+        assert slope != 0.0 : "Slope cannot be zero for inversion.";
+        return new AffineConverter(1.0 / slope, -intercept / slope);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Composes this affine transformation with another, returning a new AffineConverter.
+     * If this transformation is f(x) and the other is g(x), the result is f(g(x)).
+     *
+     * @param other Another AffineConverter to compose with.
+     * @return A new AffineConverter representing the composition of the two transformations.
+     */
+    public AffineConverter compose(final AffineConverter other) {
+        double newSlope = slope * other.slope;
+        double newIntercept = slope * other.intercept + intercept;
+        return new AffineConverter(newSlope, newIntercept);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToAnyBase.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToAnyBase.java
index 5c0722e0d4c3..7a9448fd8fe7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToAnyBase.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToAnyBase.java
@@ -13,7 +13,9 @@
  * @author Michael Rolland
  * @version 2017.10.10
  */
-public class AnyBaseToAnyBase {
+public final class AnyBaseToAnyBase {
+    private AnyBaseToAnyBase() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Smallest and largest base you want to accept as valid input
@@ -25,13 +27,13 @@ public class AnyBaseToAnyBase {
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
         String n;
-        int b1, b2;
+        int b1;
+        int b2;
         while (true) {
             try {
                 System.out.print("Enter number: ");
                 n = in.next();
-                System.out.print(
-                        "Enter beginning base (between " + MINIMUM_BASE + " and " + MAXIMUM_BASE + "): ");
+                System.out.print("Enter beginning base (between " + MINIMUM_BASE + " and " + MAXIMUM_BASE + "): ");
                 b1 = in.nextInt();
                 if (b1 > MAXIMUM_BASE || b1 < MINIMUM_BASE) {
                     System.out.println("Invalid base!");
@@ -41,8 +43,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
                     System.out.println("The number is invalid for this base!");
                     continue;
                 }
-                System.out.print(
-                        "Enter end base (between " + MINIMUM_BASE + " and " + MAXIMUM_BASE + "): ");
+                System.out.print("Enter end base (between " + MINIMUM_BASE + " and " + MAXIMUM_BASE + "): ");
                 b2 = in.nextInt();
                 if (b2 > MAXIMUM_BASE || b2 < MINIMUM_BASE) {
                     System.out.println("Invalid base!");
@@ -63,8 +64,42 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      */
     public static boolean validForBase(String n, int base) {
         char[] validDigits = {
-            '0', '1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F', 'G', 'H', 'I',
-            'J', 'K', 'L', 'M', 'N', 'O', 'P', 'Q', 'R', 'S', 'T', 'U', 'V', 'W', 'X', 'Y', 'Z'
+            '0',
+            '1',
+            '2',
+            '3',
+            '4',
+            '5',
+            '6',
+            '7',
+            '8',
+            '9',
+            'A',
+            'B',
+            'C',
+            'D',
+            'E',
+            'F',
+            'G',
+            'H',
+            'I',
+            'J',
+            'K',
+            'L',
+            'M',
+            'N',
+            'O',
+            'P',
+            'Q',
+            'R',
+            'S',
+            'T',
+            'U',
+            'V',
+            'W',
+            'X',
+            'Y',
+            'Z',
         };
         // digitsForBase contains all the valid digits for the base given
         char[] digitsForBase = Arrays.copyOfRange(validDigits, 0, base);
@@ -98,9 +133,10 @@ public static String base2base(String n, int b1, int b2) {
         // Declare variables: decimal value of n,
         // character of base b1, character of base b2,
         // and the string that will be returned.
-        int decimalValue = 0, charB2;
+        int decimalValue = 0;
+        int charB2;
         char charB1;
-        String output = "";
+        StringBuilder output = new StringBuilder();
         // Go through every character of n
         for (int i = 0; i < n.length(); i++) {
             // store the character in charB1
@@ -131,15 +167,15 @@ public static String base2base(String n, int b1, int b2) {
             // If the remainder is a digit < 10, simply add it to
             // the left side of the new number.
             if (decimalValue % b2 < 10) {
-                output = Integer.toString(decimalValue % b2) + output;
+                output.insert(0, decimalValue % b2);
             } // If the remainder is >= 10, add a character with the
             // corresponding value to the new number. (A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, ...)
             else {
-                output = (char) ((decimalValue % b2) + 55) + output;
+                output.insert(0, (char) ((decimalValue % b2) + 55));
             }
             // Divide by the new base again
             decimalValue /= b2;
         }
-        return output;
+        return output.toString();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimal.java
index 837b35305c80..cdab98c7c28a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimal.java
@@ -1,54 +1,52 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
 /**
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
+ * @author Varun Upadhyay (<a href="https://github.com/varunu28">...</a>)
  */
-// Driver program
-public class AnyBaseToDecimal {
+public final class AnyBaseToDecimal {
+    private static final int CHAR_OFFSET_FOR_DIGIT = '0';
+    private static final int CHAR_OFFSET_FOR_UPPERCASE = 'A' - 10;
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert convertToDecimal("1010", 2) == Integer.valueOf("1010", 2);
-        assert convertToDecimal("777", 8) == Integer.valueOf("777", 8);
-        assert convertToDecimal("999", 10) == Integer.valueOf("999", 10);
-        assert convertToDecimal("ABCDEF", 16) == Integer.valueOf("ABCDEF", 16);
-        assert convertToDecimal("XYZ", 36) == Integer.valueOf("XYZ", 36);
+    private AnyBaseToDecimal() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Convert any radix to decimal number
+     * Convert any radix to a decimal number.
      *
-     * @param s the string to be convert
-     * @param radix the radix
-     * @return decimal of bits
-     * @throws NumberFormatException if {@code bits} or {@code radix} is invalid
+     * @param input the string to be converted
+     * @param radix the radix (base) of the input string
+     * @return the decimal equivalent of the input string
+     * @throws NumberFormatException if the input string or radix is invalid
      */
-    public static int convertToDecimal(String s, int radix) {
-        int num = 0;
-        int pow = 1;
+    public static int convertToDecimal(String input, int radix) {
+        int result = 0;
+        int power = 1;
 
-        for (int i = s.length() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-            int digit = valOfChar(s.charAt(i));
+        for (int i = input.length() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            int digit = valOfChar(input.charAt(i));
             if (digit >= radix) {
-                throw new NumberFormatException("For input string " + s);
+                throw new NumberFormatException("For input string: " + input);
             }
-            num += valOfChar(s.charAt(i)) * pow;
-            pow *= radix;
+            result += digit * power;
+            power *= radix;
         }
-        return num;
+        return result;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Convert character to integer
+     * Convert a character to its integer value.
      *
-     * @param c the character
-     * @return represented digit of given character
-     * @throws NumberFormatException if {@code ch} is not UpperCase or Digit
-     * character.
+     * @param character the character to be converted
+     * @return the integer value represented by the character
+     * @throws NumberFormatException if the character is not an uppercase letter or a digit
      */
-    public static int valOfChar(char c) {
-        if (!(Character.isUpperCase(c) || Character.isDigit(c))) {
-            throw new NumberFormatException("invalid character :" + c);
+    private static int valOfChar(char character) {
+        if (Character.isDigit(character)) {
+            return character - CHAR_OFFSET_FOR_DIGIT;
+        } else if (Character.isUpperCase(character)) {
+            return character - CHAR_OFFSET_FOR_UPPERCASE;
+        } else {
+            throw new NumberFormatException("invalid character:" + character);
         }
-        return Character.isDigit(c) ? c - '0' : c - 'A' + 10;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java
index 3eed1fce0fa6..e7bdbc2b79c4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java
@@ -1,30 +1,68 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-// given a source number , source base, destination base, this code can give you the destination
-// number.
-// sn ,sb,db ---> ()dn  .   this is what we have to do    .
+/**
+ * A utility class for converting numbers from any base to any other base.
+ *
+ * This class provides a method to convert a source number from a given base
+ * to a destination number in another base. Valid bases range from 2 to 10.
+ */
+public final class AnytoAny {
+    private AnytoAny() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a number from a source base to a destination base.
+     *
+     * @param sourceNumber The number in the source base (as an integer).
+     * @param sourceBase The base of the source number (between 2 and 10).
+     * @param destBase The base to which the number should be converted (between 2 and 10).
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the bases are not between 2 and 10.
+     * @return The converted number in the destination base (as an integer).
+     */
+    public static int convertBase(int sourceNumber, int sourceBase, int destBase) {
+        if (sourceBase < 2 || sourceBase > 10 || destBase < 2 || destBase > 10) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Bases must be between 2 and 10.");
+        }
+
+        int decimalValue = toDecimal(sourceNumber, sourceBase);
+        return fromDecimal(decimalValue, destBase);
+    }
 
-public class AnytoAny {
+    /**
+     * Converts a number from a given base to its decimal representation (base 10).
+     *
+     * @param number The number in the original base.
+     * @param base The base of the given number.
+     * @return The decimal representation of the number.
+     */
+    private static int toDecimal(int number, int base) {
+        int decimalValue = 0;
+        int multiplier = 1;
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner scn = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int sn = scn.nextInt();
-        int sb = scn.nextInt();
-        int db = scn.nextInt();
-        int m = 1, dec = 0, dn = 0;
-        while (sn != 0) {
-            dec = dec + (sn % 10) * m;
-            m *= sb;
-            sn /= 10;
+        while (number != 0) {
+            decimalValue += (number % 10) * multiplier;
+            multiplier *= base;
+            number /= 10;
         }
-        m = 1;
-        while (dec != 0) {
-            dn = dn + (dec % db) * m;
-            m *= 10;
-            dec /= db;
+        return decimalValue;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a decimal (base 10) number to a specified base.
+     *
+     * @param decimal The decimal number to convert.
+     * @param base The destination base for conversion.
+     * @return The number in the specified base.
+     */
+    private static int fromDecimal(int decimal, int base) {
+        int result = 0;
+        int multiplier = 1;
+
+        while (decimal != 0) {
+            result += (decimal % base) * multiplier;
+            multiplier *= 10;
+            decimal /= base;
         }
-        System.out.println(dn);
-        scn.close();
+        return result;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5219c4ba7f4e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64.java
@@ -0,0 +1,196 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Base64 is a group of binary-to-text encoding schemes that represent binary data
+ * in an ASCII string format by translating it into a radix-64 representation.
+ * Each base64 digit represents exactly 6 bits of data.
+ *
+ * Base64 encoding is commonly used when there is a need to encode binary data
+ * that needs to be stored and transferred over media that are designed to deal
+ * with textual data.
+ *
+ * Wikipedia Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base64
+ * Author: Nithin U.
+ * Github: https://github.com/NithinU2802
+ */
+
+public final class Base64 {
+
+    // Base64 character set
+    private static final String BASE64_CHARS = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/";
+    private static final char PADDING_CHAR = '=';
+
+    private Base64() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Encodes the given byte array to a Base64 encoded string.
+     *
+     * @param input the byte array to encode
+     * @return the Base64 encoded string
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if input is null
+     */
+    public static String encode(byte[] input) {
+        if (input == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        if (input.length == 0) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
+        int padding = 0;
+
+        // Process input in groups of 3 bytes
+        for (int i = 0; i < input.length; i += 3) {
+            // Get up to 3 bytes
+            int byte1 = input[i] & 0xFF;
+            int byte2 = (i + 1 < input.length) ? (input[i + 1] & 0xFF) : 0;
+            int byte3 = (i + 2 < input.length) ? (input[i + 2] & 0xFF) : 0;
+
+            // Calculate padding needed
+            if (i + 1 >= input.length) {
+                padding = 2;
+            } else if (i + 2 >= input.length) {
+                padding = 1;
+            }
+
+            // Combine 3 bytes into a 24-bit number
+            int combined = (byte1 << 16) | (byte2 << 8) | byte3;
+
+            // Extract four 6-bit groups
+            result.append(BASE64_CHARS.charAt((combined >> 18) & 0x3F));
+            result.append(BASE64_CHARS.charAt((combined >> 12) & 0x3F));
+            result.append(BASE64_CHARS.charAt((combined >> 6) & 0x3F));
+            result.append(BASE64_CHARS.charAt(combined & 0x3F));
+        }
+
+        // Replace padding characters
+        if (padding > 0) {
+            result.setLength(result.length() - padding);
+            for (int i = 0; i < padding; i++) {
+                result.append(PADDING_CHAR);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Encodes the given string to a Base64 encoded string using UTF-8 encoding.
+     *
+     * @param input the string to encode
+     * @return the Base64 encoded string
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if input is null
+     */
+    public static String encode(String input) {
+        if (input == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        return encode(input.getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decodes the given Base64 encoded string to a byte array.
+     *
+     * @param input the Base64 encoded string to decode
+     * @return the decoded byte array
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if input is null or contains invalid Base64 characters
+     */
+    public static byte[] decode(String input) {
+        if (input == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        if (input.isEmpty()) {
+            return new byte[0];
+        }
+
+        // Strict RFC 4648 compliance: length must be a multiple of 4
+        if (input.length() % 4 != 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid Base64 input length; must be multiple of 4");
+        }
+
+        // Validate padding: '=' can only appear at the end (last 1 or 2 chars)
+        int firstPadding = input.indexOf('=');
+        if (firstPadding != -1 && firstPadding < input.length() - 2) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Padding '=' can only appear at the end (last 1 or 2 characters)");
+        }
+
+        List<Byte> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Process input in groups of 4 characters
+        for (int i = 0; i < input.length(); i += 4) {
+            // Get up to 4 characters
+            int char1 = getBase64Value(input.charAt(i));
+            int char2 = getBase64Value(input.charAt(i + 1));
+            int char3 = input.charAt(i + 2) == '=' ? 0 : getBase64Value(input.charAt(i + 2));
+            int char4 = input.charAt(i + 3) == '=' ? 0 : getBase64Value(input.charAt(i + 3));
+
+            // Combine four 6-bit groups into a 24-bit number
+            int combined = (char1 << 18) | (char2 << 12) | (char3 << 6) | char4;
+
+            // Extract three 8-bit bytes
+            result.add((byte) ((combined >> 16) & 0xFF));
+            if (input.charAt(i + 2) != '=') {
+                result.add((byte) ((combined >> 8) & 0xFF));
+            }
+            if (input.charAt(i + 3) != '=') {
+                result.add((byte) (combined & 0xFF));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Convert List<Byte> to byte[]
+        byte[] resultArray = new byte[result.size()];
+        for (int i = 0; i < result.size(); i++) {
+            resultArray[i] = result.get(i);
+        }
+
+        return resultArray;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decodes the given Base64 encoded string to a string using UTF-8 encoding.
+     *
+     * @param input the Base64 encoded string to decode
+     * @return the decoded string
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if input is null or contains invalid Base64 characters
+     */
+    public static String decodeToString(String input) {
+        if (input == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        byte[] decodedBytes = decode(input);
+        return new String(decodedBytes, StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Gets the numeric value of a Base64 character.
+     *
+     * @param c the Base64 character
+     * @return the numeric value (0-63)
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if character is not a valid Base64 character
+     */
+    private static int getBase64Value(char c) {
+        if (c >= 'A' && c <= 'Z') {
+            return c - 'A';
+        } else if (c >= 'a' && c <= 'z') {
+            return c - 'a' + 26;
+        } else if (c >= '0' && c <= '9') {
+            return c - '0' + 52;
+        } else if (c == '+') {
+            return 62;
+        } else if (c == '/') {
+            return 63;
+        } else {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid Base64 character: " + c);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimal.java
index 95de43c54ae8..b3783ab284b2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimal.java
@@ -1,29 +1,59 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
  * This class converts a Binary number to a Decimal number
  */
-class BinaryToDecimal {
+final class BinaryToDecimal {
+    private static final int BINARY_BASE = 2;
+
+    private BinaryToDecimal() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a binary number to its decimal equivalent.
+     *
+     * @param binaryNumber The binary number to convert.
+     * @return The decimal equivalent of the binary number.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the binary number contains digits other than 0 and 1.
+     */
+    public static long binaryToDecimal(long binaryNumber) {
+        long decimalValue = 0;
+        long power = 0;
+
+        while (binaryNumber != 0) {
+            long digit = binaryNumber % 10;
+            if (digit > 1) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Incorrect binary digit: " + digit);
+            }
+            decimalValue += (long) (digit * Math.pow(BINARY_BASE, power++));
+            binaryNumber /= 10;
+        }
+        return decimalValue;
+    }
 
     /**
-     * Main Method
+     * Converts a binary String to its decimal equivalent using bitwise operators.
      *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
+     * @param binary The binary number to convert.
+     * @return The decimal equivalent of the binary number.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the binary number contains digits other than 0 and 1.
      */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int binNum, binCopy, d, s = 0, power = 0;
-        System.out.print("Binary number: ");
-        binNum = sc.nextInt();
-        binCopy = binNum;
-        while (binCopy != 0) {
-            d = binCopy % 10;
-            s += d * (int) Math.pow(2, power++);
-            binCopy /= 10;
+    public static long binaryStringToDecimal(String binary) {
+        boolean isNegative = binary.charAt(0) == '-';
+        if (isNegative) {
+            binary = binary.substring(1);
         }
-        System.out.println("Decimal equivalent:" + s);
-        sc.close();
+
+        long decimalValue = 0;
+
+        for (char bit : binary.toCharArray()) {
+            if (bit != '0' && bit != '1') {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Incorrect binary digit: " + bit);
+            }
+            // shift left by 1 (multiply by 2) and add bit value
+            decimalValue = (decimalValue << 1) | (bit - '0');
+        }
+
+        return isNegative ? -decimalValue : decimalValue;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimal.java
index c942cbb7d843..9ff2f593fe1f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimal.java
@@ -1,57 +1,63 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
 
 /**
  * Converts any Binary Number to a Hexadecimal Number
  *
  * @author Nishita Aggarwal
  */
-public class BinaryToHexadecimal {
+public final class BinaryToHexadecimal {
+    private static final int BITS_IN_HEX_DIGIT = 4;
+    private static final int BASE_BINARY = 2;
+    private static final int BASE_DECIMAL = 10;
+    private static final int HEX_START_DECIMAL = 10;
+    private static final int HEX_END_DECIMAL = 15;
+
+    private BinaryToHexadecimal() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * This method converts a binary number to a hexadecimal number.
+     * Converts a binary number to a hexadecimal number.
      *
-     * @param binary The binary number
-     * @return The hexadecimal number
+     * @param binary The binary number to convert.
+     * @return The hexadecimal representation of the binary number.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the binary number contains digits other than 0 and 1.
      */
-    static String binToHex(int binary) {
-        // hm to store hexadecimal codes for binary numbers within the range: 0000 to 1111 i.e. for
-        // decimal numbers 0 to 15
-        HashMap<Integer, String> hm = new HashMap<>();
-        // String to store hexadecimal code
-        String hex = "";
-        int i;
-        for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
-            hm.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
-        }
-        for (i = 10; i < 16; i++) {
-            hm.put(i, String.valueOf((char) ('A' + i - 10)));
-        }
-        int currbit;
+    public static String binToHex(int binary) {
+        Map<Integer, String> hexMap = initializeHexMap();
+        StringBuilder hex = new StringBuilder();
+
         while (binary != 0) {
-            int code4 = 0; // to store decimal equivalent of number formed by 4 decimal digits
-            for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
-                currbit = binary % 10;
-                binary = binary / 10;
-                code4 += currbit * Math.pow(2, i);
+            int decimalValue = 0;
+            for (int i = 0; i < BITS_IN_HEX_DIGIT; i++) {
+                int currentBit = binary % BASE_DECIMAL;
+                if (currentBit > 1) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Incorrect binary digit: " + currentBit);
+                }
+                binary /= BASE_DECIMAL;
+                decimalValue += (int) (currentBit * Math.pow(BASE_BINARY, i));
             }
-            hex = hm.get(code4) + hex;
+            hex.insert(0, hexMap.get(decimalValue));
         }
-        return hex;
+
+        return !hex.isEmpty() ? hex.toString() : "0";
     }
 
     /**
-     * Main method
+     * Initializes the hexadecimal map with decimal to hexadecimal mappings.
      *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
+     * @return The initialized map containing mappings from decimal numbers to hexadecimal digits.
      */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter binary number:");
-        int binary = sc.nextInt();
-        String hex = binToHex(binary);
-        System.out.println("Hexadecimal Code:" + hex);
-        sc.close();
+    private static Map<Integer, String> initializeHexMap() {
+        Map<Integer, String> hexMap = new HashMap<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < BASE_DECIMAL; i++) {
+            hexMap.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+        for (int i = HEX_START_DECIMAL; i <= HEX_END_DECIMAL; i++) {
+            hexMap.put(i, String.valueOf((char) ('A' + i - HEX_START_DECIMAL)));
+        }
+        return hexMap;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctal.java
index b0d6b32fd63b..5407c8525a23 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctal.java
@@ -1,25 +1,11 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
+public final class BinaryToOctal {
+    private static final int BITS_PER_OCTAL_DIGIT = 3;
+    private static final int BINARY_BASE = 2;
+    private static final int DECIMAL_BASE = 10;
 
-/**
- * Converts any Binary number to an Octal Number
- *
- * @author Zachary Jones
- */
-public class BinaryToOctal {
-
-    /**
-     * Main method
-     *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Input the binary number: ");
-        int b = sc.nextInt();
-        System.out.println("Octal equivalent: " + convertBinaryToOctal(b));
-        sc.close();
+    private BinaryToOctal() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -27,21 +13,33 @@ public static void main(String args[]) {
      *
      * @param binary The binary number
      * @return The octal number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input is not a valid binary number
      */
     public static String convertBinaryToOctal(int binary) {
-        String octal = "";
-        int currBit = 0, j = 1;
+        if (binary == 0) {
+            return "0";
+        }
+
+        if (!String.valueOf(binary).matches("[01]+")) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input is not a valid binary number.");
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder octal = new StringBuilder();
+        int currentBit;
+        int bitValueMultiplier = 1;
+
         while (binary != 0) {
-            int code3 = 0;
-            for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
-                currBit = binary % 10;
-                binary = binary / 10;
-                code3 += currBit * j;
-                j *= 2;
+            int octalDigit = 0;
+            for (int i = 0; i < BITS_PER_OCTAL_DIGIT && binary != 0; i++) {
+                currentBit = binary % DECIMAL_BASE;
+                binary /= DECIMAL_BASE;
+                octalDigit += currentBit * bitValueMultiplier;
+                bitValueMultiplier *= BINARY_BASE;
             }
-            octal = code3 + octal;
-            j = 1;
+            octal.insert(0, octalDigit);
+            bitValueMultiplier = 1; // Reset multiplier for the next group
         }
-        return octal;
+
+        return octal.toString();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/CoordinateConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/CoordinateConverter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2766a3a1cf89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/CoordinateConverter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to convert between Cartesian and Polar coordinate systems.
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides methods to perform the following conversions:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Cartesian to Polar coordinates</li>
+ *   <li>Polar to Cartesian coordinates</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>The class is final and cannot be instantiated.
+ */
+public final class CoordinateConverter {
+
+    private CoordinateConverter() {
+        // Prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts Cartesian coordinates to Polar coordinates.
+     *
+     * @param x the x-coordinate in the Cartesian system; must be a finite number
+     * @param y the y-coordinate in the Cartesian system; must be a finite number
+     * @return an array where the first element is the radius (r) and the second element is the angle (theta) in degrees
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if x or y is not a finite number
+     */
+    public static double[] cartesianToPolar(double x, double y) {
+        if (!Double.isFinite(x) || !Double.isFinite(y)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("x and y must be finite numbers.");
+        }
+        double r = Math.sqrt(x * x + y * y);
+        double theta = Math.toDegrees(Math.atan2(y, x));
+        return new double[] {r, theta};
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts Polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates.
+     *
+     * @param r the radius in the Polar system; must be non-negative
+     * @param thetaDegrees the angle (theta) in degrees in the Polar system; must be a finite number
+     * @return an array where the first element is the x-coordinate and the second element is the y-coordinate in the Cartesian system
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if r is negative or thetaDegrees is not a finite number
+     */
+    public static double[] polarToCartesian(double r, double thetaDegrees) {
+        if (r < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Radius (r) must be non-negative.");
+        }
+        if (!Double.isFinite(thetaDegrees)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Theta (angle) must be a finite number.");
+        }
+        double theta = Math.toRadians(thetaDegrees);
+        double x = r * Math.cos(theta);
+        double y = r * Math.sin(theta);
+        return new double[] {x, y};
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBase.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBase.java
index 8ef4737b17c3..a5615dc002f5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBase.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBase.java
@@ -1,67 +1,69 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.io.BufferedReader;
-import java.io.InputStreamReader;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
+ *  Class that provides methods to convert a decimal number to a string representation
+ *  in any specified base between 2 and 36.
+ *
+ * @author Varun Upadhyay (<a href="https://github.com/varunu28">...</a>)
  */
-// Driver Program
-public class DecimalToAnyBase {
+public final class DecimalToAnyBase {
+    private static final int MIN_BASE = 2;
+    private static final int MAX_BASE = 36;
+    private static final char ZERO_CHAR = '0';
+    private static final char A_CHAR = 'A';
+    private static final int DIGIT_OFFSET = 10;
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
-        BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
-        System.out.println("Enter the decimal input below: ");
-        int decInput = Integer.parseInt(br.readLine());
-        System.out.println();
-
-        System.out.println("Enter the base below: ");
-        int base = Integer.parseInt(br.readLine());
-        System.out.println();
-
-        System.out.println("Decimal Input" + " is: " + decInput);
-        System.out.println(
-                "Value of " + decInput + " in base " + base + " is: " + convertToAnyBase(decInput, base));
-
-        br.close();
+    private DecimalToAnyBase() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method produces a String value of any given input decimal in any
-     * base
+     * Converts a decimal number to a string representation in the specified base.
+     * For example, converting the decimal number 10 to base 2 would return "1010".
      *
-     * @param inp Decimal of which we need the value in base in String format
-     * @return string format of the converted value in the given base
+     * @param decimal the decimal number to convert
+     * @param base    the base to convert to (must be between {@value #MIN_BASE} and {@value #MAX_BASE})
+     * @return the string representation of the number in the specified base
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the base is out of the supported range
      */
-    public static String convertToAnyBase(int inp, int base) {
-        ArrayList<Character> charArr = new ArrayList<>();
+    public static String convertToAnyBase(int decimal, int base) {
+        if (base < MIN_BASE || base > MAX_BASE) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Base must be between " + MIN_BASE + " and " + MAX_BASE);
+        }
 
-        while (inp > 0) {
-            charArr.add(reVal(inp % base));
-            inp /= base;
+        if (decimal == 0) {
+            return String.valueOf(ZERO_CHAR);
         }
 
-        StringBuilder str = new StringBuilder(charArr.size());
+        List<Character> digits = new ArrayList<>();
+        while (decimal > 0) {
+            digits.add(convertToChar(decimal % base));
+            decimal /= base;
+        }
 
-        for (Character ch : charArr) {
-            str.append(ch);
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(digits.size());
+        for (int i = digits.size() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            result.append(digits.get(i));
         }
 
-        return str.reverse().toString();
+        return result.toString();
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method produces character value of the input integer and returns it
+     * Converts an integer value to its corresponding character in the specified base.
+     * This method is used to convert values from 0 to 35 into their appropriate character representation.
+     * For example, 0-9 are represented as '0'-'9', and 10-35 are represented as 'A'-'Z'.
      *
-     * @param num integer of which we need the character value of
-     * @return character value of input integer
+     * @param value the integer value to convert (should be less than the base value)
+     * @return the character representing the value in the specified base
      */
-    public static char reVal(int num) {
-        if (num >= 0 && num <= 9) {
-            return (char) (num + '0');
+    private static char convertToChar(int value) {
+        if (value >= 0 && value <= 9) {
+            return (char) (ZERO_CHAR + value);
         } else {
-            return (char) (num - 10 + 'A');
+            return (char) (A_CHAR + value - DIGIT_OFFSET);
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinary.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinary.java
index 35cec4079ed6..e8d033e0093c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinary.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinary.java
@@ -1,55 +1,49 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
- * This class converts a Decimal number to a Binary number
+ * This class provides methods to convert a decimal number to a binary number.
  */
-class DecimalToBinary {
+final class DecimalToBinary {
+    private static final int BINARY_BASE = 2;
+    private static final int DECIMAL_MULTIPLIER = 10;
 
-    /**
-     * Main Method
-     *
-     * @param args Command Line Arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        conventionalConversion();
-        bitwiseConversion();
+    private DecimalToBinary() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method converts a decimal number to a binary number using a
-     * conventional algorithm.
+     * Converts a decimal number to a binary number using a conventional algorithm.
+     * @param decimalNumber the decimal number to convert
+     * @return the binary representation of the decimal number
      */
-    public static void conventionalConversion() {
-        int n, b = 0, c = 0, d;
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.printf("Conventional conversion.%n Enter the decimal number: ");
-        n = input.nextInt();
-        while (n != 0) {
-            d = n % 2;
-            b = b + d * (int) Math.pow(10, c++);
-            n /= 2;
-        } // converting decimal to binary
-        System.out.println("\tBinary number: " + b);
-        input.close();
+    public static int convertUsingConventionalAlgorithm(int decimalNumber) {
+        int binaryNumber = 0;
+        int position = 1;
+
+        while (decimalNumber > 0) {
+            int remainder = decimalNumber % BINARY_BASE;
+            binaryNumber += remainder * position;
+            position *= DECIMAL_MULTIPLIER;
+            decimalNumber /= BINARY_BASE;
+        }
+
+        return binaryNumber;
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method converts a decimal number to a binary number using a bitwise
-     * algorithm
+     * Converts a decimal number to a binary number using a bitwise algorithm.
+     * @param decimalNumber the decimal number to convert
+     * @return the binary representation of the decimal number
      */
-    public static void bitwiseConversion() {
-        int n, b = 0, c = 0, d;
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.printf("Bitwise conversion.%n Enter the decimal number: ");
-        n = input.nextInt();
-        while (n != 0) {
-            d = (n & 1);
-            b += d * (int) Math.pow(10, c++);
-            n >>= 1;
+    public static int convertUsingBitwiseAlgorithm(int decimalNumber) {
+        int binaryNumber = 0;
+        int position = 1;
+
+        while (decimalNumber > 0) {
+            int leastSignificantBit = decimalNumber & 1;
+            binaryNumber += leastSignificantBit * position;
+            position *= DECIMAL_MULTIPLIER;
+            decimalNumber >>= 1;
         }
-        System.out.println("\tBinary number: " + b);
-        input.close();
+        return binaryNumber;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexaDecimal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexaDecimal.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 83129406cf29..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexaDecimal.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,34 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
-
-// hex = [0 - 9] -> [A - F]
-class DecimalToHexaDecimal {
-
-    private static final int sizeOfIntInHalfBytes = 8;
-    private static final int numberOfBitsInAHalfByte = 4;
-    private static final int halfByte = 0x0F;
-    private static final char[] hexDigits = {
-        '0', '1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F'
-    };
-
-    // Returns the hex value of the dec entered in the parameter.
-    public static String decToHex(int dec) {
-        StringBuilder hexBuilder = new StringBuilder(sizeOfIntInHalfBytes);
-        hexBuilder.setLength(sizeOfIntInHalfBytes);
-        for (int i = sizeOfIntInHalfBytes - 1; i >= 0; --i) {
-            int j = dec & halfByte;
-            hexBuilder.setCharAt(i, hexDigits[j]);
-            dec >>= numberOfBitsInAHalfByte;
-        }
-        return hexBuilder.toString().toLowerCase();
-    }
-
-    // Test above function.
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        System.out.println("Test...");
-        int dec = 305445566;
-        String libraryDecToHex = Integer.toHexString(dec);
-        String decToHex = decToHex(dec);
-        System.out.println("Result from the library : " + libraryDecToHex);
-        System.out.println("Result decToHex method : " + decToHex);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexadecimal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexadecimal.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..47a1e36b27e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexadecimal.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to convert a decimal number to a hexadecimal string.
+ */
+final class DecimalToHexadecimal {
+    private static final int SIZE_OF_INT_IN_HALF_BYTES = 8;
+    private static final int NUMBER_OF_BITS_IN_HALF_BYTE = 4;
+    private static final int HALF_BYTE_MASK = 0x0F;
+    private static final char[] HEX_DIGITS = {'0', '1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F'};
+
+    private DecimalToHexadecimal() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a decimal number to a hexadecimal string.
+     * @param decimal the decimal number to convert
+     * @return the hexadecimal representation of the decimal number
+     */
+    public static String decToHex(int decimal) {
+        StringBuilder hexBuilder = new StringBuilder(SIZE_OF_INT_IN_HALF_BYTES);
+        for (int i = SIZE_OF_INT_IN_HALF_BYTES - 1; i >= 0; --i) {
+            int currentHalfByte = decimal & HALF_BYTE_MASK;
+            hexBuilder.insert(0, HEX_DIGITS[currentHalfByte]);
+            decimal >>= NUMBER_OF_BITS_IN_HALF_BYTE;
+        }
+        return removeLeadingZeros(hexBuilder.toString().toLowerCase());
+    }
+
+    private static String removeLeadingZeros(String str) {
+        if (str == null || str.isEmpty()) {
+            return str;
+        }
+
+        int i = 0;
+        while (i < str.length() && str.charAt(i) == '0') {
+            i++;
+        }
+
+        return i == str.length() ? "0" : str.substring(i);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctal.java
index 0f72f462c753..75687fc589ae 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctal.java
@@ -1,32 +1,38 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
  * This class converts Decimal numbers to Octal Numbers
  */
-public class DecimalToOctal {
+public final class DecimalToOctal {
+    private static final int OCTAL_BASE = 8;
+    private static final int INITIAL_OCTAL_VALUE = 0;
+    private static final int INITIAL_PLACE_VALUE = 1;
+
+    private DecimalToOctal() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * Main Method
+     * Converts a decimal number to its octal equivalent.
      *
-     * @param args Command line Arguments
+     * @param decimal The decimal number to convert.
+     * @return The octal equivalent as an integer.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the decimal number is negative.
      */
+    public static int convertToOctal(int decimal) {
+        if (decimal < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Decimal number cannot be negative.");
+        }
+
+        int octal = INITIAL_OCTAL_VALUE;
+        int placeValue = INITIAL_PLACE_VALUE;
 
-    // enter in a decimal value to get Octal output
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n, k, d, s = 0, c = 0;
-        System.out.print("Decimal number: ");
-        n = sc.nextInt();
-        k = n;
-        while (k != 0) {
-            d = k % 8;
-            s += d * (int) Math.pow(10, c++);
-            k /= 8;
+        while (decimal != 0) {
+            int remainder = decimal % OCTAL_BASE;
+            octal += remainder * placeValue;
+            decimal /= OCTAL_BASE;
+            placeValue *= 10;
         }
 
-        System.out.println("Octal equivalent:" + s);
-        sc.close();
+        return octal;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/EndianConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/EndianConverter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0d69098e8255
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/EndianConverter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for converting integers between big-endian and little-endian formats.
+ * <p>
+ * Endianness defines how byte sequences represent multi-byte data types:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li><b>Big-endian</b>: The most significant byte (MSB) comes first.</li>
+ *   <li><b>Little-endian</b>: The least significant byte (LSB) comes first.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * <p>
+ * Example conversion:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Big-endian to little-endian: {@code 0x12345678} → {@code 0x78563412}</li>
+ *   <li>Little-endian to big-endian: {@code 0x78563412} → {@code 0x12345678}</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>Note: Both conversions in this utility are equivalent since reversing the bytes is symmetric.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>This class only supports 32-bit integers.</p>
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class EndianConverter {
+    private EndianConverter() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a 32-bit integer from big-endian to little-endian.
+     *
+     * @param value the integer in big-endian format
+     * @return the integer in little-endian format
+     */
+    public static int bigToLittleEndian(int value) {
+        return Integer.reverseBytes(value);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a 32-bit integer from little-endian to big-endian.
+     *
+     * @param value the integer in little-endian format
+     * @return the integer in big-endian format
+     */
+    public static int littleToBigEndian(int value) {
+        return Integer.reverseBytes(value);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOct.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOct.java
index 92057c953b60..d3a672d37424 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOct.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOct.java
@@ -1,74 +1,62 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
  * Converts any Hexadecimal Number to Octal
  *
  * @author Tanmay Joshi
  */
-public class HexToOct {
+public final class HexToOct {
+    private HexToOct() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * This method converts a Hexadecimal number to a decimal number
+     * Converts a Hexadecimal number to a Decimal number.
      *
-     * @param s The Hexadecimal Number
-     * @return The Decimal number
+     * @param hex The Hexadecimal number as a String.
+     * @return The Decimal equivalent as an integer.
      */
-    public static int hex2decimal(String s) {
-        String str = "0123456789ABCDEF";
-        s = s.toUpperCase();
-        int val = 0;
-        for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++) {
-            char a = s.charAt(i);
-            int n = str.indexOf(a);
-            val = 16 * val + n;
+    public static int hexToDecimal(String hex) {
+        String hexDigits = "0123456789ABCDEF";
+        hex = hex.toUpperCase();
+        int decimalValue = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < hex.length(); i++) {
+            char hexChar = hex.charAt(i);
+            int digitValue = hexDigits.indexOf(hexChar);
+            decimalValue = 16 * decimalValue + digitValue;
         }
-        return val;
+
+        return decimalValue;
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method converts a Decimal number to a octal number
+     * Converts a Decimal number to an Octal number.
      *
-     * @param q The Decimal Number
-     * @return The Octal number
+     * @param decimal The Decimal number as an integer.
+     * @return The Octal equivalent as an integer.
      */
-    public static int decimal2octal(int q) {
-        int now;
-        int i = 1;
-        int octnum = 0;
-        while (q > 0) {
-            now = q % 8;
-            octnum = (now * (int) (Math.pow(10, i))) + octnum;
-            q /= 8;
-            i++;
+    public static int decimalToOctal(int decimal) {
+        int octalValue = 0;
+        int placeValue = 1;
+
+        while (decimal > 0) {
+            int remainder = decimal % 8;
+            octalValue += remainder * placeValue;
+            decimal /= 8;
+            placeValue *= 10;
         }
-        octnum /= 10;
-        return octnum;
+
+        return octalValue;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Main method that gets the hex input from user and converts it into octal.
+     * Converts a Hexadecimal number to an Octal number.
      *
-     * @param args arguments
+     * @param hex The Hexadecimal number as a String.
+     * @return The Octal equivalent as an integer.
      */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        String hexadecnum;
-        int decnum, octalnum;
-        Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        System.out.print("Enter Hexadecimal Number : ");
-        hexadecnum = scan.nextLine();
-
-        // first convert hexadecimal to decimal
-        decnum
-                = hex2decimal(
-                        hexadecnum); // Pass the string to the hex2decimal function and get the decimal form in
-        // variable decnum
-
-        // convert decimal to octal
-        octalnum = decimal2octal(decnum);
-        System.out.println("Number in octal: " + octalnum);
-        scan.close();
+    public static int hexToOctal(String hex) {
+        int decimalValue = hexToDecimal(hex);
+        return decimalToOctal(decimalValue);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinary.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinary.java
index ef070ae7986a..c0eb9a01ba17 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinary.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinary.java
@@ -1,34 +1,62 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-// Hex [0-9],[A-F] -> Binary [0,1]
+/**
+ * Utility class for converting hexadecimal numbers to binary representation.
+ * <p>
+ * A hexadecimal number consists of digits from {@code [0-9]} and {@code [A-F]} (case-insensitive),
+ * while binary representation uses only {@code [0, 1]}.
+ * <p>
+ * This class provides methods to:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Convert a hexadecimal string to its binary string equivalent.</li>
+ *   <li>Ensure the binary output is padded to 8 bits (1 byte).</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * <p>
+ * Example:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>{@code "A1"} → {@code "10100001"}</li>
+ *   <li>{@code "1"} → {@code "00000001"}</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>This class assumes that the input hexadecimal string is valid.</p>
+ */
 public class HexaDecimalToBinary {
 
-    private final int LONG_BITS = 8;
-
-    public void convert(String numHex) {
-        // String a HexaDecimal:
+    /**
+     * Converts a hexadecimal string to its binary string equivalent.
+     * The binary output is padded to a minimum of 8 bits (1 byte).
+     * Steps:
+     * <ol>
+     *     <li>Convert the hexadecimal string to an integer.</li>
+     *     <li>Convert the integer to a binary string.</li>
+     *     <li>Pad the binary string to ensure it is at least 8 bits long.</li>
+     *     <li>Return the padded binary string.</li>
+     * </ol>
+     *
+     * @param numHex the hexadecimal string (e.g., "A1", "7F")
+     * @throws NumberFormatException if the input string is not a valid hexadecimal number
+     * @return the binary string representation, padded to 8 bits (e.g., "10100001")
+     */
+    public String convert(String numHex) {
         int conHex = Integer.parseInt(numHex, 16);
-        // Hex a Binary:
         String binary = Integer.toBinaryString(conHex);
-        // Output:
-        System.out.println(numHex + " = " + completeDigits(binary));
+        return completeDigits(binary);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Pads the binary string to ensure it is at least 8 bits long.
+     * If the binary string is shorter than 8 bits, it adds leading zeros.
+     *
+     * @param binNum the binary string to pad
+     * @return the padded binary string with a minimum length of 8
+     */
     public String completeDigits(String binNum) {
-        for (int i = binNum.length(); i < LONG_BITS; i++) {
-            binNum = "0" + binNum;
+        final int byteSize = 8;
+        StringBuilder binNumBuilder = new StringBuilder(binNum);
+        while (binNumBuilder.length() < byteSize) {
+            binNumBuilder.insert(0, "0");
         }
+        binNum = binNumBuilder.toString();
         return binNum;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        // Testing Numbers:
-        String[] hexNums = {"1", "A1", "ef", "BA", "AA", "BB", "19", "01", "02", "03", "04"};
-        HexaDecimalToBinary objConvert = new HexaDecimalToBinary();
-
-        for (String num : hexNums) {
-            objConvert.convert(num);
-        }
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimal.java
index cb9d7fafde8f..2cf6024d90a3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimal.java
@@ -1,37 +1,45 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class HexaDecimalToDecimal {
+/**
+ * Utility class for converting a hexadecimal string to its decimal representation.
+ * <p>
+ * A hexadecimal number uses the base-16 numeral system, with the following characters:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Digits: 0-9</li>
+ *   <li>Letters: A-F (case-insensitive)</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * Each character represents a power of 16. For example:
+ * <pre>
+ *   Hexadecimal "A1" = 10*16^1 + 1*16^0 = 161 (decimal)
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides a method to perform the conversion without using built-in Java utilities.</p>
+ */
+public final class HexaDecimalToDecimal {
+    private HexaDecimalToDecimal() {
+    }
 
-    // convert hexadecimal to decimal
+    /**
+     * Converts a hexadecimal string to its decimal integer equivalent.
+     * <p>The input string is case-insensitive, and must contain valid hexadecimal characters [0-9, A-F].</p>
+     *
+     * @param hex the hexadecimal string to convert
+     * @return the decimal integer representation of the input hexadecimal string
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input string contains invalid characters
+     */
     public static int getHexaToDec(String hex) {
         String digits = "0123456789ABCDEF";
         hex = hex.toUpperCase();
         int val = 0;
+
         for (int i = 0; i < hex.length(); i++) {
             int d = digits.indexOf(hex.charAt(i));
+            if (d == -1) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid hexadecimal character: " + hex.charAt(i));
+            }
             val = 16 * val + d;
         }
-        return val;
-    }
-
-    // Main method gets the hexadecimal input from user and converts it into Decimal output.
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        String hexa_Input;
-        int dec_output;
-        Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
 
-        System.out.print("Enter Hexadecimal Number : ");
-        hexa_Input = scan.nextLine();
-
-        // convert hexadecimal to decimal
-        dec_output = getHexaToDec(hexa_Input);
-        /*
-    Pass the string to the getHexaToDec function
-    and it returns the decimal form in the variable dec_output.
-         */
-        System.out.println("Number in Decimal: " + dec_output);
-        scan.close();
+        return val;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..765cb0201dd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+/**
+ * Converts an IPv4 address to its binary equivalent and vice-versa.
+ * IP to Binary: Converts an IPv4 address to its binary equivalent.
+ * Example: 127.3.4.5 -> 01111111.00000011.00000100.00000101
+ *
+ * Binary to IP: Converts a binary equivalent to an IPv4 address.
+ * Example: 01111111.00000011.00000100.00000101 -> 127.3.4.5
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class IPConverter {
+    private IPConverter() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts an IPv4 address to its binary equivalent.
+     * @param ip The IPv4 address to convert.
+     * @return The binary equivalent of the IPv4 address.
+     */
+    public static String ipToBinary(String ip) {
+        StringBuilder binary = new StringBuilder();
+        for (String octet : ip.split("\\.")) {
+            binary.append(octetToBinary(Integer.parseInt(octet))).append(".");
+        }
+        return binary.substring(0, binary.length() - 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a single octet to its 8-bit binary representation.
+     * @param octet The octet to convert (0-255).
+     * @return The 8-bit binary representation as a String.
+     */
+    private static String octetToBinary(int octet) {
+        char[] binary = {'0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0'};
+        for (int i = 7; i >= 0; i--) {
+            if ((octet & 1) == 1) {
+                binary[i] = '1';
+            }
+            octet >>>= 1;
+        }
+        return new String(binary);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a binary equivalent to an IPv4 address.
+     * @param binary The binary equivalent to convert.
+     * @return The IPv4 address of the binary equivalent.
+     */
+    public static String binaryToIP(String binary) {
+        StringBuilder ip = new StringBuilder();
+        for (String octet : binary.split("\\.")) {
+            ip.append(Integer.parseInt(octet, 2)).append(".");
+        }
+        return ip.substring(0, ip.length() - 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6Converter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6Converter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d42ffd027514
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6Converter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import java.net.InetAddress;
+import java.net.UnknownHostException;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class for converting between IPv6 and IPv4 addresses.
+ *
+ * - Converts IPv4 to IPv6-mapped IPv6 address.
+ * - Extracts IPv4 address from IPv6-mapped IPv6.
+ * - Handles exceptions for invalid inputs.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class IPv6Converter {
+    private IPv6Converter() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts an IPv4 address (e.g., "192.0.2.128") to an IPv6-mapped IPv6 address.
+     * Example: IPv4 "192.0.2.128" -> IPv6 "::ffff:192.0.2.128"
+     *
+     * @param ipv4Address The IPv4 address in string format.
+     * @return The corresponding IPv6-mapped IPv6 address.
+     * @throws UnknownHostException If the IPv4 address is invalid.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the IPv6 address is not a mapped IPv4 address.
+     */
+    public static String ipv4ToIpv6(String ipv4Address) throws UnknownHostException {
+        if (ipv4Address == null || ipv4Address.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new UnknownHostException("IPv4 address is empty.");
+        }
+
+        InetAddress ipv4 = InetAddress.getByName(ipv4Address);
+        byte[] ipv4Bytes = ipv4.getAddress();
+
+        // Create IPv6-mapped IPv6 address (starts with ::ffff:)
+        byte[] ipv6Bytes = new byte[16];
+        ipv6Bytes[10] = (byte) 0xff;
+        ipv6Bytes[11] = (byte) 0xff;
+        System.arraycopy(ipv4Bytes, 0, ipv6Bytes, 12, 4);
+
+        // Manually format to "::ffff:x.x.x.x" format
+        StringBuilder ipv6String = new StringBuilder("::ffff:");
+        for (int i = 12; i < 16; i++) {
+            ipv6String.append(ipv6Bytes[i] & 0xFF);
+            if (i < 15) {
+                ipv6String.append('.');
+            }
+        }
+        return ipv6String.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Extracts the IPv4 address from an IPv6-mapped IPv6 address.
+     * Example: IPv6 "::ffff:192.0.2.128" -> IPv4 "192.0.2.128"
+     *
+     * @param ipv6Address The IPv6 address in string format.
+     * @return The extracted IPv4 address.
+     * @throws UnknownHostException If the IPv6 address is invalid or not a mapped IPv4 address.
+     */
+    public static String ipv6ToIpv4(String ipv6Address) throws UnknownHostException {
+        InetAddress ipv6 = InetAddress.getByName(ipv6Address);
+        byte[] ipv6Bytes = ipv6.getAddress();
+
+        // Check if the address is an IPv6-mapped IPv4 address
+        if (isValidIpv6MappedIpv4(ipv6Bytes)) {
+            byte[] ipv4Bytes = Arrays.copyOfRange(ipv6Bytes, 12, 16);
+            InetAddress ipv4 = InetAddress.getByAddress(ipv4Bytes);
+            return ipv4.getHostAddress();
+        } else {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Not a valid IPv6-mapped IPv4 address.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper function to check if the given byte array represents
+     * an IPv6-mapped IPv4 address (prefix 0:0:0:0:0:ffff).
+     *
+     * @param ipv6Bytes Byte array representation of the IPv6 address.
+     * @return True if the address is IPv6-mapped IPv4, otherwise false.
+     */
+    private static boolean isValidIpv6MappedIpv4(byte[] ipv6Bytes) {
+        // IPv6-mapped IPv4 addresses are 16 bytes long, with the first 10 bytes set to 0,
+        // followed by 0xff, 0xff, and the last 4 bytes representing the IPv4 address.
+        if (ipv6Bytes.length != 16) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            if (ipv6Bytes[i] != 0) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return ipv6Bytes[10] == (byte) 0xff && ipv6Bytes[11] == (byte) 0xff;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglish.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglish.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e85c608af5d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglish.java
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to convert integers to their English word representation.
+ *
+ * <p>The class supports conversion of numbers from 0 to 2,147,483,647
+ * (the maximum value of a 32-bit signed integer). It divides the number
+ * into groups of three digits (thousands, millions, billions, etc.) and
+ * translates each group into words.</p>
+ *
+ * <h2>Example Usage</h2>
+ * <pre>
+ *   IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(12345);
+ *   // Output: "Twelve Thousand Three Hundred Forty Five"
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p>This class uses two maps:</p>
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>BASE_NUMBERS_MAP: Holds English words for numbers 0-20, multiples of 10 up to 90, and 100.</li>
+ *   <li>THOUSAND_POWER_MAP: Maps powers of 1000 (e.g., Thousand, Million, Billion).</li>
+ * </ul>
+ */
+public final class IntegerToEnglish {
+
+    private static final Map<Integer, String> BASE_NUMBERS_MAP = Map.ofEntries(Map.entry(0, ""), Map.entry(1, "One"), Map.entry(2, "Two"), Map.entry(3, "Three"), Map.entry(4, "Four"), Map.entry(5, "Five"), Map.entry(6, "Six"), Map.entry(7, "Seven"), Map.entry(8, "Eight"), Map.entry(9, "Nine"),
+        Map.entry(10, "Ten"), Map.entry(11, "Eleven"), Map.entry(12, "Twelve"), Map.entry(13, "Thirteen"), Map.entry(14, "Fourteen"), Map.entry(15, "Fifteen"), Map.entry(16, "Sixteen"), Map.entry(17, "Seventeen"), Map.entry(18, "Eighteen"), Map.entry(19, "Nineteen"), Map.entry(20, "Twenty"),
+        Map.entry(30, "Thirty"), Map.entry(40, "Forty"), Map.entry(50, "Fifty"), Map.entry(60, "Sixty"), Map.entry(70, "Seventy"), Map.entry(80, "Eighty"), Map.entry(90, "Ninety"), Map.entry(100, "Hundred"));
+
+    private static final Map<Integer, String> THOUSAND_POWER_MAP = Map.ofEntries(Map.entry(1, "Thousand"), Map.entry(2, "Million"), Map.entry(3, "Billion"));
+
+    private IntegerToEnglish() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts numbers less than 1000 into English words.
+     *
+     * @param number the integer value (0-999) to convert
+     * @return the English word representation of the input number
+     */
+    private static String convertToWords(int number) {
+        int remainder = number % 100;
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
+
+        if (remainder <= 20) {
+            result.append(BASE_NUMBERS_MAP.get(remainder));
+        } else if (BASE_NUMBERS_MAP.containsKey(remainder)) {
+            result.append(BASE_NUMBERS_MAP.get(remainder));
+        } else {
+            int tensDigit = remainder / 10;
+            int onesDigit = remainder % 10;
+            String tens = BASE_NUMBERS_MAP.getOrDefault(tensDigit * 10, "");
+            String ones = BASE_NUMBERS_MAP.getOrDefault(onesDigit, "");
+            result.append(tens);
+            if (ones != null && !ones.isEmpty()) {
+                result.append(" ").append(ones);
+            }
+        }
+
+        int hundredsDigit = number / 100;
+        if (hundredsDigit > 0) {
+            if (result.length() > 0) {
+                result.insert(0, " ");
+            }
+            result.insert(0, String.format("%s Hundred", BASE_NUMBERS_MAP.get(hundredsDigit)));
+        }
+
+        return result.toString().trim();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a non-negative integer to its English word representation.
+     *
+     * @param number the integer to convert (0-2,147,483,647)
+     * @return the English word representation of the input number
+     */
+    public static String integerToEnglishWords(int number) {
+        if (number == 0) {
+            return "Zero";
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
+        int index = 0;
+
+        while (number > 0) {
+            int remainder = number % 1000;
+            number /= 1000;
+
+            if (remainder > 0) {
+                String subResult = convertToWords(remainder);
+                if (!subResult.isEmpty()) {
+                    if (index > 0) {
+                        subResult += " " + THOUSAND_POWER_MAP.get(index);
+                    }
+                    if (result.length() > 0) {
+                        result.insert(0, " ");
+                    }
+                    result.insert(0, subResult);
+                }
+            }
+
+            index++;
+        }
+
+        return result.toString().trim();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRoman.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRoman.java
index 53c07d58c4fd..fec437668fe6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRoman.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRoman.java
@@ -1,40 +1,68 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
 /**
- * Converting Integers into Roman Numerals
+ * A utility class to convert integers into Roman numerals.
  *
- * <p>
- * ('I', 1); ('IV',4); ('V', 5); ('IX',9); ('X', 10); ('XL',40); ('L', 50);
- * ('XC',90); ('C', 100); ('D', 500); ('M', 1000);
+ * <p>Roman numerals follow these rules:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>I = 1</li>
+ *   <li>IV = 4</li>
+ *   <li>V = 5</li>
+ *   <li>IX = 9</li>
+ *   <li>X = 10</li>
+ *   <li>XL = 40</li>
+ *   <li>L = 50</li>
+ *   <li>XC = 90</li>
+ *   <li>C = 100</li>
+ *   <li>D = 500</li>
+ *   <li>M = 1000</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>Conversion is based on repeatedly subtracting the largest possible Roman numeral value
+ * from the input number until it reaches zero. For example, 1994 is converted as:
+ * <pre>
+ *   1994 -> MCMXCIV (1000 + 900 + 90 + 4)
+ * </pre>
  */
-public class IntegerToRoman {
+public final class IntegerToRoman {
+
+    // Array of Roman numeral values in descending order
+    private static final int[] ALL_ROMAN_NUMBERS_IN_ARABIC = {1000, 900, 500, 400, 100, 90, 50, 40, 10, 9, 5, 4, 1};
 
-    private static int[] allArabianRomanNumbers
-            = new int[]{1000, 900, 500, 400, 100, 90, 50, 40, 10, 9, 5, 4, 1};
-    private static String[] allRomanNumbers
-            = new String[]{"M", "CM", "D", "CD", "C", "XC", "L", "XL", "X", "IX", "V", "IV", "I"};
+    // Corresponding Roman numeral symbols
+    private static final String[] ALL_ROMAN_NUMBERS = {"M", "CM", "D", "CD", "C", "XC", "L", "XL", "X", "IX", "V", "IV", "I"};
+
+    private IntegerToRoman() {
+    }
 
-    // Value must be > 0
+    /**
+     * Converts an integer to its Roman numeral representation.
+     * Steps:
+     * <ol>
+     *     <li>Iterate over the Roman numeral values in descending order</li>
+     *     <li>Calculate how many times a numeral fits</li>
+     *     <li>Append the corresponding symbol</li>
+     *     <li>Subtract the value from the number</li>
+     *     <li>Repeat until the number is zero</li>
+     *     <li>Return the Roman numeral representation</li>
+     * </ol>
+     *
+     * @param num the integer value to convert (must be greater than 0)
+     * @return the Roman numeral representation of the input integer
+     *         or an empty string if the input is non-positive
+     */
     public static String integerToRoman(int num) {
         if (num <= 0) {
             return "";
         }
 
         StringBuilder builder = new StringBuilder();
-
-        for (int a = 0; a < allArabianRomanNumbers.length; a++) {
-            int times = num / allArabianRomanNumbers[a];
-            for (int b = 0; b < times; b++) {
-                builder.append(allRomanNumbers[a]);
-            }
-
-            num -= times * allArabianRomanNumbers[a];
+        for (int i = 0; i < ALL_ROMAN_NUMBERS_IN_ARABIC.length; i++) {
+            int times = num / ALL_ROMAN_NUMBERS_IN_ARABIC[i];
+            builder.append(ALL_ROMAN_NUMBERS[i].repeat(Math.max(0, times)));
+            num -= times * ALL_ROMAN_NUMBERS_IN_ARABIC[i];
         }
 
         return builder.toString();
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        System.out.println(IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(2131));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a3973da0c586
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Converts text to Morse code and vice-versa.
+ * Text to Morse code: Each letter is separated by a space and each word is separated by a pipe (|).
+ * Example: "HELLO WORLD" -> ".... . .-.. .-.. --- | .-- --- .-. .-.. -.."
+ *
+ * Morse code to text: Each letter is separated by a space and each word is separated by a pipe (|).
+ * Example: ".... . .-.. .-.. --- | .-- --- .-. .-.. -.." -> "HELLO WORLD"
+ *
+ * Applications: Used in radio communications and algorithmic challenges.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class MorseCodeConverter {
+    private MorseCodeConverter() {
+    }
+
+    private static final Map<Character, String> MORSE_MAP = new HashMap<>();
+    private static final Map<String, Character> REVERSE_MAP = new HashMap<>();
+
+    static {
+        MORSE_MAP.put('A', ".-");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('B', "-...");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('C', "-.-.");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('D', "-..");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('E', ".");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('F', "..-.");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('G', "--.");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('H', "....");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('I', "..");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('J', ".---");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('K', "-.-");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('L', ".-..");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('M', "--");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('N', "-.");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('O', "---");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('P', ".--.");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('Q', "--.-");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('R', ".-.");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('S', "...");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('T', "-");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('U', "..-");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('V', "...-");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('W', ".--");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('X', "-..-");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('Y', "-.--");
+        MORSE_MAP.put('Z', "--..");
+
+        // Build reverse map for decoding
+        MORSE_MAP.forEach((k, v) -> REVERSE_MAP.put(v, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts text to Morse code.
+     * Each letter is separated by a space and each word is separated by a pipe (|).
+     *
+     * @param text The text to convert to Morse code.
+     * @return The Morse code representation of the text.
+     */
+    public static String textToMorse(String text) {
+        StringBuilder morse = new StringBuilder();
+        String[] words = text.toUpperCase().split(" ");
+        for (int i = 0; i < words.length; i++) {
+            for (char c : words[i].toCharArray()) {
+                morse.append(MORSE_MAP.getOrDefault(c, "")).append(" ");
+            }
+            if (i < words.length - 1) {
+                morse.append("| ");
+            }
+        }
+        return morse.toString().trim();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts Morse code to text.
+     * Each letter is separated by a space and each word is separated by a pipe (|).
+     *
+     * @param morse The Morse code to convert to text.
+     * @return The text representation of the Morse code.
+     */
+    public static String morseToText(String morse) {
+        StringBuilder text = new StringBuilder();
+        String[] words = morse.split(" \\| ");
+        for (int i = 0; i < words.length; i++) {
+            for (String code : words[i].split(" ")) {
+                text.append(REVERSE_MAP.getOrDefault(code, '?'));
+            }
+            if (i < words.length - 1) {
+                text.append(" ");
+            }
+        }
+        return text.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/NumberToWords.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/NumberToWords.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e39c5b2dea86
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/NumberToWords.java
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+
+/**
+ A Java-based utility for converting numeric values into their English word
+ representations. Whether you need to convert a small number, a large number
+ with millions and billions, or even a number with decimal places, this utility
+ has you covered.
+ *
+ */
+public final class NumberToWords {
+
+    private NumberToWords() {
+    }
+
+    private static final String[] UNITS = {"", "One", "Two", "Three", "Four", "Five", "Six", "Seven", "Eight", "Nine", "Ten", "Eleven", "Twelve", "Thirteen", "Fourteen", "Fifteen", "Sixteen", "Seventeen", "Eighteen", "Nineteen"};
+
+    private static final String[] TENS = {"", "", "Twenty", "Thirty", "Forty", "Fifty", "Sixty", "Seventy", "Eighty", "Ninety"};
+
+    private static final String[] POWERS = {"", "Thousand", "Million", "Billion", "Trillion"};
+
+    private static final String ZERO = "Zero";
+    private static final String POINT = " Point";
+    private static final String NEGATIVE = "Negative ";
+
+    public static String convert(BigDecimal number) {
+        if (number == null) {
+            return "Invalid Input";
+        }
+
+        // Check for negative sign
+        boolean isNegative = number.signum() < 0;
+
+        // Split the number into whole and fractional parts
+        BigDecimal[] parts = number.abs().divideAndRemainder(BigDecimal.ONE);
+        BigDecimal wholePart = parts[0]; // Keep whole part as BigDecimal
+        String fractionalPartStr = parts[1].compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) > 0 ? parts[1].toPlainString().substring(2) : ""; // Get fractional part only if it exists
+
+        // Convert whole part to words
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
+        if (isNegative) {
+            result.append(NEGATIVE);
+        }
+        result.append(convertWholeNumberToWords(wholePart));
+
+        // Convert fractional part to words
+        if (!fractionalPartStr.isEmpty()) {
+            result.append(POINT);
+            for (char digit : fractionalPartStr.toCharArray()) {
+                int digitValue = Character.getNumericValue(digit);
+                result.append(" ").append(digitValue == 0 ? ZERO : UNITS[digitValue]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result.toString().trim();
+    }
+
+    private static String convertWholeNumberToWords(BigDecimal number) {
+        if (number.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) == 0) {
+            return ZERO;
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder words = new StringBuilder();
+        int power = 0;
+
+        while (number.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) > 0) {
+            // Get the last three digits
+            BigDecimal[] divisionResult = number.divideAndRemainder(BigDecimal.valueOf(1000));
+            int chunk = divisionResult[1].intValue();
+
+            if (chunk > 0) {
+                String chunkWords = convertChunk(chunk);
+                if (power > 0) {
+                    words.insert(0, POWERS[power] + " ");
+                }
+                words.insert(0, chunkWords + " ");
+            }
+
+            number = divisionResult[0]; // Continue with the remaining part
+            power++;
+        }
+
+        return words.toString().trim();
+    }
+
+    private static String convertChunk(int number) {
+        String chunkWords;
+
+        if (number < 20) {
+            chunkWords = UNITS[number];
+        } else if (number < 100) {
+            chunkWords = TENS[number / 10] + (number % 10 > 0 ? " " + UNITS[number % 10] : "");
+        } else {
+            chunkWords = UNITS[number / 100] + " Hundred" + (number % 100 > 0 ? " " + convertChunk(number % 100) : "");
+        }
+
+        return chunkWords;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToBinary.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToBinary.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a66db97633b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToBinary.java
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to convert an octal (base-8) number into its binary (base-2) representation.
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides methods to:
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li>Convert an octal number to its binary equivalent</li>
+ *     <li>Convert individual octal digits to binary</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <h2>Octal to Binary Conversion:</h2>
+ * <p>An octal number is converted to binary by converting each octal digit to its 3-bit binary equivalent.
+ * The result is a long representing the full binary equivalent of the octal number.</p>
+ *
+ * <h2>Example Usage</h2>
+ * <pre>
+ *   long binary = OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(52); // Output: 101010 (52 in octal is 101010 in binary)
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octal">Octal Number System</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number">Binary Number System</a>
+ */
+public final class OctalToBinary {
+    private OctalToBinary() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts an octal number to its binary representation.
+     *
+     * <p>Each octal digit is individually converted to its 3-bit binary equivalent, and the binary
+     * digits are concatenated to form the final binary number.</p>
+     *
+     * @param octalNumber the octal number to convert (non-negative integer)
+     * @return the binary equivalent as a long
+     */
+    public static long convertOctalToBinary(int octalNumber) {
+        long binaryNumber = 0;
+        int digitPosition = 1;
+
+        while (octalNumber != 0) {
+            int octalDigit = octalNumber % 10;
+            long binaryDigit = convertOctalDigitToBinary(octalDigit);
+
+            binaryNumber += binaryDigit * digitPosition;
+
+            octalNumber /= 10;
+            digitPosition *= 1000;
+        }
+
+        return binaryNumber;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a single octal digit (0-7) to its binary equivalent.
+     *
+     * <p>For example:
+     * <ul>
+     *     <li>Octal digit 7 is converted to binary 111</li>
+     *     <li>Octal digit 3 is converted to binary 011</li>
+     * </ul>
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param octalDigit a single octal digit (0-7)
+     * @return the binary equivalent as a long
+     */
+    public static long convertOctalDigitToBinary(int octalDigit) {
+        long binaryDigit = 0;
+        int binaryMultiplier = 1;
+
+        while (octalDigit != 0) {
+            int octalDigitRemainder = octalDigit % 2;
+            binaryDigit += octalDigitRemainder * binaryMultiplier;
+
+            octalDigit /= 2;
+            binaryMultiplier *= 10;
+        }
+
+        return binaryDigit;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimal.java
index 978adee4b7db..d91ce6eb3634 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimal.java
@@ -1,47 +1,42 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
- * Converts any Octal Number to a Decimal Number
+ * Class for converting an octal number to a decimal number. Octal numbers are based on 8, using digits from 0 to 7.
  *
- * @author Zachary Jones
  */
-public class OctalToDecimal {
+public final class OctalToDecimal {
+    private static final int OCTAL_BASE = 8;
 
-    /**
-     * Main method
-     *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Octal Input: ");
-        String inputOctal = sc.nextLine();
-        int result = convertOctalToDecimal(inputOctal);
-        if (result != -1) {
-            System.out.println("Result convertOctalToDecimal : " + result);
-        }
-        sc.close();
+    private OctalToDecimal() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method converts an octal number to a decimal number.
+     * Converts a given octal number (as a string) to its decimal representation.
+     * If the input is not a valid octal number (i.e., contains characters other than 0-7),
+     * the method throws an IllegalArgumentException.
      *
-     * @param inputOctal The octal number
-     * @return The decimal number
+     * @param inputOctal The octal number as a string
+     * @return The decimal equivalent of the octal number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input is not a valid octal number
      */
     public static int convertOctalToDecimal(String inputOctal) {
+        if (inputOctal == null || inputOctal.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input cannot be null or empty");
+        }
+
+        int decimalValue = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < inputOctal.length(); i++) {
+            char currentChar = inputOctal.charAt(i);
 
-        try {
-            // Actual conversion of Octal to Decimal:
-            Integer outputDecimal = Integer.parseInt(inputOctal, 8);
-            return outputDecimal;
-        } catch (NumberFormatException ne) {
-            // Printing a warning message if the input is not a valid octal
-            // number:
-            System.out.println("Invalid Input, Expecting octal number 0-7");
-            return -1;
+            if (currentChar < '0' || currentChar > '7') {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Incorrect input: Expecting an octal number (digits 0-7)");
+            }
+
+            int currentDigit = currentChar - '0';
+            decimalValue = decimalValue * OCTAL_BASE + currentDigit;
         }
+
+        return decimalValue;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimal.java
index f757ef4e9aca..bac56dc2e221 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimal.java
@@ -1,64 +1,61 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
- * Converts any Octal Number to HexaDecimal
+ * Class for converting an Octal number to its Hexadecimal equivalent.
  *
  * @author Tanmay Joshi
  */
-public class OctalToHexadecimal {
+public final class OctalToHexadecimal {
+    private static final int OCTAL_BASE = 8;
+    private static final int HEX_BASE = 16;
+    private static final String HEX_DIGITS = "0123456789ABCDEF";
+
+    private OctalToHexadecimal() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * This method converts a Octal number to a decimal number
+     * Converts an Octal number (as a string) to its Decimal equivalent.
      *
-     * @param s The Octal Number
-     * @return The Decimal number
+     * @param octalNumber The Octal number as a string
+     * @return The Decimal equivalent of the Octal number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input contains invalid octal digits
      */
-    public static int octToDec(String s) {
-        int i = 0;
-        for (int j = 0; j < s.length(); j++) {
-            char num = s.charAt(j);
-            num -= '0';
-            i *= 8;
-            i += num;
+    public static int octalToDecimal(String octalNumber) {
+        if (octalNumber == null || octalNumber.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input cannot be null or empty");
         }
-        return i;
+
+        int decimalValue = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < octalNumber.length(); i++) {
+            char currentChar = octalNumber.charAt(i);
+            if (currentChar < '0' || currentChar > '7') {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Incorrect octal digit: " + currentChar);
+            }
+            int currentDigit = currentChar - '0';
+            decimalValue = decimalValue * OCTAL_BASE + currentDigit;
+        }
+
+        return decimalValue;
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method converts a Decimal number to a Hexadecimal number
+     * Converts a Decimal number to its Hexadecimal equivalent.
      *
-     * @param d The Decimal Number
-     * @return The Hexadecimal number
+     * @param decimalNumber The Decimal number
+     * @return The Hexadecimal equivalent of the Decimal number
      */
-    public static String decimalToHex(int d) {
-        String digits = "0123456789ABCDEF";
-        if (d <= 0) {
+    public static String decimalToHexadecimal(int decimalNumber) {
+        if (decimalNumber == 0) {
             return "0";
         }
-        String hex = "";
-        while (d > 0) {
-            int digit = d % 16;
-            hex = digits.charAt(digit) + hex;
-            d = d / 16;
-        }
-        return hex;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
 
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter the Octal number: ");
-        // Take octal number as input from user in a string
-        String oct = input.next();
-
-        // Pass the octal number to function and get converted decimal form
-        int decimal = octToDec(oct);
+        StringBuilder hexValue = new StringBuilder();
+        while (decimalNumber > 0) {
+            int digit = decimalNumber % HEX_BASE;
+            hexValue.insert(0, HEX_DIGITS.charAt(digit));
+            decimalNumber /= HEX_BASE;
+        }
 
-        // Pass the decimal number to function and get converted Hex form of the number
-        String hex = decimalToHex(decimal);
-        System.out.println("The Hexadecimal equivalant is: " + hex);
-        input.close();
+        return hexValue.toString();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/PhoneticAlphabetConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/PhoneticAlphabetConverter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..730ce2214e2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/PhoneticAlphabetConverter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Converts text to the NATO phonetic alphabet.
+ * Examples:
+ * "ABC" -> "Alpha Bravo Charlie"
+ * "Hello" -> "Hotel Echo Lima Lima Oscar"
+ * "123" -> "One Two Three"
+ * "A1B2C3" -> "Alpha One Bravo Two Charlie Three"
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class PhoneticAlphabetConverter {
+    private PhoneticAlphabetConverter() {
+    }
+
+    private static final Map<Character, String> PHONETIC_MAP = new HashMap<>();
+
+    static {
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('A', "Alpha");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('B', "Bravo");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('C', "Charlie");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('D', "Delta");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('E', "Echo");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('F', "Foxtrot");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('G', "Golf");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('H', "Hotel");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('I', "India");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('J', "Juliett");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('K', "Kilo");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('L', "Lima");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('M', "Mike");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('N', "November");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('O', "Oscar");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('P', "Papa");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('Q', "Quebec");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('R', "Romeo");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('S', "Sierra");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('T', "Tango");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('U', "Uniform");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('V', "Victor");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('W', "Whiskey");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('X', "X-ray");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('Y', "Yankee");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('Z', "Zulu");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('0', "Zero");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('1', "One");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('2', "Two");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('3', "Three");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('4', "Four");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('5', "Five");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('6', "Six");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('7', "Seven");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('8', "Eight");
+        PHONETIC_MAP.put('9', "Nine");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts text to the NATO phonetic alphabet.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Convert the text to uppercase.
+     * 2. Iterate over each character in the text.
+     * 3. Get the phonetic equivalent of the character from the map.
+     * 4. Append the phonetic equivalent to the result.
+     * 5. Append a space to separate the phonetic equivalents.
+     * 6. Return the result.
+     *
+     * @param text the text to convert
+     * @return the NATO phonetic alphabet
+     */
+    public static String textToPhonetic(String text) {
+        StringBuilder phonetic = new StringBuilder();
+        for (char c : text.toUpperCase().toCharArray()) {
+            if (Character.isWhitespace(c)) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            phonetic.append(PHONETIC_MAP.getOrDefault(c, String.valueOf(c))).append(" ");
+        }
+        return phonetic.toString().trim();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RgbHsvConversion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RgbHsvConversion.java
index 81e28919d368..84cbff09db6b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RgbHsvConversion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RgbHsvConversion.java
@@ -10,39 +10,41 @@
  * models how colors appear under light. In it, colors are represented using
  * three components: hue, saturation and (brightness-)value. This class provides
  * methods for converting colors from one representation to the other.
- * (description adapted from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RGB_color_model and
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSL_and_HSV).
+ * (description adapted from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RGB_color_model">[1]</a> and
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSL_and_HSV">[2]</a>).
  */
-public class RgbHsvConversion {
+public final class RgbHsvConversion {
+    private RgbHsvConversion() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         // Expected RGB-values taken from https://www.rapidtables.com/convert/color/hsv-to-rgb.html
 
         // Test hsvToRgb-method
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(0, 0, 0), new int[]{0, 0, 0});
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(0, 0, 1), new int[]{255, 255, 255});
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(0, 1, 1), new int[]{255, 0, 0});
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(60, 1, 1), new int[]{255, 255, 0});
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(120, 1, 1), new int[]{0, 255, 0});
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(240, 1, 1), new int[]{0, 0, 255});
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(300, 1, 1), new int[]{255, 0, 255});
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(180, 0.5, 0.5), new int[]{64, 128, 128});
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(234, 0.14, 0.88), new int[]{193, 196, 224});
-        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(330, 0.75, 0.5), new int[]{128, 32, 80});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(0, 0, 0), new int[] {0, 0, 0});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(0, 0, 1), new int[] {255, 255, 255});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(0, 1, 1), new int[] {255, 0, 0});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(60, 1, 1), new int[] {255, 255, 0});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(120, 1, 1), new int[] {0, 255, 0});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(240, 1, 1), new int[] {0, 0, 255});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(300, 1, 1), new int[] {255, 0, 255});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(180, 0.5, 0.5), new int[] {64, 128, 128});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(234, 0.14, 0.88), new int[] {193, 196, 224});
+        assert Arrays.equals(hsvToRgb(330, 0.75, 0.5), new int[] {128, 32, 80});
 
         // Test rgbToHsv-method
         // approximate-assertions needed because of small deviations due to converting between
         // int-values and double-values.
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(0, 0, 0), new double[]{0, 0, 0});
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(255, 255, 255), new double[]{0, 0, 1});
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(255, 0, 0), new double[]{0, 1, 1});
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(255, 255, 0), new double[]{60, 1, 1});
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(0, 255, 0), new double[]{120, 1, 1});
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(0, 0, 255), new double[]{240, 1, 1});
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(255, 0, 255), new double[]{300, 1, 1});
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(64, 128, 128), new double[]{180, 0.5, 0.5});
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(193, 196, 224), new double[]{234, 0.14, 0.88});
-        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(128, 32, 80), new double[]{330, 0.75, 0.5});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(0, 0, 0), new double[] {0, 0, 0});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(255, 255, 255), new double[] {0, 0, 1});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(255, 0, 0), new double[] {0, 1, 1});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(255, 255, 0), new double[] {60, 1, 1});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(0, 255, 0), new double[] {120, 1, 1});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(0, 0, 255), new double[] {240, 1, 1});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(255, 0, 255), new double[] {300, 1, 1});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(64, 128, 128), new double[] {180, 0.5, 0.5});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(193, 196, 224), new double[] {234, 0.14, 0.88});
+        assert approximatelyEqualHsv(rgbToHsv(128, 32, 80), new double[] {330, 0.75, 0.5});
     }
 
     /**
@@ -115,7 +117,7 @@ public static double[] rgbToHsv(int red, int green, int blue) {
 
         hue = (hue + 360) % 360;
 
-        return new double[]{hue, saturation, value};
+        return new double[] {hue, saturation, value};
     }
 
     private static boolean approximatelyEqualHsv(double[] hsv1, double[] hsv2) {
@@ -126,8 +128,7 @@ private static boolean approximatelyEqualHsv(double[] hsv1, double[] hsv2) {
         return bHue && bSaturation && bValue;
     }
 
-    private static int[] getRgbBySection(
-            double hueSection, double chroma, double matchValue, double secondLargestComponent) {
+    private static int[] getRgbBySection(double hueSection, double chroma, double matchValue, double secondLargestComponent) {
         int red;
         int green;
         int blue;
@@ -158,7 +159,7 @@ private static int[] getRgbBySection(
             blue = convertToInt(secondLargestComponent + matchValue);
         }
 
-        return new int[]{red, green, blue};
+        return new int[] {red, green, blue};
     }
 
     private static int convertToInt(double input) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToInteger.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToInteger.java
index 77b35b257891..a634c720326f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToInteger.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToInteger.java
@@ -1,15 +1,31 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
 
-public class RomanToInteger {
-
-    private static Map<Character, Integer> map
-            = new HashMap<Character, Integer>() {
-        /**
-         *          */
-        private static final long serialVersionUID = 87605733047260530L;
+/**
+ * A utility class to convert Roman numerals into integers.
+ *
+ * <p>Roman numerals are based on seven symbols given below:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>I = 1</li>
+ *   <li>V = 5</li>
+ *   <li>X = 10</li>
+ *   <li>L = 50</li>
+ *   <li>C = 100</li>
+ *   <li>D = 500</li>
+ *   <li>M = 1000</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>If a smaller numeral appears before a larger numeral, it is subtracted.
+ * Otherwise, it is added. For example:
+ * <pre>
+ *   MCMXCIV = 1000 + (1000 - 100) + (100 - 10) + (5 - 1) = 1994
+ * </pre>
+ */
+public final class RomanToInteger {
 
+    private static final Map<Character, Integer> ROMAN_TO_INT = new HashMap<>() {
         {
             put('I', 1);
             put('V', 5);
@@ -20,48 +36,56 @@ public class RomanToInteger {
             put('M', 1000);
         }
     };
-    // Roman Number = Roman Numerals
+
+    private RomanToInteger() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * This function convert Roman number into Integer
+     * Converts a single Roman numeral character to its integer value.
      *
-     * @param A Roman number string
-     * @return integer
+     * @param symbol the Roman numeral character
+     * @return the corresponding integer value
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the symbol is not a valid Roman numeral
      */
-    public static int romanToInt(String A) {
+    private static int romanSymbolToInt(final char symbol) {
+        return ROMAN_TO_INT.computeIfAbsent(symbol, c -> { throw new IllegalArgumentException("Unknown Roman symbol: " + c); });
+    }
 
-        A = A.toUpperCase();
-        char prev = ' ';
+    /**
+     * Converts a Roman numeral string to its integer equivalent.
+     * Steps:
+     * <ol>
+     *     <li>Iterate over the string from right to left.</li>
+     *     <li>For each character, convert it to an integer value.</li>
+     *     <li>If the current value is greater than or equal to the max previous value, add it.</li>
+     *     <li>Otherwise, subtract it from the sum.</li>
+     *     <li>Update the max previous value.</li>
+     *     <li>Return the sum.</li>
+     * </ol>
+     *
+     * @param roman the Roman numeral string
+     * @return the integer value of the Roman numeral
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input contains invalid Roman characters
+     * @throws NullPointerException if the input is {@code null}
+     */
+    public static int romanToInt(String roman) {
+        if (roman == null) {
+            throw new NullPointerException("Input cannot be null");
+        }
 
+        roman = roman.toUpperCase();
         int sum = 0;
-
-        int newPrev = 0;
-        for (int i = A.length() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-            char c = A.charAt(i);
-
-            if (prev != ' ') {
-                // checking current Number greater then previous or not
-                newPrev = map.get(prev) > newPrev ? map.get(prev) : newPrev;
-            }
-
-            int currentNum = map.get(c);
-
-            // if current number greater then prev max previous then add
-            if (currentNum >= newPrev) {
-                sum += currentNum;
+        int maxPrevValue = 0;
+        for (int i = roman.length() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            int currentValue = romanSymbolToInt(roman.charAt(i));
+            if (currentValue >= maxPrevValue) {
+                sum += currentValue;
+                maxPrevValue = currentValue;
             } else {
-                // subtract upcoming number until upcoming number not greater then prev max
-                sum -= currentNum;
+                sum -= currentValue;
             }
-
-            prev = c;
         }
 
         return sum;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int sum = romanToInt("MDCCCIV");
-        System.out.println(sum);
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TimeConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TimeConverter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..41cae37d7ad1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TimeConverter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import java.util.Locale;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to convert between different units of time.
+ *
+ * <p>This class supports conversions between the following units:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>seconds</li>
+ *   <li>minutes</li>
+ *   <li>hours</li>
+ *   <li>days</li>
+ *   <li>weeks</li>
+ *   <li>months (approximated as 30.44 days)</li>
+ *   <li>years (approximated as 365.25 days)</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>The conversion is based on predefined constants in seconds.
+ * Results are rounded to three decimal places for consistency.
+ *
+ * <p>This class is final and cannot be instantiated.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_of_time">Wikipedia: Unit of time</a>
+ */
+public final class TimeConverter {
+
+    private TimeConverter() {
+        // Prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Supported time units with their equivalent in seconds.
+     */
+    private enum TimeUnit {
+        SECONDS(1.0),
+        MINUTES(60.0),
+        HOURS(3600.0),
+        DAYS(86400.0),
+        WEEKS(604800.0),
+        MONTHS(2629800.0), // 30.44 days
+        YEARS(31557600.0); // 365.25 days
+
+        private final double seconds;
+
+        TimeUnit(double seconds) {
+            this.seconds = seconds;
+        }
+
+        public double toSeconds(double value) {
+            return value * seconds;
+        }
+
+        public double fromSeconds(double secondsValue) {
+            return secondsValue / seconds;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static final Map<String, TimeUnit> UNIT_LOOKUP
+        = Map.ofEntries(Map.entry("seconds", TimeUnit.SECONDS), Map.entry("minutes", TimeUnit.MINUTES), Map.entry("hours", TimeUnit.HOURS), Map.entry("days", TimeUnit.DAYS), Map.entry("weeks", TimeUnit.WEEKS), Map.entry("months", TimeUnit.MONTHS), Map.entry("years", TimeUnit.YEARS));
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a time value from one unit to another.
+     *
+     * @param timeValue the numeric value of time to convert; must be non-negative
+     * @param unitFrom the unit of the input value (e.g., "minutes", "hours")
+     * @param unitTo the unit to convert into (e.g., "seconds", "days")
+     * @return the converted value in the target unit, rounded to three decimals
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code timeValue} is negative
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if either {@code unitFrom} or {@code unitTo} is not supported
+     */
+    public static double convertTime(double timeValue, String unitFrom, String unitTo) {
+        if (timeValue < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("timeValue must be a non-negative number.");
+        }
+
+        TimeUnit from = resolveUnit(unitFrom);
+        TimeUnit to = resolveUnit(unitTo);
+
+        double secondsValue = from.toSeconds(timeValue);
+        double converted = to.fromSeconds(secondsValue);
+
+        return Math.round(converted * 1000.0) / 1000.0;
+    }
+
+    private static TimeUnit resolveUnit(String unit) {
+        if (unit == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Unit cannot be null.");
+        }
+        TimeUnit resolved = UNIT_LOOKUP.get(unit.toLowerCase(Locale.ROOT));
+        if (resolved == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid unit '" + unit + "'. Supported units are: " + UNIT_LOOKUP.keySet());
+        }
+        return resolved;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversion.java
index 0929496a1fe6..30030de6c1bd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversion.java
@@ -1,41 +1,55 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
  * Converts turkish character to latin character
  *
  * @author Özgün Gökşenli
  */
-public class TurkishToLatinConversion {
-
-    /**
-     * Main method
-     *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Input the string: ");
-        String b = sc.next();
-        System.out.println("Converted: " + convertTurkishToLatin(b));
-        sc.close();
+public final class TurkishToLatinConversion {
+    private TurkishToLatinConversion() {
     }
 
     /**
      * This method converts a turkish character to latin character.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Define turkish characters and their corresponding latin characters
+     * 2. Replace all turkish characters with their corresponding latin characters
+     * 3. Return the converted string
      *
      * @param param String paramter
      * @return String
      */
     public static String convertTurkishToLatin(String param) {
-        char[] turkishChars
-                = new char[]{0x131, 0x130, 0xFC, 0xDC, 0xF6, 0xD6, 0x15F, 0x15E, 0xE7, 0xC7, 0x11F, 0x11E};
-        char[] latinChars = new char[]{'i', 'I', 'u', 'U', 'o', 'O', 's', 'S', 'c', 'C', 'g', 'G'};
+        char[] turkishChars = new char[] {
+            0x131,
+            0x130,
+            0xFC,
+            0xDC,
+            0xF6,
+            0xD6,
+            0x15F,
+            0x15E,
+            0xE7,
+            0xC7,
+            0x11F,
+            0x11E,
+        };
+        char[] latinChars = new char[] {
+            'i',
+            'I',
+            'u',
+            'U',
+            'o',
+            'O',
+            's',
+            'S',
+            'c',
+            'C',
+            'g',
+            'G',
+        };
         for (int i = 0; i < turkishChars.length; i++) {
-            param
-                    = param.replaceAll(
-                            new String(new char[]{turkishChars[i]}), new String(new char[]{latinChars[i]}));
+            param = param.replaceAll(String.valueOf(turkishChars[i]), String.valueOf(latinChars[i]));
         }
         return param;
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversions.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversions.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..15f74a21a17e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversions.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static java.util.Map.entry;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to perform unit conversions between different measurement systems.
+ *
+ * <p>Currently, the class supports temperature conversions between several scales:
+ * Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, Réaumur, Delisle, and Rankine.
+ *
+ * <h2>Example Usage</h2>
+ * <pre>
+ *   double result = UnitConversions.TEMPERATURE.convert("Celsius", "Fahrenheit", 100.0);
+ *   // Output: 212.0 (Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion of 100°C)
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p>This class makes use of an {@link UnitsConverter} that handles the conversion logic
+ * based on predefined affine transformations. These transformations include scaling factors
+ * and offsets for temperature conversions.
+ *
+ * <h2>Temperature Scales Supported</h2>
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Celsius</li>
+ *   <li>Fahrenheit</li>
+ *   <li>Kelvin</li>
+ *   <li>Réaumur</li>
+ *   <li>Delisle</li>
+ *   <li>Rankine</li>
+ * </ul>
+ */
+public final class UnitConversions {
+    private UnitConversions() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A preconfigured instance of {@link UnitsConverter} for temperature conversions.
+     * The converter handles conversions between the following temperature units:
+     * <ul>
+     *   <li>Kelvin to Celsius</li>
+     *   <li>Celsius to Fahrenheit</li>
+     *   <li>Réaumur to Celsius</li>
+     *   <li>Delisle to Celsius</li>
+     *   <li>Rankine to Kelvin</li>
+     * </ul>
+     */
+    public static final UnitsConverter TEMPERATURE = new UnitsConverter(Map.ofEntries(entry(Pair.of("Kelvin", "Celsius"), new AffineConverter(1.0, -273.15)), entry(Pair.of("Celsius", "Fahrenheit"), new AffineConverter(9.0 / 5.0, 32.0)),
+        entry(Pair.of("Réaumur", "Celsius"), new AffineConverter(5.0 / 4.0, 0.0)), entry(Pair.of("Delisle", "Celsius"), new AffineConverter(-2.0 / 3.0, 100.0)), entry(Pair.of("Rankine", "Kelvin"), new AffineConverter(5.0 / 9.0, 0.0))));
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..00690b2c0f9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import java.util.Set;
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
+
+/**
+ * A class that handles unit conversions using affine transformations.
+ *
+ * <p>The {@code UnitsConverter} allows converting values between different units using
+ * pre-defined affine conversion formulas. Each conversion is represented by an
+ * {@link AffineConverter} that defines the scaling and offset for the conversion.
+ *
+ * <p>For each unit, both direct conversions (e.g., Celsius to Fahrenheit) and inverse
+ * conversions (e.g., Fahrenheit to Celsius) are generated automatically. It also computes
+ * transitive conversions (e.g., Celsius to Kelvin via Fahrenheit if both conversions exist).
+ *
+ * <p>Key features include:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Automatic handling of inverse conversions (e.g., Fahrenheit to Celsius).</li>
+ *   <li>Compositional conversions, meaning if conversions between A -> B and B -> C exist,
+ *       it can automatically generate A -> C conversion.</li>
+ *   <li>Supports multiple unit systems as long as conversions are provided in pairs.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <h2>Example Usage</h2>
+ * <pre>
+ * Map&lt;Pair&lt;String, String&gt;, AffineConverter&gt; basicConversions = Map.ofEntries(
+ *     entry(Pair.of("Celsius", "Fahrenheit"), new AffineConverter(9.0 / 5.0, 32.0)),
+ *     entry(Pair.of("Kelvin", "Celsius"), new AffineConverter(1.0, -273.15))
+ * );
+ *
+ * UnitsConverter converter = new UnitsConverter(basicConversions);
+ * double result = converter.convert("Celsius", "Fahrenheit", 100.0);
+ * // Output: 212.0 (Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion of 100°C)
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <h2>Exception Handling</h2>
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>If the input unit and output unit are the same, an {@link IllegalArgumentException} is thrown.</li>
+ *   <li>If a conversion between the requested units does not exist, a {@link NoSuchElementException} is thrown.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ */
+public final class UnitsConverter {
+    private final Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> conversions;
+    private final Set<String> units;
+
+    private static void putIfNeeded(Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> conversions, final String inputUnit, final String outputUnit, final AffineConverter converter) {
+        if (!inputUnit.equals(outputUnit)) {
+            final var key = Pair.of(inputUnit, outputUnit);
+            conversions.putIfAbsent(key, converter);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> addInversions(final Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> knownConversions) {
+        Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> res = new HashMap<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter>();
+        for (final var curConversion : knownConversions.entrySet()) {
+            final var inputUnit = curConversion.getKey().getKey();
+            final var outputUnit = curConversion.getKey().getValue();
+            putIfNeeded(res, inputUnit, outputUnit, curConversion.getValue());
+            putIfNeeded(res, outputUnit, inputUnit, curConversion.getValue().invert());
+        }
+        return res;
+    }
+
+    private static Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> addCompositions(final Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> knownConversions) {
+        Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> res = new HashMap<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter>();
+        for (final var first : knownConversions.entrySet()) {
+            final var firstKey = first.getKey();
+            putIfNeeded(res, firstKey.getKey(), firstKey.getValue(), first.getValue());
+            for (final var second : knownConversions.entrySet()) {
+                final var secondKey = second.getKey();
+                if (firstKey.getValue().equals(secondKey.getKey())) {
+                    final var newConversion = second.getValue().compose(first.getValue());
+                    putIfNeeded(res, firstKey.getKey(), secondKey.getValue(), newConversion);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return res;
+    }
+
+    private static Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> addAll(final Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> knownConversions) {
+        final var res = addInversions(knownConversions);
+        return addCompositions(res);
+    }
+
+    private static Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> computeAllConversions(final Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> basicConversions) {
+        var tmp = basicConversions;
+        var res = addAll(tmp);
+        while (res.size() != tmp.size()) {
+            tmp = res;
+            res = addAll(tmp);
+        }
+        return res;
+    }
+
+    private static Set<String> extractUnits(final Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> conversions) {
+        Set<String> res = new HashSet<>();
+        for (final var conversion : conversions.entrySet()) {
+            res.add(conversion.getKey().getKey());
+        }
+        return res;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor for {@code UnitsConverter}.
+     *
+     * <p>Accepts a map of basic conversions and automatically generates inverse and
+     * transitive conversions.
+     *
+     * @param basicConversions the initial set of unit conversions to add.
+     */
+    public UnitsConverter(final Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> basicConversions) {
+        conversions = computeAllConversions(basicConversions);
+        units = extractUnits(conversions);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a value from one unit to another.
+     *
+     * @param inputUnit the unit of the input value.
+     * @param outputUnit the unit to convert the value into.
+     * @param value the value to convert.
+     * @return the converted value in the target unit.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if inputUnit equals outputUnit.
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if no conversion exists between the units.
+     */
+    public double convert(final String inputUnit, final String outputUnit, final double value) {
+        if (inputUnit.equals(outputUnit)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("inputUnit must be different from outputUnit.");
+        }
+        final var conversionKey = Pair.of(inputUnit, outputUnit);
+        return conversions.computeIfAbsent(conversionKey, k -> { throw new NoSuchElementException("No converter for: " + k); }).convert(value);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the set of all units supported by this converter.
+     *
+     * @return a set of available units.
+     */
+    public Set<String> availableUnits() {
+        return units;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/WordsToNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/WordsToNumber.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e2b81a0f4b47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/WordsToNumber.java
@@ -0,0 +1,343 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import java.io.Serial;
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ A Java-based utility for converting English word representations of numbers
+ into their numeric form. This utility supports whole numbers, decimals,
+ large values up to trillions, and even scientific notation where applicable.
+ It ensures accurate parsing while handling edge cases like negative numbers,
+ improper word placements, and ambiguous inputs.
+ *
+ */
+
+public final class WordsToNumber {
+
+    private WordsToNumber() {
+    }
+
+    private enum NumberWord {
+        ZERO("zero", 0),
+        ONE("one", 1),
+        TWO("two", 2),
+        THREE("three", 3),
+        FOUR("four", 4),
+        FIVE("five", 5),
+        SIX("six", 6),
+        SEVEN("seven", 7),
+        EIGHT("eight", 8),
+        NINE("nine", 9),
+        TEN("ten", 10),
+        ELEVEN("eleven", 11),
+        TWELVE("twelve", 12),
+        THIRTEEN("thirteen", 13),
+        FOURTEEN("fourteen", 14),
+        FIFTEEN("fifteen", 15),
+        SIXTEEN("sixteen", 16),
+        SEVENTEEN("seventeen", 17),
+        EIGHTEEN("eighteen", 18),
+        NINETEEN("nineteen", 19),
+        TWENTY("twenty", 20),
+        THIRTY("thirty", 30),
+        FORTY("forty", 40),
+        FIFTY("fifty", 50),
+        SIXTY("sixty", 60),
+        SEVENTY("seventy", 70),
+        EIGHTY("eighty", 80),
+        NINETY("ninety", 90);
+
+        private final String word;
+        private final int value;
+
+        NumberWord(String word, int value) {
+            this.word = word;
+            this.value = value;
+        }
+
+        public static Integer getValue(String word) {
+            for (NumberWord num : values()) {
+                if (word.equals(num.word)) {
+                    return num.value;
+                }
+            }
+            return null;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private enum PowerOfTen {
+        THOUSAND("thousand", new BigDecimal("1000")),
+        MILLION("million", new BigDecimal("1000000")),
+        BILLION("billion", new BigDecimal("1000000000")),
+        TRILLION("trillion", new BigDecimal("1000000000000"));
+
+        private final String word;
+        private final BigDecimal value;
+
+        PowerOfTen(String word, BigDecimal value) {
+            this.word = word;
+            this.value = value;
+        }
+
+        public static BigDecimal getValue(String word) {
+            for (PowerOfTen power : values()) {
+                if (word.equals(power.word)) {
+                    return power.value;
+                }
+            }
+            return null;
+        }
+    }
+
+    public static String convert(String numberInWords) {
+        if (numberInWords == null) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.NULL_INPUT, "");
+        }
+
+        ArrayDeque<String> wordDeque = preprocessWords(numberInWords);
+        BigDecimal completeNumber = convertWordQueueToBigDecimal(wordDeque);
+
+        return completeNumber.toString();
+    }
+
+    public static BigDecimal convertToBigDecimal(String numberInWords) {
+        String conversionResult = convert(numberInWords);
+        return new BigDecimal(conversionResult);
+    }
+
+    private static ArrayDeque<String> preprocessWords(String numberInWords) {
+        String[] wordSplitArray = numberInWords.trim().split("[ ,-]");
+        ArrayDeque<String> wordDeque = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        for (String word : wordSplitArray) {
+            if (word.isEmpty()) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            wordDeque.add(word.toLowerCase());
+        }
+        if (wordDeque.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.NULL_INPUT, "");
+        }
+        return wordDeque;
+    }
+
+    private static void handleConjunction(boolean prevNumWasHundred, boolean prevNumWasPowerOfTen, ArrayDeque<String> wordDeque) {
+        if (wordDeque.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.INVALID_CONJUNCTION, "");
+        }
+
+        String nextWord = wordDeque.pollFirst();
+        String afterNextWord = wordDeque.peekFirst();
+
+        wordDeque.addFirst(nextWord);
+
+        Integer number = NumberWord.getValue(nextWord);
+
+        boolean isPrevWordValid = prevNumWasHundred || prevNumWasPowerOfTen;
+        boolean isNextWordValid = number != null && (number >= 10 || afterNextWord == null || "point".equals(afterNextWord));
+
+        if (!isPrevWordValid || !isNextWordValid) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.INVALID_CONJUNCTION, "");
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static BigDecimal handleHundred(BigDecimal currentChunk, String word, boolean prevNumWasPowerOfTen) {
+        boolean currentChunkIsZero = currentChunk.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) == 0;
+        if (currentChunk.compareTo(BigDecimal.TEN) >= 0 || prevNumWasPowerOfTen) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD, word);
+        }
+        if (currentChunkIsZero) {
+            currentChunk = currentChunk.add(BigDecimal.ONE);
+        }
+        return currentChunk.multiply(BigDecimal.valueOf(100));
+    }
+
+    private static void handlePowerOfTen(List<BigDecimal> chunks, BigDecimal currentChunk, BigDecimal powerOfTen, String word, boolean prevNumWasPowerOfTen) {
+        boolean currentChunkIsZero = currentChunk.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) == 0;
+        if (currentChunkIsZero || prevNumWasPowerOfTen) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD, word);
+        }
+        BigDecimal nextChunk = currentChunk.multiply(powerOfTen);
+
+        if (!(chunks.isEmpty() || isAdditionSafe(chunks.getLast(), nextChunk))) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD, word);
+        }
+        chunks.add(nextChunk);
+    }
+
+    private static BigDecimal handleNumber(Collection<BigDecimal> chunks, BigDecimal currentChunk, String word, Integer number) {
+        boolean currentChunkIsZero = currentChunk.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) == 0;
+        if (number == 0 && !(currentChunkIsZero && chunks.isEmpty())) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD, word);
+        }
+        BigDecimal bigDecimalNumber = BigDecimal.valueOf(number);
+
+        if (!currentChunkIsZero && !isAdditionSafe(currentChunk, bigDecimalNumber)) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD, word);
+        }
+        return currentChunk.add(bigDecimalNumber);
+    }
+
+    private static void handlePoint(Collection<BigDecimal> chunks, BigDecimal currentChunk, ArrayDeque<String> wordDeque) {
+        boolean currentChunkIsZero = currentChunk.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) == 0;
+        if (!currentChunkIsZero) {
+            chunks.add(currentChunk);
+        }
+
+        String decimalPart = convertDecimalPart(wordDeque);
+        chunks.add(new BigDecimal(decimalPart));
+    }
+
+    private static void handleNegative(boolean isNegative) {
+        if (isNegative) {
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.MULTIPLE_NEGATIVES, "");
+        }
+        throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.INVALID_NEGATIVE, "");
+    }
+
+    private static BigDecimal convertWordQueueToBigDecimal(ArrayDeque<String> wordDeque) {
+        BigDecimal currentChunk = BigDecimal.ZERO;
+        List<BigDecimal> chunks = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        boolean isNegative = "negative".equals(wordDeque.peek());
+        if (isNegative) {
+            wordDeque.poll();
+        }
+
+        boolean prevNumWasHundred = false;
+        boolean prevNumWasPowerOfTen = false;
+
+        while (!wordDeque.isEmpty()) {
+            String word = wordDeque.poll();
+
+            switch (word) {
+                case "and" -> {
+                    handleConjunction(prevNumWasHundred, prevNumWasPowerOfTen, wordDeque);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                case "hundred" -> {
+                    currentChunk = handleHundred(currentChunk, word, prevNumWasPowerOfTen);
+                    prevNumWasHundred = true;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                default -> {
+
+                }
+            }
+            prevNumWasHundred = false;
+
+            BigDecimal powerOfTen = PowerOfTen.getValue(word);
+            if (powerOfTen != null) {
+                handlePowerOfTen(chunks, currentChunk, powerOfTen, word, prevNumWasPowerOfTen);
+                currentChunk = BigDecimal.ZERO;
+                prevNumWasPowerOfTen = true;
+                continue;
+            }
+            prevNumWasPowerOfTen = false;
+
+            Integer number = NumberWord.getValue(word);
+            if (number != null) {
+                currentChunk = handleNumber(chunks, currentChunk, word, number);
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            switch (word) {
+                case "point" -> {
+                    handlePoint(chunks, currentChunk, wordDeque);
+                    currentChunk = BigDecimal.ZERO;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                case "negative" -> {
+                    handleNegative(isNegative);
+                }
+                default -> {
+
+                }
+            }
+
+            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNKNOWN_WORD, word);
+        }
+
+        if (currentChunk.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) != 0) {
+            chunks.add(currentChunk);
+        }
+
+        BigDecimal completeNumber = combineChunks(chunks);
+        return isNegative ? completeNumber.multiply(BigDecimal.valueOf(-1))
+                :
+                    completeNumber;
+                }
+
+                private static boolean isAdditionSafe(BigDecimal currentChunk, BigDecimal number) {
+                    int chunkDigitCount = currentChunk.toString().length();
+                    int numberDigitCount = number.toString().length();
+                    return chunkDigitCount > numberDigitCount;
+                }
+
+                private static String convertDecimalPart(ArrayDeque<String> wordDeque) {
+                    StringBuilder decimalPart = new StringBuilder(".");
+
+                    while (!wordDeque.isEmpty()) {
+                        String word = wordDeque.poll();
+                        Integer number = NumberWord.getValue(word);
+                        if (number == null) {
+                            throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD_AFTER_POINT, word);
+                        }
+                        decimalPart.append(number);
+                    }
+
+                    boolean missingNumbers = decimalPart.length() == 1;
+                    if (missingNumbers) {
+                        throw new WordsToNumberException(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.MISSING_DECIMAL_NUMBERS, "");
+                    }
+                    return decimalPart.toString();
+                }
+
+                private static BigDecimal combineChunks(List<BigDecimal> chunks) {
+                    BigDecimal completeNumber = BigDecimal.ZERO;
+                    for (BigDecimal chunk : chunks) {
+                        completeNumber = completeNumber.add(chunk);
+                    }
+                    return completeNumber;
+                }
+        }
+
+        class WordsToNumberException extends RuntimeException {
+
+                @Serial private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
+
+                enum ErrorType {
+                    NULL_INPUT("'null' or empty input provided"),
+                    UNKNOWN_WORD("Unknown Word: "),
+                    UNEXPECTED_WORD("Unexpected Word: "),
+                    UNEXPECTED_WORD_AFTER_POINT("Unexpected Word (after Point): "),
+                    MISSING_DECIMAL_NUMBERS("Decimal part is missing numbers."),
+                    MULTIPLE_NEGATIVES("Multiple 'Negative's detected."),
+                    INVALID_NEGATIVE("Incorrect 'negative' placement"),
+                    INVALID_CONJUNCTION("Incorrect 'and' placement");
+
+                    private final String message;
+
+                    ErrorType(String message) {
+                        this.message = message;
+                    }
+
+                    public String formatMessage(String details) {
+                        return "Invalid Input. " + message + (details.isEmpty() ? "" : details);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                public final ErrorType errorType;
+
+                WordsToNumberException(ErrorType errorType, String details) {
+                    super(errorType.formatMessage(details));
+                    this.errorType = errorType;
+                }
+
+                public ErrorType getErrorType() {
+                    return errorType;
+                }
+        }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/Node.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/Node.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c8d0e6cb4f7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/Node.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+public class Node<T> {
+
+    private final T value;
+    private final List<Node<T>> children;
+
+    public Node(final T value) {
+        this.value = value;
+        this.children = new ArrayList<>();
+    }
+
+    public Node(final T value, final List<Node<T>> children) {
+        this.value = value;
+        this.children = children;
+    }
+
+    public T getValue() {
+        return value;
+    }
+
+    public void addChild(Node<T> child) {
+        children.add(child);
+    }
+
+    public List<Node<T>> getChildren() {
+        return children;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bags/Bag.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bags/Bag.java
index 1d03e5cf46a3..afc3bbe40cce 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bags/Bag.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bags/Bag.java
@@ -4,23 +4,28 @@
 import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
 
 /**
- * Collection which does not allow removing elements (only collect and iterate)
+ * A generic collection that allows adding and iterating over elements but does not support
+ * element removal. This class implements a simple bag data structure, which can hold duplicate
+ * elements and provides operations to check for membership and the size of the collection.
  *
- * @param <Element> - the generic type of an element in this bag
+ * <p>Bag is not thread-safe and should not be accessed by multiple threads concurrently.
+ *
+ * @param <E> the type of elements in this bag
  */
-public class Bag<Element> implements Iterable<Element> {
-
-    private Node<Element> firstElement; // first element of the bag
-    private int size; // size of bag
+public class Bag<E> implements Iterable<E> {
 
-    private static class Node<Element> {
+    private Node<E> firstElement; // Reference to the first element in the bag
+    private int size; // Count of elements in the bag
 
-        private Element content;
-        private Node<Element> nextElement;
+    // Node class representing each element in the bag
+    private static final class Node<E> {
+        private E content;
+        private Node<E> nextElement;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Create an empty bag
+     * Constructs an empty bag.
+     * <p>This initializes the bag with zero elements.
      */
     public Bag() {
         firstElement = null;
@@ -28,40 +33,50 @@ public Bag() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return true if this bag is empty, false otherwise
+     * Checks if the bag is empty.
+     *
+     * @return {@code true} if the bag contains no elements; {@code false} otherwise
      */
     public boolean isEmpty() {
-        return firstElement == null;
+        return size == 0;
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return the number of elements
+     * Returns the number of elements in the bag.
+     *
+     * @return the number of elements currently in the bag
      */
     public int size() {
         return size;
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param element - the element to add
+     * Adds an element to the bag.
+     *
+     * <p>This method adds the specified element to the bag. Duplicates are allowed, and the
+     * bag will maintain the order in which elements are added.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to add; must not be {@code null}
      */
-    public void add(Element element) {
-        Node<Element> oldfirst = firstElement;
-        firstElement = new Node<>();
-        firstElement.content = element;
-        firstElement.nextElement = oldfirst;
+    public void add(E element) {
+        Node<E> newNode = new Node<>();
+        newNode.content = element;
+        newNode.nextElement = firstElement;
+        firstElement = newNode;
         size++;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Checks if the bag contains a specific element
+     * Checks if the bag contains a specific element.
      *
-     * @param element which you want to look for
-     * @return true if bag contains element, otherwise false
+     * <p>This method uses the {@code equals} method of the element to determine membership.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to check for; must not be {@code null}
+     * @return {@code true} if the bag contains the specified element; {@code false} otherwise
      */
-    public boolean contains(Element element) {
-        Iterator<Element> iterator = this.iterator();
-        while (iterator.hasNext()) {
-            if (iterator.next().equals(element)) {
+    public boolean contains(E element) {
+        for (E value : this) {
+            if (value.equals(element)) {
                 return true;
             }
         }
@@ -69,61 +84,55 @@ public boolean contains(Element element) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return an iterator that iterates over the elements in this bag in
-     * arbitrary order
+     * Returns an iterator over the elements in this bag.
+     *
+     * <p>The iterator provides a way to traverse the elements in the order they were added.
+     *
+     * @return an iterator that iterates over the elements in the bag
      */
-    public Iterator<Element> iterator() {
+    @Override
+    public Iterator<E> iterator() {
         return new ListIterator<>(firstElement);
     }
 
-    @SuppressWarnings("hiding")
-    private class ListIterator<Element> implements Iterator<Element> {
+    // Private class for iterating over elements
+    private static class ListIterator<E> implements Iterator<E> {
 
-        private Node<Element> currentElement;
+        private Node<E> currentElement;
 
-        public ListIterator(Node<Element> firstElement) {
-            currentElement = firstElement;
+        /**
+         * Constructs a ListIterator starting from the given first element.
+         *
+         * @param firstElement the first element of the bag to iterate over
+         */
+        ListIterator(Node<E> firstElement) {
+            this.currentElement = firstElement;
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Checks if there are more elements to iterate over.
+         *
+         * @return {@code true} if there are more elements; {@code false} otherwise
+         */
+        @Override
         public boolean hasNext() {
             return currentElement != null;
         }
 
         /**
-         * remove is not allowed in a bag
+         * Returns the next element in the iteration.
+         *
+         * @return the next element in the bag
+         * @throws NoSuchElementException if there are no more elements to return
          */
         @Override
-        public void remove() {
-            throw new UnsupportedOperationException();
-        }
-
-        public Element next() {
+        public E next() {
             if (!hasNext()) {
-                throw new NoSuchElementException();
+                throw new NoSuchElementException("No more elements in the bag.");
             }
-            Element element = currentElement.content;
+            E element = currentElement.content;
             currentElement = currentElement.nextElement;
             return element;
         }
     }
-
-    /**
-     * main-method for testing
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
-
-        bag.add("1");
-        bag.add("1");
-        bag.add("2");
-
-        System.out.println("size of bag = " + bag.size());
-        for (String s : bag) {
-            System.out.println(s);
-        }
-
-        System.out.println(bag.contains(null));
-        System.out.println(bag.contains("1"));
-        System.out.println(bag.contains("3"));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bloomfilter/BloomFilter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bloomfilter/BloomFilter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..90625ad1c902
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bloomfilter/BloomFilter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,177 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.bloomfilter;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.BitSet;
+
+/**
+ * A generic BloomFilter implementation for probabilistic membership checking.
+ * <p>
+ * Bloom filters are space-efficient data structures that provide a fast way to
+ * test whether an
+ * element is a member of a set. They may produce false positives, indicating an
+ * element is
+ * in the set when it is not, but they will never produce false negatives.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @param <T> The type of elements to be stored in the Bloom filter.
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
+public class BloomFilter<T> {
+
+    private final int numberOfHashFunctions;
+    private final BitSet bitArray;
+    private final Hash<T>[] hashFunctions;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a BloomFilter with a specified number of hash functions and bit
+     * array size.
+     *
+     * @param numberOfHashFunctions the number of hash functions to use
+     * @param bitArraySize          the size of the bit array, which determines the
+     *                              capacity of the filter
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if numberOfHashFunctions or bitArraySize is
+     *                                  less than 1
+     */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    public BloomFilter(int numberOfHashFunctions, int bitArraySize) {
+        if (numberOfHashFunctions < 1 || bitArraySize < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number of hash functions and bit array size must be greater than 0");
+        }
+        this.numberOfHashFunctions = numberOfHashFunctions;
+        this.bitArray = new BitSet(bitArraySize);
+        this.hashFunctions = new Hash[numberOfHashFunctions];
+        initializeHashFunctions();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes the hash functions with unique indices to ensure different
+     * hashing.
+     */
+    private void initializeHashFunctions() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < numberOfHashFunctions; i++) {
+            hashFunctions[i] = new Hash<>(i);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts an element into the Bloom filter.
+     * <p>
+     * This method hashes the element using all defined hash functions and sets the
+     * corresponding
+     * bits in the bit array.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param key the element to insert into the Bloom filter
+     */
+    public void insert(T key) {
+        for (Hash<T> hash : hashFunctions) {
+            int position = Math.abs(hash.compute(key) % bitArray.size());
+            bitArray.set(position);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if an element might be in the Bloom filter.
+     * <p>
+     * This method checks the bits at the positions computed by each hash function.
+     * If any of these
+     * bits are not set, the element is definitely not in the filter. If all bits
+     * are set, the element
+     * might be in the filter.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param key the element to check for membership in the Bloom filter
+     * @return {@code true} if the element might be in the Bloom filter,
+     *         {@code false} if it is definitely not
+     */
+    public boolean contains(T key) {
+        for (Hash<T> hash : hashFunctions) {
+            int position = Math.abs(hash.compute(key) % bitArray.size());
+            if (!bitArray.get(position)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inner class representing a hash function used by the Bloom filter.
+     * <p>
+     * Each instance of this class represents a different hash function based on its
+     * index.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param <T> The type of elements to be hashed.
+     */
+    private static class Hash<T> {
+
+        private final int index;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a Hash function with a specified index.
+         *
+         * @param index the index of this hash function, used to create a unique hash
+         */
+        Hash(int index) {
+            this.index = index;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Computes the hash of the given key.
+         * <p>
+         * The hash value is calculated by multiplying the index of the hash function
+         * with the ASCII sum of the string representation of the key.
+         * </p>
+         *
+         * @param key the element to hash
+         * @return the computed hash value
+         */
+        public int compute(T key) {
+            return index * contentHash(key);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Computes the ASCII value sum of the characters in a string.
+         * <p>
+         * This method iterates through each character of the string and accumulates
+         * their ASCII values to produce a single integer value.
+         * </p>
+         *
+         * @param word the string to compute
+         * @return the sum of ASCII values of the characters in the string
+         */
+        private int asciiString(String word) {
+            int sum = 0;
+            for (char c : word.toCharArray()) {
+                sum += c;
+            }
+            return sum;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Computes a content-based hash for arrays; falls back to ASCII-sum of String value otherwise.
+         */
+        private int contentHash(Object key) {
+            if (key instanceof int[]) {
+                return Arrays.hashCode((int[]) key);
+            } else if (key instanceof long[]) {
+                return Arrays.hashCode((long[]) key);
+            } else if (key instanceof byte[]) {
+                return Arrays.hashCode((byte[]) key);
+            } else if (key instanceof short[]) {
+                return Arrays.hashCode((short[]) key);
+            } else if (key instanceof char[]) {
+                return Arrays.hashCode((char[]) key);
+            } else if (key instanceof boolean[]) {
+                return Arrays.hashCode((boolean[]) key);
+            } else if (key instanceof float[]) {
+                return Arrays.hashCode((float[]) key);
+            } else if (key instanceof double[]) {
+                return Arrays.hashCode((double[]) key);
+            } else if (key instanceof Object[]) {
+                return Arrays.deepHashCode((Object[]) key);
+            }
+            return asciiString(String.valueOf(key));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBuffer.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBuffer.java
index 200322478a8e..3b89c2119ae0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBuffer.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBuffer.java
@@ -1,133 +1,133 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.buffers;
 
-import java.util.Random;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
 
-public class CircularBuffer {
-
-    private char[] _buffer;
-    public final int _buffer_size;
-    private int _write_index = 0;
-    private int _read_index = 0;
-    private AtomicInteger _readable_data = new AtomicInteger(0);
-
-    public CircularBuffer(int buffer_size) {
-        if (!IsPowerOfTwo(buffer_size)) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException();
+/**
+ * The {@code CircularBuffer} class implements a generic circular (or ring) buffer.
+ * A circular buffer is a fixed-size data structure that operates in a FIFO (First In, First Out) manner.
+ * The buffer allows you to overwrite old data when the buffer is full and efficiently use limited memory.
+ * When the buffer is full, adding a new item will overwrite the oldest data.
+ *
+ * @param <Item> The type of elements stored in the circular buffer.
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+public class CircularBuffer<Item> {
+    private final Item[] buffer;
+    private final CircularPointer putPointer;
+    private final CircularPointer getPointer;
+    private final AtomicInteger size = new AtomicInteger(0);
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize the circular buffer with a specified size.
+     *
+     * @param size The size of the circular buffer.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the size is zero or negative.
+     */
+    public CircularBuffer(int size) {
+        if (size <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Buffer size must be positive");
         }
-        this._buffer_size = buffer_size;
-        _buffer = new char[buffer_size];
+        // noinspection unchecked
+        this.buffer = (Item[]) new Object[size];
+        this.putPointer = new CircularPointer(0, size);
+        this.getPointer = new CircularPointer(0, size);
     }
 
-    private boolean IsPowerOfTwo(int i) {
-        return (i & (i - 1)) == 0;
+    /**
+     * Checks if the circular buffer is empty.
+     * This method is based on the current size of the buffer.
+     *
+     * @return {@code true} if the buffer is empty, {@code false} otherwise.
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return size.get() == 0;
     }
 
-    private int getTrueIndex(int i) {
-        return i % _buffer_size;
+    /**
+     * Checks if the circular buffer is full.
+     * The buffer is considered full when its size equals its capacity.
+     *
+     * @return {@code true} if the buffer is full, {@code false} otherwise.
+     */
+    public boolean isFull() {
+        return size.get() == buffer.length;
     }
 
-    public Character readOutChar() {
-        Character result = null;
-
-        // if we have data to read
-        if (_readable_data.get() > 0) {
-
-            result = Character.valueOf(_buffer[getTrueIndex(_read_index)]);
-            _readable_data.decrementAndGet();
-            _read_index++;
+    /**
+     * Retrieves and removes the item at the front of the buffer (FIFO).
+     * This operation will move the {@code getPointer} forward.
+     *
+     * @return The item at the front of the buffer, or {@code null} if the buffer is empty.
+     */
+    public Item get() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            return null;
         }
 
-        return result;
+        Item item = buffer[getPointer.getAndIncrement()];
+        size.decrementAndGet();
+        return item;
     }
 
-    public boolean writeToCharBuffer(char c) {
-        boolean result = false;
-
-        // if we can write to the buffer
-        if (_readable_data.get() < _buffer_size) {
-            // write to buffer
-            _buffer[getTrueIndex(_write_index)] = c;
-            _readable_data.incrementAndGet();
-            _write_index++;
-            result = true;
+    /**
+     * Adds an item to the end of the buffer (FIFO).
+     * If the buffer is full, this operation will overwrite the oldest data.
+     *
+     * @param item The item to be added.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the item is null.
+     * @return {@code true} if the item was successfully added, {@code false} if the buffer was full and the item overwrote existing data.
+     */
+    public boolean put(Item item) {
+        if (item == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Null items are not allowed");
         }
 
-        return result;
-    }
-
-    private static class TestWriteWorker implements Runnable {
-
-        String _alphabet = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789";
-        Random _random = new Random();
-        CircularBuffer _buffer;
-
-        public TestWriteWorker(CircularBuffer cb) {
-            this._buffer = cb;
+        boolean wasEmpty = isEmpty();
+        if (isFull()) {
+            getPointer.getAndIncrement(); // Move get pointer to discard oldest item
+        } else {
+            size.incrementAndGet();
         }
 
-        private char getRandomChar() {
-            return _alphabet.charAt(_random.nextInt(_alphabet.length()));
-        }
-
-        public void run() {
-            while (!Thread.interrupted()) {
-                if (!_buffer.writeToCharBuffer(getRandomChar())) {
-                    Thread.yield();
-                    try {
-                        Thread.sleep(10);
-                    } catch (InterruptedException e) {
-                        return;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
+        buffer[putPointer.getAndIncrement()] = item;
+        return wasEmpty;
     }
 
-    private static class TestReadWorker implements Runnable {
-
-        CircularBuffer _buffer;
-
-        public TestReadWorker(CircularBuffer cb) {
-            this._buffer = cb;
+    /**
+     * The {@code CircularPointer} class is a helper class used to track the current index (pointer)
+     * in the circular buffer.
+     * The max value represents the capacity of the buffer.
+     * The `CircularPointer` class ensures that the pointer automatically wraps around to 0
+     * when it reaches the maximum index.
+     * This is achieved in the `getAndIncrement` method, where the pointer
+     * is incremented and then taken modulo the maximum value (`max`).
+     * This operation ensures that the pointer always stays within the bounds of the buffer.
+     */
+    private static class CircularPointer {
+        private int pointer;
+        private final int max;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructor to initialize the circular pointer.
+         *
+         * @param pointer The initial position of the pointer.
+         * @param max The maximum size (capacity) of the circular buffer.
+         */
+        CircularPointer(int pointer, int max) {
+            this.pointer = pointer;
+            this.max = max;
         }
 
-        @Override
-        public void run() {
-            System.out.println("Printing Buffer:");
-            while (!Thread.interrupted()) {
-                Character c = _buffer.readOutChar();
-                if (c != null) {
-                    System.out.print(c.charValue());
-                } else {
-                    Thread.yield();
-                    try {
-                        Thread.sleep(10);
-                    } catch (InterruptedException e) {
-                        System.out.println();
-                        return;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
+        /**
+         * Increments the pointer by 1 and wraps it around to 0 if it reaches the maximum value.
+         * This ensures the pointer always stays within the buffer's bounds.
+         *
+         * @return The current pointer value before incrementing.
+         */
+        public int getAndIncrement() {
+            int tmp = pointer;
+            pointer = (pointer + 1) % max;
+            return tmp;
         }
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) throws InterruptedException {
-        int buffer_size = 1024;
-        // create circular buffer
-        CircularBuffer cb = new CircularBuffer(buffer_size);
-
-        // create threads that read and write the buffer.
-        Thread write_thread = new Thread(new TestWriteWorker(cb));
-        Thread read_thread = new Thread(new TestReadWorker(cb));
-        read_thread.start();
-        write_thread.start();
-
-        // wait some amount of time
-        Thread.sleep(10000);
-
-        // interrupt threads and exit
-        write_thread.interrupt();
-        read_thread.interrupt();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCache.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fa048434a187
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCache.java
@@ -0,0 +1,549 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.LinkedHashMap;
+import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
+import java.util.concurrent.locks.Lock;
+import java.util.concurrent.locks.ReentrantLock;
+import java.util.function.BiConsumer;
+
+/**
+ * A thread-safe generic cache implementation using the First-In-First-Out eviction policy.
+ * <p>
+ * The cache holds a fixed number of entries, defined by its capacity. When the cache is full and a
+ * new entry is added, the oldest entry in the cache is selected and evicted to make space.
+ * <p>
+ * Optionally, entries can have a time-to-live (TTL) in milliseconds. If a TTL is set, entries will
+ * automatically expire and be removed upon access or insertion attempts.
+ * <p>
+ * Features:
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li>Removes oldest entry when capacity is exceeded</li>
+ *     <li>Optional TTL (time-to-live in milliseconds) per entry or default TTL for all entries</li>
+ *     <li>Thread-safe access using locking</li>
+ *     <li>Hit and miss counters for cache statistics</li>
+ *     <li>Eviction listener callback support</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by this cache
+ * @param <V> the type of mapped values
+ * See <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#First_in_first_out_(FIFO)">FIFO</a>
+ * @author Kevin Babu (<a href="https://www.github.com/KevinMwita7">GitHub</a>)
+ */
+public final class FIFOCache<K, V> {
+
+    private final int capacity;
+    private final long defaultTTL;
+    private final Map<K, CacheEntry<V>> cache;
+    private final Lock lock;
+
+    private long hits = 0;
+    private long misses = 0;
+    private final BiConsumer<K, V> evictionListener;
+    private final EvictionStrategy<K, V> evictionStrategy;
+
+    /**
+     * Internal structure to store value + expiry timestamp.
+     *
+     * @param <V> the type of the value being cached
+     */
+    private static class CacheEntry<V> {
+        V value;
+        long expiryTime;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a new {@code CacheEntry} with the specified value and time-to-live (TTL).
+         * If TTL is 0, the entry is kept indefinitely, that is, unless it is the first value,
+         * then it will be removed according to the FIFO principle
+         *
+         * @param value     the value to cache
+         * @param ttlMillis the time-to-live in milliseconds
+         */
+        CacheEntry(V value, long ttlMillis) {
+            this.value = value;
+            if (ttlMillis == 0) {
+                this.expiryTime = Long.MAX_VALUE;
+            } else {
+                this.expiryTime = System.currentTimeMillis() + ttlMillis;
+            }
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Checks if the cache entry has expired.
+         *
+         * @return {@code true} if the current time is past the expiration time; {@code false} otherwise
+         */
+        boolean isExpired() {
+            return System.currentTimeMillis() > expiryTime;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a new {@code FIFOCache} instance using the provided {@link Builder}.
+     *
+     * <p>This constructor initializes the cache with the specified capacity and default TTL,
+     * sets up internal data structures (a {@code LinkedHashMap} for cache entries and configures eviction.
+     *
+     * @param builder the {@code Builder} object containing configuration parameters
+     */
+    private FIFOCache(Builder<K, V> builder) {
+        this.capacity = builder.capacity;
+        this.defaultTTL = builder.defaultTTL;
+        this.cache = new LinkedHashMap<>();
+        this.lock = new ReentrantLock();
+        this.evictionListener = builder.evictionListener;
+        this.evictionStrategy = builder.evictionStrategy;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the value associated with the specified key from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>If the key is not present or the corresponding entry has expired, this method
+     * returns {@code null}. If an expired entry is found, it will be removed and the
+     * eviction listener (if any) will be notified. Cache hit-and-miss statistics are
+     * also updated accordingly.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose associated value is to be returned; must not be {@code null}
+     * @return the cached value associated with the key, or {@code null} if not present or expired
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code key} is {@code null}
+     */
+    public V get(K key) {
+        if (key == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key must not be null");
+        }
+
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            evictionStrategy.onAccess(this);
+
+            CacheEntry<V> entry = cache.get(key);
+            if (entry == null || entry.isExpired()) {
+                if (entry != null) {
+                    cache.remove(key);
+                    notifyEviction(key, entry.value);
+                }
+                misses++;
+                return null;
+            }
+            hits++;
+            return entry.value;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a key-value pair to the cache using the default time-to-live (TTL).
+     *
+     * <p>The key may overwrite an existing entry. The actual insertion is delegated
+     * to the overloaded {@link #put(K, V, long)} method.
+     *
+     * @param key   the key to cache the value under
+     * @param value the value to be cached
+     */
+    public void put(K key, V value) {
+        put(key, value, defaultTTL);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a key-value pair to the cache with a specified time-to-live (TTL).
+     *
+     * <p>If the key already exists, its value is removed, re-inserted at tail and its TTL is reset.
+     * If the key does not exist and the cache is full, the oldest entry is evicted to make space.
+     * Expired entries are also cleaned up prior to any eviction. The eviction listener
+     * is notified when an entry gets evicted.
+     *
+     * @param key        the key to associate with the cached value; must not be {@code null}
+     * @param value      the value to be cached; must not be {@code null}
+     * @param ttlMillis  the time-to-live for this entry in milliseconds; must be >= 0
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code key} or {@code value} is {@code null}, or if {@code ttlMillis} is negative
+     */
+    public void put(K key, V value, long ttlMillis) {
+        if (key == null || value == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key and value must not be null");
+        }
+        if (ttlMillis < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("TTL must be >= 0");
+        }
+
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            // If key already exists, remove it
+            CacheEntry<V> oldEntry = cache.remove(key);
+            if (oldEntry != null && !oldEntry.isExpired()) {
+                notifyEviction(key, oldEntry.value);
+            }
+
+            // Evict expired entries to make space for new entry
+            evictExpired();
+
+            // If no expired entry was removed, remove the oldest
+            if (cache.size() >= capacity) {
+                Iterator<Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>>> it = cache.entrySet().iterator();
+                if (it.hasNext()) {
+                    Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> eldest = it.next();
+                    it.remove();
+                    notifyEviction(eldest.getKey(), eldest.getValue().value);
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Insert new entry at tail
+            cache.put(key, new CacheEntry<>(value, ttlMillis));
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes all expired entries from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>This method iterates through the list of cached keys and checks each associated
+     * entry for expiration. Expired entries are removed the cache map. For each eviction,
+     * the eviction listener is notified.
+     */
+    private int evictExpired() {
+        int count = 0;
+        Iterator<Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>>> it = cache.entrySet().iterator();
+
+        while (it.hasNext()) {
+            Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> entry = it.next();
+            if (entry != null && entry.getValue().isExpired()) {
+                it.remove();
+                notifyEviction(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue().value);
+                count++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return count;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the specified key and its associated entry from the cache.
+     *
+     * @param key the key to remove from the cache;
+     * @return the value associated with the key;  or {@code null} if no such key exists
+     */
+    public V removeKey(K key) {
+        if (key == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key cannot be null");
+        }
+        CacheEntry<V> entry = cache.remove(key);
+
+        // No such key in cache
+        if (entry == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        notifyEviction(key, entry.value);
+        return entry.value;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Notifies the eviction listener, if one is registered, that a key-value pair has been evicted.
+     *
+     * <p>If the {@code evictionListener} is not {@code null}, it is invoked with the provided key
+     * and value. Any exceptions thrown by the listener are caught and logged to standard error,
+     * preventing them from disrupting cache operations.
+     *
+     * @param key   the key that was evicted
+     * @param value the value that was associated with the evicted key
+     */
+    private void notifyEviction(K key, V value) {
+        if (evictionListener != null) {
+            try {
+                evictionListener.accept(key, value);
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+                System.err.println("Eviction listener failed: " + e.getMessage());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of successful cache lookups (hits).
+     *
+     * @return the number of cache hits
+     */
+    public long getHits() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            return hits;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of failed cache lookups (misses), including expired entries.
+     *
+     * @return the number of cache misses
+     */
+    public long getMisses() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            return misses;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current number of entries in the cache, excluding expired ones.
+     *
+     * @return the current cache size
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            evictionStrategy.onAccess(this);
+
+            int count = 0;
+            for (CacheEntry<V> entry : cache.values()) {
+                if (!entry.isExpired()) {
+                    ++count;
+                }
+            }
+            return count;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes all entries from the cache, regardless of their expiration status.
+     *
+     * <p>This method clears the internal cache map entirely, resets the hit-and-miss counters,
+     * and notifies the eviction listener (if any) for each removed entry.
+     * Note that expired entries are treated the same as active ones for the purpose of clearing.
+     *
+     * <p>This operation acquires the internal lock to ensure thread safety.
+     */
+    public void clear() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            for (Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> entry : cache.entrySet()) {
+                notifyEviction(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue().value);
+            }
+            cache.clear();
+            hits = 0;
+            misses = 0;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a set of all keys currently stored in the cache that have not expired.
+     *
+     * <p>This method iterates through the cache and collects the keys of all non-expired entries.
+     * Expired entries are ignored but not removed. If you want to ensure expired entries are cleaned up,
+     * consider invoking {@link EvictionStrategy#onAccess(FIFOCache)} or calling {@link #evictExpired()} manually.
+     *
+     * <p>This operation acquires the internal lock to ensure thread safety.
+     *
+     * @return a set containing all non-expired keys currently in the cache
+     */
+    public Set<K> getAllKeys() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            Set<K> keys = new LinkedHashSet<>();
+
+            for (Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> entry : cache.entrySet()) {
+                if (!entry.getValue().isExpired()) {
+                    keys.add(entry.getKey());
+                }
+            }
+
+            return keys;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current {@link EvictionStrategy} used by this cache instance.
+
+     * @return the eviction strategy currently assigned to this cache
+     */
+    public EvictionStrategy<K, V> getEvictionStrategy() {
+        return evictionStrategy;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the cache, including metadata and current non-expired entries.
+     *
+     * <p>The returned string includes the cache's capacity, current size (excluding expired entries),
+     * hit-and-miss counts, and a map of all non-expired key-value pairs. This method acquires a lock
+     * to ensure thread-safe access.
+     *
+     * @return a string summarizing the state of the cache
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            Map<K, V> visible = new LinkedHashMap<>();
+            for (Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> entry : cache.entrySet()) {
+                if (!entry.getValue().isExpired()) {
+                    visible.put(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue().value);
+                }
+            }
+            return String.format("Cache(capacity=%d, size=%d, hits=%d, misses=%d, entries=%s)", capacity, visible.size(), hits, misses, visible);
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A strategy interface for controlling when expired entries are evicted from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>Implementations decide whether and when to trigger {@link FIFOCache#evictExpired()} based
+     * on cache usage patterns. This allows for flexible eviction behaviour such as periodic cleanup,
+     * or no automatic cleanup.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by the cache
+     * @param <V> the type of cached values
+     */
+    public interface EvictionStrategy<K, V> {
+        /**
+         * Called on each cache access (e.g., {@link FIFOCache#get(Object)}) to optionally trigger eviction.
+         *
+         * @param cache the cache instance on which this strategy is applied
+         * @return the number of expired entries evicted during this access
+         */
+        int onAccess(FIFOCache<K, V> cache);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * An eviction strategy that performs eviction of expired entries on each call.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys
+     * @param <V> the type of values
+     */
+    public static class ImmediateEvictionStrategy<K, V> implements EvictionStrategy<K, V> {
+        @Override
+        public int onAccess(FIFOCache<K, V> cache) {
+            return cache.evictExpired();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * An eviction strategy that triggers eviction on every fixed number of accesses.
+     *
+     * <p>This deterministic strategy ensures cleanup occurs at predictable intervals,
+     * ideal for moderately active caches where memory usage is a concern.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys
+     * @param <V> the type of values
+     */
+    public static class PeriodicEvictionStrategy<K, V> implements EvictionStrategy<K, V> {
+        private final int interval;
+        private final AtomicInteger counter = new AtomicInteger();
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a periodic eviction strategy.
+         *
+         * @param interval the number of accesses between evictions; must be > 0
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code interval} is less than or equal to 0
+         */
+        public PeriodicEvictionStrategy(int interval) {
+            if (interval <= 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Interval must be > 0");
+            }
+            this.interval = interval;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int onAccess(FIFOCache<K, V> cache) {
+            if (counter.incrementAndGet() % interval == 0) {
+                return cache.evictExpired();
+            }
+
+            return 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A builder for constructing a {@link FIFOCache} instance with customizable settings.
+     *
+     * <p>Allows configuring capacity, default TTL, eviction listener, and a pluggable eviction
+     * strategy. Call {@link #build()} to create the configured cache instance.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by the cache
+     * @param <V> the type of values stored in the cache
+     */
+    public static class Builder<K, V> {
+        private final int capacity;
+        private long defaultTTL = 0;
+        private BiConsumer<K, V> evictionListener;
+        private EvictionStrategy<K, V> evictionStrategy = new FIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy<>();
+        /**
+         * Creates a new {@code Builder} with the specified cache capacity.
+         *
+         * @param capacity the maximum number of entries the cache can hold; must be > 0
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code capacity} is less than or equal to 0
+         */
+        public Builder(int capacity) {
+            if (capacity <= 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity must be > 0");
+            }
+            this.capacity = capacity;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets the default time-to-live (TTL) in milliseconds for cache entries.
+         *
+         * @param ttlMillis the TTL duration in milliseconds; must be >= 0
+         * @return this builder instance for chaining
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code ttlMillis} is negative
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> defaultTTL(long ttlMillis) {
+            if (ttlMillis < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Default TTL must be >= 0");
+            }
+            this.defaultTTL = ttlMillis;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets an eviction listener to be notified when entries are evicted from the cache.
+         *
+         * @param listener a {@link BiConsumer} that accepts evicted keys and values; must not be {@code null}
+         * @return this builder instance for chaining
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code listener} is {@code null}
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> evictionListener(BiConsumer<K, V> listener) {
+            if (listener == null) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Listener must not be null");
+            }
+            this.evictionListener = listener;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Builds and returns a new {@link FIFOCache} instance with the configured parameters.
+         *
+         * @return a fully configured {@code FIFOCache} instance
+         */
+        public FIFOCache<K, V> build() {
+            return new FIFOCache<>(this);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets the eviction strategy used to determine when to clean up expired entries.
+         *
+         * @param strategy an {@link EvictionStrategy} implementation; must not be {@code null}
+         * @return this builder instance
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code strategy} is {@code null}
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> evictionStrategy(EvictionStrategy<K, V> strategy) {
+            if (strategy == null) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Eviction strategy must not be null");
+            }
+            this.evictionStrategy = strategy;
+            return this;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCache.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bf2b928ec33c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCache.java
@@ -0,0 +1,185 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code LFUCache} class implements a Least Frequently Used (LFU) cache.
+ * An LFU cache evicts the least frequently used item when the cache reaches its capacity.
+ * It maintains a mapping of keys to nodes, where each node contains the key, its associated value,
+ * and a frequency count that tracks how many times the item has been accessed. A doubly linked list
+ * is used to efficiently manage the ordering of items based on their usage frequency.
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation is designed to provide O(1) time complexity for both the {@code get} and
+ * {@code put} operations, which is achieved through the use of a hashmap for quick access and a
+ * doubly linked list for maintaining the order of item frequencies.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Reference: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_frequently_used">LFU Cache - Wikipedia</a>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @param <K> The type of keys maintained by this cache.
+ * @param <V> The type of mapped values.
+ *
+ * @author Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ */
+public class LFUCache<K, V> {
+
+    /**
+     * The {@code Node} class represents an element in the LFU cache.
+     * Each node contains a key, a value, and a frequency count.
+     * It also has pointers to the previous and next nodes in the doubly linked list.
+     */
+    private class Node {
+        private final K key;
+        private V value;
+        private int frequency;
+        private Node previous;
+        private Node next;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a new {@code Node} with the specified key, value, and frequency.
+         *
+         * @param key The key associated with this node.
+         * @param value The value stored in this node.
+         * @param frequency The frequency of usage of this node.
+         */
+        Node(K key, V value, int frequency) {
+            this.key = key;
+            this.value = value;
+            this.frequency = frequency;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private Node head;
+    private Node tail;
+    private final Map<K, Node> cache;
+    private final int capacity;
+    private static final int DEFAULT_CAPACITY = 100;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an LFU cache with the default capacity.
+     */
+    public LFUCache() {
+        this(DEFAULT_CAPACITY);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an LFU cache with the specified capacity.
+     *
+     * @param capacity The maximum number of items that the cache can hold.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the specified capacity is less than or equal to zero.
+     */
+    public LFUCache(int capacity) {
+        if (capacity <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity must be greater than zero.");
+        }
+        this.capacity = capacity;
+        this.cache = new HashMap<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the value associated with the given key from the cache.
+     * If the key exists, the node's frequency is incremented, and the node is repositioned
+     * in the linked list based on its updated frequency.
+     *
+     * @param key The key whose associated value is to be returned.
+     * @return The value associated with the key, or {@code null} if the key is not present in the cache.
+     */
+    public V get(K key) {
+        Node node = cache.get(key);
+        if (node == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        removeNode(node);
+        node.frequency += 1;
+        addNodeWithUpdatedFrequency(node);
+        return node.value;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts or updates a key-value pair in the cache.
+     * If the key already exists, the value is updated and its frequency is incremented.
+     * If the cache is full, the least frequently used item is removed before inserting the new item.
+     *
+     * @param key The key associated with the value to be inserted or updated.
+     * @param value The value to be inserted or updated.
+     */
+    public void put(K key, V value) {
+        if (cache.containsKey(key)) {
+            Node node = cache.get(key);
+            node.value = value;
+            node.frequency += 1;
+            removeNode(node);
+            addNodeWithUpdatedFrequency(node);
+        } else {
+            if (cache.size() >= capacity) {
+                cache.remove(this.head.key); // Evict least frequently used item
+                removeNode(head);
+            }
+            Node node = new Node(key, value, 1);
+            addNodeWithUpdatedFrequency(node);
+            cache.put(key, node);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a node to the linked list in the correct position based on its frequency.
+     * The linked list is ordered by frequency, with the least frequently used node at the head.
+     *
+     * @param node The node to be inserted into the list.
+     */
+    private void addNodeWithUpdatedFrequency(Node node) {
+        if (tail != null && head != null) {
+            Node temp = this.head;
+            while (true) {
+                if (temp.frequency > node.frequency) {
+                    if (temp == head) {
+                        node.next = temp;
+                        temp.previous = node;
+                        this.head = node;
+                        break;
+                    } else {
+                        node.next = temp;
+                        node.previous = temp.previous;
+                        temp.previous.next = node;
+                        temp.previous = node;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    temp = temp.next;
+                    if (temp == null) {
+                        tail.next = node;
+                        node.previous = tail;
+                        node.next = null;
+                        tail = node;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        } else {
+            tail = node;
+            head = tail;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes a node from the doubly linked list.
+     * This method ensures that the pointers of neighboring nodes are properly updated.
+     *
+     * @param node The node to be removed from the list.
+     */
+    private void removeNode(Node node) {
+        if (node.previous != null) {
+            node.previous.next = node.next;
+        } else {
+            this.head = node.next;
+        }
+
+        if (node.next != null) {
+            node.next.previous = node.previous;
+        } else {
+            this.tail = node.previous;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCache.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..df3d4da912fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCache.java
@@ -0,0 +1,563 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.LinkedHashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
+import java.util.concurrent.locks.Lock;
+import java.util.concurrent.locks.ReentrantLock;
+import java.util.function.BiConsumer;
+
+/**
+ * A thread-safe generic cache implementation using the Last-In-First-Out eviction policy.
+ * <p>
+ * The cache holds a fixed number of entries, defined by its capacity. When the cache is full and a
+ * new entry is added, the youngest entry in the cache is selected and evicted to make space.
+ * <p>
+ * Optionally, entries can have a time-to-live (TTL) in milliseconds. If a TTL is set, entries will
+ * automatically expire and be removed upon access or insertion attempts.
+ * <p>
+ * Features:
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li>Removes youngest entry when capacity is exceeded</li>
+ *     <li>Optional TTL (time-to-live in milliseconds) per entry or default TTL for all entries</li>
+ *     <li>Thread-safe access using locking</li>
+ *     <li>Hit and miss counters for cache statistics</li>
+ *     <li>Eviction listener callback support</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by this cache
+ * @param <V> the type of mapped values
+ * See <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Last_in_first_out_(LIFO)_or_First_in_last_out_(FILO)">LIFO</a>
+ * @author Kevin Babu (<a href="https://www.github.com/KevinMwita7">GitHub</a>)
+ */
+public final class LIFOCache<K, V> {
+
+    private final int capacity;
+    private final long defaultTTL;
+    private final Map<K, CacheEntry<V>> cache;
+    private final Lock lock;
+    private final Deque<K> keys;
+    private long hits = 0;
+    private long misses = 0;
+    private final BiConsumer<K, V> evictionListener;
+    private final EvictionStrategy<K, V> evictionStrategy;
+
+    /**
+     * Internal structure to store value + expiry timestamp.
+     *
+     * @param <V> the type of the value being cached
+     */
+    private static class CacheEntry<V> {
+        V value;
+        long expiryTime;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a new {@code CacheEntry} with the specified value and time-to-live (TTL).
+         * If TTL is 0, the entry is kept indefinitely, that is, unless it is the first value,
+         * then it will be removed according to the LIFO principle
+         *
+         * @param value     the value to cache
+         * @param ttlMillis the time-to-live in milliseconds
+         */
+        CacheEntry(V value, long ttlMillis) {
+            this.value = value;
+            if (ttlMillis == 0) {
+                this.expiryTime = Long.MAX_VALUE;
+            } else {
+                this.expiryTime = System.currentTimeMillis() + ttlMillis;
+            }
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Checks if the cache entry has expired.
+         *
+         * @return {@code true} if the current time is past the expiration time; {@code false} otherwise
+         */
+        boolean isExpired() {
+            return System.currentTimeMillis() > expiryTime;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a new {@code LIFOCache} instance using the provided {@link Builder}.
+     *
+     * <p>This constructor initializes the cache with the specified capacity and default TTL,
+     * sets up internal data structures (a {@code HashMap} for cache entries,
+     * {an @code ArrayDeque}, for key storage, and configures eviction.
+     *
+     * @param builder the {@code Builder} object containing configuration parameters
+     */
+    private LIFOCache(Builder<K, V> builder) {
+        this.capacity = builder.capacity;
+        this.defaultTTL = builder.defaultTTL;
+        this.cache = new HashMap<>(builder.capacity);
+        this.keys = new ArrayDeque<>(builder.capacity);
+        this.lock = new ReentrantLock();
+        this.evictionListener = builder.evictionListener;
+        this.evictionStrategy = builder.evictionStrategy;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the value associated with the specified key from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>If the key is not present or the corresponding entry has expired, this method
+     * returns {@code null}. If an expired entry is found, it will be removed and the
+     * eviction listener (if any) will be notified. Cache hit-and-miss statistics are
+     * also updated accordingly.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose associated value is to be returned; must not be {@code null}
+     * @return the cached value associated with the key, or {@code null} if not present or expired
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code key} is {@code null}
+     */
+    public V get(K key) {
+        if (key == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key must not be null");
+        }
+
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            evictionStrategy.onAccess(this);
+
+            final CacheEntry<V> entry = cache.get(key);
+            if (entry == null || entry.isExpired()) {
+                if (entry != null) {
+                    cache.remove(key);
+                    keys.remove(key);
+                    notifyEviction(key, entry.value);
+                }
+                misses++;
+                return null;
+            }
+            hits++;
+            return entry.value;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a key-value pair to the cache using the default time-to-live (TTL).
+     *
+     * <p>The key may overwrite an existing entry. The actual insertion is delegated
+     * to the overloaded {@link #put(K, V, long)} method.
+     *
+     * @param key   the key to cache the value under
+     * @param value the value to be cached
+     */
+    public void put(K key, V value) {
+        put(key, value, defaultTTL);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a key-value pair to the cache with a specified time-to-live (TTL).
+     *
+     * <p>If the key already exists, its value is removed, re-inserted at tail and its TTL is reset.
+     * If the key does not exist and the cache is full, the youngest entry is evicted to make space.
+     * Expired entries are also cleaned up prior to any eviction. The eviction listener
+     * is notified when an entry gets evicted.
+     *
+     * @param key        the key to associate with the cached value; must not be {@code null}
+     * @param value      the value to be cached; must not be {@code null}
+     * @param ttlMillis  the time-to-live for this entry in milliseconds; must be >= 0
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code key} or {@code value} is {@code null}, or if {@code ttlMillis} is negative
+     */
+    public void put(K key, V value, long ttlMillis) {
+        if (key == null || value == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key and value must not be null");
+        }
+        if (ttlMillis < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("TTL must be >= 0");
+        }
+
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            // If key already exists, remove it. It will later be re-inserted at top of stack
+            keys.remove(key);
+            final CacheEntry<V> oldEntry = cache.remove(key);
+            if (oldEntry != null && !oldEntry.isExpired()) {
+                notifyEviction(key, oldEntry.value);
+            }
+
+            // Evict expired entries to make space for new entry
+            evictExpired();
+
+            // If no expired entry was removed, remove the youngest
+            if (cache.size() >= capacity) {
+                final K youngestKey = keys.pollLast();
+                final CacheEntry<V> youngestEntry = cache.remove(youngestKey);
+                notifyEviction(youngestKey, youngestEntry.value);
+            }
+
+            // Insert new entry at tail
+            keys.add(key);
+            cache.put(key, new CacheEntry<>(value, ttlMillis));
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes all expired entries from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>This method iterates through the list of cached keys and checks each associated
+     * entry for expiration. Expired entries are removed the cache map. For each eviction,
+     * the eviction listener is notified.
+     */
+    private int evictExpired() {
+        int count = 0;
+        final Iterator<K> it = keys.iterator();
+
+        while (it.hasNext()) {
+            final K k = it.next();
+            final CacheEntry<V> entry = cache.get(k);
+            if (entry != null && entry.isExpired()) {
+                it.remove();
+                cache.remove(k);
+                notifyEviction(k, entry.value);
+                count++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return count;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the specified key and its associated entry from the cache.
+     *
+     * @param key the key to remove from the cache;
+     * @return the value associated with the key;  or {@code null} if no such key exists
+     */
+    public V removeKey(K key) {
+        if (key == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key cannot be null");
+        }
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            final CacheEntry<V> entry = cache.remove(key);
+            keys.remove(key);
+
+            // No such key in cache
+            if (entry == null) {
+                return null;
+            }
+
+            notifyEviction(key, entry.value);
+            return entry.value;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Notifies the eviction listener, if one is registered, that a key-value pair has been evicted.
+     *
+     * <p>If the {@code evictionListener} is not {@code null}, it is invoked with the provided key
+     * and value. Any exceptions thrown by the listener are caught and logged to standard error,
+     * preventing them from disrupting cache operations.
+     *
+     * @param key   the key that was evicted
+     * @param value the value that was associated with the evicted key
+     */
+    private void notifyEviction(K key, V value) {
+        if (evictionListener != null) {
+            try {
+                evictionListener.accept(key, value);
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+                System.err.println("Eviction listener failed: " + e.getMessage());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of successful cache lookups (hits).
+     *
+     * @return the number of cache hits
+     */
+    public long getHits() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            return hits;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of failed cache lookups (misses), including expired entries.
+     *
+     * @return the number of cache misses
+     */
+    public long getMisses() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            return misses;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current number of entries in the cache, excluding expired ones.
+     *
+     * @return the current cache size
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            evictionStrategy.onAccess(this);
+
+            int count = 0;
+            for (CacheEntry<V> entry : cache.values()) {
+                if (!entry.isExpired()) {
+                    ++count;
+                }
+            }
+            return count;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes all entries from the cache, regardless of their expiration status.
+     *
+     * <p>This method clears the internal cache map entirely, resets the hit-and-miss counters,
+     * and notifies the eviction listener (if any) for each removed entry.
+     * Note that expired entries are treated the same as active ones for the purpose of clearing.
+     *
+     * <p>This operation acquires the internal lock to ensure thread safety.
+     */
+    public void clear() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            for (Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> entry : cache.entrySet()) {
+                notifyEviction(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue().value);
+            }
+            keys.clear();
+            cache.clear();
+            hits = 0;
+            misses = 0;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a set of all keys currently stored in the cache that have not expired.
+     *
+     * <p>This method iterates through the cache and collects the keys of all non-expired entries.
+     * Expired entries are ignored but not removed. If you want to ensure expired entries are cleaned up,
+     * consider invoking {@link EvictionStrategy#onAccess(LIFOCache)} or calling {@link #evictExpired()} manually.
+     *
+     * <p>This operation acquires the internal lock to ensure thread safety.
+     *
+     * @return a set containing all non-expired keys currently in the cache
+     */
+    public Set<K> getAllKeys() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            final Set<K> result = new HashSet<>();
+
+            for (Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> entry : cache.entrySet()) {
+                if (!entry.getValue().isExpired()) {
+                    result.add(entry.getKey());
+                }
+            }
+
+            return result;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current {@link EvictionStrategy} used by this cache instance.
+
+     * @return the eviction strategy currently assigned to this cache
+     */
+    public EvictionStrategy<K, V> getEvictionStrategy() {
+        return evictionStrategy;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the cache, including metadata and current non-expired entries.
+     *
+     * <p>The returned string includes the cache's capacity, current size (excluding expired entries),
+     * hit-and-miss counts, and a map of all non-expired key-value pairs. This method acquires a lock
+     * to ensure thread-safe access.
+     *
+     * @return a string summarizing the state of the cache
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            final Map<K, V> visible = new LinkedHashMap<>();
+            for (Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> entry : cache.entrySet()) {
+                if (!entry.getValue().isExpired()) {
+                    visible.put(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue().value);
+                }
+            }
+            return String.format("Cache(capacity=%d, size=%d, hits=%d, misses=%d, entries=%s)", capacity, visible.size(), hits, misses, visible);
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A strategy interface for controlling when expired entries are evicted from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>Implementations decide whether and when to trigger {@link LIFOCache#evictExpired()} based
+     * on cache usage patterns. This allows for flexible eviction behaviour such as periodic cleanup,
+     * or no automatic cleanup.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by the cache
+     * @param <V> the type of cached values
+     */
+    public interface EvictionStrategy<K, V> {
+        /**
+         * Called on each cache access (e.g., {@link LIFOCache#get(Object)}) to optionally trigger eviction.
+         *
+         * @param cache the cache instance on which this strategy is applied
+         * @return the number of expired entries evicted during this access
+         */
+        int onAccess(LIFOCache<K, V> cache);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * An eviction strategy that performs eviction of expired entries on each call.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys
+     * @param <V> the type of values
+     */
+    public static class ImmediateEvictionStrategy<K, V> implements EvictionStrategy<K, V> {
+        @Override
+        public int onAccess(LIFOCache<K, V> cache) {
+            return cache.evictExpired();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * An eviction strategy that triggers eviction on every fixed number of accesses.
+     *
+     * <p>This deterministic strategy ensures cleanup occurs at predictable intervals,
+     * ideal for moderately active caches where memory usage is a concern.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys
+     * @param <V> the type of values
+     */
+    public static class PeriodicEvictionStrategy<K, V> implements EvictionStrategy<K, V> {
+        private final int interval;
+        private final AtomicInteger counter = new AtomicInteger();
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a periodic eviction strategy.
+         *
+         * @param interval the number of accesses between evictions; must be > 0
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code interval} is less than or equal to 0
+         */
+        public PeriodicEvictionStrategy(int interval) {
+            if (interval <= 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Interval must be > 0");
+            }
+            this.interval = interval;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int onAccess(LIFOCache<K, V> cache) {
+            if (counter.incrementAndGet() % interval == 0) {
+                return cache.evictExpired();
+            }
+
+            return 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A builder for constructing a {@link LIFOCache} instance with customizable settings.
+     *
+     * <p>Allows configuring capacity, default TTL, eviction listener, and a pluggable eviction
+     * strategy. Call {@link #build()} to create the configured cache instance.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by the cache
+     * @param <V> the type of values stored in the cache
+     */
+    public static class Builder<K, V> {
+        private final int capacity;
+        private long defaultTTL = 0;
+        private BiConsumer<K, V> evictionListener;
+        private EvictionStrategy<K, V> evictionStrategy = new LIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy<>();
+        /**
+         * Creates a new {@code Builder} with the specified cache capacity.
+         *
+         * @param capacity the maximum number of entries the cache can hold; must be > 0
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code capacity} is less than or equal to 0
+         */
+        public Builder(int capacity) {
+            if (capacity <= 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity must be > 0");
+            }
+            this.capacity = capacity;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets the default time-to-live (TTL) in milliseconds for cache entries.
+         *
+         * @param ttlMillis the TTL duration in milliseconds; must be >= 0
+         * @return this builder instance for chaining
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code ttlMillis} is negative
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> defaultTTL(long ttlMillis) {
+            if (ttlMillis < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Default TTL must be >= 0");
+            }
+            this.defaultTTL = ttlMillis;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets an eviction listener to be notified when entries are evicted from the cache.
+         *
+         * @param listener a {@link BiConsumer} that accepts evicted keys and values; must not be {@code null}
+         * @return this builder instance for chaining
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code listener} is {@code null}
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> evictionListener(BiConsumer<K, V> listener) {
+            if (listener == null) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Listener must not be null");
+            }
+            this.evictionListener = listener;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Builds and returns a new {@link LIFOCache} instance with the configured parameters.
+         *
+         * @return a fully configured {@code LIFOCache} instance
+         */
+        public LIFOCache<K, V> build() {
+            return new LIFOCache<>(this);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets the eviction strategy used to determine when to clean up expired entries.
+         *
+         * @param strategy an {@link EvictionStrategy} implementation; must not be {@code null}
+         * @return this builder instance
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code strategy} is {@code null}
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> evictionStrategy(EvictionStrategy<K, V> strategy) {
+            if (strategy == null) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Eviction strategy must not be null");
+            }
+            this.evictionStrategy = strategy;
+            return this;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCache.java
index b905499bf814..ec39d2a6ed28 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCache.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCache.java
@@ -4,15 +4,40 @@
 import java.util.Map;
 
 /**
- * Least recently used (LRU)
- * <p>
- * Discards the least recently used items first. This algorithm requires keeping
- * track of what was used when, which is expensive if one wants to make sure the
- * algorithm always discards the least recently used item.
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Least_recently_used_(LRU)
+ * A Least Recently Used (LRU) Cache implementation.
  *
- * @param <K> key type
- * @param <V> value type
+ * <p>An LRU cache is a fixed-size cache that maintains items in order of use. When the cache reaches
+ * its capacity and a new item needs to be added, it removes the least recently used item first.
+ * This implementation provides O(1) time complexity for both get and put operations.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>Features:</p>
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Fixed-size cache with configurable capacity</li>
+ *   <li>Constant time O(1) operations for get and put</li>
+ *   <li>Thread-unsafe - should be externally synchronized if used in concurrent environments</li>
+ *   <li>Supports null values but not null keys</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>Implementation Details:</p>
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Uses a HashMap for O(1) key-value lookups</li>
+ *   <li>Maintains a doubly-linked list for tracking access order</li>
+ *   <li>The head of the list contains the least recently used item</li>
+ *   <li>The tail of the list contains the most recently used item</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage:</p>
+ * <pre>
+ * LRUCache<String, Integer> cache = new LRUCache<>(3); // Create cache with capacity 3
+ * cache.put("A", 1); // Cache: A=1
+ * cache.put("B", 2); // Cache: A=1, B=2
+ * cache.put("C", 3); // Cache: A=1, B=2, C=3
+ * cache.get("A");    // Cache: B=2, C=3, A=1 (A moved to end)
+ * cache.put("D", 4); // Cache: C=3, A=1, D=4 (B evicted)
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by this cache
+ * @param <V> the type of mapped values
  */
 public class LRUCache<K, V> {
 
@@ -30,6 +55,11 @@ public LRUCache(int cap) {
         setCapacity(cap);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns the current capacity of the cache.
+     *
+     * @param newCapacity the new capacity of the cache
+     */
     private void setCapacity(int newCapacity) {
         checkCapacity(newCapacity);
         for (int i = data.size(); i > newCapacity; i--) {
@@ -39,6 +69,11 @@ private void setCapacity(int newCapacity) {
         this.cap = newCapacity;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Evicts the least recently used item from the cache.
+     *
+     * @return the evicted entry
+     */
     private Entry<K, V> evict() {
         if (head == null) {
             throw new RuntimeException("cache cannot be empty!");
@@ -50,12 +85,25 @@ private Entry<K, V> evict() {
         return evicted;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Checks if the capacity is valid.
+     *
+     * @param capacity the capacity to check
+     */
     private void checkCapacity(int capacity) {
         if (capacity <= 0) {
             throw new RuntimeException("capacity must greater than 0!");
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns the value to which the specified key is mapped, or null if this cache contains no
+     * mapping for the key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose associated value is to be returned
+     * @return the value to which the specified key is mapped, or null if this cache contains no
+     * mapping for the key
+     */
     public V get(K key) {
         if (!data.containsKey(key)) {
             return null;
@@ -65,6 +113,11 @@ public V get(K key) {
         return entry.getValue();
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Moves the specified entry to the end of the list.
+     *
+     * @param entry the entry to move
+     */
     private void moveNodeToLast(Entry<K, V> entry) {
         if (tail == entry) {
             return;
@@ -86,6 +139,12 @@ private void moveNodeToLast(Entry<K, V> entry) {
         tail = entry;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Associates the specified value with the specified key in this cache.
+     *
+     * @param key the key with which the specified value is to be associated
+     * @param value the value to be associated with the specified key
+     */
     public void put(K key, V value) {
         if (data.containsKey(key)) {
             final Entry<K, V> existingEntry = data.get(key);
@@ -107,6 +166,11 @@ public void put(K key, V value) {
         data.put(key, newEntry);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Adds a new entry to the end of the list.
+     *
+     * @param newEntry the entry to add
+     */
     private void addNewEntry(Entry<K, V> newEntry) {
         if (data.isEmpty()) {
             head = newEntry;
@@ -126,10 +190,10 @@ static final class Entry<I, J> {
         private I key;
         private J value;
 
-        public Entry() {
+        Entry() {
         }
 
-        public Entry(Entry<I, J> preEntry, Entry<I, J> nextEntry, I key, J value) {
+        Entry(Entry<I, J> preEntry, Entry<I, J> nextEntry, I key, J value) {
             this.preEntry = preEntry;
             this.nextEntry = nextEntry;
             this.key = key;
@@ -168,16 +232,4 @@ public void setValue(J value) {
             this.value = value;
         }
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        final LRUCache<String, Integer> cache = new LRUCache<>(2);
-        cache.put("Key1", 1);
-        cache.put("Key2", 2);
-        cache.put("Key3", 3);
-        cache.put("Key4", 4);
-        System.out.println("getValue(Key1): " + cache.get("Key1"));
-        System.out.println("getValue(Key2): " + cache.get("Key2"));
-        System.out.println("getValue(Key3): " + cache.get("Key3"));
-        System.out.println("getValue(Key4): " + cache.get("Key4"));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java
index 5d77865ce9aa..93b13e6ad654 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java
@@ -4,14 +4,17 @@
 import java.util.Map;
 
 /**
- * Most recently used (MRU)
+ * Represents a Most Recently Used (MRU) Cache.
  * <p>
- * In contrast to Least Recently Used (LRU), MRU discards the most recently used
- * items first.
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Most_recently_used_(MRU)
+ * In contrast to the Least Recently Used (LRU) strategy, the MRU caching policy
+ * evicts the most recently accessed items first. This class provides methods to
+ * store key-value pairs and manage cache eviction based on this policy.
  *
- * @param <K> key type
- * @param <V> value type
+ * For more information, refer to:
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Most_recently_used_(MRU)">MRU on Wikipedia</a>.
+ *
+ * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by this cache
+ * @param <V> the type of values associated with the keys
  */
 public class MRUCache<K, V> {
 
@@ -21,40 +24,74 @@ public class MRUCache<K, V> {
     private int cap;
     private static final int DEFAULT_CAP = 100;
 
+    /**
+     * Creates an MRUCache with the default capacity.
+     */
     public MRUCache() {
         setCapacity(DEFAULT_CAP);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Creates an MRUCache with a specified capacity.
+     *
+     * @param cap the maximum number of items the cache can hold
+     */
+    public MRUCache(int cap) {
+        setCapacity(cap);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sets the capacity of the cache and evicts items if the new capacity
+     * is less than the current number of items.
+     *
+     * @param newCapacity the new capacity to set
+     */
     private void setCapacity(int newCapacity) {
         checkCapacity(newCapacity);
-        for (int i = data.size(); i > newCapacity; i--) {
+        while (data.size() > newCapacity) {
             Entry<K, V> evicted = evict();
             data.remove(evicted.getKey());
         }
         this.cap = newCapacity;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Checks if the specified capacity is valid.
+     *
+     * @param capacity the capacity to check
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the capacity is less than or equal to zero
+     */
     private void checkCapacity(int capacity) {
         if (capacity <= 0) {
-            throw new RuntimeException("capacity must greater than 0!");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity must be greater than 0!");
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Evicts the most recently used entry from the cache.
+     *
+     * @return the evicted entry
+     * @throws RuntimeException if the cache is empty
+     */
     private Entry<K, V> evict() {
         if (head == null) {
-            throw new RuntimeException("cache cannot be empty!");
+            throw new RuntimeException("Cache cannot be empty!");
         }
         final Entry<K, V> evicted = this.tail;
         tail = evicted.getPreEntry();
-        tail.setNextEntry(null);
+        if (tail != null) {
+            tail.setNextEntry(null);
+        }
         evicted.setNextEntry(null);
         return evicted;
     }
 
-    public MRUCache(int cap) {
-        setCapacity(cap);
-    }
-
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the value associated with the specified key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose associated value is to be returned
+     * @return the value associated with the specified key, or null if the key does not exist
+     */
     public V get(K key) {
         if (!data.containsKey(key)) {
             return null;
@@ -64,11 +101,19 @@ public V get(K key) {
         return entry.getValue();
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Associates the specified value with the specified key in the cache.
+     * If the key already exists, its value is updated and the entry is moved to the most recently used position.
+     * If the cache is full, the most recently used entry is evicted before adding the new entry.
+     *
+     * @param key   the key with which the specified value is to be associated
+     * @param value the value to be associated with the specified key
+     */
     public void put(K key, V value) {
         if (data.containsKey(key)) {
-            final Entry<K, V> exitingEntry = data.get(key);
-            exitingEntry.setValue(value);
-            moveEntryToLast(exitingEntry);
+            final Entry<K, V> existingEntry = data.get(key);
+            existingEntry.setValue(value);
+            moveEntryToLast(existingEntry);
             return;
         }
         Entry<K, V> newEntry;
@@ -84,6 +129,11 @@ public void put(K key, V value) {
         data.put(key, newEntry);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Adds a new entry to the cache and updates the head and tail pointers accordingly.
+     *
+     * @param newEntry the new entry to be added
+     */
     private void addNewEntry(Entry<K, V> newEntry) {
         if (data.isEmpty()) {
             head = newEntry;
@@ -96,6 +146,11 @@ private void addNewEntry(Entry<K, V> newEntry) {
         tail = newEntry;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Moves the specified entry to the most recently used position in the cache.
+     *
+     * @param entry the entry to be moved
+     */
     private void moveEntryToLast(Entry<K, V> entry) {
         if (tail == entry) {
             return;
@@ -117,17 +172,23 @@ private void moveEntryToLast(Entry<K, V> entry) {
         tail = entry;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * A nested class representing an entry in the cache, which holds a key-value pair
+     * and references to the previous and next entries in the linked list structure.
+     *
+     * @param <I> the type of the key
+     * @param <J> the type of the value
+     */
     static final class Entry<I, J> {
-
         private Entry<I, J> preEntry;
         private Entry<I, J> nextEntry;
         private I key;
         private J value;
 
-        public Entry() {
+        Entry() {
         }
 
-        public Entry(Entry<I, J> preEntry, Entry<I, J> nextEntry, I key, J value) {
+        Entry(Entry<I, J> preEntry, Entry<I, J> nextEntry, I key, J value) {
             this.preEntry = preEntry;
             this.nextEntry = nextEntry;
             this.key = key;
@@ -166,16 +227,4 @@ public void setValue(J value) {
             this.value = value;
         }
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        final MRUCache<String, Integer> cache = new MRUCache<>(2);
-        cache.put("Key1", 1);
-        cache.put("Key2", 2);
-        cache.put("Key3", 3);
-        cache.put("Key4", 4);
-        System.out.println("getValue(Key1): " + cache.get("Key1"));
-        System.out.println("getValue(Key2): " + cache.get("Key2"));
-        System.out.println("getValue(Key3): " + cache.get("Key3"));
-        System.out.println("getValue(Key4): " + cache.get("Key4"));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCache.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1821872be9cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCache.java
@@ -0,0 +1,505 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Random;
+import java.util.concurrent.locks.Lock;
+import java.util.concurrent.locks.ReentrantLock;
+import java.util.function.BiConsumer;
+
+/**
+ * A thread-safe generic cache implementation using the Random Replacement (RR) eviction policy.
+ * <p>
+ * The cache holds a fixed number of entries, defined by its capacity. When the cache is full and a
+ * new entry is added, one of the existing entries is selected at random and evicted to make space.
+ * <p>
+ * Optionally, entries can have a time-to-live (TTL) in milliseconds. If a TTL is set, entries will
+ * automatically expire and be removed upon access or insertion attempts.
+ * <p>
+ * Features:
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li>Random eviction when capacity is exceeded</li>
+ *     <li>Optional TTL (time-to-live in milliseconds) per entry or default TTL for all entries</li>
+ *     <li>Thread-safe access using locking</li>
+ *     <li>Hit and miss counters for cache statistics</li>
+ *     <li>Eviction listener callback support</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by this cache
+ * @param <V> the type of mapped values
+ * See <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Random_replacement_(RR)">Random Replacement</a>
+ * @author Kevin Babu (<a href="https://www.github.com/KevinMwita7">GitHub</a>)
+ */
+public final class RRCache<K, V> {
+
+    private final int capacity;
+    private final long defaultTTL;
+    private final Map<K, CacheEntry<V>> cache;
+    private final List<K> keys;
+    private final Random random;
+    private final Lock lock;
+
+    private long hits = 0;
+    private long misses = 0;
+    private final BiConsumer<K, V> evictionListener;
+    private final EvictionStrategy<K, V> evictionStrategy;
+
+    /**
+     * Internal structure to store value + expiry timestamp.
+     *
+     * @param <V> the type of the value being cached
+     */
+    private static class CacheEntry<V> {
+        V value;
+        long expiryTime;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a new {@code CacheEntry} with the specified value and time-to-live (TTL).
+         *
+         * @param value     the value to cache
+         * @param ttlMillis the time-to-live in milliseconds
+         */
+        CacheEntry(V value, long ttlMillis) {
+            this.value = value;
+            this.expiryTime = System.currentTimeMillis() + ttlMillis;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Checks if the cache entry has expired.
+         *
+         * @return {@code true} if the current time is past the expiration time; {@code false} otherwise
+         */
+        boolean isExpired() {
+            return System.currentTimeMillis() > expiryTime;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a new {@code RRCache} instance using the provided {@link Builder}.
+     *
+     * <p>This constructor initializes the cache with the specified capacity and default TTL,
+     * sets up internal data structures (a {@code HashMap} for cache entries and an {@code ArrayList}
+     * for key tracking), and configures eviction and randomization behavior.
+     *
+     * @param builder the {@code Builder} object containing configuration parameters
+     */
+    private RRCache(Builder<K, V> builder) {
+        this.capacity = builder.capacity;
+        this.defaultTTL = builder.defaultTTL;
+        this.cache = new HashMap<>(builder.capacity);
+        this.keys = new ArrayList<>(builder.capacity);
+        this.random = builder.random != null ? builder.random : new Random();
+        this.lock = new ReentrantLock();
+        this.evictionListener = builder.evictionListener;
+        this.evictionStrategy = builder.evictionStrategy;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the value associated with the specified key from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>If the key is not present or the corresponding entry has expired, this method
+     * returns {@code null}. If an expired entry is found, it will be removed and the
+     * eviction listener (if any) will be notified. Cache hit-and-miss statistics are
+     * also updated accordingly.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose associated value is to be returned; must not be {@code null}
+     * @return the cached value associated with the key, or {@code null} if not present or expired
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code key} is {@code null}
+     */
+    public V get(K key) {
+        if (key == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key must not be null");
+        }
+
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            evictionStrategy.onAccess(this);
+
+            CacheEntry<V> entry = cache.get(key);
+            if (entry == null || entry.isExpired()) {
+                if (entry != null) {
+                    removeKey(key);
+                    notifyEviction(key, entry.value);
+                }
+                misses++;
+                return null;
+            }
+            hits++;
+            return entry.value;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a key-value pair to the cache using the default time-to-live (TTL).
+     *
+     * <p>The key may overwrite an existing entry. The actual insertion is delegated
+     * to the overloaded {@link #put(K, V, long)} method.
+     *
+     * @param key   the key to cache the value under
+     * @param value the value to be cached
+     */
+    public void put(K key, V value) {
+        put(key, value, defaultTTL);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a key-value pair to the cache with a specified time-to-live (TTL).
+     *
+     * <p>If the key already exists, its value is updated and its TTL is reset. If the key
+     * does not exist and the cache is full, a random entry is evicted to make space.
+     * Expired entries are also cleaned up prior to any eviction. The eviction listener
+     * is notified when an entry gets evicted.
+     *
+     * @param key        the key to associate with the cached value; must not be {@code null}
+     * @param value      the value to be cached; must not be {@code null}
+     * @param ttlMillis  the time-to-live for this entry in milliseconds; must be >= 0
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code key} or {@code value} is {@code null}, or if {@code ttlMillis} is negative
+     */
+    public void put(K key, V value, long ttlMillis) {
+        if (key == null || value == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key and value must not be null");
+        }
+        if (ttlMillis < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("TTL must be >= 0");
+        }
+
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            if (cache.containsKey(key)) {
+                cache.put(key, new CacheEntry<>(value, ttlMillis));
+                return;
+            }
+
+            evictExpired();
+
+            if (cache.size() >= capacity) {
+                int idx = random.nextInt(keys.size());
+                K evictKey = keys.remove(idx);
+                CacheEntry<V> evictVal = cache.remove(evictKey);
+                notifyEviction(evictKey, evictVal.value);
+            }
+
+            cache.put(key, new CacheEntry<>(value, ttlMillis));
+            keys.add(key);
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes all expired entries from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>This method iterates through the list of cached keys and checks each associated
+     * entry for expiration. Expired entries are removed from both the key tracking list
+     * and the cache map. For each eviction, the eviction listener is notified.
+     */
+    private int evictExpired() {
+        Iterator<K> it = keys.iterator();
+        int expiredCount = 0;
+
+        while (it.hasNext()) {
+            K k = it.next();
+            CacheEntry<V> entry = cache.get(k);
+            if (entry != null && entry.isExpired()) {
+                it.remove();
+                cache.remove(k);
+                ++expiredCount;
+                notifyEviction(k, entry.value);
+            }
+        }
+        return expiredCount;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the specified key and its associated entry from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>This method deletes the key from both the cache map and the key tracking list.
+     *
+     * @param key the key to remove from the cache
+     */
+    private void removeKey(K key) {
+        cache.remove(key);
+        keys.remove(key);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Notifies the eviction listener, if one is registered, that a key-value pair has been evicted.
+     *
+     * <p>If the {@code evictionListener} is not {@code null}, it is invoked with the provided key
+     * and value. Any exceptions thrown by the listener are caught and logged to standard error,
+     * preventing them from disrupting cache operations.
+     *
+     * @param key   the key that was evicted
+     * @param value the value that was associated with the evicted key
+     */
+    private void notifyEviction(K key, V value) {
+        if (evictionListener != null) {
+            try {
+                evictionListener.accept(key, value);
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+                System.err.println("Eviction listener failed: " + e.getMessage());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of successful cache lookups (hits).
+     *
+     * @return the number of cache hits
+     */
+    public long getHits() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            return hits;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of failed cache lookups (misses), including expired entries.
+     *
+     * @return the number of cache misses
+     */
+    public long getMisses() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            return misses;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current number of entries in the cache, excluding expired ones.
+     *
+     * @return the current cache size
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            int cachedSize = cache.size();
+            int evictedCount = evictionStrategy.onAccess(this);
+            if (evictedCount > 0) {
+                return cachedSize - evictedCount;
+            }
+
+            // This runs if periodic eviction does not occur
+            int count = 0;
+            for (Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> entry : cache.entrySet()) {
+                if (!entry.getValue().isExpired()) {
+                    ++count;
+                }
+            }
+            return count;
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current {@link EvictionStrategy} used by this cache instance.
+
+     * @return the eviction strategy currently assigned to this cache
+     */
+    public EvictionStrategy<K, V> getEvictionStrategy() {
+        return evictionStrategy;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the cache, including metadata and current non-expired entries.
+     *
+     * <p>The returned string includes the cache's capacity, current size (excluding expired entries),
+     * hit-and-miss counts, and a map of all non-expired key-value pairs. This method acquires a lock
+     * to ensure thread-safe access.
+     *
+     * @return a string summarizing the state of the cache
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        lock.lock();
+        try {
+            Map<K, V> visible = new HashMap<>();
+            for (Map.Entry<K, CacheEntry<V>> entry : cache.entrySet()) {
+                if (!entry.getValue().isExpired()) {
+                    visible.put(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue().value);
+                }
+            }
+            return String.format("Cache(capacity=%d, size=%d, hits=%d, misses=%d, entries=%s)", capacity, visible.size(), hits, misses, visible);
+        } finally {
+            lock.unlock();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A strategy interface for controlling when expired entries are evicted from the cache.
+     *
+     * <p>Implementations decide whether and when to trigger {@link RRCache#evictExpired()} based
+     * on cache usage patterns. This allows for flexible eviction behaviour such as periodic cleanup,
+     * or no automatic cleanup.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by the cache
+     * @param <V> the type of cached values
+     */
+    public interface EvictionStrategy<K, V> {
+        /**
+         * Called on each cache access (e.g., {@link RRCache#get(Object)}) to optionally trigger eviction.
+         *
+         * @param cache the cache instance on which this strategy is applied
+         * @return the number of expired entries evicted during this access
+         */
+        int onAccess(RRCache<K, V> cache);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * An eviction strategy that performs eviction of expired entries on each call.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys
+     * @param <V> the type of values
+     */
+    public static class NoEvictionStrategy<K, V> implements EvictionStrategy<K, V> {
+        @Override
+        public int onAccess(RRCache<K, V> cache) {
+            return cache.evictExpired();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * An eviction strategy that triggers eviction every fixed number of accesses.
+     *
+     * <p>This deterministic strategy ensures cleanup occurs at predictable intervals,
+     * ideal for moderately active caches where memory usage is a concern.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys
+     * @param <V> the type of values
+     */
+    public static class PeriodicEvictionStrategy<K, V> implements EvictionStrategy<K, V> {
+        private final int interval;
+        private int counter = 0;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a periodic eviction strategy.
+         *
+         * @param interval the number of accesses between evictions; must be > 0
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code interval} is less than or equal to 0
+         */
+        public PeriodicEvictionStrategy(int interval) {
+            if (interval <= 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Interval must be > 0");
+            }
+            this.interval = interval;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int onAccess(RRCache<K, V> cache) {
+            if (++counter % interval == 0) {
+                return cache.evictExpired();
+            }
+
+            return 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A builder for constructing an {@link RRCache} instance with customizable settings.
+     *
+     * <p>Allows configuring capacity, default TTL, random eviction behavior, eviction listener,
+     * and a pluggable eviction strategy. Call {@link #build()} to create the configured cache instance.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by the cache
+     * @param <V> the type of values stored in the cache
+     */
+    public static class Builder<K, V> {
+        private final int capacity;
+        private long defaultTTL = 0;
+        private Random random;
+        private BiConsumer<K, V> evictionListener;
+        private EvictionStrategy<K, V> evictionStrategy = new RRCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy<>(100);
+        /**
+         * Creates a new {@code Builder} with the specified cache capacity.
+         *
+         * @param capacity the maximum number of entries the cache can hold; must be > 0
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code capacity} is less than or equal to 0
+         */
+        public Builder(int capacity) {
+            if (capacity <= 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity must be > 0");
+            }
+            this.capacity = capacity;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets the default time-to-live (TTL) in milliseconds for cache entries.
+         *
+         * @param ttlMillis the TTL duration in milliseconds; must be >= 0
+         * @return this builder instance for chaining
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code ttlMillis} is negative
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> defaultTTL(long ttlMillis) {
+            if (ttlMillis < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Default TTL must be >= 0");
+            }
+            this.defaultTTL = ttlMillis;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets the {@link Random} instance to be used for random eviction selection.
+         *
+         * @param r a non-null {@code Random} instance
+         * @return this builder instance for chaining
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code r} is {@code null}
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> random(Random r) {
+            if (r == null) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Random must not be null");
+            }
+            this.random = r;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets an eviction listener to be notified when entries are evicted from the cache.
+         *
+         * @param listener a {@link BiConsumer} that accepts evicted keys and values; must not be {@code null}
+         * @return this builder instance for chaining
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code listener} is {@code null}
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> evictionListener(BiConsumer<K, V> listener) {
+            if (listener == null) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Listener must not be null");
+            }
+            this.evictionListener = listener;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Builds and returns a new {@link RRCache} instance with the configured parameters.
+         *
+         * @return a fully configured {@code RRCache} instance
+         */
+        public RRCache<K, V> build() {
+            return new RRCache<>(this);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Sets the eviction strategy used to determine when to clean up expired entries.
+         *
+         * @param strategy an {@link EvictionStrategy} implementation; must not be {@code null}
+         * @return this builder instance
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code strategy} is {@code null}
+         */
+        public Builder<K, V> evictionStrategy(EvictionStrategy<K, V> strategy) {
+            if (strategy == null) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Eviction strategy must not be null");
+            }
+            this.evictionStrategy = strategy;
+            return this;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..25b01bce19f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * G-Counter (Grow-only Counter) is a state-based CRDT (Conflict-free Replicated Data Type)
+ * designed for tracking counts in a distributed and concurrent environment.
+ * Each process maintains its own counter, allowing only increments. The total count
+ * is obtained by summing individual process counts.
+ * This implementation supports incrementing, querying the total count,
+ * comparing with other G-Counters, and merging with another G-Counter
+ * to compute the element-wise maximum.
+ * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type)
+ *
+ * @author itakurah (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ */
+
+class GCounter {
+    private final Map<Integer, Integer> counterMap;
+    private final int myId;
+    private final int n;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a G-Counter for a cluster of n nodes.
+     *
+     * @param n The number of nodes in the cluster.
+     */
+    GCounter(int myId, int n) {
+        this.myId = myId;
+        this.n = n;
+        this.counterMap = new HashMap<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            counterMap.put(i, 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Increments the counter for the current node.
+     */
+    public void increment() {
+        counterMap.put(myId, counterMap.get(myId) + 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Gets the total value of the counter by summing up values from all nodes.
+     *
+     * @return The total value of the counter.
+     */
+    public int value() {
+        int sum = 0;
+        for (int v : counterMap.values()) {
+            sum += v;
+        }
+        return sum;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compares the state of this G-Counter with another G-Counter.
+     *
+     * @param other The other G-Counter to compare with.
+     * @return True if the state of this G-Counter is less than or equal to the state of the other G-Counter.
+     */
+    public boolean compare(GCounter other) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (this.counterMap.get(i) > other.counterMap.get(i)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges the state of this G-Counter with another G-Counter.
+     *
+     * @param other The other G-Counter to merge with.
+     */
+    public void merge(GCounter other) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            this.counterMap.put(i, Math.max(this.counterMap.get(i), other.counterMap.get(i)));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSet.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSet.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2b8959ed0136
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSet.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * GSet (Grow-only Set) is a state-based CRDT (Conflict-free Replicated Data Type)
+ * that allows only the addition of elements and ensures that once an element is added,
+ * it cannot be removed. The merge operation of two G-Sets is their union.
+ * This implementation supports adding elements, looking up elements, comparing with other G-Sets,
+ * and merging with another G-Set to create a new G-Set containing all unique elements from both sets.
+ * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type)
+ *
+ * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ */
+
+public class GSet<T> {
+    private final Set<T> elements;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an empty G-Set.
+     */
+    public GSet() {
+        this.elements = new HashSet<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds an element to the G-Set.
+     *
+     * @param e the element to be added
+     */
+    public void addElement(T e) {
+        elements.add(e);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the given element is present in the G-Set.
+     *
+     * @param e the element to be checked
+     * @return true if the element is present, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean lookup(T e) {
+        return elements.contains(e);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compares the G-Set with another G-Set to check if it is a subset.
+     *
+     * @param other the other G-Set to compare with
+     * @return true if the current G-Set is a subset of the other, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean compare(GSet<T> other) {
+        return other.elements.containsAll(elements);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges the current G-Set with another G-Set, creating a new G-Set
+     * containing all unique elements from both sets.
+     *
+     * @param other the G-Set to merge with
+     */
+    public void merge(GSet<T> other) {
+        elements.addAll(other.elements);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSet.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSet.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d33bd3ee84d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSet.java
@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import java.time.Instant;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Last-Write-Wins Element Set (LWWElementSet) is a state-based CRDT (Conflict-free Replicated Data
+ * Type) designed for managing sets in a distributed and concurrent environment. It supports the
+ * addition and removal of elements, using timestamps to determine the order of operations. The set
+ * is split into two subsets: the add set for elements to be added and the remove set for elements
+ * to be removed. The LWWElementSet ensures that the most recent operation (based on the timestamp)
+ * wins in the case of concurrent operations.
+ *
+ * @param <T> The type of the elements in the LWWElementSet.
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/itakurah">itakurah (GitHub)</a>, <a
+ * href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/niklashoefflin/">Niklas Hoefflin (LinkedIn)</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type">Conflict free
+ * replicated data type (Wikipedia)</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://inria.hal.science/inria-00555588v1/document">A comprehensive study of
+ * Convergent and Commutative Replicated Data Types</a>
+ */
+class LWWElementSet<T> {
+    final Map<T, Element<T>> addSet;
+    final Map<T, Element<T>> removeSet;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an empty LWWElementSet. This constructor initializes the addSet and removeSet as
+     * empty HashMaps. The addSet stores elements that are added, and the removeSet stores elements
+     * that are removed.
+     */
+    LWWElementSet() {
+        this.addSet = new HashMap<>();
+        this.removeSet = new HashMap<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds an element to the addSet with the current timestamp. This method stores the element in the
+     * addSet, ensuring that the element is added to the set with an associated timestamp that
+     * represents the time of the addition.
+     *
+     * @param key The key of the element to be added.
+     */
+    public void add(T key) {
+        addSet.put(key, new Element<>(key, Instant.now()));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes an element by adding it to the removeSet with the current timestamp. This method adds
+     * the element to the removeSet, marking it as removed with the current timestamp.
+     *
+     * @param key The key of the element to be removed.
+     */
+    public void remove(T key) {
+        removeSet.put(key, new Element<>(key, Instant.now()));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if an element is in the LWWElementSet. An element is considered present if it exists in
+     * the addSet and either does not exist in the removeSet, or its add timestamp is later than any
+     * corresponding remove timestamp.
+     *
+     * @param key The key of the element to be checked.
+     * @return {@code true} if the element is present in the set (i.e., its add timestamp is later
+     * than its remove timestamp, or it is not in the remove set), {@code false} otherwise (i.e.,
+     * the element has been removed or its remove timestamp is later than its add timestamp).
+     */
+    public boolean lookup(T key) {
+        Element<T> inAddSet = addSet.get(key);
+        Element<T> inRemoveSet = removeSet.get(key);
+
+        return inAddSet != null && (inRemoveSet == null || inAddSet.timestamp.isAfter(inRemoveSet.timestamp));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges another LWWElementSet into this set. This method takes the union of both the add-sets
+     * and remove-sets from the two sets, resolving conflicts by keeping the element with the latest
+     * timestamp. If an element appears in both the add-set and remove-set of both sets, the one with
+     * the later timestamp will be retained.
+     *
+     * @param other The LWWElementSet to merge with the current set.
+     */
+    public void merge(LWWElementSet<T> other) {
+        for (Map.Entry<T, Element<T>> entry : other.addSet.entrySet()) {
+            addSet.merge(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue(), this::resolveConflict);
+        }
+        for (Map.Entry<T, Element<T>> entry : other.removeSet.entrySet()) {
+            removeSet.merge(entry.getKey(), entry.getValue(), this::resolveConflict);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Resolves conflicts between two elements by selecting the one with the later timestamp. This
+     * method is used when merging two LWWElementSets to ensure that the most recent operation (based
+     * on timestamps) is kept.
+     *
+     * @param e1 The first element.
+     * @param e2 The second element.
+     * @return The element with the later timestamp.
+     */
+    private Element<T> resolveConflict(Element<T> e1, Element<T> e2) {
+        return e1.timestamp.isAfter(e2.timestamp) ? e1 : e2;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Represents an element in the LWWElementSet, consisting of a key and a timestamp. This class is
+ * used to store the elements in both the add and remove sets with their respective timestamps.
+ *
+ * @param <T> The type of the key associated with the element.
+ */
+class Element<T> {
+    T key;
+    Instant timestamp;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a new Element with the specified key and timestamp.
+     *
+     * @param key       The key of the element.
+     * @param timestamp The timestamp associated with the element.
+     */
+    Element(T key, Instant timestamp) {
+        this.key = key;
+        this.timestamp = timestamp;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSet.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSet.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a4cc2ffdd4a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSet.java
@@ -0,0 +1,191 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.UUID;
+
+/**
+ * ORSet (Observed-Removed Set) is a state-based CRDT (Conflict-free Replicated Data Type)
+ * that supports both addition and removal of elements. This particular implementation follows
+ * the Add-Wins strategy, meaning that in case of conflicting add and remove operations,
+ * the add operation takes precedence. The merge operation of two OR-Sets ensures that
+ * elements added at any replica are eventually observed at all replicas. Removed elements,
+ * once observed, are never reintroduced.
+ * This OR-Set implementation provides methods for adding elements, removing elements,
+ * checking for element existence, retrieving the set of elements, comparing with other OR-Sets,
+ * and merging with another OR-Set to create a new OR-Set containing all unique elements
+ * from both sets.
+ *
+ * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type">Conflict-free_replicated_data_type</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://github.com/itakurah">itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin)</a>
+ */
+
+public class ORSet<T> {
+
+    private final Set<Pair<T>> elements;
+    private final Set<Pair<T>> tombstones;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an empty OR-Set.
+     */
+    public ORSet() {
+        this.elements = new HashSet<>();
+        this.tombstones = new HashSet<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the set contains the specified element.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to check for
+     * @return true if the set contains the element, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean contains(T element) {
+        return elements.stream().anyMatch(pair -> pair.getElement().equals(element));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the elements in the set.
+     *
+     * @return a set containing the elements
+     */
+    public Set<T> elements() {
+        Set<T> result = new HashSet<>();
+        elements.forEach(pair -> result.add(pair.getElement()));
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds the specified element to the set.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to add
+     */
+    public void add(T element) {
+        String n = prepare();
+        effect(element, n);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the specified element from the set.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to remove
+     */
+    public void remove(T element) {
+        Set<Pair<T>> pairsToRemove = prepare(element);
+        effect(pairsToRemove);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Collect all pairs with the specified element.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to collect pairs for
+     * @return a set of pairs with the specified element to be removed
+     */
+    private Set<Pair<T>> prepare(T element) {
+        Set<Pair<T>> pairsToRemove = new HashSet<>();
+        for (Pair<T> pair : elements) {
+            if (pair.getElement().equals(element)) {
+                pairsToRemove.add(pair);
+            }
+        }
+        return pairsToRemove;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates a unique tag for the element.
+     *
+     * @return the unique tag
+     */
+    private String prepare() {
+        return generateUniqueTag();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds the element with the specified unique tag to the set.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to add
+     * @param n       the unique tag associated with the element
+     */
+    private void effect(T element, String n) {
+        Pair<T> pair = new Pair<>(element, n);
+        elements.add(pair);
+        elements.removeAll(tombstones);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the specified pairs from the set.
+     *
+     * @param pairsToRemove the pairs to remove
+     */
+    private void effect(Set<Pair<T>> pairsToRemove) {
+        elements.removeAll(pairsToRemove);
+        tombstones.addAll(pairsToRemove);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates a unique tag.
+     *
+     * @return the unique tag
+     */
+    private String generateUniqueTag() {
+        return UUID.randomUUID().toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compares this Add-Wins OR-Set with another OR-Set to check if elements and tombstones are a subset.
+     *
+     * @param other the other OR-Set to compare
+     * @return true if the sets are subset, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean compare(ORSet<T> other) {
+        Set<Pair<T>> union = new HashSet<>(elements);
+        union.addAll(tombstones);
+
+        Set<Pair<T>> otherUnion = new HashSet<>(other.elements);
+        otherUnion.addAll(other.tombstones);
+
+        return otherUnion.containsAll(union) && other.tombstones.containsAll(tombstones);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges this Add-Wins OR-Set with another OR-Set.
+     *
+     * @param other the other OR-Set to merge
+     */
+    public void merge(ORSet<T> other) {
+        elements.removeAll(other.tombstones);
+        other.elements.removeAll(tombstones);
+        elements.addAll(other.elements);
+        tombstones.addAll(other.tombstones);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a pair containing an element and a unique tag.
+     *
+     * @param <T> the type of the element in the pair
+     */
+    public static class Pair<T> {
+        private final T element;
+        private final String uniqueTag;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a pair with the specified element and unique tag.
+         *
+         * @param element   the element in the pair
+         * @param uniqueTag the unique tag associated with the element
+         */
+        public Pair(T element, String uniqueTag) {
+            this.element = element;
+            this.uniqueTag = uniqueTag;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Gets the element from the pair.
+         *
+         * @return the element
+         */
+        public T getElement() {
+            return element;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..53c21dcbd108
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * PN-Counter (Positive-Negative Counter) is a state-based CRDT (Conflict-free Replicated Data Type)
+ * designed for tracking counts with both increments and decrements in a distributed and concurrent environment.
+ * It combines two G-Counters, one for increments (P) and one for decrements (N).
+ * The total count is obtained by subtracting the value of the decrement counter from the increment counter.
+ * This implementation supports incrementing, decrementing, querying the total count,
+ * comparing with other PN-Counters, and merging with another PN-Counter
+ * to compute the element-wise maximum for both increment and decrement counters.
+ * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type)
+ *
+ * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ */
+
+class PNCounter {
+    private final Map<Integer, Integer> pCounter;
+    private final Map<Integer, Integer> nCounter;
+    private final int myId;
+    private final int n;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a PN-Counter for a cluster of n nodes.
+     *
+     * @param myId The identifier of the current node.
+     * @param n    The number of nodes in the cluster.
+     */
+    PNCounter(int myId, int n) {
+        this.myId = myId;
+        this.n = n;
+        this.pCounter = new HashMap<>();
+        this.nCounter = new HashMap<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            pCounter.put(i, 0);
+            nCounter.put(i, 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Increments the increment counter for the current node.
+     */
+    public void increment() {
+        pCounter.put(myId, pCounter.get(myId) + 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Increments the decrement counter for the current node.
+     */
+    public void decrement() {
+        nCounter.put(myId, nCounter.get(myId) + 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Gets the total value of the counter by subtracting the decrement counter from the increment counter.
+     *
+     * @return The total value of the counter.
+     */
+    public int value() {
+        int sumP = pCounter.values().stream().mapToInt(Integer::intValue).sum();
+        int sumN = nCounter.values().stream().mapToInt(Integer::intValue).sum();
+        return sumP - sumN;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compares the state of this PN-Counter with another PN-Counter.
+     *
+     * @param other The other PN-Counter to compare with.
+     * @return True if the state of this PN-Counter is less than or equal to the state of the other PN-Counter.
+     */
+    public boolean compare(PNCounter other) {
+        if (this.n != other.n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cannot compare PN-Counters with different number of nodes");
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (this.pCounter.get(i) > other.pCounter.get(i) && this.nCounter.get(i) > other.nCounter.get(i)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges the state of this PN-Counter with another PN-Counter.
+     *
+     * @param other The other PN-Counter to merge with.
+     */
+    public void merge(PNCounter other) {
+        if (this.n != other.n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cannot merge PN-Counters with different number of nodes");
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            this.pCounter.put(i, Math.max(this.pCounter.get(i), other.pCounter.get(i)));
+            this.nCounter.put(i, Math.max(this.nCounter.get(i), other.nCounter.get(i)));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSet.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSet.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c0ce17b2802b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSet.java
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * TwoPhaseSet (2P-Set) is a state-based CRDT (Conflict-free Replicated Data Type) designed for managing sets
+ * with support for both addition and removal operations in a distributed and concurrent environment.
+ * It combines two G-Sets (grow-only sets) - one set for additions and another set (tombstone set) for removals.
+ * Once an element is removed and placed in the tombstone set, it cannot be re-added, adhering to "remove-wins" semantics.
+ * This implementation supports querying the presence of elements, adding elements, removing elements,
+ * comparing with other 2P-Sets, and merging two 2P-Sets while preserving the remove-wins semantics.
+ * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type)
+ *
+ * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ */
+
+public class TwoPSet<T> {
+    private final Set<T> setA;
+    private final Set<T> setR;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an empty Two-Phase Set.
+     */
+    public TwoPSet() {
+        this.setA = new HashSet<>();
+        this.setR = new HashSet<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if an element is in the set and has not been removed.
+     *
+     * @param element The element to be checked.
+     * @return True if the element is in the set and has not been removed, otherwise false.
+     */
+    public boolean lookup(T element) {
+        return setA.contains(element) && !setR.contains(element);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds an element to the set.
+     *
+     * @param element The element to be added.
+     */
+    public void add(T element) {
+        setA.add(element);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes an element from the set. The element will be placed in the tombstone set.
+     *
+     * @param element The element to be removed.
+     */
+    public void remove(T element) {
+        if (lookup(element)) {
+            setR.add(element);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compares the current 2P-Set with another 2P-Set.
+     *
+     * @param otherSet The other 2P-Set to compare with.
+     * @return True if both SetA and SetR are subset, otherwise false.
+     */
+    public boolean compare(TwoPSet<T> otherSet) {
+        return otherSet.setA.containsAll(setA) && otherSet.setR.containsAll(setR);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges the current 2P-Set with another 2P-Set.
+     *
+     * @param otherSet The other 2P-Set to merge with.
+     * @return A new 2P-Set containing the merged elements.
+     */
+    public TwoPSet<T> merge(TwoPSet<T> otherSet) {
+        TwoPSet<T> mergedSet = new TwoPSet<>();
+        mergedSet.setA.addAll(this.setA);
+        mergedSet.setA.addAll(otherSet.setA);
+        mergedSet.setR.addAll(this.setR);
+        mergedSet.setR.addAll(otherSet.setR);
+        return mergedSet;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsets/DisjointSets.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsets/DisjointSets.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 281b0cb202bb..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsets/DisjointSets.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,35 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.disjointsets;
-
-public class DisjointSets<T> {
-
-    public Node<T> MakeSet(T x) {
-        return new Node<T>(x);
-    }
-
-    ;
-
-    public Node<T> FindSet(Node<T> node) {
-        if (node != node.parent) {
-            node.parent = FindSet(node.parent);
-        }
-
-        return node.parent;
-    }
-
-    public void UnionSet(Node<T> x, Node<T> y) {
-        Node<T> nx = FindSet(x);
-        Node<T> ny = FindSet(y);
-
-        if (nx == ny) {
-            return;
-        }
-        if (nx.rank > ny.rank) {
-            ny.parent = nx;
-        } else if (ny.rank > nx.rank) {
-            nx.parent = ny;
-        } else {
-            nx.parent = ny;
-            ny.rank++;
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsets/Node.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsets/Node.java
deleted file mode 100644
index f2054331dc14..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsets/Node.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,13 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.disjointsets;
-
-public class Node<T> {
-
-    public int rank;
-    public Node<T> parent;
-    public T data;
-
-    public Node(T data) {
-        this.data = data;
-        parent = this;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnion.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..55951be82c8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.disjointsetunion;
+
+/**
+ * Disjoint Set Union (DSU), also known as Union-Find, is a data structure that tracks a set of elements
+ * partitioned into disjoint (non-overlapping) subsets. It supports two primary operations efficiently:
+ *
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li>Find: Determine which subset a particular element belongs to.</li>
+ *     <li>Union: Merge two subsets into a single subset.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjoint-set_data_structure">Disjoint Set Union (Wikipedia)</a>
+ */
+public class DisjointSetUnion<T> {
+
+    /**
+     * Creates a new disjoint set containing the single specified element.
+     *
+     * @param value the element to be placed in a new singleton set
+     * @return a node representing the new set
+     */
+    public Node<T> makeSet(final T value) {
+        return new Node<>(value);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds and returns the representative (root) of the set containing the given node.
+     * This method applies path compression to flatten the tree structure for future efficiency.
+     *
+     * @param node the node whose set representative is to be found
+     * @return the representative (root) node of the set
+     */
+    public Node<T> findSet(Node<T> node) {
+        if (node != node.parent) {
+            node.parent = findSet(node.parent);
+        }
+        return node.parent;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges the sets containing the two given nodes. Union by rank is used to attach the smaller tree under the larger one.
+     * If both sets have the same rank, one becomes the parent and its rank is incremented.
+     *
+     * @param x a node in the first set
+     * @param y a node in the second set
+     */
+    public void unionSets(Node<T> x, Node<T> y) {
+        Node<T> rootX = findSet(x);
+        Node<T> rootY = findSet(y);
+
+        if (rootX == rootY) {
+            return; // They are already in the same set
+        }
+        // Merging happens based on rank of node, this is done to avoid long chaining of nodes and reduce time
+        // to find root of the component. Idea is to attach small components in big, instead of other way around.
+        if (rootX.rank > rootY.rank) {
+            rootY.parent = rootX;
+        } else if (rootY.rank > rootX.rank) {
+            rootX.parent = rootY;
+        } else {
+            rootY.parent = rootX;
+            rootX.rank++;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySize.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySize.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..71951f67dfc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySize.java
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.disjointsetunion;
+
+/**
+ * Disjoint Set Union (DSU) with Union by Size.
+ * This data structure tracks a set of elements partitioned into disjoint (non-overlapping) subsets.
+ * It supports two primary operations efficiently:
+ *
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li>Find: Determine which subset a particular element belongs to.</li>
+ *     <li>Union: Merge two subsets into a single subset using union by size.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * Union by size always attaches the smaller tree under the root of the larger tree.
+ * This helps keep the tree shallow, improving the efficiency of find operations.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjoint-set_data_structure">Disjoint Set Union (Wikipedia)</a>
+ */
+public class DisjointSetUnionBySize<T> {
+    /**
+     * Node class for DSU by size.
+     * Each node keeps track of its parent and the size of the set it represents.
+     */
+    public static class Node<T> {
+        public T value;
+        public Node<T> parent;
+        public int size; // size of the set
+
+        public Node(T value) {
+            this.value = value;
+            this.parent = this;
+            this.size = 1; // initially, the set size is 1
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Creates a new disjoint set containing the single specified element.
+     * @param value the element to be placed in a new singleton set
+     * @return a node representing the new set
+     */
+    public Node<T> makeSet(final T value) {
+        return new Node<>(value);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds and returns the representative (root) of the set containing the given node.
+     * This method applies path compression to flatten the tree structure for future efficiency.
+     * @param node the node whose set representative is to be found
+     * @return the representative (root) node of the set
+     */
+    public Node<T> findSet(Node<T> node) {
+        if (node != node.parent) {
+            node.parent = findSet(node.parent); // path compression
+        }
+        return node.parent;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges the sets containing the two given nodes using union by size.
+     * The root of the smaller set is attached to the root of the larger set.
+     * @param x a node in the first set
+     * @param y a node in the second set
+     */
+    public void unionSets(Node<T> x, Node<T> y) {
+        Node<T> rootX = findSet(x);
+        Node<T> rootY = findSet(y);
+
+        if (rootX == rootY) {
+            return; // They are already in the same set
+        }
+        // Union by size: attach smaller tree under the larger one
+        if (rootX.size < rootY.size) {
+            rootX.parent = rootY;
+            rootY.size += rootX.size; // update size
+        } else {
+            rootY.parent = rootX;
+            rootX.size += rootY.size; // update size
+        }
+    }
+}
+// This implementation uses union by size instead of union by rank.
+// The size field tracks the number of elements in each set.
+// When two sets are merged, the smaller set is always attached to the larger set's root.
+// This helps keep the tree shallow and improves the efficiency of find operations.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/Node.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/Node.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..260f297bd713
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/Node.java
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.disjointsetunion;
+
+public class Node<T> {
+
+    /**
+     * The rank of the node, used for optimizing union operations.
+     */
+    public int rank;
+
+    /**
+     * Reference to the parent node in the set.
+     * Initially, a node is its own parent (represents a singleton set).
+     */
+    public Node<T> parent;
+
+    /**
+     * The data element associated with the node.
+     */
+    public T data;
+
+    public Node(final T data) {
+        this.data = data;
+        parent = this; // Initially, a node is its own parent.
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArray.java
index fb7783575e57..cd5dc580b694 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArray.java
@@ -1,222 +1,267 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.dynamicarray;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.ConcurrentModificationException;
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.function.Consumer;
 import java.util.stream.Stream;
 import java.util.stream.StreamSupport;
 
 /**
- * This class implements a dynamic array
+ * This class implements a dynamic array, which can grow or shrink in size
+ * as elements are added or removed. It provides an array-like interface
+ * with methods to add, remove, and access elements, along with iterators
+ * to traverse the elements.
  *
- * @param <E> the type that each index of the array will hold
+ * @param <E> the type of elements that this array can hold
  */
 public class DynamicArray<E> implements Iterable<E> {
 
     private static final int DEFAULT_CAPACITY = 16;
-
-    private int capacity;
     private int size;
+    private int modCount; // Tracks structural modifications for iterator integrity
     private Object[] elements;
 
     /**
-     * constructor
+     * Constructs a new DynamicArray with the specified initial capacity.
      *
-     * @param capacity the starting length of the desired array
+     * @param capacity the initial capacity of the array
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the specified capacity is negative
      */
     public DynamicArray(final int capacity) {
+        if (capacity < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity cannot be negative.");
+        }
         this.size = 0;
-        this.capacity = capacity;
-        this.elements = new Object[this.capacity];
+        this.modCount = 0;
+        this.elements = new Object[capacity];
     }
 
     /**
-     * No-args constructor
+     * Constructs a new DynamicArray with a default initial capacity.
      */
     public DynamicArray() {
         this(DEFAULT_CAPACITY);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Adds an element to the array If full, creates a copy array twice the size
-     * of the current one
+     * Adds an element to the end of the array. If the array is full, it
+     * creates a new array with double the size to accommodate the new element.
      *
-     * @param element the element of type <E> to be added to the array
+     * @param element the element to be added to the array
      */
     public void add(final E element) {
-        if (this.size == this.elements.length) {
-            this.elements = Arrays.copyOf(this.elements, newCapacity(2 * this.capacity));
-        }
-
-        this.elements[this.size] = element;
-        size++;
+        ensureCapacity(size + 1);
+        elements[size++] = element;
+        modCount++; // Increment modification count
     }
 
     /**
-     * Places element of type <E> at the desired index
+     * Places an element at the specified index, expanding capacity if necessary.
      *
-     * @param index the index for the element to be placed
-     * @param element the element to be inserted
+     * @param index   the index at which the element is to be placed
+     * @param element the element to be inserted at the specified index
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if index is less than 0 or greater than or equal to the number of elements
      */
     public void put(final int index, E element) {
-        this.elements[index] = element;
+        if (index < 0) {
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index cannot be negative.");
+        }
+        ensureCapacity(index + 1);
+        elements[index] = element;
+        if (index >= size) {
+            size = index + 1;
+        }
+        modCount++; // Increment modification count
     }
 
     /**
-     * get method for element at a given index returns null if the index is
-     * empty
+     * Retrieves the element at the specified index.
      *
-     * @param index the desired index of the element
-     * @return <E> the element at the specified index
+     * @param index the index of the element to retrieve
+     * @return the element at the specified index
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if index is less than 0 or greater than or equal to the current size
      */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
     public E get(final int index) {
-        return getElement(index);
+        if (index < 0 || index >= size) {
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index: " + index + ", Size: " + size);
+        }
+        return (E) elements[index];
     }
 
     /**
-     * Removes an element from the array
+     * Removes and returns the element at the specified index.
      *
      * @param index the index of the element to be removed
-     * @return <E> the element removed
+     * @return the element that was removed from the array
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if index is less than 0 or greater than or equal to the current size
      */
     public E remove(final int index) {
-        final E oldElement = getElement(index);
-        fastRemove(this.elements, index);
-
-        if (this.capacity > DEFAULT_CAPACITY && size * 4 <= this.capacity) {
-            this.elements = Arrays.copyOf(this.elements, newCapacity(this.capacity / 2));
+        if (index < 0 || index >= size) {
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index: " + index + ", Size: " + size);
         }
+        @SuppressWarnings("unchecked") E oldElement = (E) elements[index];
+        fastRemove(index);
+        modCount++; // Increment modification count
         return oldElement;
     }
 
     /**
-     * get method for size field
+     * Returns the current number of elements in the array.
      *
-     * @return int size
+     * @return the number of elements in the array
      */
     public int getSize() {
-        return this.size;
+        return size;
     }
 
     /**
-     * isEmpty helper method
+     * Checks whether the array is empty.
      *
-     * @return boolean true if the array contains no elements, false otherwise
+     * @return true if the array contains no elements, false otherwise
      */
     public boolean isEmpty() {
-        return this.size == 0;
+        return size == 0;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns a sequential stream with this collection as its source.
+     *
+     * @return a stream of the elements in the array
+     */
     public Stream<E> stream() {
         return StreamSupport.stream(spliterator(), false);
     }
 
-    private void fastRemove(final Object[] elements, final int index) {
-        final int newSize = this.size - 1;
-
-        if (newSize > index) {
-            System.arraycopy(elements, index + 1, elements, index, newSize - index);
+    /**
+     * Ensures that the array has enough capacity to hold the specified number of elements.
+     *
+     * @param minCapacity the minimum capacity required
+     */
+    private void ensureCapacity(int minCapacity) {
+        if (minCapacity > elements.length) {
+            int newCapacity = Math.max(elements.length * 2, minCapacity);
+            elements = Arrays.copyOf(elements, newCapacity);
         }
-
-        elements[this.size = newSize] = null;
-    }
-
-    private E getElement(final int index) {
-        return (E) this.elements[index];
     }
 
-    private int newCapacity(int capacity) {
-        this.capacity = capacity;
-        return this.capacity;
+    /**
+     * Removes the element at the specified index without resizing the array.
+     * This method shifts any subsequent elements to the left and clears the last element.
+     *
+     * @param index the index of the element to remove
+     */
+    private void fastRemove(int index) {
+        int numMoved = size - index - 1;
+        if (numMoved > 0) {
+            System.arraycopy(elements, index + 1, elements, index, numMoved);
+        }
+        elements[--size] = null; // Clear to let GC do its work
     }
 
     /**
-     * returns a String representation of this object
+     * Returns a string representation of the array, including only the elements that are currently stored.
      *
-     * @return String a String representing the array
+     * @return a string containing the elements in the array
      */
     @Override
     public String toString() {
-        return Arrays.toString(Arrays.stream(this.elements).filter(Objects::nonNull).toArray());
+        return Arrays.toString(Arrays.copyOf(elements, size));
     }
 
     /**
-     * Creates and returns a new Dynamic Array Iterator
+     * Returns an iterator over the elements in this array in proper sequence.
      *
-     * @return Iterator a Dynamic Array Iterator
+     * @return an Iterator over the elements in the array
      */
     @Override
-    public Iterator iterator() {
+    public Iterator<E> iterator() {
         return new DynamicArrayIterator();
     }
 
-    private class DynamicArrayIterator implements Iterator<E> {
+    /**
+     * Private iterator class for the DynamicArray.
+     */
+    private final class DynamicArrayIterator implements Iterator<E> {
 
         private int cursor;
+        private int expectedModCount;
 
+        /**
+         * Constructs a new iterator for the dynamic array.
+         */
+        DynamicArrayIterator() {
+            this.expectedModCount = modCount;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Checks if there are more elements in the iteration.
+         *
+         * @return true if there are more elements, false otherwise
+         */
         @Override
         public boolean hasNext() {
-            return this.cursor != size;
+            checkForComodification();
+            return cursor < size;
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Returns the next element in the iteration.
+         *
+         * @return the next element in the iteration
+         * @throws NoSuchElementException if the iteration has no more elements
+         */
         @Override
+        @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
         public E next() {
-            if (this.cursor > DynamicArray.this.size) {
+            checkForComodification();
+            if (cursor >= size) {
                 throw new NoSuchElementException();
             }
-
-            if (this.cursor > DynamicArray.this.elements.length) {
-                throw new ConcurrentModificationException();
-            }
-
-            final E element = DynamicArray.this.getElement(this.cursor);
-            this.cursor++;
-
-            return element;
+            return (E) elements[cursor++];
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Removes the last element returned by this iterator.
+         *
+         * @throws IllegalStateException if the next method has not yet been called, or the remove method has already been called after the last call to the next method
+         */
         @Override
         public void remove() {
-            if (this.cursor < 0) {
-                throw new IllegalStateException();
+            if (cursor <= 0) {
+                throw new IllegalStateException("Cannot remove element before calling next()");
             }
+            checkForComodification();
+            DynamicArray.this.remove(--cursor);
+            expectedModCount = modCount;
+        }
 
-            DynamicArray.this.remove(this.cursor);
-            this.cursor--;
+        /**
+         * Checks for concurrent modifications to the array during iteration.
+         *
+         * @throws ConcurrentModificationException if the array has been modified structurally
+         */
+        private void checkForComodification() {
+            if (modCount != expectedModCount) {
+                throw new ConcurrentModificationException();
+            }
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Performs the given action for each remaining element in the iterator until all elements have been processed.
+         *
+         * @param action the action to be performed for each element
+         * @throws NullPointerException if the specified action is null
+         */
         @Override
         public void forEachRemaining(Consumer<? super E> action) {
             Objects.requireNonNull(action);
-
-            for (int i = 0; i < DynamicArray.this.size; i++) {
-                action.accept(DynamicArray.this.getElement(i));
+            while (hasNext()) {
+                action.accept(next());
             }
         }
     }
-
-    /**
-     * This class is the driver for the DynamicArray<E> class it tests a variety
-     * of methods and prints the output
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        DynamicArray<String> names = new DynamicArray<>();
-        names.add("Peubes");
-        names.add("Marley");
-
-        for (String name : names) {
-            System.out.println(name);
-        }
-
-        names.stream().forEach(System.out::println);
-
-        System.out.println(names);
-
-        System.out.println(names.getSize());
-
-        names.remove(0);
-
-        for (String name : names) {
-            System.out.println(name);
-        }
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStar.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStar.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..741caa59c5b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStar.java
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * AStar class implements the A* pathfinding algorithm to find the shortest path in a graph.
+ * The graph is represented using an adjacency list, and the algorithm uses a heuristic to estimate
+ * the cost to reach the destination node.
+ * Time Complexity = O(E), where E is equal to the number of edges
+ */
+public final class AStar {
+    private AStar() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a graph using an adjacency list.
+     */
+    static class Graph {
+        private ArrayList<ArrayList<Edge>> graph;
+
+        Graph(int size) {
+            this.graph = new ArrayList<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+                this.graph.add(new ArrayList<>());
+            }
+        }
+
+        private ArrayList<Edge> getNeighbours(int from) {
+            return this.graph.get(from);
+        }
+
+        // Add a bidirectional edge to the graph
+        private void addEdge(Edge edge) {
+            this.graph.get(edge.getFrom()).add(new Edge(edge.getFrom(), edge.getTo(), edge.getWeight()));
+            this.graph.get(edge.getTo()).add(new Edge(edge.getTo(), edge.getFrom(), edge.getWeight()));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents an edge in the graph with a start node, end node, and weight.
+     */
+    private static class Edge {
+        private int from;
+        private int to;
+        private int weight;
+
+        Edge(int from, int to, int weight) {
+            this.from = from;
+            this.to = to;
+            this.weight = weight;
+        }
+
+        public int getFrom() {
+            return from;
+        }
+
+        public int getTo() {
+            return to;
+        }
+
+        public int getWeight() {
+            return weight;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Contains information about the path and its total distance.
+     */
+    static class PathAndDistance {
+        private int distance; // total distance from the start node
+        private ArrayList<Integer> path; // list of nodes in the path
+        private int estimated; // heuristic estimate for reaching the destination
+
+        PathAndDistance(int distance, ArrayList<Integer> path, int estimated) {
+            this.distance = distance;
+            this.path = path;
+            this.estimated = estimated;
+        }
+
+        public int getDistance() {
+            return distance;
+        }
+
+        public ArrayList<Integer> getPath() {
+            return path;
+        }
+
+        public int getEstimated() {
+            return estimated;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Initializes the graph with edges defined in the input data
+    static void initializeGraph(Graph graph, List<Integer> data) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < data.size(); i += 4) {
+            graph.addEdge(new Edge(data.get(i), data.get(i + 1), data.get(i + 2)));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Implements the A* pathfinding algorithm to find the shortest path from a start node to a destination node.
+     *
+     * @param from     the starting node
+     * @param to       the destination node
+     * @param graph    the graph representation of the problem
+     * @param heuristic the heuristic estimates for each node
+     * @return a PathAndDistance object containing the shortest path and its distance
+     */
+    public static PathAndDistance aStar(int from, int to, Graph graph, int[] heuristic) {
+        // PriorityQueue to explore nodes based on their distance and estimated cost to reach the destination
+        PriorityQueue<PathAndDistance> queue = new PriorityQueue<>(Comparator.comparingInt(a -> (a.getDistance() + a.getEstimated())));
+
+        // Start with the initial node
+        queue.add(new PathAndDistance(0, new ArrayList<>(List.of(from)), heuristic[from]));
+
+        boolean solutionFound = false;
+        PathAndDistance currentData = new PathAndDistance(-1, null, -1);
+
+        while (!queue.isEmpty() && !solutionFound) {
+            currentData = queue.poll(); // get the best node from the queue
+            int currentPosition = currentData.getPath().get(currentData.getPath().size() - 1); // current node
+
+            // Check if the destination has been reached
+            if (currentPosition == to) {
+                solutionFound = true;
+            } else {
+                for (Edge edge : graph.getNeighbours(currentPosition)) {
+                    // Avoid cycles by checking if the next node is already in the path
+                    if (!currentData.getPath().contains(edge.getTo())) {
+                        ArrayList<Integer> updatedPath = new ArrayList<>(currentData.getPath());
+                        updatedPath.add(edge.getTo());
+
+                        // Update the distance and heuristic for the new path
+                        queue.add(new PathAndDistance(currentData.getDistance() + edge.getWeight(), updatedPath, heuristic[edge.getTo()]));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return (solutionFound) ? currentData : new PathAndDistance(-1, null, -1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/A_Star.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/A_Star.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 44f5eadaab1c..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/A_Star.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,185 +0,0 @@
-/*
-	Time Complexity = O(E), where E is equal to the number of edges
- */
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
-
-import java.util.*;
-
-public class A_Star {
-
-    private static class Graph {
-        // Graph's structure can be changed only applying changes to this class.
-
-        private ArrayList<ArrayList<Edge>> graph;
-
-        // Initialise ArrayLists in Constructor
-        public Graph(int size) {
-            this.graph = new ArrayList<>();
-            for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-                this.graph.add(new ArrayList<>());
-            }
-        }
-
-        private ArrayList<Edge> getNeighbours(int from) {
-            return this.graph.get(from);
-        }
-
-        // Graph is bidirectional, for just one direction remove second instruction of this method.
-        private void addEdge(Edge edge) {
-            this.graph.get(edge.getFrom()).add(new Edge(edge.getFrom(), edge.getTo(), edge.getWeight()));
-            this.graph.get(edge.getTo()).add(new Edge(edge.getTo(), edge.getFrom(), edge.getWeight()));
-        }
-    }
-
-    private static class Edge {
-
-        private int from;
-        private int to;
-        private int weight;
-
-        public Edge(int from, int to, int weight) {
-            this.from = from;
-            this.to = to;
-            this.weight = weight;
-        }
-
-        public int getFrom() {
-            return from;
-        }
-
-        public int getTo() {
-            return to;
-        }
-
-        public int getWeight() {
-            return weight;
-        }
-    }
-
-    // class to iterate during the algorithm execution, and also used to return the solution.
-    private static class PathAndDistance {
-
-        private int distance; // distance advanced so far.
-        private ArrayList<Integer> path; // list of visited nodes in this path.
-        private int estimated; // heuristic value associated to the last node od the path (current node).
-
-        public PathAndDistance(int distance, ArrayList<Integer> path, int estimated) {
-            this.distance = distance;
-            this.path = path;
-            this.estimated = estimated;
-        }
-
-        public int getDistance() {
-            return distance;
-        }
-
-        public ArrayList<Integer> getPath() {
-            return path;
-        }
-
-        public int getEstimated() {
-            return estimated;
-        }
-
-        private void printSolution() {
-            if (this.path != null) {
-                System.out.println(
-                        "Optimal path: " + this.path + ", distance: " + this.distance);
-            } else {
-                System.out.println("There is no path available to connect the points");
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    private static void initializeGraph(Graph graph, ArrayList<Integer> data) {
-        for (int i = 0; i < data.size(); i += 4) {
-            graph.addEdge(new Edge(data.get(i), data.get(i + 1), data.get(i + 2)));
-        }
-        /*
-    .x. node
-    (y) cost
-    - or | or / bidirectional connection
-
-                          ( 98)- .7. -(86)- .4.
-                            |
-                    ( 85)- .17. -(142)- .18. -(92)- .8. -(87)- .11.
-                      |
-                     . 1. -------------------- (160)
-                      |  \                       |
-                    (211) \                     .6.
-                      |    \                     |
-                     . 5.  (101)-.13. -(138)   (115)
-                      |           |     |     /
-                    ( 99)       ( 97)   |    /
-                      |           |     |   /
-        .12. -(151)- .15. -(80)- .14.   |  /
-         |            |           |     | /
-       ( 71)        (140)       (146)- .2. -(120)
-         |            |                       |
-        .19. -( 75)- . 0.        .10. -(75)- .3.
-                      |            |
-                    (118)        ( 70)
-                      |            |
-                     .16. -(111)- .9.
-         */
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // heuristic function optimistic values
-        int[] heuristic = {
-            366, 0, 160, 242, 161, 178, 77, 151, 226, 244, 241, 234, 380, 98, 193, 253, 329, 80, 199, 374
-        };
-
-        Graph graph = new Graph(20);
-        ArrayList<Integer> graphData
-                = new ArrayList<>(
-                        Arrays.asList(
-                                0, 19, 75, null, 0, 15, 140, null, 0, 16, 118, null, 19, 12, 71, null, 12, 15, 151,
-                                null, 16, 9, 111, null, 9, 10, 70, null, 10, 3, 75, null, 3, 2, 120, null, 2, 14,
-                                146, null, 2, 13, 138, null, 2, 6, 115, null, 15, 14, 80, null, 15, 5, 99, null, 14,
-                                13, 97, null, 5, 1, 211, null, 13, 1, 101, null, 6, 1, 160, null, 1, 17, 85, null,
-                                17, 7, 98, null, 7, 4, 86, null, 17, 18, 142, null, 18, 8, 92, null, 8, 11, 87));
-        initializeGraph(graph, graphData);
-
-        PathAndDistance solution = aStar(3, 1, graph, heuristic);
-        solution.printSolution();
-    }
-
-    public static PathAndDistance aStar(int from, int to, Graph graph, int[] heuristic) {
-        // nodes are prioritised by the less value of the current distance of their paths, and the
-        // estimated value
-        // given by the heuristic function to reach the destination point from the current point.
-        PriorityQueue<PathAndDistance> queue
-                = new PriorityQueue<>(Comparator.comparingInt(a -> (a.getDistance() + a.getEstimated())));
-
-        // dummy data to start the algorithm from the beginning point
-        queue.add(new PathAndDistance(0, new ArrayList<>(List.of(from)), 0));
-
-        boolean solutionFound = false;
-        PathAndDistance currentData = new PathAndDistance(-1, null, -1);
-        while (!queue.isEmpty() && !solutionFound) {
-            currentData = queue.poll(); // first in the queue, best node so keep exploring.
-            int currentPosition
-                    = currentData.getPath().get(currentData.getPath().size() - 1); // current node.
-            if (currentPosition == to) {
-                solutionFound = true;
-            } else {
-                for (Edge edge : graph.getNeighbours(currentPosition)) {
-                    if (!currentData.getPath().contains(edge.getTo())) { // Avoid Cycles
-                        ArrayList<Integer> updatedPath = new ArrayList<>(currentData.getPath());
-                        updatedPath.add(edge.getTo()); // Add the new node to the path, update the distance,
-                        // and the heuristic function value associated to that path.
-                        queue.add(
-                                new PathAndDistance(
-                                        currentData.getDistance() + edge.getWeight(),
-                                        updatedPath,
-                                        heuristic[edge.getTo()]));
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        return (solutionFound) ? currentData : new PathAndDistance(-1, null, -1);
-        // Out of while loop, if there is a solution, the current Data stores the optimal path, and its
-        // distance
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java
index 2a86dec2c6c3..47c5f0d0b98e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java
@@ -1,12 +1,19 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.Scanner;
 
-class BellmanFord /*Implementation of Bellman ford to detect negative cycles. Graph accepts inputs in form of edges which have
-start vertex, end vertex and weights. Vertices should be labelled with a number between 0 and total number of vertices-1,both inclusive*/ {
+class BellmanFord /*
+                   * Implementation of Bellman ford to detect negative cycles. Graph accepts
+                   * inputs
+                   * in form of edges which have start vertex, end vertex and weights. Vertices
+                   * should be labelled with a
+                   * number between 0 and total number of vertices-1,both inclusive
+                   */
+{
 
-    int vertex, edge;
-    private Edge edges[];
+    int vertex;
+    int edge;
+    private Edge[] edges;
     private int index = 0;
 
     BellmanFord(int v, int e) {
@@ -17,7 +24,8 @@ class BellmanFord /*Implementation of Bellman ford to detect negative cycles. Gr
 
     class Edge {
 
-        int u, v;
+        int u;
+        int v;
         int w;
 
         /**
@@ -25,7 +33,7 @@ class Edge {
          * @param v End vertex
          * @param c Weight
          */
-        public Edge(int a, int b, int c) {
+        Edge(int a, int b, int c) {
             u = a;
             v = b;
             w = c;
@@ -34,97 +42,103 @@ public Edge(int a, int b, int c) {
 
     /**
      * @param p[] Parent array which shows updates in edges
-     * @param i Current vertex under consideration
+     * @param i   Current vertex under consideration
      */
-    void printPath(int p[], int i) {
-        if (p[i] == -1) // Found the path back to parent
-        {
+    void printPath(int[] p, int i) {
+        if (p[i] == -1) { // Found the path back to parent
             return;
         }
         printPath(p, p[i]);
         System.out.print(i + " ");
     }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
         BellmanFord obj = new BellmanFord(0, 0); // Dummy object to call nonstatic variables
         obj.go();
     }
 
-    public void
-            go() // Interactive run for understanding the class first time. Assumes source vertex is 0 and
-    // shows distance to all vertices
-    {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in); // Grab scanner object for user input
-        int i, v, e, u, ve, w, j, neg = 0;
-        System.out.println("Enter no. of vertices and edges please");
-        v = sc.nextInt();
-        e = sc.nextInt();
-        Edge arr[] = new Edge[e]; // Array of edges
-        System.out.println("Input edges");
-        for (i = 0; i < e; i++) {
-            u = sc.nextInt();
-            ve = sc.nextInt();
-            w = sc.nextInt();
-            arr[i] = new Edge(u, ve, w);
-        }
-        int dist[]
-                = new int[v]; // Distance array for holding the finalized shortest path distance between source
-        // and all vertices
-        int p[] = new int[v]; // Parent array for holding the paths
-        for (i = 0; i < v; i++) {
-            dist[i] = Integer.MAX_VALUE; // Initializing distance values
-        }
-        dist[0] = 0;
-        p[0] = -1;
-        for (i = 0; i < v - 1; i++) {
-            for (j = 0; j < e; j++) {
-                if ((int) dist[arr[j].u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE
-                        && dist[arr[j].v] > dist[arr[j].u] + arr[j].w) {
-                    dist[arr[j].v] = dist[arr[j].u] + arr[j].w; // Update
-                    p[arr[j].v] = arr[j].u;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        // Final cycle for negative checking
-        for (j = 0; j < e; j++) {
-            if ((int) dist[arr[j].u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE && dist[arr[j].v] > dist[arr[j].u] + arr[j].w) {
-                neg = 1;
-                System.out.println("Negative cycle");
-                break;
+    public void go() {
+        // shows distance to all vertices
+        // Interactive run for understanding the
+        // class first time. Assumes source vertex is 0 and
+        try (Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in)) {
+            int i;
+            int v;
+            int e;
+            int u;
+            int ve;
+            int w;
+            int j;
+            int neg = 0;
+            System.out.println("Enter no. of vertices and edges please");
+            v = sc.nextInt();
+            e = sc.nextInt();
+            Edge[] arr = new Edge[e]; // Array of edges
+            System.out.println("Input edges");
+            for (i = 0; i < e; i++) {
+                u = sc.nextInt();
+                ve = sc.nextInt();
+                w = sc.nextInt();
+                arr[i] = new Edge(u, ve, w);
             }
-        }
-        if (neg == 0) // Go ahead and show results of computation
-        {
-            System.out.println("Distances are: ");
+            int[] dist = new int[v]; // Distance array for holding the finalized shortest path distance
+                                     // between source
+            // and all vertices
+            int[] p = new int[v]; // Parent array for holding the paths
             for (i = 0; i < v; i++) {
-                System.out.println(i + " " + dist[i]);
+                dist[i] = Integer.MAX_VALUE; // Initializing distance values
             }
-            System.out.println("Path followed:");
-            for (i = 0; i < v; i++) {
-                System.out.print("0 ");
-                printPath(p, i);
-                System.out.println();
+            dist[0] = 0;
+            p[0] = -1;
+            for (i = 0; i < v - 1; i++) {
+                for (j = 0; j < e; j++) {
+                    if (dist[arr[j].u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE && dist[arr[j].v] > dist[arr[j].u] + arr[j].w) {
+                        dist[arr[j].v] = dist[arr[j].u] + arr[j].w; // Update
+                        p[arr[j].v] = arr[j].u;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            // Final cycle for negative checking
+            for (j = 0; j < e; j++) {
+                if (dist[arr[j].u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE && dist[arr[j].v] > dist[arr[j].u] + arr[j].w) {
+                    neg = 1;
+                    System.out.println("Negative cycle");
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            if (neg == 0) { // Go ahead and show results of computation
+                System.out.println("Distances are: ");
+                for (i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+                    System.out.println(i + " " + dist[i]);
+                }
+                System.out.println("Path followed:");
+                for (i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+                    System.out.print("0 ");
+                    printPath(p, i);
+                    System.out.println();
+                }
             }
         }
-        sc.close();
     }
 
     /**
      * @param source Starting vertex
-     * @param end Ending vertex
-     * @param Edge Array of edges
+     * @param end    Ending vertex
+     * @param Edge   Array of edges
      */
-    public void show(
-            int source,
-            int end,
-            Edge arr[]) // Just shows results of computation, if graph is passed to it. The graph should
-    // be created by using addEdge() method and passed by calling getEdgeArray() method
-    {
-        int i, j, v = vertex, e = edge, neg = 0;
-        double dist[]
-                = new double[v]; // Distance array for holding the finalized shortest path distance between source
+    public void show(int source, int end,
+        Edge[] arr) { // be created by using addEdge() method and passed by calling getEdgeArray()
+                      // method // Just shows results of computation, if graph is passed to it. The
+                      // graph should
+        int i;
+        int j;
+        int v = vertex;
+        int e = edge;
+        int neg = 0;
+        double[] dist = new double[v]; // Distance array for holding the finalized shortest path
+                                       // distance between source
         // and all vertices
-        int p[] = new int[v]; // Parent array for holding the paths
+        int[] p = new int[v]; // Parent array for holding the paths
         for (i = 0; i < v; i++) {
             dist[i] = Integer.MAX_VALUE; // Initializing distance values
         }
@@ -132,8 +146,7 @@ public void show(
         p[source] = -1;
         for (i = 0; i < v - 1; i++) {
             for (j = 0; j < e; j++) {
-                if ((int) dist[arr[j].u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE
-                        && dist[arr[j].v] > dist[arr[j].u] + arr[j].w) {
+                if ((int) dist[arr[j].u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE && dist[arr[j].v] > dist[arr[j].u] + arr[j].w) {
                     dist[arr[j].v] = dist[arr[j].u] + arr[j].w; // Update
                     p[arr[j].v] = arr[j].u;
                 }
@@ -147,8 +160,7 @@ public void show(
                 break;
             }
         }
-        if (neg == 0) // Go ahead and show results of computaion
-        {
+        if (neg == 0) { // Go ahead and show results of computaion
             System.out.println("Distance is: " + dist[end]);
             System.out.println("Path followed:");
             System.out.print(source + " ");
@@ -162,8 +174,7 @@ public void show(
      * @param y End vertex
      * @param z Weight
      */
-    public void addEdge(int x, int y, int z) // Adds unidirectional edge
-    {
+    public void addEdge(int x, int y, int z) { // Adds unidirectional edge
         edges[index++] = new Edge(x, y, z);
     }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGrapfDFS.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGrapfDFS.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 7985bcb04e03..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGrapfDFS.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,79 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
-
-import java.io.BufferedReader;
-import java.io.IOException;
-import java.io.InputStreamReader;
-import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.Arrays;
-
-/**
- * Given an adjacency list of a graph adj of V no. of vertices having 0 based
- * index. Check whether the graph is bipartite or not.
- *
- * Input : {{0, 1, 0, 1}, {1, 0, 1, 0}, {0, 1, 0, 1}, {1, 0, 1, 0}}
- *
- * Output : YES
- */
-public class BipartiteGrapfDFS {
-
-    private static boolean bipartite(int V, ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj, int[] color, int node) {
-        if (color[node] == -1) {
-            color[node] = 1;
-        }
-        for (Integer it : adj.get(node)) {
-            if (color[it] == -1) {
-                color[it] = 1 - color[node];
-                if (bipartite(V, adj, color, it) == false) {
-                    return false;
-                }
-            } else if (color[it] == color[node]) {
-                return false;
-            }
-        }
-        return true;
-    }
-
-    public static boolean isBipartite(int V, ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj) {
-        // Code here
-        int[] color = new int[V + 1];
-        Arrays.fill(color, -1);
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < V; i++) {
-            if (color[i] == -1) {
-                if (!bipartite(V, adj, color, i)) {
-                    return false;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        return true;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException {
-        BufferedReader read = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
-        int t = Integer.parseInt(read.readLine().trim());
-        while (t-- > 0) {
-            String[] S = read.readLine().trim().split(" ");
-            int V = Integer.parseInt(S[0]);
-            int E = Integer.parseInt(S[1]);
-
-            ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj = new ArrayList<>();
-            for (int i = 0; i < V; i++) {
-                adj.add(new ArrayList<>());
-            }
-            for (int i = 0; i < E; i++) {
-                String[] s = read.readLine().trim().split(" ");
-                int u = Integer.parseInt(s[0]);
-                int v = Integer.parseInt(s[1]);
-                adj.get(u).add(v);
-                adj.get(v).add(u);
-            }
-
-            boolean ans = isBipartite(V, adj);
-            if (ans) {
-                System.out.println("YES");
-            } else {
-                System.out.println("NO");
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFS.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFS.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..15ae5225533c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFS.java
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to check if a given undirected graph is bipartite using Depth-First Search (DFS).
+ * A bipartite graph is a graph whose vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets such that no two vertices
+ * within the same set are adjacent. In other words, all edges must go between the two sets.
+ *
+ * The implementation leverages DFS to attempt to color the graph using two colors. If we can color the graph such
+ * that no two adjacent vertices have the same color, the graph is bipartite.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * Input (Adjacency Matrix):
+ * {{0, 1, 0, 1},
+ *  {1, 0, 1, 0},
+ *  {0, 1, 0, 1},
+ *  {1, 0, 1, 0}}
+ *
+ * Output: YES (This graph is bipartite)
+ *
+ * Input (Adjacency Matrix):
+ * {{0, 1, 1, 0},
+ *  {1, 0, 1, 0},
+ *  {1, 1, 0, 1},
+ *  {0, 0, 1, 0}}
+ *
+ * Output: NO (This graph is not bipartite)
+ */
+public final class BipartiteGraphDFS {
+    private BipartiteGraphDFS() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to perform DFS and check if the graph is bipartite.
+     *
+     * During DFS traversal, this method attempts to color each vertex in such a way
+     * that no two adjacent vertices share the same color.
+     *
+     * @param v     Number of vertices in the graph
+     * @param adj   Adjacency list of the graph where each index i contains a list of adjacent vertices
+     * @param color Array to store the color assigned to each vertex (-1 indicates uncolored)
+     * @param node  Current vertex being processed
+     * @return      True if the graph (or component of the graph) is bipartite, otherwise false
+     */
+    private static boolean bipartite(int v, ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj, int[] color, int node) {
+        if (color[node] == -1) {
+            color[node] = 1;
+        }
+        for (Integer it : adj.get(node)) {
+            if (color[it] == -1) {
+                color[it] = 1 - color[node];
+                if (!bipartite(v, adj, color, it)) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            } else if (color[it] == color[node]) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Method to check if the graph is bipartite.
+     *
+     * @param v   Number of vertices in the graph
+     * @param adj Adjacency list of the graph
+     * @return    True if the graph is bipartite, otherwise false
+     */
+    public static boolean isBipartite(int v, ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj) {
+        int[] color = new int[v + 1];
+        Arrays.fill(color, -1);
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            if (color[i] == -1) {
+                if (!bipartite(v, adj, color, i)) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dcdb08ad133e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,217 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Boruvka's algorithm to find Minimum Spanning Tree
+ * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bor%C5%AFvka%27s_algorithm)
+ *
+ * @author itakurah (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ */
+
+final class BoruvkaAlgorithm {
+    private BoruvkaAlgorithm() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents an edge in the graph
+     */
+    static class Edge {
+        final int src;
+        final int dest;
+        final int weight;
+
+        Edge(final int src, final int dest, final int weight) {
+            this.src = src;
+            this.dest = dest;
+            this.weight = weight;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents the graph
+     */
+    static class Graph {
+        final int vertex;
+        final List<Edge> edges;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructor for the graph
+         *
+         * @param vertex number of vertices
+         * @param edges  list of edges
+         */
+        Graph(final int vertex, final List<Edge> edges) {
+            if (vertex < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number of vertices must be positive");
+            }
+            if (edges == null || edges.isEmpty()) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Edges list must not be null or empty");
+            }
+            for (final var edge : edges) {
+                checkEdgeVertices(edge.src, vertex);
+                checkEdgeVertices(edge.dest, vertex);
+            }
+
+            this.vertex = vertex;
+            this.edges = edges;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a subset for Union-Find operations
+     */
+    private static class Component {
+        int parent;
+        int rank;
+
+        Component(final int parent, final int rank) {
+            this.parent = parent;
+            this.rank = rank;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents the state of Union-Find components and the result list
+     */
+    private static class BoruvkaState {
+        List<Edge> result;
+        Component[] components;
+        final Graph graph;
+
+        BoruvkaState(final Graph graph) {
+            this.result = new ArrayList<>();
+            this.components = initializeComponents(graph);
+            this.graph = graph;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Adds the cheapest edges to the result list and performs Union operation on the subsets.
+         *
+         * @param cheapest Array containing the cheapest edge for each subset.
+         */
+        void merge(final Edge[] cheapest) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < graph.vertex; ++i) {
+                if (cheapest[i] != null) {
+                    final var component1 = find(components, cheapest[i].src);
+                    final var component2 = find(components, cheapest[i].dest);
+
+                    if (component1 != component2) {
+                        result.add(cheapest[i]);
+                        union(components, component1, component2);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Checks if there are more edges to add to the result list
+         *
+         * @return true if there are more edges to add, false otherwise
+         */
+        boolean hasMoreEdgesToAdd() {
+            return result.size() < graph.vertex - 1;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Computes the cheapest edges for each subset in the Union-Find structure.
+         *
+         * @return an array containing the cheapest edge for each subset.
+         */
+        private Edge[] computeCheapestEdges() {
+            Edge[] cheapest = new Edge[graph.vertex];
+            for (final var edge : graph.edges) {
+                final var set1 = find(components, edge.src);
+                final var set2 = find(components, edge.dest);
+
+                if (set1 != set2) {
+                    if (cheapest[set1] == null || edge.weight < cheapest[set1].weight) {
+                        cheapest[set1] = edge;
+                    }
+                    if (cheapest[set2] == null || edge.weight < cheapest[set2].weight) {
+                        cheapest[set2] = edge;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            return cheapest;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Initializes subsets for Union-Find
+         *
+         * @param graph the graph
+         * @return the initialized subsets
+         */
+        private static Component[] initializeComponents(final Graph graph) {
+            Component[] components = new Component[graph.vertex];
+            for (int v = 0; v < graph.vertex; ++v) {
+                components[v] = new Component(v, 0);
+            }
+            return components;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the parent of the subset using path compression
+     *
+     * @param components array of subsets
+     * @param i          index of the subset
+     * @return the parent of the subset
+     */
+    static int find(final Component[] components, final int i) {
+        if (components[i].parent != i) {
+            components[i].parent = find(components, components[i].parent);
+        }
+        return components[i].parent;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs the Union operation for Union-Find
+     *
+     * @param components array of subsets
+     * @param x          index of the first subset
+     * @param y          index of the second subset
+     */
+    static void union(Component[] components, final int x, final int y) {
+        final int xroot = find(components, x);
+        final int yroot = find(components, y);
+
+        if (components[xroot].rank < components[yroot].rank) {
+            components[xroot].parent = yroot;
+        } else if (components[xroot].rank > components[yroot].rank) {
+            components[yroot].parent = xroot;
+        } else {
+            components[yroot].parent = xroot;
+            components[xroot].rank++;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Boruvka's algorithm to find the Minimum Spanning Tree
+     *
+     * @param graph the graph
+     * @return list of edges in the Minimum Spanning Tree
+     */
+    static List<Edge> boruvkaMST(final Graph graph) {
+        var boruvkaState = new BoruvkaState(graph);
+
+        while (boruvkaState.hasMoreEdgesToAdd()) {
+            final var cheapest = boruvkaState.computeCheapestEdges();
+            boruvkaState.merge(cheapest);
+        }
+        return boruvkaState.result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the edge vertices are in a valid range
+     *
+     * @param vertex     the vertex to check
+     * @param upperBound the upper bound for the vertex range
+     */
+    private static void checkEdgeVertices(final int vertex, final int upperBound) {
+        if (vertex < 0 || vertex >= upperBound) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Edge vertex out of range");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java
index b0add255f59a..520a1681774a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java
@@ -15,16 +15,17 @@ class Node {
 
         E name;
 
-        public Node(E name) {
+        Node(E name) {
             this.name = name;
         }
     }
 
     class Edge {
 
-        Node startNode, endNode;
+        Node startNode;
+        Node endNode;
 
-        public Edge(Node startNode, Node endNode) {
+        Edge(Node startNode, Node endNode) {
             this.startNode = startNode;
             this.endNode = endNode;
         }
@@ -33,7 +34,7 @@ public Edge(Node startNode, Node endNode) {
     ArrayList<Edge> edgeList;
     ArrayList<Node> nodeList;
 
-    public Graph() {
+    Graph() {
         edgeList = new ArrayList<Edge>();
         nodeList = new ArrayList<Node>();
     }
@@ -46,7 +47,8 @@ public Graph() {
      * @param endNode the ending Node from the edge
      */
     public void addEdge(E startNode, E endNode) {
-        Node start = null, end = null;
+        Node start = null;
+        Node end = null;
         for (Node node : nodeList) {
             if (startNode.compareTo(node.name) == 0) {
                 start = node;
@@ -79,8 +81,7 @@ public int countGraphs() {
         Set<Node> markedNodes = new HashSet<Node>();
 
         for (Node n : nodeList) {
-            if (!markedNodes.contains(n)) {
-                markedNodes.add(n);
+            if (markedNodes.add(n)) {
                 markedNodes.addAll(depthFirstSearch(n, new ArrayList<Node>()));
                 count++;
             }
@@ -107,7 +108,9 @@ public ArrayList<Node> depthFirstSearch(Node n, ArrayList<Node> visited) {
     }
 }
 
-public class ConnectedComponent {
+public final class ConnectedComponent {
+    private ConnectedComponent() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         Graph<Character> graphChars = new Graph<>();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java
index 5d5bd3c7469c..aea2b74bd13b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java
@@ -5,17 +5,17 @@
 
 class Cycle {
 
-    private int nodes, edges;
+    private final int nodes;
     private int[][] adjacencyMatrix;
     private boolean[] visited;
     ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> cycles = new ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>>();
 
-    public Cycle() {
+    Cycle() {
         Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
         System.out.print("Enter the no. of nodes: ");
         nodes = in.nextInt();
         System.out.print("Enter the no. of Edges: ");
-        edges = in.nextInt();
+        final int edges = in.nextInt();
 
         adjacencyMatrix = new int[nodes][nodes];
         visited = new boolean[nodes];
@@ -27,7 +27,8 @@ public Cycle() {
         System.out.println("Enter the details of each edges <Start Node> <End Node>");
 
         for (int i = 0; i < edges; i++) {
-            int start, end;
+            int start;
+            int end;
             start = in.nextInt();
             end = in.nextInt();
             adjacencyMatrix[start][end] = 1;
@@ -78,7 +79,9 @@ public void printAll() {
     }
 }
 
-public class Cycles {
+public final class Cycles {
+    private Cycles() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         Cycle c = new Cycle();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DIJSKSTRAS_ALGORITHM.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DIJSKSTRAS_ALGORITHM.java
deleted file mode 100644
index e852b5ebba51..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DIJSKSTRAS_ALGORITHM.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,86 +0,0 @@
-/*
-Refer https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dijkstras-shortest-path-algorithm-greedy-algo-7/
-for better understanding 
- */
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
-
-class dijkstras {
-
-    int k = 9;
-
-    int minDist(int dist[], Boolean Set[]) {
-        int min = Integer.MAX_VALUE, min_index = -1;
-
-        for (int r = 0; r < k; r++) {
-            if (Set[r] == false && dist[r] <= min) {
-                min = dist[r];
-                min_index = r;
-            }
-        }
-
-        return min_index;
-    }
-
-    void print(int dist[]) {
-        System.out.println("Vertex \t\t Distance");
-        for (int i = 0; i < k; i++) {
-            System.out.println(i + " \t " + dist[i]);
-        }
-    }
-
-    void dijkstra(int graph[][], int src) {
-        int dist[] = new int[k];
-        Boolean Set[] = new Boolean[k];
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < k; i++) {
-            dist[i] = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
-            Set[i] = false;
-        }
-
-        dist[src] = 0;
-
-        for (int c = 0; c < k - 1; c++) {
-
-            int u = minDist(dist, Set);
-
-            Set[u] = true;
-
-            for (int v = 0; v < k; v++) {
-                if (!Set[v] && graph[u][v] != 0 && dist[u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE && dist[u] + graph[u][v] < dist[v]) {
-                    dist[v] = dist[u] + graph[u][v];
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        print(dist);
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int graph[][] = new int[][]{{0, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 8, 0},
-        {4, 0, 8, 0, 0, 0, 0, 11, 0},
-        {0, 8, 0, 7, 0, 4, 0, 0, 2},
-        {0, 0, 7, 0, 9, 14, 0, 0, 0},
-        {0, 0, 0, 9, 0, 10, 0, 0, 0},
-        {0, 0, 4, 14, 10, 0, 2, 0, 0},
-        {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 1, 6},
-        {8, 11, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 7},
-        {0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 6, 7, 0}};
-        dijkstras t = new dijkstras();
-        t.dijkstra(graph, 0);
-    }//main
-
-}//djikstras
-
-/*
-OUTPUT :
-Vertex   Distance 
-0            0
-1            4
-2            12
-3            19
-4            21
-5            11
-6            9
-7            8
-8            14
- */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..da3fba88c618
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * An implementation of Dial's Algorithm for the single-source shortest path problem.
+ * This algorithm is an optimization of Dijkstra's algorithm and is particularly
+ * efficient for graphs with small, non-negative integer edge weights.
+ *
+ * It uses a bucket queue (implemented here as a List of HashSets) to store vertices,
+ * where each bucket corresponds to a specific distance from the source. This is more
+ * efficient than a standard priority queue when the range of edge weights is small.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(E + W * V), where E is the number of edges, V is the number
+ * of vertices, and W is the maximum weight of any edge.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra%27s_algorithm#Dial's_algorithm">Wikipedia - Dial's Algorithm</a>
+ */
+public final class DialsAlgorithm {
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private DialsAlgorithm() {
+    }
+    /**
+     * Represents an edge in the graph, connecting to a destination vertex with a given weight.
+     */
+    public static class Edge {
+        private final int destination;
+        private final int weight;
+
+        public Edge(int destination, int weight) {
+            this.destination = destination;
+            this.weight = weight;
+        }
+
+        public int getDestination() {
+            return destination;
+        }
+
+        public int getWeight() {
+            return weight;
+        }
+    }
+    /**
+     * Finds the shortest paths from a source vertex to all other vertices in a weighted graph.
+     *
+     * @param graph The graph represented as an adjacency list.
+     * @param source The source vertex to start from (0-indexed).
+     * @param maxEdgeWeight The maximum weight of any single edge in the graph.
+     * @return An array of integers where the value at each index `i` is the
+     * shortest distance from the source to vertex `i`. Unreachable vertices
+     * will have a value of Integer.MAX_VALUE.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the source vertex is out of bounds.
+     */
+    public static int[] run(List<List<Edge>> graph, int source, int maxEdgeWeight) {
+        int numVertices = graph.size();
+        if (source < 0 || source >= numVertices) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Source vertex is out of bounds.");
+        }
+
+        // Initialize distances array
+        int[] distances = new int[numVertices];
+        Arrays.fill(distances, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+        distances[source] = 0;
+
+        // The bucket queue. Size is determined by the max possible path length.
+        int maxPathWeight = maxEdgeWeight * (numVertices > 0 ? numVertices - 1 : 0);
+        List<Set<Integer>> buckets = new ArrayList<>(maxPathWeight + 1);
+        for (int i = 0; i <= maxPathWeight; i++) {
+            buckets.add(new HashSet<>());
+        }
+
+        // Add the source vertex to the first bucket
+        buckets.get(0).add(source);
+
+        // Process buckets in increasing order of distance
+        for (int d = 0; d <= maxPathWeight; d++) {
+            // Process all vertices in the current bucket
+            while (!buckets.get(d).isEmpty()) {
+                // Get and remove a vertex from the current bucket
+                int u = buckets.get(d).iterator().next();
+                buckets.get(d).remove(u);
+
+                // If we've found a shorter path already, skip
+                if (d > distances[u]) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                // Relax all adjacent edges
+                for (Edge edge : graph.get(u)) {
+                    int v = edge.getDestination();
+                    int weight = edge.getWeight();
+
+                    // If a shorter path to v is found
+                    if (distances[u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE && distances[u] + weight < distances[v]) {
+                        // If v was already in a bucket, remove it from the old one
+                        if (distances[v] != Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
+                            buckets.get(distances[v]).remove(v);
+                        }
+                        // Update distance and move v to the new bucket
+                        distances[v] = distances[u] + weight;
+                        buckets.get(distances[v]).add(v);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return distances;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..70699a9461f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * Dijkstra's algorithm for finding the shortest path from a single source vertex to all other vertices in a graph.
+ */
+public class DijkstraAlgorithm {
+
+    private final int vertexCount;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a Dijkstra object with the given number of vertices.
+     *
+     * @param vertexCount The number of vertices in the graph.
+     */
+    public DijkstraAlgorithm(int vertexCount) {
+        this.vertexCount = vertexCount;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Executes Dijkstra's algorithm on the provided graph to find the shortest paths from the source vertex to all other vertices.
+     *
+     * The graph is represented as an adjacency matrix where {@code graph[i][j]} represents the weight of the edge from vertex {@code i}
+     * to vertex {@code j}. A value of 0 indicates no edge exists between the vertices.
+     *
+     * @param graph The graph represented as an adjacency matrix.
+     * @param source The source vertex.
+     * @return An array where the value at each index {@code i} represents the shortest distance from the source vertex to vertex {@code i}.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the source vertex is out of range.
+     */
+    public int[] run(int[][] graph, int source) {
+        if (source < 0 || source >= vertexCount) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Incorrect source");
+        }
+
+        int[] distances = new int[vertexCount];
+        boolean[] processed = new boolean[vertexCount];
+
+        Arrays.fill(distances, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+        Arrays.fill(processed, false);
+        distances[source] = 0;
+
+        for (int count = 0; count < vertexCount - 1; count++) {
+            int u = getMinDistanceVertex(distances, processed);
+            processed[u] = true;
+
+            for (int v = 0; v < vertexCount; v++) {
+                if (!processed[v] && graph[u][v] != 0 && distances[u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE && distances[u] + graph[u][v] < distances[v]) {
+                    distances[v] = distances[u] + graph[u][v];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        printDistances(distances);
+        return distances;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the vertex with the minimum distance value from the set of vertices that have not yet been processed.
+     *
+     * @param distances The array of current shortest distances from the source vertex.
+     * @param processed The array indicating whether each vertex has been processed.
+     * @return The index of the vertex with the minimum distance value.
+     */
+    private int getMinDistanceVertex(int[] distances, boolean[] processed) {
+        int min = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+        int minIndex = -1;
+
+        for (int v = 0; v < vertexCount; v++) {
+            if (!processed[v] && distances[v] <= min) {
+                min = distances[v];
+                minIndex = v;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return minIndex;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Prints the shortest distances from the source vertex to all other vertices.
+     *
+     * @param distances The array of shortest distances.
+     */
+    private void printDistances(int[] distances) {
+        System.out.println("Vertex \t Distance");
+        for (int i = 0; i < vertexCount; i++) {
+            System.out.println(i + " \t " + distances[i]);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a686b808a970
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.TreeSet;
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
+
+/**
+ * Dijkstra's algorithm for finding the shortest path from a single source vertex to all other vertices in a graph.
+ */
+public class DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm {
+
+    private final int vertexCount;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a Dijkstra object with the given number of vertices.
+     *
+     * @param vertexCount The number of vertices in the graph.
+     */
+    public DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm(int vertexCount) {
+        this.vertexCount = vertexCount;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Executes Dijkstra's algorithm on the provided graph to find the shortest paths from the source vertex to all other vertices.
+     *
+     * The graph is represented as an adjacency matrix where {@code graph[i][j]} represents the weight of the edge from vertex {@code i}
+     * to vertex {@code j}. A value of 0 indicates no edge exists between the vertices.
+     *
+     * @param graph The graph represented as an adjacency matrix.
+     * @param source The source vertex.
+     * @return An array where the value at each index {@code i} represents the shortest distance from the source vertex to vertex {@code i}.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the source vertex is out of range.
+     */
+    public int[] run(int[][] graph, int source) {
+        if (source < 0 || source >= vertexCount) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Incorrect source");
+        }
+
+        int[] distances = new int[vertexCount];
+        boolean[] processed = new boolean[vertexCount];
+        Set<Pair<Integer, Integer>> unprocessed = new TreeSet<>();
+
+        Arrays.fill(distances, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+        Arrays.fill(processed, false);
+        distances[source] = 0;
+        unprocessed.add(Pair.of(0, source));
+
+        while (!unprocessed.isEmpty()) {
+            Pair<Integer, Integer> distanceAndU = unprocessed.iterator().next();
+            unprocessed.remove(distanceAndU);
+            int u = distanceAndU.getRight();
+            processed[u] = true;
+
+            for (int v = 0; v < vertexCount; v++) {
+                if (!processed[v] && graph[u][v] != 0 && distances[u] != Integer.MAX_VALUE && distances[u] + graph[u][v] < distances[v]) {
+                    unprocessed.remove(Pair.of(distances[v], v));
+                    distances[v] = distances[u] + graph[u][v];
+                    unprocessed.add(Pair.of(distances[v], v));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return distances;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..db716580d689
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,251 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * The EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm class implements Edmonds' Blossom Algorithm
+ * to find the maximum matching in a general graph. The algorithm efficiently
+ * handles cases where the graph contains odd-length cycles by contracting
+ * "blossoms" and finding augmenting paths.
+ *<p>
+ * <a href="https://stanford.edu/~rezab/classes/cme323/S16/projects_reports/shoemaker_vare.pdf">Documentation of Algorithm (Stanford University)</a>
+ * <p></p>
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blossom_algorithm">Wikipedia Documentation</a>
+ */
+public final class EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm {
+
+    private EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm() {
+    }
+
+    private static final int UNMATCHED = -1; // Constant to represent unmatched vertices
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the maximum matching in a general graph (Edmonds Blossom Algorithm).
+     *
+     * @param edges A list of edges in the graph.
+     * @param vertexCount The number of vertices in the graph.
+     * @return A list of matched pairs of vertices.
+     */
+    public static List<int[]> maximumMatching(Iterable<int[]> edges, int vertexCount) {
+        List<List<Integer>> graph = new ArrayList<>(vertexCount);
+
+        // Initialize each vertex's adjacency list.
+        for (int i = 0; i < vertexCount; i++) {
+            graph.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+
+        // Populate the graph with the edges
+        for (int[] edge : edges) {
+            int u = edge[0];
+            int v = edge[1];
+            graph.get(u).add(v);
+            graph.get(v).add(u);
+        }
+
+        // Initial matching array and auxiliary data structures
+        int[] match = new int[vertexCount];
+        Arrays.fill(match, UNMATCHED); // All vertices are initially unmatched
+        int[] parent = new int[vertexCount];
+        int[] base = new int[vertexCount];
+        boolean[] inBlossom = new boolean[vertexCount]; // Indicates if a vertex is part of a blossom
+        boolean[] inQueue = new boolean[vertexCount]; // Tracks vertices in the BFS queue
+
+        // Main logic for finding maximum matching
+        for (int u = 0; u < vertexCount; u++) {
+            if (match[u] == UNMATCHED) {
+                // BFS initialization
+                Arrays.fill(parent, UNMATCHED);
+                for (int i = 0; i < vertexCount; i++) {
+                    base[i] = i; // Each vertex is its own base initially
+                }
+                Arrays.fill(inBlossom, false);
+                Arrays.fill(inQueue, false);
+
+                Queue<Integer> queue = new LinkedList<>();
+                queue.add(u);
+                inQueue[u] = true;
+
+                boolean augmentingPathFound = false;
+
+                // BFS to find augmenting paths
+                while (!queue.isEmpty() && !augmentingPathFound) {
+                    int current = queue.poll(); // Use a different name for clarity
+                    for (int y : graph.get(current)) {
+                        // Skip if we are looking at the same edge as the current match
+                        if (match[current] == y) {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+
+                        if (base[current] == base[y]) {
+                            continue; // Avoid self-loops
+                        }
+
+                        if (parent[y] == UNMATCHED) {
+                            // Case 1: y is unmatched, we've found an augmenting path
+                            if (match[y] == UNMATCHED) {
+                                parent[y] = current;
+                                augmentingPathFound = true;
+                                updateMatching(match, parent, y); // Augment along this path
+                                break;
+                            }
+
+                            // Case 2: y is matched, add y's match to the queue
+                            int z = match[y];
+                            parent[y] = current;
+                            parent[z] = y;
+                            if (!inQueue[z]) {
+                                queue.add(z);
+                                inQueue[z] = true;
+                            }
+                        } else {
+                            // Case 3: Both x and y have a parent; check for a cycle/blossom
+                            int baseU = findBase(base, parent, current, y);
+                            if (baseU != UNMATCHED) {
+                                contractBlossom(new BlossomData(new BlossomAuxData(queue, parent, base, inBlossom, match, inQueue), current, y, baseU));
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Create result list of matched pairs
+        List<int[]> matchingResult = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int v = 0; v < vertexCount; v++) {
+            if (match[v] != UNMATCHED && v < match[v]) {
+                matchingResult.add(new int[] {v, match[v]});
+            }
+        }
+
+        return matchingResult;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Updates the matching along the augmenting path found.
+     *
+     * @param match The matching array.
+     * @param parent The parent array used during the BFS.
+     * @param u The starting node of the augmenting path.
+     */
+    private static void updateMatching(int[] match, int[] parent, int u) {
+        while (u != UNMATCHED) {
+            int v = parent[u];
+            int next = match[v];
+            match[v] = u;
+            match[u] = v;
+            u = next;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the base of a node in the blossom.
+     *
+     * @param base The base array.
+     * @param parent The parent array.
+     * @param u One end of the edge.
+     * @param v The other end of the edge.
+     * @return The base of the node or UNMATCHED.
+     */
+    private static int findBase(int[] base, int[] parent, int u, int v) {
+        boolean[] visited = new boolean[base.length];
+
+        // Mark ancestors of u
+        int currentU = u;
+        while (true) {
+            currentU = base[currentU]; // Move assignment out of the condition
+            visited[currentU] = true;
+            if (parent[currentU] == UNMATCHED) {
+                break;
+            }
+            currentU = parent[currentU]; // Move assignment out of the condition
+        }
+
+        // Find the common ancestor of v
+        int currentV = v;
+        while (true) {
+            currentV = base[currentV]; // Move assignment out of the condition
+            if (visited[currentV]) {
+                return currentV;
+            }
+            currentV = parent[currentV]; // Move assignment out of the condition
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Contracts a blossom and updates the base array.
+     *
+     * @param blossomData The data containing the parameters related to the blossom contraction.
+     */
+    private static void contractBlossom(BlossomData blossomData) {
+        for (int x = blossomData.u; blossomData.auxData.base[x] != blossomData.lca; x = blossomData.auxData.parent[blossomData.auxData.match[x]]) {
+            int baseX = blossomData.auxData.base[x];
+            int matchBaseX = blossomData.auxData.base[blossomData.auxData.match[x]];
+
+            // Split the inner assignment into two separate assignments
+            blossomData.auxData.inBlossom[baseX] = true;
+            blossomData.auxData.inBlossom[matchBaseX] = true;
+        }
+
+        for (int x = blossomData.v; blossomData.auxData.base[x] != blossomData.lca; x = blossomData.auxData.parent[blossomData.auxData.match[x]]) {
+            int baseX = blossomData.auxData.base[x];
+            int matchBaseX = blossomData.auxData.base[blossomData.auxData.match[x]];
+
+            // Split the inner assignment into two separate assignments
+            blossomData.auxData.inBlossom[baseX] = true;
+            blossomData.auxData.inBlossom[matchBaseX] = true;
+        }
+
+        // Update the base for all marked vertices
+        for (int i = 0; i < blossomData.auxData.base.length; i++) {
+            if (blossomData.auxData.inBlossom[blossomData.auxData.base[i]]) {
+                blossomData.auxData.base[i] = blossomData.lca; // Contract to the lowest common ancestor
+                if (!blossomData.auxData.inQueue[i]) {
+                    blossomData.auxData.queue.add(i); // Add to queue if not already present
+                    blossomData.auxData.inQueue[i] = true;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Auxiliary data class to encapsulate common parameters for the blossom operations.
+     */
+    static class BlossomAuxData {
+        Queue<Integer> queue; // Queue for BFS traversal
+        int[] parent; // Parent array to store the paths
+        int[] base; // Base array to track the base of each vertex
+        boolean[] inBlossom; // Flags to indicate if a vertex is in a blossom
+        int[] match; // Array to store matches for each vertex
+        boolean[] inQueue; // Flags to track vertices in the BFS queue
+
+        BlossomAuxData(Queue<Integer> queue, int[] parent, int[] base, boolean[] inBlossom, int[] match, boolean[] inQueue) {
+            this.queue = queue;
+            this.parent = parent;
+            this.base = base;
+            this.inBlossom = inBlossom;
+            this.match = match;
+            this.inQueue = inQueue;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * BlossomData class with reduced parameters.
+     */
+    static class BlossomData {
+        BlossomAuxData auxData; // Use the auxiliary data class
+        int u; // One vertex in the edge
+        int v; // Another vertex in the edge
+        int lca; // Lowest Common Ancestor
+
+        BlossomData(BlossomAuxData auxData, int u, int v, int lca) {
+            this.auxData = auxData;
+            this.u = u;
+            this.v = v;
+            this.lca = lca;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java
index 6a3eb41e9424..e5e673a21794 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java
@@ -1,77 +1,85 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
+/**
+ * The {@code FloydWarshall} class provides an implementation of the Floyd-Warshall algorithm
+ * to compute the shortest paths between all pairs of vertices in a weighted graph.
+ * It handles both positive and negative edge weights but does not support negative cycles.
+ * The algorithm is based on dynamic programming and runs in O(V^3) time complexity,
+ * where V is the number of vertices in the graph.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The distance matrix is updated iteratively to find the shortest distance between any two vertices
+ * by considering each vertex as an intermediate step.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * Reference: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floyd%E2%80%93Warshall_algorithm">Floyd-Warshall Algorithm</a>
+ */
 public class FloydWarshall {
 
-    private int DistanceMatrix[][];
-    private int numberofvertices; // number of vertices in the graph
+    private int[][] distanceMatrix;
+    private int numberofvertices;
     public static final int INFINITY = 999;
 
+    /**
+     * Constructs a Floyd-Warshall instance for a graph with the given number of vertices.
+     * Initializes the distance matrix for the graph.
+     *
+     * @param numberofvertices The number of vertices in the graph.
+     */
     public FloydWarshall(int numberofvertices) {
-        DistanceMatrix
-                = new int[numberofvertices + 1][numberofvertices
-                + 1]; // stores the value of distance from all the possible path form the source
-        // vertex to destination vertex
+        distanceMatrix = new int[numberofvertices + 1][numberofvertices + 1];
         // The matrix is initialized with 0's by default
         this.numberofvertices = numberofvertices;
     }
 
-    public void floydwarshall(
-            int AdjacencyMatrix[][]) // calculates all the distances from source to destination vertex
-    {
+    /**
+     * Executes the Floyd-Warshall algorithm to compute the shortest path between all pairs of vertices.
+     * It uses an adjacency matrix to calculate the distance matrix by considering each vertex as an intermediate point.
+     *
+     * @param adjacencyMatrix The weighted adjacency matrix representing the graph.
+     *                        A value of 0 means no direct edge between the vertices, except for diagonal elements which are 0 (distance to self).
+     */
+    public void floydwarshall(int[][] adjacencyMatrix) {
+        // Initialize the distance matrix with the adjacency matrix.
         for (int source = 1; source <= numberofvertices; source++) {
-            for (int destination = 1; destination <= numberofvertices; destination++) {
-                DistanceMatrix[source][destination] = AdjacencyMatrix[source][destination];
-            }
+            System.arraycopy(adjacencyMatrix[source], 1, distanceMatrix[source], 1, numberofvertices);
         }
         for (int intermediate = 1; intermediate <= numberofvertices; intermediate++) {
             for (int source = 1; source <= numberofvertices; source++) {
                 for (int destination = 1; destination <= numberofvertices; destination++) {
-                    if (DistanceMatrix[source][intermediate] + DistanceMatrix[intermediate][destination]
-                            < DistanceMatrix[source][destination]) // if the new distance calculated is less then the earlier shortest
-                    // calculated distance it get replaced as new shortest distance
-                    {
-                        DistanceMatrix[source][destination]
-                                = DistanceMatrix[source][intermediate] + DistanceMatrix[intermediate][destination];
+                    // Update distance if a shorter path through the intermediate vertex exists.
+                    if (distanceMatrix[source][intermediate] + distanceMatrix[intermediate][destination] < distanceMatrix[source][destination]) {
+                        distanceMatrix[source][destination] = distanceMatrix[source][intermediate] + distanceMatrix[intermediate][destination];
                     }
                 }
             }
         }
+
+        printDistanceMatrix();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Prints the distance matrix representing the shortest paths between all pairs of vertices.
+     * The rows and columns correspond to the source and destination vertices.
+     */
+    private void printDistanceMatrix() {
+        // Print header for vertices
         for (int source = 1; source <= numberofvertices; source++) {
             System.out.print("\t" + source);
         }
         System.out.println();
+
+        // Print the distance matrix
         for (int source = 1; source <= numberofvertices; source++) {
             System.out.print(source + "\t");
             for (int destination = 1; destination <= numberofvertices; destination++) {
-                System.out.print(DistanceMatrix[source][destination] + "\t");
+                System.out.print(distanceMatrix[source][destination] + "\t");
             }
             System.out.println();
         }
     }
 
-    public static void main(String... arg) {
-        Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter the number of vertices");
-        int numberOfVertices = scan.nextInt();
-        int[][] adjacencyMatrix = new int[numberOfVertices + 1][numberOfVertices + 1];
-        System.out.println("Enter the Weighted Matrix for the graph");
-        for (int source = 1; source <= numberOfVertices; source++) {
-            for (int destination = 1; destination <= numberOfVertices; destination++) {
-                adjacencyMatrix[source][destination] = scan.nextInt();
-                if (source == destination) {
-                    adjacencyMatrix[source][destination] = 0;
-                    continue;
-                }
-                if (adjacencyMatrix[source][destination] == 0) {
-                    adjacencyMatrix[source][destination] = INFINITY;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        System.out.println("The Transitive Closure of the Graph");
-        FloydWarshall floydwarshall = new FloydWarshall(numberOfVertices);
-        floydwarshall.floydwarshall(adjacencyMatrix);
-        scan.close();
+    public Object[] getDistanceMatrix() {
+        return distanceMatrix;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FordFulkerson.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FordFulkerson.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b3a2053d54b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FordFulkerson.java
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm to compute the maximum flow
+ * in a flow network.
+ *
+ * <p>The algorithm uses breadth-first search (BFS) to find augmenting paths from
+ * the source vertex to the sink vertex, updating the flow in the network until
+ * no more augmenting paths can be found.</p>
+ */
+public final class FordFulkerson {
+    private static final int INF = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+
+    private FordFulkerson() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the maximum flow in a flow network using the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param vertexCount the number of vertices in the flow network
+     * @param capacity    a 2D array representing the capacity of edges in the network
+     * @param flow        a 2D array representing the current flow in the network
+     * @param source      the source vertex in the flow network
+     * @param sink        the sink vertex in the flow network
+     * @return the total maximum flow from the source to the sink
+     */
+    public static int networkFlow(int vertexCount, int[][] capacity, int[][] flow, int source, int sink) {
+        int totalFlow = 0;
+
+        while (true) {
+            int[] parent = new int[vertexCount];
+            boolean[] visited = new boolean[vertexCount];
+            Queue<Integer> queue = new LinkedList<>();
+
+            queue.add(source);
+            visited[source] = true;
+            parent[source] = -1;
+
+            while (!queue.isEmpty() && !visited[sink]) {
+                int current = queue.poll();
+
+                for (int next = 0; next < vertexCount; next++) {
+                    if (!visited[next] && capacity[current][next] - flow[current][next] > 0) {
+                        queue.add(next);
+                        visited[next] = true;
+                        parent[next] = current;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            if (!visited[sink]) {
+                break; // No more augmenting paths
+            }
+
+            int pathFlow = INF;
+            for (int v = sink; v != source; v = parent[v]) {
+                int u = parent[v];
+                pathFlow = Math.min(pathFlow, capacity[u][v] - flow[u][v]);
+            }
+
+            for (int v = sink; v != source; v = parent[v]) {
+                int u = parent[v];
+                flow[u][v] += pathFlow;
+                flow[v][u] -= pathFlow;
+            }
+
+            totalFlow += pathFlow;
+        }
+
+        return totalFlow;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java
index 11c1e8cd2294..b0970f36ddc5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java
@@ -4,38 +4,38 @@
 
 class AdjacencyListGraph<E extends Comparable<E>> {
 
-    ArrayList<Vertex> verticies;
+    ArrayList<Vertex> vertices;
 
-    public AdjacencyListGraph() {
-        verticies = new ArrayList<>();
+    AdjacencyListGraph() {
+        vertices = new ArrayList<>();
     }
 
     private class Vertex {
 
         E data;
-        ArrayList<Vertex> adjacentVerticies;
+        ArrayList<Vertex> adjacentVertices;
 
-        public Vertex(E data) {
-            adjacentVerticies = new ArrayList<>();
+        Vertex(E data) {
+            adjacentVertices = new ArrayList<>();
             this.data = data;
         }
 
         public boolean addAdjacentVertex(Vertex to) {
-            for (Vertex v : adjacentVerticies) {
+            for (Vertex v : adjacentVertices) {
                 if (v.data.compareTo(to.data) == 0) {
                     return false; // the edge already exists
                 }
             }
-            return adjacentVerticies.add(to); // this will return true;
+            return adjacentVertices.add(to); // this will return true;
         }
 
         public boolean removeAdjacentVertex(E to) {
             // use indexes here so it is possible to
             // remove easily without implementing
             // equals method that ArrayList.remove(Object o) uses
-            for (int i = 0; i < adjacentVerticies.size(); i++) {
-                if (adjacentVerticies.get(i).data.compareTo(to) == 0) {
-                    adjacentVerticies.remove(i);
+            for (int i = 0; i < adjacentVertices.size(); i++) {
+                if (adjacentVertices.get(i).data.compareTo(to) == 0) {
+                    adjacentVertices.remove(i);
                     return true;
                 }
             }
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ public boolean removeAdjacentVertex(E to) {
 
     /**
      * this method removes an edge from the graph between two specified
-     * verticies
+     * vertices
      *
      * @param from the data of the vertex the edge is from
      * @param to the data of the vertex the edge is going to
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ public boolean removeAdjacentVertex(E to) {
      */
     public boolean removeEdge(E from, E to) {
         Vertex fromV = null;
-        for (Vertex v : verticies) {
+        for (Vertex v : vertices) {
             if (from.compareTo(v.data) == 0) {
                 fromV = v;
                 break;
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ public boolean removeEdge(E from, E to) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * this method adds an edge to the graph between two specified verticies
+     * this method adds an edge to the graph between two specified vertices
      *
      * @param from the data of the vertex the edge is from
      * @param to the data of the vertex the edge is going to
@@ -75,8 +75,9 @@ public boolean removeEdge(E from, E to) {
      * already did
      */
     public boolean addEdge(E from, E to) {
-        Vertex fromV = null, toV = null;
-        for (Vertex v : verticies) {
+        Vertex fromV = null;
+        Vertex toV = null;
+        for (Vertex v : vertices) {
             if (from.compareTo(v.data) == 0) { // see if from vertex already exists
                 fromV = v;
             } else if (to.compareTo(v.data) == 0) { // see if to vertex already exists
@@ -88,29 +89,29 @@ public boolean addEdge(E from, E to) {
         }
         if (fromV == null) {
             fromV = new Vertex(from);
-            verticies.add(fromV);
+            vertices.add(fromV);
         }
         if (toV == null) {
             toV = new Vertex(to);
-            verticies.add(toV);
+            vertices.add(toV);
         }
         return fromV.addAdjacentVertex(toV);
     }
 
     /**
-     * this gives a list of verticies in the graph and their adjacencies
+     * this gives a list of vertices in the graph and their adjacencies
      *
      * @return returns a string describing this graph
      */
     @Override
     public String toString() {
         StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
-        for (Vertex v : verticies) {
+        for (Vertex v : vertices) {
             sb.append("Vertex: ");
             sb.append(v.data);
             sb.append("\n");
-            sb.append("Adjacent verticies: ");
-            for (Vertex v2 : v.adjacentVerticies) {
+            sb.append("Adjacent vertices: ");
+            for (Vertex v2 : v.adjacentVertices) {
                 sb.append(v2.data);
                 sb.append(" ");
             }
@@ -120,9 +121,11 @@ public String toString() {
     }
 }
 
-public class Graphs {
+public final class Graphs {
+    private Graphs() {
+    }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
         AdjacencyListGraph<Integer> graph = new AdjacencyListGraph<>();
         assert graph.addEdge(1, 2);
         assert graph.addEdge(1, 5);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/HamiltonianCycle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/HamiltonianCycle.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5c95850c4971
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/HamiltonianCycle.java
@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * Java program to find a Hamiltonian Cycle in a graph.
+ * A Hamiltonian Cycle is a cycle that visits every vertex exactly once
+ * and returns to the starting vertex.
+ *
+ * <p>For more details, see the
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_path">Wikipedia article</a>.
+ *
+ * @author  <a href="https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey">Akshay Dubey</a>
+ */
+public class HamiltonianCycle {
+
+    private int vertex;
+    private int pathCount;
+    private int[] cycle;
+    private int[][] graph;
+
+    /**
+     * Finds a Hamiltonian Cycle for the given graph.
+     *
+     * @param graph Adjacency matrix representing the graph G(V, E), where V is
+     *              the set of vertices and E is the set of edges.
+     * @return An array representing the Hamiltonian cycle if found, otherwise an
+     *         array filled with -1 indicating no Hamiltonian cycle exists.
+     */
+    public int[] findHamiltonianCycle(int[][] graph) {
+        // Single vertex graph
+        if (graph.length == 1) {
+            return new int[] {0, 0};
+        }
+
+        this.vertex = graph.length;
+        this.cycle = new int[this.vertex + 1];
+
+        // Initialize the cycle array with -1 to represent unvisited vertices
+        Arrays.fill(this.cycle, -1);
+
+        this.graph = graph;
+        this.cycle[0] = 0;
+        this.pathCount = 1;
+        if (!isPathFound(0)) {
+            Arrays.fill(this.cycle, -1);
+        } else {
+            this.cycle[this.cycle.length - 1] = this.cycle[0];
+        }
+
+        return cycle;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively searches for a Hamiltonian cycle from the given vertex.
+     *
+     * @param vertex The current vertex from which to explore paths.
+     * @return {@code true} if a Hamiltonian cycle is found, otherwise {@code false}.
+     */
+    public boolean isPathFound(int vertex) {
+        boolean isLastVertexConnectedToStart = this.graph[vertex][0] == 1 && this.pathCount == this.vertex;
+        if (isLastVertexConnectedToStart) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        // If all vertices are visited but the last vertex is not connected to the start
+        if (this.pathCount == this.vertex) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        for (int v = 0; v < this.vertex; v++) {
+            if (this.graph[vertex][v] == 1) { // Check if there is an edge
+                this.cycle[this.pathCount++] = v; // Add the vertex to the cycle
+                this.graph[vertex][v] = 0;
+                this.graph[v][vertex] = 0;
+
+                // Recursively attempt to complete the cycle
+                if (!isPresent(v)) {
+                    return isPathFound(v);
+                }
+
+                // Restore the edge if the path does not work
+                this.graph[vertex][v] = 1;
+                this.graph[v][vertex] = 1;
+
+                this.cycle[--this.pathCount] = -1;
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a vertex is already part of the current Hamiltonian path.
+     *
+     * @param vertex The vertex to check.
+     * @return {@code true} if the vertex is already in the path, otherwise {@code false}.
+     */
+    public boolean isPresent(int vertex) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < pathCount - 1; i++) {
+            if (cycle[i] == vertex) {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..351bd5b009e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,200 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements Johnson's algorithm for finding all-pairs shortest paths in a weighted,
+ * directed graph that may contain negative edge weights.
+ *
+ * Johnson's algorithm works by using the Bellman-Ford algorithm to compute a transformation of the
+ * input graph that removes all negative weights, allowing Dijkstra's algorithm to be used for
+ * efficient shortest path computations.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(V^2 * log(V) + V*E)
+ * Space Complexity: O(V^2)
+ *
+ * Where V is the number of vertices and E is the number of edges in the graph.
+ *
+ * For more information, please visit {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson%27s_algorithm}
+ */
+public final class JohnsonsAlgorithm {
+
+    private static final double INF = Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+
+    private JohnsonsAlgorithm() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Executes Johnson's algorithm on the given graph.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Add a new vertex to the graph and run Bellman-Ford to compute modified weights
+     * 2. t the graph using the modified weights
+     * 3. Run Dijkstra's algorithm for each vertex to compute the shortest paths
+     * The final result is a 2D array of shortest distances between all pairs of vertices.
+     *
+     * @param graph The input graph represented as an adjacency matrix.
+     * @return A 2D array representing the shortest distances between all pairs of vertices.
+     */
+    public static double[][] johnsonAlgorithm(double[][] graph) {
+        int numVertices = graph.length;
+        double[][] edges = convertToEdgeList(graph);
+
+        double[] modifiedWeights = bellmanFord(edges, numVertices);
+
+        double[][] reweightedGraph = reweightGraph(graph, modifiedWeights);
+
+        double[][] shortestDistances = new double[numVertices][numVertices];
+        for (int source = 0; source < numVertices; source++) {
+            shortestDistances[source] = dijkstra(reweightedGraph, source, modifiedWeights);
+        }
+
+        return shortestDistances;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts the adjacency matrix representation of the graph to an edge list.
+     *
+     * @param graph The input graph as an adjacency matrix.
+     * @return An array of edges, where each edge is represented as [from, to, weight].
+     */
+    public static double[][] convertToEdgeList(double[][] graph) {
+        int numVertices = graph.length;
+        List<double[]> edgeList = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < numVertices; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < numVertices; j++) {
+                if (i != j && !Double.isInfinite(graph[i][j])) {
+                    // Only add edges that are not self-loops and have a finite weight
+                    edgeList.add(new double[] {i, j, graph[i][j]});
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return edgeList.toArray(new double[0][]);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Implements the Bellman-Ford algorithm to compute the shortest paths from a new vertex
+     * to all other vertices. This is used to calculate the weight function h(v) for reweighting.
+     *
+     * @param edges The edge list of the graph.
+     * @param numVertices The number of vertices in the original graph.
+     * @return An array of modified weights for each vertex.
+     */
+    private static double[] bellmanFord(double[][] edges, int numVertices) {
+        double[] dist = new double[numVertices + 1];
+        Arrays.fill(dist, INF);
+        dist[numVertices] = 0;
+
+        // Add edges from the new vertex to all original vertices
+        double[][] allEdges = Arrays.copyOf(edges, edges.length + numVertices);
+        for (int i = 0; i < numVertices; i++) {
+            allEdges[edges.length + i] = new double[] {numVertices, i, 0};
+        }
+
+        // Relax all edges V times
+        for (int i = 0; i < numVertices; i++) {
+            for (double[] edge : allEdges) {
+                int u = (int) edge[0];
+                int v = (int) edge[1];
+                double weight = edge[2];
+                if (dist[u] != INF && dist[u] + weight < dist[v]) {
+                    dist[v] = dist[u] + weight;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Check for negative weight cycles
+        for (double[] edge : allEdges) {
+            int u = (int) edge[0];
+            int v = (int) edge[1];
+            double weight = edge[2];
+            if (dist[u] + weight < dist[v]) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Graph contains a negative weight cycle");
+            }
+        }
+
+        return Arrays.copyOf(dist, numVertices);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Reweights the graph using the modified weights computed by Bellman-Ford.
+     *
+     * @param graph The original graph.
+     * @param modifiedWeights The modified weights from Bellman-Ford.
+     * @return The reweighted graph.
+     */
+    public static double[][] reweightGraph(double[][] graph, double[] modifiedWeights) {
+        int numVertices = graph.length;
+        double[][] reweightedGraph = new double[numVertices][numVertices];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < numVertices; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < numVertices; j++) {
+                if (graph[i][j] != 0) {
+                    // New weight = original weight + h(u) - h(v)
+                    reweightedGraph[i][j] = graph[i][j] + modifiedWeights[i] - modifiedWeights[j];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return reweightedGraph;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Implements Dijkstra's algorithm for finding shortest paths from a source vertex.
+     *
+     * @param reweightedGraph The reweighted graph to run Dijkstra's on.
+     * @param source The source vertex.
+     * @param modifiedWeights The modified weights from Bellman-Ford.
+     * @return An array of shortest distances from the source to all other vertices.
+     */
+    public static double[] dijkstra(double[][] reweightedGraph, int source, double[] modifiedWeights) {
+        int numVertices = reweightedGraph.length;
+        double[] dist = new double[numVertices];
+        boolean[] visited = new boolean[numVertices];
+        Arrays.fill(dist, INF);
+        dist[source] = 0;
+
+        for (int count = 0; count < numVertices - 1; count++) {
+            int u = minDistance(dist, visited);
+            visited[u] = true;
+
+            for (int v = 0; v < numVertices; v++) {
+                if (!visited[v] && reweightedGraph[u][v] != 0 && dist[u] != INF && dist[u] + reweightedGraph[u][v] < dist[v]) {
+                    dist[v] = dist[u] + reweightedGraph[u][v];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Adjust distances back to the original graph weights
+        for (int i = 0; i < numVertices; i++) {
+            if (dist[i] != INF) {
+                dist[i] = dist[i] - modifiedWeights[source] + modifiedWeights[i];
+            }
+        }
+
+        return dist;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the vertex with the minimum distance value from the set of vertices
+     * not yet included in the shortest path tree.
+     *
+     * @param dist Array of distances.
+     * @param visited Array of visited vertices.
+     * @return The index of the vertex with minimum distance.
+     */
+    public static int minDistance(double[] dist, boolean[] visited) {
+        double min = INF;
+        int minIndex = -1;
+        for (int v = 0; v < dist.length; v++) {
+            if (!visited[v] && dist[v] <= min) {
+                min = dist[v];
+                minIndex = v;
+            }
+        }
+        return minIndex;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java
index 4f1d2c2af3d9..9a97bc3f4808 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java
@@ -1,120 +1,128 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.Map;
-import java.util.LinkedHashMap;
 import java.util.HashMap;
-import java.util.Set;
-import java.util.Queue;
+import java.util.LinkedHashMap;
 import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Queue;
+import java.util.Set;
 
 /**
- * An algorithm that sorts a graph in toplogical order.
- */
-/**
- * A class that represents the adjaceny list of a graph
+ * A class representing the adjacency list of a directed graph. The adjacency list
+ * maintains a mapping of vertices to their adjacent vertices.
+ *
+ * @param <E> the type of vertices, extending Comparable to ensure that vertices
+ * can be compared
  */
 class AdjacencyList<E extends Comparable<E>> {
 
     Map<E, ArrayList<E>> adj;
 
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize the adjacency list.
+     */
     AdjacencyList() {
-        adj = new LinkedHashMap<E, ArrayList<E>>();
+        adj = new LinkedHashMap<>();
     }
 
     /**
-     * This function adds an Edge to the adjaceny list
+     * Adds a directed edge from one vertex to another in the adjacency list.
+     * If the vertex does not exist, it will be added to the list.
      *
-     * @param from , the vertex the edge is from
-     * @param to, the vertex the edge is going to
+     * @param from the starting vertex of the directed edge
+     * @param to   the destination vertex of the directed edge
      */
     void addEdge(E from, E to) {
-        try {
-            adj.get(from).add(to);
-        } catch (Exception E) {
-            adj.put(from, new ArrayList<E>());
-            adj.get(from).add(to);
+        if (!adj.containsKey(from)) {
+            adj.put(from, new ArrayList<>());
         }
+        adj.get(from).add(to);
         if (!adj.containsKey(to)) {
-            adj.put(to, new ArrayList<E>());
+            adj.put(to, new ArrayList<>());
         }
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param v, A vertex in a graph
-     * @return returns an ArrayList of all the adjacents of vertex v
+     * Retrieves the list of adjacent vertices for a given vertex.
+     *
+     * @param v the vertex whose adjacent vertices are to be fetched
+     * @return an ArrayList of adjacent vertices for vertex v
      */
     ArrayList<E> getAdjacents(E v) {
         return adj.get(v);
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return returns a set of all vertices in the graph
+     * Retrieves the set of all vertices present in the graph.
+     *
+     * @return a set containing all vertices in the graph
      */
     Set<E> getVertices() {
         return adj.keySet();
     }
-
-    /**
-     * Prints the adjacency list
-     */
-    void printGraph() {
-        for (E vertex : adj.keySet()) {
-            System.out.print(vertex + " : ");
-            for (E adjacent : adj.get(vertex)) {
-                System.out.print(adjacent + " ");
-            }
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-    }
 }
 
+/**
+ * A class that performs topological sorting on a directed graph using Kahn's algorithm.
+ *
+ * @param <E> the type of vertices, extending Comparable to ensure that vertices
+ * can be compared
+ */
 class TopologicalSort<E extends Comparable<E>> {
 
     AdjacencyList<E> graph;
     Map<E, Integer> inDegree;
 
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize the topological sorting class with a given graph.
+     *
+     * @param graph the directed graph represented as an adjacency list
+     */
     TopologicalSort(AdjacencyList<E> graph) {
         this.graph = graph;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculates the in degree of all vertices
+     * Calculates the in-degree of all vertices in the graph. The in-degree is
+     * the number of edges directed into a vertex.
      */
     void calculateInDegree() {
         inDegree = new HashMap<>();
         for (E vertex : graph.getVertices()) {
-            if (!inDegree.containsKey(vertex)) {
-                inDegree.put(vertex, 0);
-            }
+            inDegree.putIfAbsent(vertex, 0);
             for (E adjacent : graph.getAdjacents(vertex)) {
-                try {
-                    inDegree.put(adjacent, inDegree.get(adjacent) + 1);
-                } catch (Exception e) {
-                    inDegree.put(adjacent, 1);
-                }
+                inDegree.put(adjacent, inDegree.getOrDefault(adjacent, 0) + 1);
             }
         }
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns an ArrayList with vertices arranged in topological order
+     * Returns an ArrayList containing the vertices of the graph arranged in
+     * topological order. Topological sorting ensures that for any directed edge
+     * (u, v), vertex u appears before vertex v in the ordering.
+     *
+     * @return an ArrayList of vertices in topological order
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the graph contains a cycle
      */
     ArrayList<E> topSortOrder() {
         calculateInDegree();
-        Queue<E> q = new LinkedList<E>();
+        Queue<E> q = new LinkedList<>();
 
-        for (E vertex : inDegree.keySet()) {
-            if (inDegree.get(vertex) == 0) {
-                q.add(vertex);
+        for (var entry : inDegree.entrySet()) {
+            if (entry.getValue() == 0) {
+                q.add(entry.getKey());
             }
         }
 
         ArrayList<E> answer = new ArrayList<>();
+        int processedVertices = 0;
 
         while (!q.isEmpty()) {
             E current = q.poll();
             answer.add(current);
+            processedVertices++;
+
             for (E adjacent : graph.getAdjacents(current)) {
                 inDegree.put(adjacent, inDegree.get(adjacent) - 1);
                 if (inDegree.get(adjacent) == 0) {
@@ -123,19 +131,23 @@ ArrayList<E> topSortOrder() {
             }
         }
 
-        return answer;
+        if (processedVertices != graph.getVertices().size()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Graph contains a cycle, topological sort not possible");
+        }
 
+        return answer;
     }
 }
 
 /**
- * A driver class that sorts a given graph in topological order.
+ * A driver class that sorts a given graph in topological order using Kahn's algorithm.
  */
-public class KahnsAlgorithm {
+public final class KahnsAlgorithm {
+    private KahnsAlgorithm() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        //Graph definition and initialization
+        // Graph definition and initialization
         AdjacencyList<String> graph = new AdjacencyList<>();
         graph.addEdge("a", "b");
         graph.addEdge("c", "a");
@@ -146,7 +158,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
 
         TopologicalSort<String> topSort = new TopologicalSort<>(graph);
 
-        //Printing the order
+        // Printing the topological order
         for (String s : topSort.topSortOrder()) {
             System.out.print(s + " ");
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kosaraju.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kosaraju.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..78a184f042b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kosaraju.java
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements the Kosaraju Algorithm to find all the Strongly Connected Components (SCCs)
+ * of a directed graph. Kosaraju's algorithm runs in linear time and leverages the concept that
+ * the SCCs of a directed graph remain the same in its transpose (reverse) graph.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * A strongly connected component (SCC) of a directed graph is a subgraph where every vertex
+ * is reachable from every other vertex in the subgraph. The Kosaraju algorithm is particularly
+ * efficient for finding SCCs because it performs two Depth First Search (DFS) passes on the
+ * graph and its transpose.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p><strong>Algorithm:</strong></p>
+ * <ol>
+ *     <li>Perform DFS on the original graph and push nodes to a stack in the order of their finishing time.</li>
+ *     <li>Generate the transpose (reversed edges) of the original graph.</li>
+ *     <li>Perform DFS on the transpose graph, using the stack from the first DFS. Each DFS run on the transpose graph gives a SCC.</li>
+ * </ol>
+ *
+ * <p><strong>Example Graph:</strong></p>
+ * <pre>
+ * 0 <--- 2 -------> 3 -------- > 4 ---- > 7
+ * |     ^                      | ^       ^
+ * |    /                       |  \     /
+ * |   /                        |   \   /
+ * v  /                         v    \ /
+ * 1                            5 --> 6
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p><strong>SCCs in the example:</strong></p>
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li>{0, 1, 2}</li>
+ *     <li>{3}</li>
+ *     <li>{4, 5, 6}</li>
+ *     <li>{7}</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>The order of nodes in an SCC does not matter because every node in an SCC is reachable from every other node within the same SCC.</p>
+ *
+ * <p><strong>Graph Transpose Example:</strong></p>
+ * <pre>
+ * 0 ---> 2 <------- 3 <------- 4 <------ 7
+ * ^     /                      ^ \       /
+ * |    /                       |  \     /
+ * |   /                        |   \   /
+ * |  v                         |    v v
+ * 1                            5 <--- 6
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * The SCCs of this transpose graph are the same as the original graph.
+ */
+public class Kosaraju {
+
+    // Stack to sort edges by the lowest finish time (used in the first DFS)
+    private final Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+
+    // Store each strongly connected component
+    private List<Integer> scc = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    // List of all SCCs
+    private final List<List<Integer>> sccsList = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    /**
+     * Main function to perform Kosaraju's Algorithm.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Sort nodes by the lowest finishing time
+     * 2. Create the transpose (reverse edges) of the original graph
+     * 3. Find SCCs by performing DFS on the transpose graph
+     * 4. Return the list of SCCs
+     *
+     * @param v the number of vertices in the graph
+     * @param list the adjacency list representing the directed graph
+     * @return a list of SCCs where each SCC is a list of vertices
+     */
+    public List<List<Integer>> kosaraju(int v, List<List<Integer>> list) {
+        sortEdgesByLowestFinishTime(v, list);
+        List<List<Integer>> transposeGraph = createTransposeMatrix(v, list);
+        findStronglyConnectedComponents(v, transposeGraph);
+        return sccsList;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs DFS on the original graph to sort nodes by their finishing times.
+     * @param v the number of vertices in the graph
+     * @param list the adjacency list representing the original graph
+     */
+    private void sortEdgesByLowestFinishTime(int v, List<List<Integer>> list) {
+        int[] vis = new int[v];
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            if (vis[i] == 0) {
+                dfs(i, vis, list);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Creates the transpose (reverse) of the original graph.
+     * @param v the number of vertices in the graph
+     * @param list the adjacency list representing the original graph
+     * @return the adjacency list representing the transposed graph
+     */
+    private List<List<Integer>> createTransposeMatrix(int v, List<List<Integer>> list) {
+        List<List<Integer>> transposeGraph = new ArrayList<>(v);
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            transposeGraph.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            for (Integer neigh : list.get(i)) {
+                transposeGraph.get(neigh).add(i);
+            }
+        }
+        return transposeGraph;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the strongly connected components (SCCs) by performing DFS on the transposed graph.
+     * @param v the number of vertices in the graph
+     * @param transposeGraph the adjacency list representing the transposed graph
+     */
+    public void findStronglyConnectedComponents(int v, List<List<Integer>> transposeGraph) {
+        int[] vis = new int[v];
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            int node = stack.pop();
+            if (vis[node] == 0) {
+                dfs2(node, vis, transposeGraph);
+                sccsList.add(scc);
+                scc = new ArrayList<>();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs DFS on the original graph and pushes nodes onto the stack in order of their finish time.
+     * @param node the current node being visited
+     * @param vis array to keep track of visited nodes
+     * @param list the adjacency list of the graph
+     */
+    private void dfs(int node, int[] vis, List<List<Integer>> list) {
+        vis[node] = 1;
+        for (Integer neighbour : list.get(node)) {
+            if (vis[neighbour] == 0) {
+                dfs(neighbour, vis, list);
+            }
+        }
+        stack.push(node);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs DFS on the transposed graph to find the strongly connected components.
+     * @param node the current node being visited
+     * @param vis array to keep track of visited nodes
+     * @param list the adjacency list of the transposed graph
+     */
+    private void dfs2(int node, int[] vis, List<List<Integer>> list) {
+        vis[node] = 1;
+        for (Integer neighbour : list.get(node)) {
+            if (vis[neighbour] == 0) {
+                dfs2(neighbour, vis, list);
+            }
+        }
+        scc.add(node);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java
index a0856c819511..331d7196b61c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java
@@ -1,80 +1,67 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
 
-// Problem -> Connect all the edges with the minimum cost.
-// Possible Solution -> Kruskal Algorithm (KA), KA finds the minimum-spanning-tree, which means, the
-// group of edges with the minimum sum of their weights that connect the whole graph.
-// The graph needs to be connected, because if there are nodes impossible to reach, there are no
-// edges that could connect every node in the graph.
-// KA is a Greedy Algorithm, because edges are analysed based on their weights, that is why a
-// Priority Queue is used, to take first those less weighted.
-// This implementations below has some changes compared to conventional ones, but they are explained
-// all along the code.
 import java.util.Comparator;
 import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.PriorityQueue;
 
+/**
+ * The Kruskal class implements Kruskal's Algorithm to find the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
+ * of a connected, undirected graph. The algorithm constructs the MST by selecting edges
+ * with the least weight, ensuring no cycles are formed, and using union-find to track the
+ * connected components.
+ *
+ * <p><strong>Key Features:</strong></p>
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>The graph is represented using an adjacency list, where each node points to a set of edges.</li>
+ *   <li>Each edge is processed in ascending order of weight using a priority queue.</li>
+ *   <li>The algorithm stops when all nodes are connected or no more edges are available.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p><strong>Time Complexity:</strong> O(E log V), where E is the number of edges and V is the number of vertices.</p>
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
 public class Kruskal {
 
-    // Complexity: O(E log V) time, where E is the number of edges in the graph and V is the number of
-    // vertices
-    private static class Edge {
+    /**
+     * Represents an edge in the graph with a source, destination, and weight.
+     */
+    static class Edge {
 
-        private int from;
-        private int to;
-        private int weight;
+        int from;
+        int to;
+        int weight;
 
-        public Edge(int from, int to, int weight) {
+        Edge(int from, int to, int weight) {
             this.from = from;
             this.to = to;
             this.weight = weight;
         }
     }
 
-    private static void addEdge(HashSet<Edge>[] graph, int from, int to, int weight) {
+    /**
+     * Adds an edge to the graph.
+     *
+     * @param graph the adjacency list representing the graph
+     * @param from the source vertex of the edge
+     * @param to the destination vertex of the edge
+     * @param weight the weight of the edge
+     */
+    static void addEdge(HashSet<Edge>[] graph, int from, int to, int weight) {
         graph[from].add(new Edge(from, to, weight));
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        HashSet<Edge>[] graph = new HashSet[7];
-        for (int i = 0; i < graph.length; i++) {
-            graph[i] = new HashSet<>();
-        }
-        addEdge(graph, 0, 1, 2);
-        addEdge(graph, 0, 2, 3);
-        addEdge(graph, 0, 3, 3);
-        addEdge(graph, 1, 2, 4);
-        addEdge(graph, 2, 3, 5);
-        addEdge(graph, 1, 4, 3);
-        addEdge(graph, 2, 4, 1);
-        addEdge(graph, 3, 5, 7);
-        addEdge(graph, 4, 5, 8);
-        addEdge(graph, 5, 6, 9);
-
-        System.out.println("Initial Graph: ");
-        for (int i = 0; i < graph.length; i++) {
-            for (Edge edge : graph[i]) {
-                System.out.println(i + " <-- weight " + edge.weight + " --> " + edge.to);
-            }
-        }
-
-        Kruskal k = new Kruskal();
-        HashSet<Edge>[] solGraph = k.kruskal(graph);
-
-        System.out.println("\nMinimal Graph: ");
-        for (int i = 0; i < solGraph.length; i++) {
-            for (Edge edge : solGraph[i]) {
-                System.out.println(i + " <-- weight " + edge.weight + " --> " + edge.to);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
+    /**
+     * Kruskal's algorithm to find the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) of a graph.
+     *
+     * @param graph the adjacency list representing the input graph
+     * @return the adjacency list representing the MST
+     */
     public HashSet<Edge>[] kruskal(HashSet<Edge>[] graph) {
         int nodes = graph.length;
-        int[] captain = new int[nodes];
-        // captain of i, stores the set with all the connected nodes to i
+        int[] captain = new int[nodes]; // Stores the "leader" of each node's connected component
         HashSet<Integer>[] connectedGroups = new HashSet[nodes];
         HashSet<Edge>[] minGraph = new HashSet[nodes];
-        PriorityQueue<Edge> edges = new PriorityQueue<>((Comparator.comparingInt(edge -> edge.weight)));
+        PriorityQueue<Edge> edges = new PriorityQueue<>(Comparator.comparingInt(edge -> edge.weight));
         for (int i = 0; i < nodes; i++) {
             minGraph[i] = new HashSet<>();
             connectedGroups[i] = new HashSet<>();
@@ -83,19 +70,21 @@ public HashSet<Edge>[] kruskal(HashSet<Edge>[] graph) {
             edges.addAll(graph[i]);
         }
         int connectedElements = 0;
-        // as soon as two sets merge all the elements, the algorithm must stop
         while (connectedElements != nodes && !edges.isEmpty()) {
             Edge edge = edges.poll();
-            // This if avoids cycles
-            if (!connectedGroups[captain[edge.from]].contains(edge.to)
-                    && !connectedGroups[captain[edge.to]].contains(edge.from)) {
-                // merge sets of the captains of each point connected by the edge
+
+            // Avoid forming cycles by checking if the nodes belong to different connected components
+            if (!connectedGroups[captain[edge.from]].contains(edge.to) && !connectedGroups[captain[edge.to]].contains(edge.from)) {
+                // Merge the two sets of nodes connected by the edge
                 connectedGroups[captain[edge.from]].addAll(connectedGroups[captain[edge.to]]);
-                // update captains of the elements merged
+
+                // Update the captain for each merged node
                 connectedGroups[captain[edge.from]].forEach(i -> captain[i] = captain[edge.from]);
-                // add Edge to minimal graph
+
+                // Add the edge to the resulting MST graph
                 addEdge(minGraph, edge.from, edge.to, edge.weight);
-                // count how many elements have been merged
+
+                // Update the count of connected nodes
                 connectedElements = connectedGroups[captain[edge.from]].size();
             }
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphs.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphs.java
index 49b9a41e9768..c1d47df457da 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphs.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphs.java
@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
 
-import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Queue;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Queue;
 
 /**
  * Implementation of a graph in a matrix form Also known as an adjacency matrix
@@ -12,9 +12,11 @@
  *
  * @author Unknown
  */
-public class MatrixGraphs {
+public final class MatrixGraphs {
+    private MatrixGraphs() {
+    }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
         AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(10);
         graph.addEdge(1, 2);
         graph.addEdge(1, 5);
@@ -46,17 +48,17 @@ class AdjacencyMatrixGraph {
     /**
      * The number of vertices in the graph
      */
-    private int _numberOfVertices;
+    private int vertexCount;
 
     /**
      * The number of edges in the graph
      */
-    private int _numberOfEdges;
+    private int edgeCount;
 
     /**
      * The adjacency matrix for the graph
      */
-    private int[][] _adjacency;
+    private int[][] adjMatrix;
 
     /**
      * Static variables to define whether or not an edge exists in the adjacency
@@ -68,7 +70,7 @@ class AdjacencyMatrixGraph {
     /**
      * Constructor
      */
-    public AdjacencyMatrixGraph(int givenNumberOfVertices) {
+    AdjacencyMatrixGraph(int givenNumberOfVertices) {
         this.setNumberOfVertices(givenNumberOfVertices);
         this.setNumberOfEdges(0);
         this.setAdjacency(new int[givenNumberOfVertices][givenNumberOfVertices]);
@@ -85,35 +87,35 @@ public AdjacencyMatrixGraph(int givenNumberOfVertices) {
      * @param newNumberOfVertices the new number of vertices
      */
     private void setNumberOfVertices(int newNumberOfVertices) {
-        this._numberOfVertices = newNumberOfVertices;
+        this.vertexCount = newNumberOfVertices;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Getter for `this._numberOfVertices`
+     * Getter for `this.vertexCount`
      *
      * @return the number of vertices in the graph
      */
     public int numberOfVertices() {
-        return this._numberOfVertices;
+        return this.vertexCount;
     }
 
     /**
      * Updates the number of edges in the graph
      *
-     * @param newNumberOfEdges
-   *
+     * @param newNumberOfEdges the new number of edges
+     *
      */
     private void setNumberOfEdges(int newNumberOfEdges) {
-        this._numberOfEdges = newNumberOfEdges;
+        this.edgeCount = newNumberOfEdges;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Getter for `this._numberOfEdges`
+     * Getter for `this.edgeCount`
      *
      * @return the number of edges
      */
     public int numberOfEdges() {
-        return this._numberOfEdges;
+        return this.edgeCount;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -122,7 +124,7 @@ public int numberOfEdges() {
      * @param newAdjacency the new adjaceny matrix
      */
     private void setAdjacency(int[][] newAdjacency) {
-        this._adjacency = newAdjacency;
+        this.adjMatrix = newAdjacency;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -131,7 +133,7 @@ private void setAdjacency(int[][] newAdjacency) {
      * @return the adjacency matrix
      */
     private int[][] adjacency() {
-        return this._adjacency;
+        return this.adjMatrix;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -152,11 +154,7 @@ private boolean adjacencyOfEdgeDoesExist(int from, int to) {
      * @return whether or not the vertex exists
      */
     public boolean vertexDoesExist(int aVertex) {
-        if (aVertex >= 0 && aVertex < this.numberOfVertices()) {
-            return true;
-        } else {
-            return false;
-        }
+        return aVertex >= 0 && aVertex < this.numberOfVertices();
     }
 
     /**
@@ -204,7 +202,7 @@ public boolean addEdge(int from, int to) {
      * exists and is removed
      */
     public boolean removeEdge(int from, int to) {
-        if (!this.vertexDoesExist(from) || !this.vertexDoesExist(to)) {
+        if (this.vertexDoesExist(from) && this.vertexDoesExist(to)) {
             if (this.adjacencyOfEdgeDoesExist(from, to)) {
                 this.adjacency()[from][to] = AdjacencyMatrixGraph.EDGE_NONE;
                 this.adjacency()[to][from] = AdjacencyMatrixGraph.EDGE_NONE;
@@ -224,15 +222,15 @@ public boolean removeEdge(int from, int to) {
      */
     public List<Integer> depthFirstOrder(int startVertex) {
         // If the startVertex is invalid, return an empty list
-        if (startVertex >= _numberOfVertices || startVertex < 0) {
-            return new ArrayList<Integer>();
+        if (startVertex >= vertexCount || startVertex < 0) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
         }
 
         // Create an array to track the visited vertices
-        boolean[] visited = new boolean[_numberOfVertices];
+        boolean[] visited = new boolean[vertexCount];
 
         // Create a list to keep track of the order of our traversal
-        ArrayList<Integer> orderList = new ArrayList<Integer>();
+        ArrayList<Integer> orderList = new ArrayList<>();
 
         // Perform our DFS algorithm
         depthFirstOrder(startVertex, visited, orderList);
@@ -261,10 +259,9 @@ private void depthFirstOrder(int currentVertex, boolean[] visited, List<Integer>
         orderList.add(currentVertex);
 
         // Get the adjacency array for this vertex
-        int[] adjacent = _adjacency[currentVertex];
-        for (int i = 0; i < adjacent.length; i++) // If an edge exists between the currentVertex and the vertex
-        // we are considering exploring, recurse on it
-        {
+        int[] adjacent = adjMatrix[currentVertex];
+        for (int i = 0; i < adjacent.length; i++) { // we are considering exploring, recurse on it // If an edge exists between the
+                                                    // currentVertex and the vertex
             if (adjacent[i] == AdjacencyMatrixGraph.EDGE_EXIST) {
                 depthFirstOrder(i, visited, orderList);
             }
@@ -280,19 +277,19 @@ private void depthFirstOrder(int currentVertex, boolean[] visited, List<Integer>
      */
     public List<Integer> breadthFirstOrder(int startVertex) {
         // If the specified startVertex is invalid, return an empty list
-        if (startVertex >= _numberOfVertices || startVertex < 0) {
-            return new ArrayList<Integer>();
+        if (startVertex >= vertexCount || startVertex < 0) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
         }
 
         // Create an array to keep track of the visited vertices
-        boolean[] visited = new boolean[_numberOfVertices];
+        boolean[] visited = new boolean[vertexCount];
 
         // Create a list to keep track of the ordered vertices
-        ArrayList<Integer> orderList = new ArrayList<Integer>();
+        ArrayList<Integer> orderList = new ArrayList<>();
 
         // Create a queue for our BFS algorithm and add the startVertex
         // to the queue
-        Queue<Integer> queue = new LinkedList<Integer>();
+        Queue<Integer> queue = new LinkedList<>();
         queue.add(startVertex);
 
         // Continue until the queue is empty
@@ -310,12 +307,11 @@ public List<Integer> breadthFirstOrder(int startVertex) {
             orderList.add(currentVertex);
             visited[currentVertex] = true;
 
-            // Get the adjacency array for the currentVertex and 
+            // Get the adjacency array for the currentVertex and
             // check each node
-            int[] adjacent = _adjacency[currentVertex];
-            for (int vertex = 0; vertex < adjacent.length; vertex++) // If an edge exists between the current vertex and the
-            // vertex we are considering exploring, we add it to the queue
-            {
+            int[] adjacent = adjMatrix[currentVertex];
+            for (int vertex = 0; vertex < adjacent.length; vertex++) { // vertex we are considering exploring, we add it to the queue // If an
+                                                                       // edge exists between the current vertex and the
                 if (adjacent[vertex] == AdjacencyMatrixGraph.EDGE_EXIST) {
                     queue.add(vertex);
                 }
@@ -331,19 +327,19 @@ public List<Integer> breadthFirstOrder(int startVertex) {
      * @return returns a string describing this graph
      */
     public String toString() {
-        String s = "    ";
+        StringBuilder s = new StringBuilder("    ");
         for (int i = 0; i < this.numberOfVertices(); i++) {
-            s = s + String.valueOf(i) + " ";
+            s.append(i).append(" ");
         }
-        s = s + " \n";
+        s.append(" \n");
 
         for (int i = 0; i < this.numberOfVertices(); i++) {
-            s = s + String.valueOf(i) + " : ";
+            s.append(i).append(" : ");
             for (int j = 0; j < this.numberOfVertices(); j++) {
-                s = s + String.valueOf(this._adjacency[i][j]) + " ";
+                s.append(this.adjMatrix[i][j]).append(" ");
             }
-            s = s + "\n";
+            s.append("\n");
         }
-        return s;
+        return s.toString();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMST.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMST.java
index 80bb1025a4b9..8017c18ce6ac 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMST.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMST.java
@@ -1,104 +1,61 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
 
 /**
- * A Java program for Prim's Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) algorithm. adjacency
- * matrix representation of the graph
+ * A Java program for Prim's Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) algorithm.
+ * Adjacency matrix representation of the graph.
  */
-class PrimMST {
-    // Number of vertices in the graph
+public class PrimMST {
 
+    // Number of vertices in the graph
     private static final int V = 5;
 
-    // A utility function to find the vertex with minimum key
-    // value, from the set of vertices not yet included in MST
-    int minKey(int key[], Boolean mstSet[]) {
-        // Initialize min value
-        int min = Integer.MAX_VALUE, min_index = -1;
+    // A utility function to find the vertex with the minimum key
+    // value, from the set of vertices not yet included in the MST
+    int minKey(int[] key, Boolean[] mstSet) {
+        int min = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+        int minIndex = -1;
 
         for (int v = 0; v < V; v++) {
-            if (mstSet[v] == false && key[v] < min) {
+            if (!mstSet[v] && key[v] < min) {
                 min = key[v];
-                min_index = v;
+                minIndex = v;
             }
         }
 
-        return min_index;
-    }
-
-    // A utility function to print the constructed MST stored in
-    // parent[]
-    void printMST(int parent[], int n, int graph[][]) {
-        System.out.println("Edge   Weight");
-        for (int i = 1; i < V; i++) {
-            System.out.println(parent[i] + " - " + i + "    " + graph[i][parent[i]]);
-        }
+        return minIndex;
     }
 
-    // Function to construct and print MST for a graph represented
-    //  using adjacency matrix representation
-    void primMST(int graph[][]) {
-        // Array to store constructed MST
-        int parent[] = new int[V];
-
-        // Key values used to pick minimum weight edge in cut
-        int key[] = new int[V];
+    // Function to construct MST for a graph using adjacency matrix representation
+    public int[] primMST(int[][] graph) {
+        int[] parent = new int[V]; // Array to store constructed MST
+        int[] key = new int[V]; // Key values to pick minimum weight edge
+        Boolean[] mstSet = new Boolean[V]; // Vertices not yet included in MST
 
-        // To represent set of vertices not yet included in MST
-        Boolean mstSet[] = new Boolean[V];
-
-        // Initialize all keys as INFINITE
+        // Initialize all keys as INFINITE and mstSet[] as false
         for (int i = 0; i < V; i++) {
             key[i] = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
-            mstSet[i] = false;
+            mstSet[i] = Boolean.FALSE;
         }
 
-        // Always include first 1st vertex in MST.
-        key[0] = 0; // Make key 0 so that this vertex is
-        // picked as first vertex
+        // Always include the first vertex in MST
+        key[0] = 0; // Make key 0 to pick the first vertex
         parent[0] = -1; // First node is always root of MST
 
         // The MST will have V vertices
         for (int count = 0; count < V - 1; count++) {
-            // Pick thd minimum key vertex from the set of vertices
-            // not yet included in MST
+            // Pick the minimum key vertex not yet included in MST
             int u = minKey(key, mstSet);
+            mstSet[u] = Boolean.TRUE;
 
-            // Add the picked vertex to the MST Set
-            mstSet[u] = true;
-
-            // Update key value and parent index of the adjacent
-            // vertices of the picked vertex. Consider only those
-            // vertices which are not yet included in MST
-            for (int v = 0; v < V; v++) // graph[u][v] is non zero only for adjacent vertices of m
-            // mstSet[v] is false for vertices not yet included in MST
-            // Update the key only if graph[u][v] is smaller than key[v]
-            {
-                if (graph[u][v] != 0 && mstSet[v] == false && graph[u][v] < key[v]) {
+            // Update key value and parent index of adjacent vertices of the picked vertex
+            for (int v = 0; v < V; v++) {
+                if (graph[u][v] != 0 && !mstSet[v] && graph[u][v] < key[v]) {
                     parent[v] = u;
                     key[v] = graph[u][v];
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        // print the constructed MST
-        printMST(parent, V, graph);
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        /* Let us create the following graph
-       2    3
-    (0)--(1)--(2)
-    |    / \   |
-    6| 8/   \5 |7
-    | /      \ |
-    (3)-------(4)
-         9          */
-        PrimMST t = new PrimMST();
-        int graph[][]
-                = new int[][]{
-                    {0, 2, 0, 6, 0}, {2, 0, 3, 8, 5}, {0, 3, 0, 0, 7}, {6, 8, 0, 0, 9}, {0, 5, 7, 9, 0},};
-
-        // Print the solution
-        t.primMST(graph);
+        return parent; // Return the MST parent array
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/README.md b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/README.md
index 3607fbae23e1..4798e372667b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/README.md
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/README.md
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
-## Graph
-
-Graph is a useful data structure for representing most of the real world problems involving a set of users/candidates/nodes and their relations. A Graph consists of two parameters :
+## Graphs
+Graph is a useful data structure for representing most of the real-world problems involving a set of users/candidates/nodes and their relations. A graph consists of two parameters:
 
 ```
 V = a set of vertices
@@ -9,16 +8,65 @@ E = a set of edges
 
 Each edge in `E` connects any two vertices from `V`. Based on the type of edge, graphs can be of two types:
 
-1. **Directed**: The edges are directed in nature which means that when there is an edge from node `A` to `B`, it does not imply that there is an edge from `B` to `A`.
-An example of directed edge graph the **follow** feature of social media. If you follow a celebrity, it doesn't imply that s/he follows you.
+1. **Directed**: The edges are directed in nature, which means that when there is an edge from node `A` to `B`, it does not imply that there is an edge from `B` to `A`. An example of a directed edge graph is the **follow** feature of social media. If you follow a celebrity, it doesn't imply that they follow you.
+
+2. **Undirected**: The edges don't have any direction. So if `A` and `B` are connected, we can assume that there is an edge from both `A` to `B` and `B` to `A`. For example, in a social media graph, if two persons are friends, it implies that both are friends with each other.
+
+### Components of a Graph
+
+**Vertices:** Vertices are the fundamental units of the graph. Sometimes, vertices are also known as vertex or nodes. Every node/vertex can be labeled or unlabelled.
+
+**Edges:** Edges are used to connect two nodes of the graph. They can be an ordered pair of nodes in a directed graph. Edges can connect any two nodes in any possible way. There are no rules. Sometimes, edges are also known as arcs. Every edge can be labeled/unlabeled.
+
+Graphs are used to solve many real-life problems. Graphs are used to represent networks. The networks may include paths in a city, telephone network, or circuit network. Graphs are also used in social networks like LinkedIn, Facebook. For example, on Facebook, each person is represented with a vertex (or node). Each node is a structure and contains information like person id, name, gender, locale, etc.
+
+### Graph Representation
+
+Graph can be represented in the following ways:
+
+**Set Representation:** Set representation of a graph involves two sets: Set of vertices V = {V1, V2, V3, V4} and set of edges E = {{V1, V2}, {V2, V3}, {V3, V4}, {V4, V1}}. This representation is efficient for memory but does not allow parallel edges.
+
+**Sequential Representation:** This representation of a graph can be represented by means of matrices: Adjacency Matrix, Incidence matrix, and Path matrix.
+
+**Adjacency Matrix:** This matrix includes information about the adjacent nodes. Here, aij = 1 if there is an edge from Vi to Vj; otherwise, it's 0. It is a matrix of order V×V.
+
+**Incidence Matrix:** This matrix includes information about the incidence of edges on the nodes. Here, aij = 1 if the jth edge Ej is incident on the ith vertex Vi; otherwise, it's 0. It is a matrix of order V×E.
+
+**Path Matrix:** This matrix includes information about the simple path between two vertices. Here, Pij = 1 if there is a path from Vi to Vj; otherwise, it's 0. It is also called the reachability matrix of graph G.
+
+**Linked Representation:** This representation gives information about the nodes to which a specific node is connected, i.e., adjacency lists. This representation gives the adjacency lists of the vertices with the help of arrays and linked lists. In the adjacency lists, the vertices connected to the specific vertex are arranged in the form of lists that are connected to that vertex.
 
-2. **Undirected**: The edges don't have any direction. So if `A` and `B` are connected, we can assume that there is edge from both `A` to `B` and `B` to `A`.
-Example: Social media graph, where if two persons are friend, it implies that both are friend with each other.
+### Real-Time Applications of Graph
 
+Graphs are used to represent the flow of control in computers.
+Graphs are used in social networking sites where users act as nodes, and connections between them act as edges.
+In an operating system, graphs are used as resource allocation graphs.
+Graphs are used in Google Maps to find the shortest route.
+Graphs are also used in the airline system for effective route optimization.
+In state transition diagrams, the graph is used to represent states and their transitions.
+In transportation, graphs are used to find the shortest path.
+In circuits, graphs can be used to represent circuit points as nodes and wires as edges.
+Graphs are used in solving puzzles with only one solution, such as mazes.
+Graphs are used in computer networks for Peer to Peer (P2P) applications.
+Graphs, basically in the form of DAG (Directed Acyclic Graph), are used as an alternative to blockchain for cryptocurrency. For example, cryptocurrencies like IOTA and Nano are mainly based on DAG.
+
+### Advantages of Graph
+
+Using graphs, we can easily find the shortest path, neighbors of the nodes, and many more.
+Graphs are used to implement algorithms like DFS and BFS.
+They are used to find minimum spanning trees, which have many practical applications.
+Graphs help in organizing data.
+Because of their non-linear structure, graphs help in understanding complex problems and their visualization.
+
+### Disadvantages of Graph
+
+Graphs use lots of pointers, which can be complex to handle.
+They can have large memory complexity.
+If the graph is represented with an adjacency matrix, then it does not allow parallel edges, and multiplication of the graph is also difficult.
 
 ### Representation
 
-1.  **Adjacency Lists**: Each node is represented as an entry and all the edges are represented as a list emerging from the corresponding node. So if vertex `1` has eadges to 2,3, and 6, the list corresponding to 1 will have 2,3 and 6 as entries. Consider the following graph.
+1. **Adjacency Lists**: Each node is represented as an entry, and all the edges are represented as a list emerging from the corresponding node. So, if vertex 1 has edges to 2, 3, and 6, the list corresponding to 1 will have 2, 3, and 6 as entries. Consider the following graph:
 
 ```
 0: 1-->2-->3
@@ -27,9 +75,10 @@ Example: Social media graph, where if two persons are friend, it implies that bo
 3: 0-->4
 4: 3
 ```
-It means there are edges from 0 to 1, 2 and 3; from 1 to 0 and 2 and so on.
-2. **Adjacency Matrix**: The graph is represented as a matrix of size `|V| x |V|` and an entry 1 in cell `(i,j)` implies that there is an edge from i to j. 0 represents no edge.
-The mtrix for the above graph:
+
+It means there are edges from 0 to 1, 2, and 3; from 1 to 0 and 2, and so on.
+
+2. **Adjacency Matrix**: The graph is represented as a matrix of size |V| x |V|, and an entry 1 in cell (i, j) implies that there is an edge from i to j. 0 represents no edge. The matrix for the above graph:
 
 ```
    0 1 2 3 4
@@ -39,4 +88,39 @@ The mtrix for the above graph:
 2  1 1 0 0 0
 3  1 0 0 0 1
 4  0 0 0 1 0
-```
\ No newline at end of file
+
+###Graph Terminologies
+
+Degree of a vertex: Number of edges that are incident at a vertex.
+Weighted graph: A graph that has weights assigned for each of the edges (used in cases such as shortest path problems).
+Connected components: A set of vertices that can reach others from it but not to those outside this connected component.
+Cycle: A path that begins and ends at the same vertex.
+Bipartite Graph: A graph whose vertices can be partitioned into two disjoint sets, with every edge connecting a vertex in one set to a vertex in the other set.
+
+###Graph Algorithms
+
+Breadth-First Search: It explores neighbors in layer after layer and applies on shortest path problems for unweighted graphs.
+Depth-First Search (DFS): It continues moving up as far along each branch as possible before backtracking. DFS is typically used for traversing all nodes and testing connectivity.
+Dijkstra's Algorithm: This algorithm finds the shortest path from a single starting vertex to all other vertices in a weighted graph.
+Prim's and Kruskal's Algorithm: To find the minimum spanning tree.
+Bellman-Ford Algorithm: This algorithm solves shortest path problems even when there are negative weights.
+Graph Types
+Multigraphs: Graphs with more edges between the same set of vertices.
+Complete Graphs: A graph in which there is a unique edge between each pair of vertices.
+Planar Graphs: A graph that can be drawn in a plane such that no two edges cross.
+
+###Graph Algorithm Applications
+
+Google Maps (Dijkstra's Algorithm): How maps apps find shortest routes.
+Job Scheduling: Topological Sort A real application of DAG (Directed Acyclic Graph) to manage the dependency of jobs between tasks.
+Web Crawling: How to use BFS for web crawlers to index pages in search engines.
+Big-O Complexity of Graph Operations
+Adjacency List vs Adjacency Matrix : Provide comparison tables of time complexity for operations such as addition of an edge, checking if an edge exists, etc.
+BFS and DFS Complexity : Describe their computational cost
+
+###Common Graph Problems
+
+Graph Coloring 
+Finding Bridges and Articulation Points 
+Finding Strongly Connected Components 
+Maximum Flow (Ford-Fulkerson algorithm)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TarjansAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TarjansAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..91974ba13319
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TarjansAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Java program that implements Tarjan's Algorithm to find Strongly Connected Components (SCCs) in a directed graph.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Tarjan's algorithm is a linear time algorithm (O(V + E)) that identifies the SCCs of a directed graph.
+ * An SCC is a maximal subgraph where every vertex is reachable from every other vertex within the subgraph.
+ *
+ * <h3>Algorithm Overview:</h3>
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>DFS Search: A depth-first search (DFS) is performed on the graph to generate a DFS tree.</li>
+ * <li>Identification of SCCs: SCCs correspond to subtrees within this DFS tree.</li>
+ * <li>Low-Link Values: For each node, a low-link value is maintained, which indicates the earliest visited
+ * vertex (the one with the minimum insertion time) that can be reached from that subtree.</li>
+ * <li>Stack Usage: Nodes are stored in a stack during DFS. When an SCC is identified, nodes are popped from
+ * the stack until the head of the SCC is reached.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Example of a directed graph:
+ * <pre>
+ *  0 --------> 1 -------> 3 --------> 4
+ *  ^          /
+ *  |         /
+ *  |        /
+ *  |       /
+ *  |      /
+ *  |     /
+ *  |    /
+ *  |   /
+ *  |  /
+ *  | /
+ *  V
+ *  2
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * For the above graph, the SCC list is as follows:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>1, 2, 0</li>
+ * <li>3</li>
+ * <li>4</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * The order of nodes in an SCC does not matter as they form cycles.
+ *
+ * <h3>Comparison with Kosaraju's Algorithm:</h3>
+ * <p>
+ * Kosaraju's algorithm also identifies SCCs but does so using two DFS traversals.
+ * In contrast, Tarjan's algorithm achieves this in a single DFS traversal, leading to improved performance
+ * in terms of constant factors.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public class TarjansAlgorithm {
+
+    // Timer for tracking low time and insertion time
+    private int time;
+
+    // List to store all strongly connected components
+    private final List<List<Integer>> sccList = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    /**
+     * Finds and returns the strongly connected components (SCCs) of the directed graph.
+     *
+     * @param v the number of vertices in the graph
+     * @param graph the adjacency list representation of the graph
+     * @return a list of lists, where each inner list represents a strongly connected component
+     */
+    public List<List<Integer>> stronglyConnectedComponents(int v, List<List<Integer>> graph) {
+        // Initialize arrays for insertion time and low-link values
+        int[] lowTime = new int[v];
+        int[] insertionTime = new int[v];
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            insertionTime[i] = -1;
+            lowTime[i] = -1;
+        }
+
+        // Track if vertices are in the stack
+        boolean[] isInStack = new boolean[v];
+
+        // Stack to hold nodes during DFS
+        Stack<Integer> st = new Stack<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            if (insertionTime[i] == -1) {
+                stronglyConnCompsUtil(i, lowTime, insertionTime, isInStack, st, graph);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return sccList;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A utility function to perform DFS and find SCCs.
+     *
+     * @param u the current vertex being visited
+     * @param lowTime array to keep track of the low-link values
+     * @param insertionTime array to keep track of the insertion times
+     * @param isInStack boolean array indicating if a vertex is in the stack
+     * @param st the stack used for DFS
+     * @param graph the adjacency list representation of the graph
+     */
+    private void stronglyConnCompsUtil(int u, int[] lowTime, int[] insertionTime, boolean[] isInStack, Stack<Integer> st, List<List<Integer>> graph) {
+        // Set insertion time and low-link value
+        insertionTime[u] = time;
+        lowTime[u] = time;
+        time++;
+
+        // Push current node onto the stack
+        isInStack[u] = true;
+        st.push(u);
+
+        // Explore adjacent vertices
+        for (Integer vertex : graph.get(u)) {
+            if (insertionTime[vertex] == -1) {
+                stronglyConnCompsUtil(vertex, lowTime, insertionTime, isInStack, st, graph);
+                // Update low-link value
+                lowTime[u] = Math.min(lowTime[u], lowTime[vertex]);
+            } else if (isInStack[vertex]) {
+                // Vertex is in the stack; update low-link value
+                lowTime[u] = Math.min(lowTime[u], insertionTime[vertex]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Check if the current vertex is the root of an SCC
+        if (lowTime[u] == insertionTime[u]) {
+            int w = -1;
+            List<Integer> scc = new ArrayList<>();
+
+            // Pop vertices from the stack until the root is found
+            while (w != u) {
+                w = st.pop();
+                scc.add(w);
+                isInStack[w] = false;
+            }
+            sccList.add(scc);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TwoSat.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TwoSat.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..835e3880428f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TwoSat.java
@@ -0,0 +1,265 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements a solution to the 2-SAT (2-Satisfiability) problem
+ * using Kosaraju's algorithm to find strongly connected components (SCCs)
+ * in the implication graph.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * <strong>Brief Idea:</strong>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <pre>
+ * 1. From each clause (a ∨ b), we can derive implications:
+ *      (¬a → b) and (¬b → a)
+ *
+ * 2. We construct an implication graph using these implications.
+ *
+ * 3. For each variable x, its negation ¬x is also represented as a node.
+ *    If x and ¬x belong to the same SCC, the expression is unsatisfiable.
+ *
+ * 4. Otherwise, we assign truth values based on the SCC order:
+ *    If SCC(x) > SCC(¬x), then x = true; otherwise, x = false.
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * <strong>Complexities:</strong>
+ * </p>
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>Time Complexity: O(n + m)</li>
+ * <li>Space Complexity: O(n + m)</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * where {@code n} is the number of variables and {@code m} is the number of
+ * clauses.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * <strong>Usage Example:</strong>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <pre>
+ * TwoSat twoSat = new TwoSat(5); // Initialize with 5 variables: x1, x2, x3, x4, x5
+ *
+ * // Add clauses
+ * twoSat.addClause(1, false, 2, false); // (x1 ∨ x2)
+ * twoSat.addClause(3, true, 2, false); // (¬x3 ∨ x2)
+ * twoSat.addClause(4, false, 5, true); // (x4 ∨ ¬x5)
+ *
+ * twoSat.solve(); // Solve the problem
+ *
+ * if (twoSat.isSolutionExists()) {
+ *     boolean[] solution = twoSat.getSolutions();
+ *     for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
+ *         System.out.println("x" + i + " = " + solution[i]);
+ *     }
+ * }
+ * </pre>
+ * <p><strong>Reference</strong></p>
+ * <a href="https://cp-algorithms.com/graph/2SAT.html">CP Algorithm</a> <br></br>
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-satisfiability">Wikipedia - 2 SAT</a>
+ * @author Shoyeb Ansari
+ *
+ * @see Kosaraju
+ */
+class TwoSat {
+
+    /** Number of variables in the boolean expression. */
+    private final int numberOfVariables;
+
+    /** Implication graph built from the boolean clauses. */
+    private final ArrayList<Integer>[] graph;
+
+    /** Transposed implication graph used in Kosaraju's algorithm. */
+    private final ArrayList<Integer>[] graphTranspose;
+
+    /** Stores one valid truth assignment for all variables (1-indexed). */
+    private final boolean[] variableAssignments;
+
+    /** Indicates whether a valid solution exists. */
+    private boolean hasSolution = true;
+
+    /** Tracks whether the {@code solve()} method has been called. */
+    private boolean isSolved = false;
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes the TwoSat solver with the given number of variables.
+     *
+     * @param numberOfVariables the number of boolean variables
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the number of variables is negative
+     */
+    @SuppressWarnings({"unchecked", "rawtypes"})
+    TwoSat(int numberOfVariables) {
+        if (numberOfVariables < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number of variables cannot be negative.");
+        }
+        this.numberOfVariables = numberOfVariables;
+        int n = 2 * numberOfVariables + 1;
+
+        graph = (ArrayList<Integer>[]) new ArrayList[n];
+        graphTranspose = (ArrayList<Integer>[]) new ArrayList[n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            graph[i] = new ArrayList<>();
+            graphTranspose[i] = new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+        variableAssignments = new boolean[numberOfVariables + 1];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a clause of the form (a ∨ b) to the boolean expression.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * Example: To add (¬x₁ ∨ x₂), call:
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * <pre>{@code
+     * addClause(1, true, 2, false);
+     * }</pre>
+     *
+     * @param a         the first variable (1 ≤ a ≤ numberOfVariables)
+     * @param isNegateA {@code true} if variable {@code a} is negated
+     * @param b         the second variable (1 ≤ b ≤ numberOfVariables)
+     * @param isNegateB {@code true} if variable {@code b} is negated
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code a} or {@code b} are out of range
+     */
+    void addClause(int a, boolean isNegateA, int b, boolean isNegateB) {
+        if (a <= 0 || a > numberOfVariables) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Variable number must be between 1 and " + numberOfVariables);
+        }
+        if (b <= 0 || b > numberOfVariables) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Variable number must be between 1 and " + numberOfVariables);
+        }
+
+        a = isNegateA ? negate(a) : a;
+        b = isNegateB ? negate(b) : b;
+        int notA = negate(a);
+        int notB = negate(b);
+
+        // Add implications: (¬a → b) and (¬b → a)
+        graph[notA].add(b);
+        graph[notB].add(a);
+
+        // Build transpose graph
+        graphTranspose[b].add(notA);
+        graphTranspose[a].add(notB);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the 2-SAT problem using Kosaraju's algorithm to find SCCs
+     * and determines whether a satisfying assignment exists.
+     */
+    void solve() {
+        isSolved = true;
+        int n = 2 * numberOfVariables + 1;
+
+        boolean[] visited = new boolean[n];
+        int[] component = new int[n];
+        Stack<Integer> topologicalOrder = new Stack<>();
+
+        // Step 1: Perform DFS to get topological order
+        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+            if (!visited[i]) {
+                dfsForTopologicalOrder(i, visited, topologicalOrder);
+            }
+        }
+
+        Arrays.fill(visited, false);
+        int sccId = 0;
+
+        // Step 2: Find SCCs on transposed graph
+        while (!topologicalOrder.isEmpty()) {
+            int node = topologicalOrder.pop();
+            if (!visited[node]) {
+                dfsForScc(node, visited, component, sccId);
+                sccId++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Step 3: Check for contradictions and assign values
+        for (int i = 1; i <= numberOfVariables; i++) {
+            int notI = negate(i);
+            if (component[i] == component[notI]) {
+                hasSolution = false;
+                return;
+            }
+            // If SCC(i) > SCC(¬i), then variable i is true.
+            variableAssignments[i] = component[i] > component[notI];
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns whether the given boolean formula is satisfiable.
+     *
+     * @return {@code true} if a solution exists; {@code false} otherwise
+     * @throws Error if called before {@link #solve()}
+     */
+    boolean isSolutionExists() {
+        if (!isSolved) {
+            throw new Error("Please call solve() before checking for a solution.");
+        }
+        return hasSolution;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns one valid assignment of variables that satisfies the boolean formula.
+     *
+     * @return a boolean array where {@code result[i]} represents the truth value of
+     *         variable {@code xᵢ}
+     * @throws Error if called before {@link #solve()} or if no solution exists
+     */
+    boolean[] getSolutions() {
+        if (!isSolved) {
+            throw new Error("Please call solve() before fetching the solution.");
+        }
+        if (!hasSolution) {
+            throw new Error("No satisfying assignment exists for the given expression.");
+        }
+        return variableAssignments.clone();
+    }
+
+    /** Performs DFS to compute topological order. */
+    private void dfsForTopologicalOrder(int u, boolean[] visited, Stack<Integer> topologicalOrder) {
+        visited[u] = true;
+        for (int v : graph[u]) {
+            if (!visited[v]) {
+                dfsForTopologicalOrder(v, visited, topologicalOrder);
+            }
+        }
+        topologicalOrder.push(u);
+    }
+
+    /** Performs DFS on the transposed graph to identify SCCs. */
+    private void dfsForScc(int u, boolean[] visited, int[] component, int sccId) {
+        visited[u] = true;
+        component[u] = sccId;
+        for (int v : graphTranspose[u]) {
+            if (!visited[v]) {
+                dfsForScc(v, visited, component, sccId);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the index representing the negation of the given variable.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * Mapping rule:
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * <pre>
+     * For a variable i:
+     *     negate(i) = i + n
+     * For a negated variable (i + n):
+     *     negate(i + n) = i
+     * where n = numberOfVariables
+     * </pre>
+     *
+     * @param a the variable index
+     * @return the index representing its negation
+     */
+    private int negate(int a) {
+        return a <= numberOfVariables ? a + numberOfVariables : a - numberOfVariables;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8aafc1ef3368
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+
+public class UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph {
+    private ArrayList<HashMap<Integer, Integer>> adjacencyList = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a new node to the graph by adding an empty HashMap for its neighbors.
+     * @return the index of the newly added node in the adjacency list
+     */
+    public int addNode() {
+        adjacencyList.add(new HashMap<>());
+        return adjacencyList.size() - 1;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds an undirected edge between the origin node (@orig) and the destination node (@dest) with the specified weight.
+     * If the edge already exists, no changes are made.
+     * @param orig the index of the origin node
+     * @param dest the index of the destination node
+     * @param weight the weight of the edge between @orig and @dest
+     * @return true if the edge was successfully added, false if the edge already exists or if any node index is invalid
+     */
+    public boolean addEdge(int orig, int dest, int weight) {
+        int numNodes = adjacencyList.size();
+        if (orig >= numNodes || dest >= numNodes || orig < 0 || dest < 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        if (adjacencyList.get(orig).containsKey(dest)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        adjacencyList.get(orig).put(dest, weight);
+        adjacencyList.get(dest).put(orig, weight);
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the set of all adjacent nodes (neighbors) for the given node.
+     * @param node the index of the node whose neighbors are to be retrieved
+     * @return a HashSet containing the indices of all neighboring nodes
+     */
+    public HashSet<Integer> getNeighbors(int node) {
+        return new HashSet<>(adjacencyList.get(node).keySet());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the weight of the edge between the origin node (@orig) and the destination node (@dest).
+     * If no edge exists, returns null.
+     * @param orig the index of the origin node
+     * @param dest the index of the destination node
+     * @return the weight of the edge between @orig and @dest, or null if no edge exists
+     */
+    public Integer getEdgeWeight(int orig, int dest) {
+        return adjacencyList.get(orig).getOrDefault(dest, null);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of nodes currently in the graph.
+     * @return the number of nodes in the graph
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return adjacencyList.size();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowell.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowell.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4bf21c7ed4c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowell.java
@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+
+/**
+ * The Welsh-Powell algorithm is a graph coloring algorithm that aims to color a graph
+ * using the minimum number of colors such that no two adjacent vertices share the same color.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The algorithm works by:
+ * <ol>
+ * <li>Sorting the vertices in descending order based on their degrees (number of edges connected).</li>
+ * <li>Iterating through each vertex and assigning it the smallest available color that has not been used by its adjacent vertices.</li>
+ * <li>Coloring adjacent vertices with the same color is avoided.</li>
+ * </ol>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * For more information, see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_coloring">Graph Coloring</a>.
+ * </p>
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
+public final class WelshPowell {
+    private static final int BLANK_COLOR = -1; // Constant representing an uncolored state
+
+    private WelshPowell() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a graph using an adjacency list.
+     */
+    static final class Graph {
+        private final HashSet<Integer>[] adjacencyLists;
+
+        /**
+         * Initializes a graph with a specified number of vertices.
+         *
+         * @param vertices the number of vertices in the graph
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the number of vertices is negative
+         */
+        private Graph(int vertices) {
+            if (vertices < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number of vertices cannot be negative");
+            }
+
+            adjacencyLists = new HashSet[vertices];
+            Arrays.setAll(adjacencyLists, i -> new HashSet<>());
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Adds an edge between two vertices in the graph.
+         *
+         * @param nodeA one end of the edge
+         * @param nodeB the other end of the edge
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the vertices are out of bounds or if a self-loop is attempted
+         */
+        private void addEdge(int nodeA, int nodeB) {
+            validateVertex(nodeA);
+            validateVertex(nodeB);
+            if (nodeA == nodeB) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Self-loops are not allowed");
+            }
+            adjacencyLists[nodeA].add(nodeB);
+            adjacencyLists[nodeB].add(nodeA);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Validates that the vertex index is within the bounds of the graph.
+         *
+         * @param vertex the index of the vertex to validate
+         * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the vertex is out of bounds
+         */
+        private void validateVertex(int vertex) {
+            if (vertex < 0 || vertex >= getNumVertices()) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Vertex " + vertex + " is out of bounds");
+            }
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Returns the adjacency list for a specific vertex.
+         *
+         * @param vertex the index of the vertex
+         * @return the set of adjacent vertices
+         */
+        HashSet<Integer> getAdjacencyList(int vertex) {
+            return adjacencyLists[vertex];
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Returns the number of vertices in the graph.
+         *
+         * @return the number of vertices
+         */
+        int getNumVertices() {
+            return adjacencyLists.length;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Creates a graph with the specified number of vertices and edges.
+     *
+     * @param numberOfVertices the total number of vertices
+     * @param listOfEdges a 2D array representing edges where each inner array contains two vertex indices
+     * @return a Graph object representing the created graph
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the edge array is invalid or vertices are out of bounds
+     */
+    public static Graph makeGraph(int numberOfVertices, int[][] listOfEdges) {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(numberOfVertices);
+        for (int[] edge : listOfEdges) {
+            if (edge.length != 2) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Edge array must have exactly two elements");
+            }
+            graph.addEdge(edge[0], edge[1]);
+        }
+        return graph;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the coloring of the given graph using the Welsh-Powell algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param graph the input graph to color
+     * @return an array of integers where each index represents a vertex and the value represents the color assigned
+     */
+    public static int[] findColoring(Graph graph) {
+        int[] colors = initializeColors(graph.getNumVertices());
+        Integer[] sortedVertices = getSortedNodes(graph);
+        for (int vertex : sortedVertices) {
+            if (isBlank(colors[vertex])) {
+                boolean[] usedColors = computeUsedColors(graph, vertex, colors);
+                final var newColor = firstUnusedColor(usedColors);
+                colors[vertex] = newColor;
+                Arrays.stream(sortedVertices).forEach(otherVertex -> {
+                    if (isBlank(colors[otherVertex]) && !isAdjacentToColored(graph, otherVertex, colors)) {
+                        colors[otherVertex] = newColor;
+                    }
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        return colors;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to check if a color is unassigned
+     *
+     * @param color the color to check
+     * @return {@code true} if the color is unassigned, {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    private static boolean isBlank(int color) {
+        return color == BLANK_COLOR;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a vertex has adjacent colored vertices
+     *
+     * @param graph the input graph
+     * @param vertex the vertex to check
+     * @param colors the array of colors assigned to the vertices
+     * @return {@code true} if the vertex has adjacent colored vertices, {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    private static boolean isAdjacentToColored(Graph graph, int vertex, int[] colors) {
+        return graph.getAdjacencyList(vertex).stream().anyMatch(otherVertex -> !isBlank(colors[otherVertex]));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes the colors array with blank color
+     *
+     * @param numberOfVertices the number of vertices in the graph
+     * @return an array of integers representing the colors assigned to the vertices
+     */
+    private static int[] initializeColors(int numberOfVertices) {
+        int[] colors = new int[numberOfVertices];
+        Arrays.fill(colors, BLANK_COLOR);
+        return colors;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the vertices by their degree in descending order
+     *
+     * @param graph the input graph
+     * @return an array of integers representing the vertices sorted by degree
+     */
+    private static Integer[] getSortedNodes(final Graph graph) {
+        return IntStream.range(0, graph.getNumVertices()).boxed().sorted(Comparator.comparingInt(v -> - graph.getAdjacencyList(v).size())).toArray(Integer[] ::new);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the colors already used by the adjacent vertices
+     *
+     * @param graph the input graph
+     * @param vertex the vertex to check
+     * @param colors the array of colors assigned to the vertices
+     * @return an array of booleans representing the colors used by the adjacent vertices
+     */
+    private static boolean[] computeUsedColors(final Graph graph, final int vertex, final int[] colors) {
+        boolean[] usedColors = new boolean[graph.getNumVertices()];
+        graph.getAdjacencyList(vertex).stream().map(neighbor -> colors[neighbor]).filter(color -> !isBlank(color)).forEach(color -> usedColors[color] = true);
+        return usedColors;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the first unused color
+     *
+     * @param usedColors the array of colors used by the adjacent vertices
+     * @return the first unused color
+     */
+    private static int firstUnusedColor(boolean[] usedColors) {
+        return IntStream.range(0, usedColors.length).filter(color -> !usedColors[color]).findFirst().getAsInt();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/Readme.md b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/Readme.md
index 7f925989c4f3..252b06ea59b0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/Readme.md
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/Readme.md
@@ -27,27 +27,27 @@ Internally HashMap contains an array of Node and a node is represented as a clas
 - V value
 - Node next
 
-It can be seen that the node is containing a reference to its own object. So it’s a linked list.
+It can be seen that the node contains a reference to its object. So it’s a linked list.
 
 ## Performance of HashMap
-Performance of HashMap depends on 2 parameters which are named as follows:
+The performance of HashMap depends on 2 parameters which are named as follows:
 - Initial Capacity
 - Load Factor
 
 
-**Initial Capacity**: It is the capacity of HashMap at the time of its creation (It is the number of buckets a HashMap can hold when the HashMap is instantiated). In java, it is 2^4=16 initially, meaning it can hold 16 key-value pairs.
+**Initial Capacity**: It is the capacity of HashMap at the time of its creation (It is the number of buckets a HashMap can hold when the HashMap is instantiated). In Java, it is 2^4=16 initially, meaning it can hold 16 key-value pairs.
 
-**Load Factor**: It is the percent value of the capacity after which the capacity of Hashmap is to be increased (It is the percentage fill of buckets after which Rehashing takes place). In java, it is 0.75f by default, meaning the rehashing takes place after filling 75% of the capacity.
+**Load Factor**: It is the percent value of the capacity after which the capacity of Hashmap is to be increased (It is the percentage fill of buckets after which Rehashing takes place). In Java, it is 0.75f by default, meaning the rehashing takes place after filling 75% of the capacity.
 
-**Threshold**: It is the product of Load Factor and Initial Capacity. In java, by default, it is (16 * 0.75 = 12). That is, Rehashing takes place after inserting 12 key-value pairs into the HashMap.
+**Threshold**: It is the product of Load Factor and Initial Capacity. In Java, by default, it is (16 * 0.75 = 12). That is, Rehashing takes place after inserting 12 key-value pairs into the HashMap.
 
-**Rehashing** : It is the process of doubling the capacity of the HashMap after it reaches its Threshold. In java, HashMap continues to rehash(by default) in the following sequence – 2^4, 2^5, 2^6, 2^7, …. so on. 
+**Rehashing** : It is the process of doubling the capacity of the HashMap after it reaches its Threshold. In Java, HashMap continues to rehash(by default) in the following sequence – 2^4, 2^5, 2^6, 2^7, …. so on. 
 
-If the initial capacity is kept higher then rehashing will never be done. But by keeping it higher increases the time complexity of iteration. So it should be chosen very cleverly to increase performance. The expected number of values should be taken into account to set the initial capacity. The most generally preferred load factor value is 0.75 which provides a good deal between time and space costs. The load factor’s value varies between 0 and 1. 
+If the initial capacity is kept higher then rehashing will never be done. But keeping it higher increases the time complexity of iteration. So it should be chosen very cleverly to increase performance. The expected number of values should be taken into account to set the initial capacity. The most generally preferred load factor value is 0.75 which provides a good deal between time and space costs. The load factor’s value varies between 0 and 1. 
 
 ```
 Note: From Java 8 onward, Java has started using Self Balancing BST instead of a linked list for chaining. 
-The advantage of self-balancing bst is, we get the worst case (when every key maps to the same slot) search time is O(Log n). 
+The advantage of self-balancing bst is, that we get the worst case (when every key maps to the same slot) search time is O(Log n). 
 ```
 
 Java has two hash table classes: HashTable and HashMap. In general, you should use a HashMap.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArray.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..36d2cc8df160
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArray.java
@@ -0,0 +1,204 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+
+/**
+ * A generic implementation of a hash map using an array of linked lists for collision resolution.
+ * This class provides a way to store key-value pairs efficiently, allowing for average-case
+ * constant time complexity for insertion, deletion, and retrieval operations.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The hash map uses separate chaining for collision resolution. Each bucket in the hash map is a
+ * linked list that stores nodes containing key-value pairs. When a collision occurs (i.e., when
+ * two keys hash to the same index), the new key-value pair is simply added to the corresponding
+ * linked list.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The hash map automatically resizes itself when the load factor exceeds 0.75. The load factor is
+ * defined as the ratio of the number of entries to the number of buckets. When resizing occurs,
+ * all existing entries are rehashed and inserted into the new buckets.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by this hash map
+ * @param <V> the type of mapped values
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
+public class GenericHashMapUsingArray<K, V> {
+
+    private int size; // Total number of key-value pairs
+    private LinkedList<Node>[] buckets; // Array of linked lists (buckets) for storing entries
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a new empty hash map with an initial capacity of 16.
+     */
+    public GenericHashMapUsingArray() {
+        initBuckets(16);
+        size = 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes the buckets for the hash map with the specified number of buckets.
+     *
+     * @param n the number of buckets to initialize
+     */
+    private void initBuckets(int n) {
+        buckets = new LinkedList[n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < buckets.length; i++) {
+            buckets[i] = new LinkedList<>();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Associates the specified value with the specified key in this map.
+     * If the map previously contained a mapping for the key, the old value is replaced.
+     *
+     * @param key the key with which the specified value is to be associated
+     * @param value the value to be associated with the specified key
+     */
+    public void put(K key, V value) {
+        int bucketIndex = hashFunction(key);
+        LinkedList<Node> nodes = buckets[bucketIndex];
+        // Update existing key's value if present
+        for (Node node : nodes) {
+            if (node.key.equals(key)) {
+                node.value = value;
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Insert new key-value pair
+        nodes.add(new Node(key, value));
+        size++;
+
+        // Check if rehashing is needed
+        // Load factor threshold for resizing
+        float loadFactorThreshold = 0.75f;
+        if ((float) size / buckets.length > loadFactorThreshold) {
+            reHash();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the index of the bucket in which the key would be stored.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose bucket index is to be computed
+     * @return the bucket index
+     */
+    private int hashFunction(K key) {
+        return Math.floorMod(key.hashCode(), buckets.length);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Rehashes the map by doubling the number of buckets and re-inserting all entries.
+     */
+    private void reHash() {
+        LinkedList<Node>[] oldBuckets = buckets;
+        initBuckets(oldBuckets.length * 2);
+        this.size = 0;
+
+        for (LinkedList<Node> nodes : oldBuckets) {
+            for (Node node : nodes) {
+                put(node.key, node.value);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the mapping for the specified key from this map if present.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose mapping is to be removed from the map
+     */
+    public void remove(K key) {
+        int bucketIndex = hashFunction(key);
+        LinkedList<Node> nodes = buckets[bucketIndex];
+
+        Node target = null;
+        for (Node node : nodes) {
+            if (node.key.equals(key)) {
+                target = node;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (target != null) {
+            nodes.remove(target);
+            size--;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of key-value pairs in this map.
+     *
+     * @return the number of key-value pairs
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return this.size;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the value to which the specified key is mapped, or null if this map contains no mapping for the key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose associated value is to be returned
+     * @return the value associated with the specified key, or null if no mapping exists
+     */
+    public V get(K key) {
+        int bucketIndex = hashFunction(key);
+        LinkedList<Node> nodes = buckets[bucketIndex];
+        for (Node node : nodes) {
+            if (node.key.equals(key)) {
+                return node.value;
+            }
+        }
+        return null;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        StringBuilder builder = new StringBuilder();
+        builder.append("{");
+        for (LinkedList<Node> nodes : buckets) {
+            for (Node node : nodes) {
+                builder.append(node.key);
+                builder.append(" : ");
+                builder.append(node.value);
+                builder.append(", ");
+            }
+        }
+        // Remove trailing comma and space
+        if (builder.length() > 1) {
+            builder.setLength(builder.length() - 2);
+        }
+        builder.append("}");
+        return builder.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns true if this map contains a mapping for the specified key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose presence in this map is to be tested
+     * @return true if this map contains a mapping for the specified key
+     */
+    public boolean containsKey(K key) {
+        return get(key) != null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A private class representing a key-value pair (node) in the hash map.
+     */
+    public class Node {
+        K key;
+        V value;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a new Node with the specified key and value.
+         *
+         * @param key the key of the key-value pair
+         * @param value the value of the key-value pair
+         */
+        public Node(K key, V value) {
+            this.key = key;
+            this.value = value;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayList.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..89e25f4eb0f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayList.java
@@ -0,0 +1,188 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+
+/**
+ * A generic implementation of a hash map using an array list of linked lists for collision resolution.
+ * This class allows storage of key-value pairs with average-case constant time complexity for insertion,
+ * deletion, and retrieval operations.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The hash map uses separate chaining to handle collisions. Each bucket in the hash map is represented
+ * by a linked list that holds nodes containing key-value pairs. When multiple keys hash to the same index,
+ * they are stored in the same linked list.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The hash map automatically resizes itself when the load factor exceeds 0.5. The load factor is defined
+ * as the ratio of the number of entries to the number of buckets. When resizing occurs, all existing entries
+ * are rehashed and inserted into the new buckets.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by this hash map
+ * @param <V> the type of mapped values
+ */
+public class GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<K, V> {
+
+    private ArrayList<LinkedList<Node>> buckets; // Array list of buckets (linked lists)
+    private int size; // Number of key-value pairs in the hash map
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a new empty hash map with an initial capacity of 10 buckets.
+     */
+    public GenericHashMapUsingArrayList() {
+        buckets = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            buckets.add(new LinkedList<>());
+        }
+        size = 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Associates the specified value with the specified key in this map.
+     * If the map previously contained a mapping for the key, the old value is replaced.
+     *
+     * @param key the key with which the specified value is to be associated
+     * @param value the value to be associated with the specified key
+     */
+    public void put(K key, V value) {
+        int hash = Math.abs(key.hashCode() % buckets.size());
+        LinkedList<Node> nodes = buckets.get(hash);
+
+        for (Node node : nodes) {
+            if (node.key.equals(key)) {
+                node.val = value;
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+
+        nodes.add(new Node(key, value));
+        size++;
+
+        // Load factor threshold for resizing
+        float loadFactorThreshold = 0.5f;
+        if ((float) size / buckets.size() > loadFactorThreshold) {
+            reHash();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Resizes the hash map by doubling the number of buckets and rehashing existing entries.
+     */
+    private void reHash() {
+        ArrayList<LinkedList<Node>> oldBuckets = buckets;
+        buckets = new ArrayList<>();
+        size = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < oldBuckets.size() * 2; i++) {
+            buckets.add(new LinkedList<>());
+        }
+        for (LinkedList<Node> nodes : oldBuckets) {
+            for (Node node : nodes) {
+                put(node.key, node.val);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the value to which the specified key is mapped, or null if this map contains no mapping for the key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose associated value is to be returned
+     * @return the value associated with the specified key, or null if no mapping exists
+     */
+    public V get(K key) {
+        int hash = Math.abs(key.hashCode() % buckets.size());
+        LinkedList<Node> nodes = buckets.get(hash);
+        for (Node node : nodes) {
+            if (node.key.equals(key)) {
+                return node.val;
+            }
+        }
+        return null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the mapping for the specified key from this map if present.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose mapping is to be removed from the map
+     */
+    public void remove(K key) {
+        int hash = Math.abs(key.hashCode() % buckets.size());
+        LinkedList<Node> nodes = buckets.get(hash);
+
+        Node target = null;
+        for (Node node : nodes) {
+            if (node.key.equals(key)) {
+                target = node;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        if (target != null) {
+            nodes.remove(target);
+            size--;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns true if this map contains a mapping for the specified key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose presence in this map is to be tested
+     * @return true if this map contains a mapping for the specified key
+     */
+    public boolean containsKey(K key) {
+        return get(key) != null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of key-value pairs in this map.
+     *
+     * @return the number of key-value pairs
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return this.size;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the map, containing all key-value pairs.
+     *
+     * @return a string representation of the map
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        StringBuilder builder = new StringBuilder();
+        builder.append("{");
+        for (LinkedList<Node> nodes : buckets) {
+            for (Node node : nodes) {
+                builder.append(node.key);
+                builder.append(" : ");
+                builder.append(node.val);
+                builder.append(", ");
+            }
+        }
+        // Remove trailing comma and space if there are any elements
+        if (builder.length() > 1) {
+            builder.setLength(builder.length() - 2);
+        }
+        builder.append("}");
+        return builder.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A private inner class representing a key-value pair (node) in the hash map.
+     */
+    private class Node {
+        K key;
+        V val;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a new Node with the specified key and value.
+         *
+         * @param key the key of the key-value pair
+         * @param val the value of the key-value pair
+         */
+        Node(K key, V val) {
+            this.key = key;
+            this.val = val;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMap.java
index 247244da5316..1b0792b8a738 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMap.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMap.java
@@ -1,149 +1,298 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
 
-public class HashMap {
+/**
+ * A generic HashMap implementation that uses separate chaining with linked lists
+ * to handle collisions. The class supports basic operations such as insert, delete,
+ * and search, as well as displaying the contents of the hash map.
+ *
+ * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by this map
+ * @param <V> the type of mapped values
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
+public class HashMap<K, V> {
+    private final int hashSize;
+    private final LinkedList<K, V>[] buckets;
 
-    private int hsize;
-    private LinkedList[] buckets;
-
-    public HashMap(int hsize) {
-        buckets = new LinkedList[hsize];
-        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
-            buckets[i] = new LinkedList();
-            // Java requires explicit initialisaton of each object
+    /**
+     * Constructs a HashMap with the specified hash size.
+     *
+     * @param hashSize the number of buckets in the hash map
+     */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    public HashMap(int hashSize) {
+        this.hashSize = hashSize;
+        // Safe to suppress warning because we are creating an array of generic type
+        this.buckets = new LinkedList[hashSize];
+        for (int i = 0; i < hashSize; i++) {
+            buckets[i] = new LinkedList<>();
         }
-        this.hsize = hsize;
     }
 
-    public int hashing(int key) {
-        int hash = key % hsize;
-        if (hash < 0) {
-            hash += hsize;
+    /**
+     * Computes the hash code for the specified key.
+     * Null keys are hashed to bucket 0.
+     *
+     * @param key the key for which the hash code is to be computed
+     * @return the hash code corresponding to the key
+     */
+    private int computeHash(K key) {
+        if (key == null) {
+            return 0; // Use a special bucket (e.g., bucket 0) for null keys
         }
-        return hash;
+        int hash = key.hashCode() % hashSize;
+        return hash < 0 ? hash + hashSize : hash;
     }
 
-    public void insertHash(int key) {
-        int hash = hashing(key);
-        buckets[hash].insert(key);
+    /**
+     * Inserts the specified key-value pair into the hash map.
+     * If the key already exists, the value is updated.
+     *
+     * @param key   the key to be inserted
+     * @param value the value to be associated with the key
+     */
+    public void insert(K key, V value) {
+        int hash = computeHash(key);
+        buckets[hash].insert(key, value);
     }
 
-    public void deleteHash(int key) {
-        int hash = hashing(key);
-
+    /**
+     * Deletes the key-value pair associated with the specified key from the hash map.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose key-value pair is to be deleted
+     */
+    public void delete(K key) {
+        int hash = computeHash(key);
         buckets[hash].delete(key);
     }
 
-    public void displayHashtable() {
-        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
-            System.out.printf("Bucket %d :", i);
-            System.out.println(buckets[i].display());
-        }
+    /**
+     * Searches for the value associated with the specified key in the hash map.
+     *
+     * @param key the key whose associated value is to be returned
+     * @return the value associated with the specified key, or null if the key does not exist
+     */
+    public V search(K key) {
+        int hash = computeHash(key);
+        Node<K, V> node = buckets[hash].findKey(key);
+        return node != null ? node.getValue() : null;
     }
 
-    public static class LinkedList {
-
-        private Node first;
-
-        public LinkedList() {
-            first = null;
+    /**
+     * Displays the contents of the hash map, showing each bucket and its key-value pairs.
+     */
+    public void display() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < hashSize; i++) {
+            System.out.printf("Bucket %d: %s%n", i, buckets[i].display());
         }
+    }
 
-        public void insert(int key) {
-            if (isEmpty()) {
-                first = new Node(key);
-                return;
-            }
-
-            Node temp = findEnd(first);
-            temp.setNext(new Node(key));
+    /**
+     * Clears the contents of the hash map by reinitializing each bucket.
+     */
+    public void clear() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < hashSize; i++) {
+            buckets[i] = new LinkedList<>();
         }
+    }
 
-        private Node findEnd(Node n) {
-            if (n.getNext() == null) {
-                return n;
-            } else {
-                return findEnd(n.getNext());
-            }
+    /**
+     * Gets the number of key-value pairs in the hash map.
+     *
+     * @return the number of key-value pairs in the hash map
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        int size = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < hashSize; i++) {
+            size += buckets[i].isEmpty() ? 0 : 1;
         }
+        return size;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A nested static class that represents a linked list used for separate chaining in the hash map.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of keys maintained by this linked list
+     * @param <V> the type of mapped values
+     */
+    public static class LinkedList<K, V> {
+        private Node<K, V> head;
 
-        public Node findKey(int key) {
-            if (!isEmpty()) {
-                return findKey(first, key);
+        /**
+         * Inserts the specified key-value pair into the linked list.
+         * If the linked list is empty, the pair becomes the head.
+         * Otherwise, the pair is added to the end of the list.
+         *
+         * @param key   the key to be inserted
+         * @param value the value to be associated with the key
+         */
+        public void insert(K key, V value) {
+            Node<K, V> existingNode = findKey(key);
+            if (existingNode != null) {
+                existingNode.setValue(value); // Update the value, even if it's null
             } else {
-                System.out.println("List is empty");
-                return null;
+                if (isEmpty()) {
+                    head = new Node<>(key, value);
+                } else {
+                    Node<K, V> temp = findEnd(head);
+                    temp.setNext(new Node<>(key, value));
+                }
             }
         }
 
-        private Node findKey(Node n, int key) {
-            if (n.getKey() == key) {
-                return n;
-            } else if (n.getNext() == null) {
-                System.out.println("Key not found");
-                return null;
-            } else {
-                return findKey(n.getNext(), key);
+        /**
+         * Finds the last node in the linked list.
+         *
+         * @param node the starting node
+         * @return the last node in the linked list
+         */
+        private Node<K, V> findEnd(Node<K, V> node) {
+            while (node.getNext() != null) {
+                node = node.getNext();
             }
+            return node;
         }
 
-        public void delete(int key) {
-            if (!isEmpty()) {
-                if (first.getKey() == key) {
-                    first = null;
-                } else {
-                    delete(first, key);
+        /**
+         * Finds the node associated with the specified key in the linked list.
+         *
+         * @param key the key to search for
+         * @return the node associated with the specified key, or null if not found
+         */
+        public Node<K, V> findKey(K key) {
+            Node<K, V> temp = head;
+            while (temp != null) {
+                if ((key == null && temp.getKey() == null) || (temp.getKey() != null && temp.getKey().equals(key))) {
+                    return temp;
                 }
-            } else {
-                System.out.println("List is empty");
+                temp = temp.getNext();
             }
+            return null;
         }
 
-        private void delete(Node n, int key) {
-            if (n.getNext().getKey() == key) {
-                if (n.getNext().getNext() == null) {
-                    n.setNext(null);
-                } else {
-                    n.setNext(n.getNext().getNext());
+        /**
+         * Deletes the node associated with the specified key from the linked list.
+         * Handles the case where the key could be null.
+         *
+         * @param key the key whose associated node is to be deleted
+         */
+        public void delete(K key) {
+            if (isEmpty()) {
+                return;
+            }
+
+            // Handle the case where the head node has the key to delete
+            if ((key == null && head.getKey() == null) || (head.getKey() != null && head.getKey().equals(key))) {
+                head = head.getNext();
+                return;
+            }
+
+            // Traverse the list to find and delete the node
+            Node<K, V> current = head;
+            while (current.getNext() != null) {
+                if ((key == null && current.getNext().getKey() == null) || (current.getNext().getKey() != null && current.getNext().getKey().equals(key))) {
+                    current.setNext(current.getNext().getNext());
+                    return;
                 }
+                current = current.getNext();
             }
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Displays the contents of the linked list as a string.
+         *
+         * @return a string representation of the linked list
+         */
         public String display() {
-            return display(first);
+            return display(head);
         }
 
-        private String display(Node n) {
-            if (n == null) {
-                return "null";
-            } else {
-                return n.getKey() + "->" + display(n.getNext());
+        /**
+         * Constructs a string representation of the linked list non-recursively.
+         *
+         * @param node the starting node
+         * @return a string representation of the linked list starting from the given node
+         */
+        private String display(Node<K, V> node) {
+            StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
+            while (node != null) {
+                sb.append(node.getKey()).append("=").append(node.getValue());
+                node = node.getNext();
+                if (node != null) {
+                    sb.append(" -> ");
+                }
             }
+            return sb.toString().isEmpty() ? "null" : sb.toString();
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Checks if the linked list is empty.
+         *
+         * @return true if the linked list is empty, false otherwise
+         */
         public boolean isEmpty() {
-            return first == null;
+            return head == null;
         }
     }
 
-    public static class Node {
+    /**
+     * A nested static class representing a node in the linked list.
+     *
+     * @param <K> the type of key maintained by this node
+     * @param <V> the type of value maintained by this node
+     */
+    public static class Node<K, V> {
+        private final K key;
+        private V value;
+        private Node<K, V> next;
 
-        private Node next;
-        private int key;
-
-        public Node(int key) {
-            next = null;
+        /**
+         * Constructs a Node with the specified key and value.
+         *
+         * @param key   the key associated with this node
+         * @param value the value associated with this node
+         */
+        public Node(K key, V value) {
             this.key = key;
+            this.value = value;
         }
 
-        public Node getNext() {
-            return next;
+        /**
+         * Gets the key associated with this node.
+         *
+         * @return the key associated with this node
+         */
+        public K getKey() {
+            return key;
         }
 
-        public int getKey() {
-            return key;
+        /**
+         * Gets the value associated with this node.
+         *
+         * @return the value associated with this node
+         */
+        public V getValue() {
+            return value;
+        }
+
+        public void setValue(V value) { // This method allows updating the value
+            this.value = value;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Gets the next node in the linked list.
+         *
+         * @return the next node in the linked list
+         */
+        public Node<K, V> getNext() {
+            return next;
         }
 
-        public void setNext(Node next) {
+        /**
+         * Sets the next node in the linked list.
+         *
+         * @param next the next node to be linked
+         */
+        public void setNext(Node<K, V> next) {
             this.next = next;
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashing.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashing.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8bcf00730acb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashing.java
@@ -0,0 +1,269 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements a hash table using Cuckoo Hashing.
+ * Cuckoo hashing is a type of open-addressing hash table that resolves collisions
+ * by relocating existing keys. It utilizes two hash functions to minimize collisions
+ * and automatically resizes the table when the load factor exceeds 0.7.
+ *
+ * For more information on cuckoo hashing, refer to
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckoo_hashing">this Wikipedia page</a>.
+ */
+public class HashMapCuckooHashing {
+
+    private int tableSize; // Size of the hash table
+    private Integer[] buckets; // Array representing the hash table
+    private final Integer emptySlot; // Placeholder for deleted slots
+    private int size; // Number of elements in the hash table
+    private int thresh; // Threshold for detecting infinite loops during insertion
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a HashMapCuckooHashing object with the specified initial table size.
+     *
+     * @param tableSize the initial size of the hash map
+     */
+    public HashMapCuckooHashing(int tableSize) {
+        this.buckets = new Integer[tableSize];
+        this.tableSize = tableSize;
+        this.emptySlot = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
+        this.size = 0;
+        this.thresh = (int) (Math.log(tableSize) / Math.log(2)) + 2;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the first hash index for a given key using the modulo operation.
+     *
+     * @param key the key for which the hash index is computed
+     * @return an integer index corresponding to the key
+     */
+    public int hashFunction1(int key) {
+        int hash = key % tableSize;
+        if (hash < 0) {
+            hash += tableSize;
+        }
+        return hash;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the second hash index for a given key using integer division.
+     *
+     * @param key the key for which the hash index is computed
+     * @return an integer index corresponding to the key
+     */
+    public int hashFunction2(int key) {
+        int hash = key / tableSize;
+        hash %= tableSize;
+        if (hash < 0) {
+            hash += tableSize;
+        }
+        return hash;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts a key into the hash table using cuckoo hashing.
+     * If the target bucket is occupied, it relocates the existing key and attempts to insert
+     * it into its alternate location. If the insertion process exceeds the threshold,
+     * the table is resized.
+     *
+     * @param key the key to be inserted into the hash table
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the key already exists in the table
+     */
+    public void insertKey2HashTable(int key) {
+        Integer wrappedInt = key;
+        Integer temp;
+        int hash;
+        int loopCounter = 0;
+
+        if (isFull()) {
+            System.out.println("Hash table is full, lengthening & rehashing table");
+            reHashTableIncreasesTableSize();
+        }
+
+        if (checkTableContainsKey(key)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key already exists; duplicates are not allowed.");
+        }
+
+        while (loopCounter <= thresh) {
+            loopCounter++;
+            hash = hashFunction1(key);
+
+            if ((buckets[hash] == null) || Objects.equals(buckets[hash], emptySlot)) {
+                buckets[hash] = wrappedInt;
+                size++;
+                checkLoadFactor();
+                return;
+            }
+
+            temp = buckets[hash];
+            buckets[hash] = wrappedInt;
+            wrappedInt = temp;
+            hash = hashFunction2(temp);
+            if (Objects.equals(buckets[hash], emptySlot)) {
+                buckets[hash] = wrappedInt;
+                size++;
+                checkLoadFactor();
+                return;
+            } else if (buckets[hash] == null) {
+                buckets[hash] = wrappedInt;
+                size++;
+                checkLoadFactor();
+                return;
+            }
+
+            temp = buckets[hash];
+            buckets[hash] = wrappedInt;
+            wrappedInt = temp;
+        }
+        System.out.println("Infinite loop occurred, lengthening & rehashing table");
+        reHashTableIncreasesTableSize();
+        insertKey2HashTable(key);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Rehashes the current table to a new size (double the current size) and reinserts existing keys.
+     */
+    public void reHashTableIncreasesTableSize() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing newT = new HashMapCuckooHashing(tableSize * 2);
+        for (int i = 0; i < tableSize; i++) {
+            if (buckets[i] != null && !Objects.equals(buckets[i], emptySlot)) {
+                newT.insertKey2HashTable(this.buckets[i]);
+            }
+        }
+        this.tableSize *= 2;
+        this.buckets = newT.buckets;
+        this.thresh = (int) (Math.log(tableSize) / Math.log(2)) + 2;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Deletes a key from the hash table, marking its position as available.
+     *
+     * @param key the key to be deleted from the hash table
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the table is empty or if the key is not found
+     */
+    public void deleteKeyFromHashTable(int key) {
+        Integer wrappedInt = key;
+        int hash = hashFunction1(key);
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Table is empty, cannot delete.");
+        }
+
+        if (Objects.equals(buckets[hash], wrappedInt)) {
+            buckets[hash] = emptySlot;
+            size--;
+            return;
+        }
+
+        hash = hashFunction2(key);
+        if (Objects.equals(buckets[hash], wrappedInt)) {
+            buckets[hash] = emptySlot;
+            size--;
+            return;
+        }
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key " + key + " not found in the table.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Displays the hash table contents, bucket by bucket.
+     */
+    public void displayHashtable() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < tableSize; i++) {
+            if ((buckets[i] == null) || Objects.equals(buckets[i], emptySlot)) {
+                System.out.println("Bucket " + i + ": Empty");
+            } else {
+                System.out.println("Bucket " + i + ": " + buckets[i].toString());
+            }
+        }
+        System.out.println();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the index of a given key in the hash table.
+     *
+     * @param key the key to be found
+     * @return the index where the key is located
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the table is empty or the key is not found
+     */
+    public int findKeyInTable(int key) {
+        Integer wrappedInt = key;
+        int hash = hashFunction1(key);
+
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Table is empty; cannot find keys.");
+        }
+
+        if (Objects.equals(buckets[hash], wrappedInt)) {
+            return hash;
+        }
+
+        hash = hashFunction2(key);
+        if (!Objects.equals(buckets[hash], wrappedInt)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key " + key + " not found in the table.");
+        } else {
+            return hash;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the given key is present in the hash table.
+     *
+     * @param key the key to be checked
+     * @return true if the key exists, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean checkTableContainsKey(int key) {
+        return ((buckets[hashFunction1(key)] != null && buckets[hashFunction1(key)].equals(key)) || (buckets[hashFunction2(key)] != null && buckets[hashFunction2(key)].equals(key)));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks the load factor of the hash table. If the load factor exceeds 0.7,
+     * the table is resized to prevent further collisions.
+     *
+     * @return the current load factor of the hash table
+     */
+    public double checkLoadFactor() {
+        double factor = (double) size / tableSize;
+        if (factor > .7) {
+            System.out.printf("Load factor is %.2f, rehashing table.%n", factor);
+            reHashTableIncreasesTableSize();
+        }
+        return factor;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the hash map is full.
+     *
+     * @return true if the hash map is full, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean isFull() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < tableSize; i++) {
+            if (buckets[i] == null || Objects.equals(buckets[i], emptySlot)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the hash map is empty.
+     *
+     * @return true if the hash map is empty, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < tableSize; i++) {
+            if (buckets[i] != null) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current number of keys in the hash table.
+     *
+     * @return the number of keys present in the hash table
+     */
+    public int getNumberOfKeysInTable() {
+        return size;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapLinearProbing.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapLinearProbing.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 8d950311e18b..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapLinearProbing.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,200 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
-
-import java.util.*;
-
-/**
- * This class is an implementation of a hash table using linear probing It uses
- * a dynamic array to lengthen the size of the hash table when load factor > .7
- */
-public class HashMapLinearProbing {
-
-    private int hsize; // size of the hash table
-    private Integer[] buckets; // array representing the table
-    private Integer AVAILABLE;
-    private int size; // amount of elements in the hash table
-
-    /**
-     * Constructor initializes buckets array, hsize, and creates dummy object
-     * for AVAILABLE
-     *
-     * @param hsize the desired size of the hash map
-     */
-    public HashMapLinearProbing(int hsize) {
-        this.buckets = new Integer[hsize];
-        this.hsize = hsize;
-        this.AVAILABLE = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
-        this.size = 0;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * The Hash Function takes a given key and finds an index based on its data
-     *
-     * @param key the desired key to be converted
-     * @return int an index corresponding to the key
-     */
-    public int hashing(int key) {
-        int hash = key % hsize;
-        if (hash < 0) {
-            hash += hsize;
-        }
-        return hash;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * inserts the key into the hash map by wrapping it as an Integer object
-     *
-     * @param key the desired key to be inserted in the hash map
-     */
-    public void insertHash(int key) {
-        Integer wrappedInt = key;
-        int hash = hashing(key);
-
-        if (isFull()) {
-            System.out.println("Hash table is full");
-            return;
-        }
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
-            if (buckets[hash] == null || buckets[hash] == AVAILABLE) {
-                buckets[hash] = wrappedInt;
-                size++;
-                return;
-            }
-
-            if (hash + 1 < hsize) {
-                hash++;
-            } else {
-                hash = 0;
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * deletes a key from the hash map and adds an available placeholder
-     *
-     * @param key the desired key to be deleted
-     */
-    public void deleteHash(int key) {
-        Integer wrappedInt = key;
-        int hash = hashing(key);
-
-        if (isEmpty()) {
-            System.out.println("Table is empty");
-            return;
-        }
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
-            if (buckets[hash] != null && buckets[hash].equals(wrappedInt)) {
-                buckets[hash] = AVAILABLE;
-                size--;
-                return;
-            }
-
-            if (hash + 1 < hsize) {
-                hash++;
-            } else {
-                hash = 0;
-            }
-        }
-        System.out.println("Key " + key + " not found");
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Displays the hash table line by line
-     */
-    public void displayHashtable() {
-        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
-            if (buckets[i] == null || buckets[i] == AVAILABLE) {
-                System.out.println("Bucket " + i + ": Empty");
-            } else {
-                System.out.println("Bucket " + i + ": " + buckets[i].toString());
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Finds the index of location based on an inputed key
-     *
-     * @param key the desired key to be found
-     * @return int the index where the key is located
-     */
-    public int findHash(int key) {
-        Integer wrappedInt = key;
-        int hash = hashing(key);
-
-        if (isEmpty()) {
-            System.out.println("Table is empty");
-            return -1;
-        }
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
-            try {
-                if (buckets[hash].equals(wrappedInt)) {
-                    buckets[hash] = AVAILABLE;
-                    return hash;
-                }
-            } catch (Exception E) {
-            }
-
-            if (hash + 1 < hsize) {
-                hash++;
-            } else {
-                hash = 0;
-            }
-        }
-        System.out.println("Key " + key + " not found");
-        return -1;
-    }
-
-    private void lengthenTable() {
-        buckets = Arrays.copyOf(buckets, hsize * 2);
-        hsize *= 2;
-        System.out.println("Table size is now: " + hsize);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Checks the load factor of the hash table if greater than .7,
-     * automatically lengthens table to prevent further collisions
-     */
-    public void checkLoadFactor() {
-        double factor = (double) size / hsize;
-        if (factor > .7) {
-            System.out.println("Load factor is " + factor + ",  lengthening table");
-            lengthenTable();
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("Load factor is " + factor);
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * isFull returns true if the hash map is full and false if not full
-     *
-     * @return boolean is Empty
-     */
-    public boolean isFull() {
-        boolean response = true;
-        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
-            if (buckets[i] == null || buckets[i] == AVAILABLE) {
-                response = false;
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-        return response;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * isEmpty returns true if the hash map is empty and false if not empty
-     *
-     * @return boolean is Empty
-     */
-    public boolean isEmpty() {
-        boolean response = true;
-        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
-            if (buckets[i] != null) {
-                response = false;
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-        return response;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection
deleted file mode 100644
index ffec70f26704..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,64 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
-/*
-* this is algo which implies common mathematical set theory concept 
-* called intersection in which result is common values of both the sets 
-* here metaphor of sets is HashMap 
-
-
-Test Case:
-		Scanner scn=new Scanner(System.in);
-		int len =scn.nextInt();
-		int arr[]=new int[len];
-		int arr2[]=new int[len];
-		
-		for(int i=0;i<2*len;i++) {
-			
-			if(i<len)
-				arr[i]=scn.nextInt();
-			if(i>=len) {
-				arr2[i-len]=scn.nextInt();
-			}
-		}
-		System.out.println(Main(arr,arr2));
-		
-	
-
-*/
-
-import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.HashMap;
-import java.util.Map;
-import java.util.Scanner;
-import java.util.Set;
-
-public class Intersection {
-
-	public static ArrayList Main(int arr[],int arr2[]) {
-		HashMap<Integer,Integer> hmap=new HashMap<>();
-		HashMap<Integer,Integer> hmap2=new HashMap<>();
-		for(int i=0;i<arr.length;i++) {
-			if(hmap.containsKey(arr[i])) {
-				int val=hmap.get(arr[i]);
-				hmap.put(arr[i],val+1);
-			}else
-				hmap.put(arr[i],1);
-			
-		}
-		ArrayList<Integer> res=new ArrayList<>();
-		for(int i=0;i<arr2.length;i++) {
-			if(hmap.containsKey(arr2[i])&&hmap.get(arr2[i])>0) {
-				int val=hmap.get(arr2[i]);
-				hmap.put(arr2[i],val-1);
-				res.add(arr2[i]);
-			}
-			
-		}
-		return res;
-	}
-	public Intersection() {
-		
-	}
-
-	
-
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5760d39f1df7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection.java
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code Intersection} class provides a method to compute the intersection of two integer arrays.
+ * <p>
+ * This intersection includes duplicate values — meaning elements are included in the result
+ * as many times as they appear in both arrays (i.e., multiset intersection).
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The algorithm uses a {@link java.util.HashMap} to count occurrences of elements in the first array,
+ * then iterates through the second array to collect common elements based on these counts.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Example usage:
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * int[] array1 = {1, 2, 2, 1};
+ * int[] array2 = {2, 2};
+ * List<Integer> result = Intersection.intersection(array1, array2); // result: [2, 2]
+ * }</pre>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Note: The order of elements in the returned list depends on the order in the second input array.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class Intersection {
+
+    private Intersection() {
+        // Utility class; prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the intersection of two integer arrays, preserving element frequency.
+     * For example, given [1,2,2,3] and [2,2,4], the result will be [2,2].
+     *
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Count the occurrences of each element in the first array using a map.
+     * 2. Iterate over the second array and collect common elements.
+     *
+     * @param arr1 the first array of integers
+     * @param arr2 the second array of integers
+     * @return a list containing the intersection of the two arrays (with duplicates),
+     *         or an empty list if either array is null or empty
+     */
+    public static List<Integer> intersection(int[] arr1, int[] arr2) {
+        if (arr1 == null || arr2 == null || arr1.length == 0 || arr2.length == 0) {
+            return Collections.emptyList();
+        }
+
+        Map<Integer, Integer> countMap = new HashMap<>();
+        for (int num : arr1) {
+            countMap.put(num, countMap.getOrDefault(num, 0) + 1);
+        }
+
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int num : arr2) {
+            if (countMap.getOrDefault(num, 0) > 0) {
+                result.add(num);
+                countMap.computeIfPresent(num, (k, v) -> v - 1);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/LinearProbingHashMap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/LinearProbingHashMap.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..761a5fe83d18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/LinearProbingHashMap.java
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements a hash table using linear probing to resolve collisions.
+ * Linear probing is a collision resolution method where each slot in the hash table is checked in a sequential manner
+ * until an empty slot is found.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The class allows for storing key-value pairs, where both the key and value are generic types.
+ * The key must be of a type that implements the Comparable interface to ensure that the keys can be compared for sorting.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * This implementation supports basic operations such as:
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li><b>put(Key key, Value value)</b>: Adds a key-value pair to the hash table. If the key already exists, its value is updated.</li>
+ *     <li><b>get(Key key)</b>: Retrieves the value associated with the given key.</li>
+ *     <li><b>delete(Key key)</b>: Removes the key and its associated value from the hash table.</li>
+ *     <li><b>contains(Key key)</b>: Checks if the hash table contains a given key.</li>
+ *     <li><b>size()</b>: Returns the number of key-value pairs in the hash table.</li>
+ *     <li><b>keys()</b>: Returns an iterable collection of keys stored in the hash table.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The internal size of the hash table is automatically resized when the load factor exceeds 0.5 or falls below 0.125,
+ * ensuring efficient space utilization.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_probing">Linear Probing Hash Table</a>
+ *
+ * @param <Key> the type of keys maintained by this map
+ * @param <Value> the type of mapped values
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
+public class LinearProbingHashMap<Key extends Comparable<Key>, Value> extends Map<Key, Value> {
+    private int hsize; // size of the hash table
+    private Key[] keys; // array to store keys
+    private Value[] values; // array to store values
+    private int size; // number of elements in the hash table
+
+    // Default constructor initializes the table with a default size of 16
+    public LinearProbingHashMap() {
+        this(16);
+    }
+
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    // Constructor to initialize the hash table with a specified size
+    public LinearProbingHashMap(int size) {
+        this.hsize = size;
+        keys = (Key[]) new Comparable[size];
+        values = (Value[]) new Object[size];
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean put(Key key, Value value) {
+        if (key == null) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        if (size > hsize / 2) {
+            resize(2 * hsize);
+        }
+
+        int keyIndex = hash(key, hsize);
+        for (; keys[keyIndex] != null; keyIndex = increment(keyIndex)) {
+            if (key.equals(keys[keyIndex])) {
+                values[keyIndex] = value;
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+
+        keys[keyIndex] = key;
+        values[keyIndex] = value;
+        size++;
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public Value get(Key key) {
+        if (key == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        for (int i = hash(key, hsize); keys[i] != null; i = increment(i)) {
+            if (key.equals(keys[i])) {
+                return values[i];
+            }
+        }
+
+        return null;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean delete(Key key) {
+        if (key == null || !contains(key)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        int i = hash(key, hsize);
+        while (!key.equals(keys[i])) {
+            i = increment(i);
+        }
+
+        keys[i] = null;
+        values[i] = null;
+
+        i = increment(i);
+        while (keys[i] != null) {
+            // Save the key and value for rehashing
+            Key keyToRehash = keys[i];
+            Value valToRehash = values[i];
+            keys[i] = null;
+            values[i] = null;
+            size--;
+            put(keyToRehash, valToRehash);
+            i = increment(i);
+        }
+
+        size--;
+        if (size > 0 && size <= hsize / 8) {
+            resize(hsize / 2);
+        }
+
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean contains(Key key) {
+        return get(key) != null;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    int size() {
+        return size;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    Iterable<Key> keys() {
+        ArrayList<Key> listOfKeys = new ArrayList<>(size);
+        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
+            if (keys[i] != null) {
+                listOfKeys.add(keys[i]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        listOfKeys.sort(Comparable::compareTo);
+        return listOfKeys;
+    }
+
+    private int increment(int i) {
+        return (i + 1) % hsize;
+    }
+
+    private void resize(int newSize) {
+        LinearProbingHashMap<Key, Value> tmp = new LinearProbingHashMap<>(newSize);
+        for (int i = 0; i < hsize; i++) {
+            if (keys[i] != null) {
+                tmp.put(keys[i], values[i]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        this.keys = tmp.keys;
+        this.values = tmp.values;
+        this.hsize = newSize;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Main.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Main.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 7a2a54ae6d3e..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Main.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class Main {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        int choice, key;
-
-        HashMap h = new HashMap(7);
-        Scanner In = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        while (true) {
-            System.out.println("Enter your Choice :");
-            System.out.println("1. Add Key");
-            System.out.println("2. Delete Key");
-            System.out.println("3. Print Table");
-            System.out.println("4. Exit");
-
-            choice = In.nextInt();
-
-            switch (choice) {
-                case 1: {
-                    System.out.println("Enter the Key: ");
-                    key = In.nextInt();
-                    h.insertHash(key);
-                    break;
-                }
-                case 2: {
-                    System.out.println("Enter the Key delete:  ");
-                    key = In.nextInt();
-                    h.deleteHash(key);
-                    break;
-                }
-                case 3: {
-                    System.out.println("Print table");
-                    h.displayHashtable();
-                    break;
-                }
-                case 4: {
-                    In.close();
-                    return;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MainCuckooHashing.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MainCuckooHashing.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ff4c69a5ec78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MainCuckooHashing.java
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import java.util.Scanner;
+
+public final class MainCuckooHashing {
+    private MainCuckooHashing() {
+    }
+
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        int choice;
+        int key;
+
+        HashMapCuckooHashing h = new HashMapCuckooHashing(7);
+        Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
+
+        while (true) {
+            System.out.println("_________________________");
+            System.out.println("Enter your Choice :");
+            System.out.println("1. Add Key");
+            System.out.println("2. Delete Key");
+            System.out.println("3. Print Table");
+            System.out.println("4. Exit");
+            System.out.println("5. Search and print key index");
+            System.out.println("6. Check load factor");
+            System.out.println("7. Rehash Current Table");
+
+            choice = scan.nextInt();
+
+            switch (choice) {
+            case 1:
+                System.out.println("Enter the Key: ");
+                key = scan.nextInt();
+                h.insertKey2HashTable(key);
+                break;
+
+            case 2:
+                System.out.println("Enter the Key delete:  ");
+                key = scan.nextInt();
+                h.deleteKeyFromHashTable(key);
+                break;
+
+            case 3:
+                System.out.println("Print table:\n");
+                h.displayHashtable();
+                break;
+
+            case 4:
+                scan.close();
+                return;
+
+            case 5:
+                System.out.println("Enter the Key to find and print:  ");
+                key = scan.nextInt();
+                System.out.println("Key: " + key + " is at index: " + h.findKeyInTable(key) + "\n");
+                break;
+
+            case 6:
+                System.out.printf("Load factor is: %.2f%n", h.checkLoadFactor());
+                break;
+
+            case 7:
+                h.reHashTableIncreasesTableSize();
+                break;
+
+            default:
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Unexpected value: " + choice);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MainLinearProbing.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MainLinearProbing.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 1a987db59d27..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MainLinearProbing.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,60 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class MainLinearProbing {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        int choice, key;
-
-        HashMapLinearProbing h = new HashMapLinearProbing(7);
-        Scanner In = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        while (true) {
-            System.out.println("Enter your Choice :");
-            System.out.println("1. Add Key");
-            System.out.println("2. Delete Key");
-            System.out.println("3. Print Table");
-            System.out.println("4. Exit");
-            System.out.println("5. Search and print key index");
-            System.out.println("6. Check load factor");
-
-            choice = In.nextInt();
-
-            switch (choice) {
-                case 1: {
-                    System.out.println("Enter the Key: ");
-                    key = In.nextInt();
-                    h.insertHash(key);
-                    break;
-                }
-                case 2: {
-                    System.out.println("Enter the Key delete:  ");
-                    key = In.nextInt();
-                    h.deleteHash(key);
-                    break;
-                }
-                case 3: {
-                    System.out.println("Print table");
-                    h.displayHashtable();
-                    break;
-                }
-                case 4: {
-                    In.close();
-                    return;
-                }
-                case 5: {
-                    System.out.println("Enter the Key to find and print:  ");
-                    key = In.nextInt();
-                    System.out.println("Key: " + key + " is at index: " + h.findHash(key));
-                    break;
-                }
-                case 6: {
-                    h.checkLoadFactor();
-                    break;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MajorityElement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MajorityElement.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5fd6b2e7f3cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MajorityElement.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to find the majority element(s) in an array of integers.
+ * A majority element is defined as an element that appears at least ⌊n/2⌋ times,
+ * where n is the length of the array. If multiple elements qualify as majority elements,
+ * they are all returned in a list.
+ */
+public final class MajorityElement {
+    private MajorityElement() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a list of majority element(s) from the given array of integers.
+     *
+     * @param nums an array of integers
+     * @return a list containing the majority element(s); returns an empty list if none exist or input is null/empty
+     */
+    public static List<Integer> majority(int[] nums) {
+        if (nums == null || nums.length == 0) {
+            return Collections.emptyList();
+        }
+
+        Map<Integer, Integer> numToCount = new HashMap<>();
+        for (final var num : nums) {
+            numToCount.merge(num, 1, Integer::sum);
+        }
+
+        List<Integer> majorityElements = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (final var entry : numToCount.entrySet()) {
+            if (entry.getValue() >= nums.length / 2) {
+                majorityElements.add(entry.getKey());
+            }
+        }
+        return majorityElements;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Map.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Map.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4605883fbbb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Map.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+public abstract class Map<Key, Value> {
+
+    abstract boolean put(Key key, Value value);
+
+    abstract Value get(Key key);
+
+    abstract boolean delete(Key key);
+
+    abstract Iterable<Key> keys();
+
+    abstract int size();
+
+    public boolean contains(Key key) {
+        return get(key) != null;
+    }
+
+    protected int hash(Key key, int size) {
+        return (key.hashCode() & Integer.MAX_VALUE) % size;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/EmptyHeapException.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/EmptyHeapException.java
index f18e4d4a960f..11af3f39981c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/EmptyHeapException.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/EmptyHeapException.java
@@ -10,4 +10,8 @@ public class EmptyHeapException extends Exception {
     public EmptyHeapException(String message) {
         super(message);
     }
+
+    public EmptyHeapException(String message, Throwable cause) {
+        super(message, cause);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeap.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7a263fc08ac5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeap.java
@@ -0,0 +1,454 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code FibonacciHeap} class implements a Fibonacci Heap data structure,
+ * which is a collection of trees that satisfy the minimum heap property.
+ * This heap allows for efficient merging of heaps, as well as faster
+ * decrease-key and delete operations compared to other heap data structures.
+ *
+ * <p>Key features of the Fibonacci Heap include:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Amortized O(1) time complexity for insert and decrease-key operations.</li>
+ *   <li>Amortized O(log n) time complexity for delete and delete-min operations.</li>
+ *   <li>Meld operation that combines two heaps in O(1) time.</li>
+ *   <li>Potential function that helps analyze the amortized time complexity.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation maintains additional statistics such as the total number
+ * of link and cut operations performed during the lifetime of the heap, which can
+ * be accessed through static methods.
+ *
+ * <p>The Fibonacci Heap is composed of nodes represented by the inner class
+ * {@code HeapNode}. Each node maintains a key, rank, marked status, and pointers
+ * to its children and siblings. Nodes can be linked and cut as part of the heap
+ * restructuring processes.
+ *
+ * @see HeapNode
+ */
+public class FibonacciHeap {
+
+    private static final double GOLDEN_RATIO = (1 + Math.sqrt(5)) / 2;
+    private HeapNode min;
+    private static int totalLinks = 0;
+    private static int totalCuts = 0;
+    private int numOfTrees = 0;
+    private int numOfHeapNodes = 0;
+    private int markedHeapNodesCounter = 0;
+
+    /*
+     * a constructor for an empty Heap
+     * set the min to be null
+     */
+    public FibonacciHeap() {
+        this.min = null;
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * a constructor for a Heap with one element
+     * set the min to be the HeapNode with the given key
+     * @pre key>=0
+     * @post empty == false
+     */
+    public FibonacciHeap(int key) {
+        this.min = new HeapNode(key);
+        this.numOfTrees++;
+        this.numOfHeapNodes++;
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * check if the heap is empty
+     * $ret == true - if the tree is empty
+     */
+    public boolean empty() {
+        return (this.min == null);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Creates a node (of type HeapNode) which contains the given key, and inserts it into the heap.
+     *
+     * @pre key>=0
+     * @post (numOfnodes = = $prev numOfnodes + 1)
+     * @post empty == false
+     * $ret = the HeapNode we inserted
+     */
+    public HeapNode insert(int key) {
+        HeapNode toInsert = new HeapNode(key); // creates the node
+        if (this.empty()) {
+            this.min = toInsert;
+        } else { // tree is not empty
+            min.setNext(toInsert);
+            this.updateMin(toInsert);
+        }
+        this.numOfHeapNodes++;
+        this.numOfTrees++;
+        return toInsert;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Delete the node containing the minimum key in the heap
+     * updates new min
+     *
+     * @post (numOfnodes = = $prev numOfnodes - 1)
+     */
+    public void deleteMin() {
+        if (this.empty()) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if (this.numOfHeapNodes == 1) { // if there is only one tree
+            this.min = null;
+            this.numOfTrees--;
+            this.numOfHeapNodes--;
+            return;
+        }
+        // change all children's parent to null//
+        if (this.min.child != null) { // min has a child
+            HeapNode child = this.min.child;
+            HeapNode tmpChild = child;
+            child.parent = null;
+            while (child.next != tmpChild) {
+                child = child.next;
+                child.parent = null;
+            }
+        }
+        // delete the node//
+        if (this.numOfTrees > 1) {
+            (this.min.prev).next = this.min.next;
+            (this.min.next).prev = this.min.prev;
+            if (this.min.child != null) {
+                (this.min.prev).setNext(this.min.child);
+            }
+        } else { // this.numOfTrees = 1
+            this.min = this.min.child;
+        }
+        this.numOfHeapNodes--;
+        this.successiveLink(this.min.getNext());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Return the node of the heap whose key is minimal.
+     * $ret == null if (empty==true)
+     */
+    public HeapNode findMin() {
+        return this.min;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Meld the heap with heap2
+     *
+     * @pre heap2 != null
+     * @post (numOfnodes = = $prev numOfnodes + heap2.numOfnodes)
+     */
+    public void meld(FibonacciHeap heap2) {
+        if (heap2.empty()) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if (this.empty()) {
+            this.min = heap2.min;
+        } else {
+            this.min.setNext(heap2.min);
+            this.updateMin(heap2.min);
+        }
+        this.numOfTrees += heap2.numOfTrees;
+        this.numOfHeapNodes += heap2.numOfHeapNodes;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Return the number of elements in the heap
+     * $ret == 0 if heap is empty
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return this.numOfHeapNodes;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Return a counters array, where the value of the i-th index is the number of trees with rank i
+     * in the heap. returns an empty array for an empty heap
+     */
+    public int[] countersRep() {
+        if (this.empty()) {
+            return new int[0]; /// return an empty array
+        }
+        int[] rankArray = new int[(int) Math.floor(Math.log(this.size()) / Math.log(GOLDEN_RATIO)) + 1]; // creates the array
+        rankArray[this.min.rank]++;
+        HeapNode curr = this.min.next;
+        while (curr != this.min) {
+            rankArray[curr.rank]++;
+            curr = curr.next;
+        }
+        return rankArray;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Deletes the node x from the heap (using decreaseKey(x) to -1)
+     *
+     * @pre heap contains x
+     * @post (numOfnodes = = $prev numOfnodes - 1)
+     */
+    public void delete(HeapNode x) {
+        this.decreaseKey(x, x.getKey() + 1); // change key to be the minimal (-1)
+        this.deleteMin(); // delete it
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * The function decreases the key of the node x by delta.
+     *
+     * @pre x.key >= delta (we don't realize it when calling from delete())
+     * @pre heap contains x
+     */
+    private void decreaseKey(HeapNode x, int delta) {
+        int newKey = x.getKey() - delta;
+        x.key = newKey;
+        if (x.isRoot()) { // no parent to x
+            this.updateMin(x);
+            return;
+        }
+        if (x.getKey() >= x.parent.getKey()) {
+            return;
+        } // we don't need to cut
+        HeapNode prevParent = x.parent;
+        this.cut(x);
+        this.cascadingCuts(prevParent);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * returns the current potential of the heap, which is:
+     * Potential = #trees + 2*#markedNodes
+     */
+    public int potential() {
+        return numOfTrees + (2 * markedHeapNodesCounter);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This static function returns the total number of link operations made during the run-time of
+     * the program. A link operation is the operation which gets as input two trees of the same
+     * rank, and generates a tree of rank bigger by one.
+     */
+    public static int totalLinks() {
+        return totalLinks;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This static function returns the total number of cut operations made during the run-time of
+     * the program. A cut operation is the operation which disconnects a subtree from its parent
+     * (during decreaseKey/delete methods).
+     */
+    public static int totalCuts() {
+        return totalCuts;
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * updates the min of the heap (if needed)
+     * @pre this.min == @param (posMin) if and only if (posMin.key < this.min.key)
+     */
+    private void updateMin(HeapNode posMin) {
+        if (posMin.getKey() < this.min.getKey()) {
+            this.min = posMin;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Recursively "runs" all the way up from @param (curr) and mark the nodes.
+     * stop the recursion if we had arrived to a marked node or to a root.
+     * if we arrived to a marked node, we cut it and continue recursively.
+     * called after a node was cut.
+     * @post (numOfnodes == $prev numOfnodes)
+     */
+    private void cascadingCuts(HeapNode curr) {
+        if (!curr.isMarked()) { // stop the recursion
+            curr.mark();
+            if (!curr.isRoot()) {
+                this.markedHeapNodesCounter++;
+            }
+        } else {
+            if (curr.isRoot()) {
+                return;
+            }
+            HeapNode prevParent = curr.parent;
+            this.cut(curr);
+            this.cascadingCuts(prevParent);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * cut a node (and his "subtree") from his origin tree and connect it to the heap as a new tree.
+     * called after a node was cut.
+     * @post (numOfnodes == $prev numOfnodes)
+     */
+    private void cut(HeapNode curr) {
+        curr.parent.rank--;
+        if (curr.marked) {
+            this.markedHeapNodesCounter--;
+            curr.marked = false;
+        }
+        if (curr.parent.child == curr) { // we should change the parent's child
+            if (curr.next == curr) { // curr do not have brothers
+                curr.parent.child = null;
+            } else { // curr have brothers
+                curr.parent.child = curr.next;
+            }
+        }
+        curr.prev.next = curr.next;
+        curr.next.prev = curr.prev;
+        curr.next = curr;
+        curr.prev = curr;
+        curr.parent = null;
+        this.min.setNext(curr);
+        this.updateMin(curr);
+        this.numOfTrees++;
+        totalCuts++;
+    }
+
+    /*
+     *
+     */
+    private void successiveLink(HeapNode curr) {
+        HeapNode[] buckets = this.toBuckets(curr);
+        this.min = this.fromBuckets(buckets);
+    }
+
+    /*
+     *
+     */
+    private HeapNode[] toBuckets(HeapNode curr) {
+        HeapNode[] buckets = new HeapNode[(int) Math.floor(Math.log(this.size()) / Math.log(GOLDEN_RATIO)) + 1];
+        curr.prev.next = null;
+        HeapNode tmpCurr;
+        while (curr != null) {
+            tmpCurr = curr;
+            curr = curr.next;
+            tmpCurr.next = tmpCurr;
+            tmpCurr.prev = tmpCurr;
+            while (buckets[tmpCurr.rank] != null) {
+                tmpCurr = this.link(tmpCurr, buckets[tmpCurr.rank]);
+                buckets[tmpCurr.rank - 1] = null;
+            }
+            buckets[tmpCurr.rank] = tmpCurr;
+        }
+        return buckets;
+    }
+
+    /*
+     *
+     */
+    private HeapNode fromBuckets(HeapNode[] buckets) {
+        HeapNode tmpMin = null;
+        this.numOfTrees = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < buckets.length; i++) {
+            if (buckets[i] != null) {
+                this.numOfTrees++;
+                if (tmpMin == null) {
+                    tmpMin = buckets[i];
+                    tmpMin.next = tmpMin;
+                    tmpMin.prev = tmpMin;
+                } else {
+                    tmpMin.setNext(buckets[i]);
+                    if (buckets[i].getKey() < tmpMin.getKey()) {
+                        tmpMin = buckets[i];
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return tmpMin;
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * link between two nodes (and their trees)
+     * defines the smaller node to be the parent
+     */
+    private HeapNode link(HeapNode c1, HeapNode c2) {
+        if (c1.getKey() > c2.getKey()) {
+            HeapNode c3 = c1;
+            c1 = c2;
+            c2 = c3;
+        }
+        if (c1.child == null) {
+            c1.child = c2;
+        } else {
+            c1.child.setNext(c2);
+        }
+        c2.parent = c1;
+        c1.rank++;
+        totalLinks++;
+        return c1;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * public class HeapNode
+     * each HeapNode belongs to a heap (Inner class)
+     */
+    public class HeapNode {
+
+        public int key;
+        private int rank;
+        private boolean marked;
+        private HeapNode child;
+        private HeapNode next;
+        private HeapNode prev;
+        private HeapNode parent;
+
+        /*
+         * a constructor for a heapNode withe key @param (key)
+         * prev == next == this
+         * parent == child == null
+         */
+        public HeapNode(int key) {
+            this.key = key;
+            this.marked = false;
+            this.next = this;
+            this.prev = this;
+        }
+
+        /*
+         * returns the key of the node.
+         */
+        public int getKey() {
+            return this.key;
+        }
+
+        /*
+         * checks whether the node is marked
+         * $ret = true if one child has been cut
+         */
+        private boolean isMarked() {
+            return this.marked;
+        }
+
+        /*
+         * mark a node (after a child was cut)
+         * @inv root.mark() == false.
+         */
+        private void mark() {
+            if (this.isRoot()) {
+                return;
+            } // check if the node is a root
+            this.marked = true;
+        }
+
+        /*
+         * add the node @param (newNext) to be between this and this.next
+         * works fine also if @param (newNext) does not "stands" alone
+         */
+        private void setNext(HeapNode newNext) {
+            HeapNode tmpNext = this.next;
+            this.next = newNext;
+            this.next.prev.next = tmpNext;
+            tmpNext.prev = newNext.prev;
+            this.next.prev = this;
+        }
+
+        /*
+         * returns the next node to this node
+         */
+        private HeapNode getNext() {
+            return this.next;
+        }
+
+        /*
+         * check if the node is a root
+         * root definition - this.parent == null (uppest in his tree)
+         */
+        private boolean isRoot() {
+            return (this.parent == null);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeap b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeap
deleted file mode 100644
index 1a17022a9022..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeap
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,69 +0,0 @@
-import java.util.*;
-
-public class GenericHeap <T extends Comparable <T> >{
-	ArrayList <T> data=new ArrayList<>();
-	HashMap<T,Integer> map=new HashMap<>();
-	public void add(T item) {
-		this.data.add(item);
-		map.put(item,this.data.size()-1);//
-		upHeapify(this.data.size()-1);
-	}
-	private void upHeapify(int ci) {
-		int pi=(ci-1)/2;
-		if(isLarger(this.data.get(ci),this.data.get(pi))>0) {
-			swap(pi,ci);
-			upHeapify(pi);
-		}
-	}
-	public void display() {
-		System.out.println(this.data);
-	}
-	public int size() {
-		return this.data.size();
-	}
-	public boolean isEmpty() {
-		return this.size()==0;
-	}
-	public T remove() {
-		this.swap(0,this.size()-1);
-		T rv=this.data.remove(this.size()-1);
-		downHeapify(0);
-		map.remove(rv); 
-		return rv;
-	}
-	private void downHeapify(int pi) {
-		int lci=2*pi+1;
-		int rci=2*pi+2;
-		int mini=pi;
-		if(lci<this.size() &&  isLarger(this.data.get(lci),this.data.get(mini))>0) {
-			mini=lci;
-		}
-		if(rci<this.size() &&  isLarger(this.data.get(rci),this.data.get(mini))>0) {
-			mini=rci;
-		}
-		if(mini!=pi) {
-			this.swap(pi,mini);
-			downHeapify(mini);
-		}
-	}
-	public T get() {
-		return this.data.get(0);
-	}
-	//t has higher property then return +ve
-	private int isLarger(T t,T o) {
-		return t.compareTo(o);
-	}
-	private void swap(int i,int j) {
-		T ith=this.data.get(i);
-		T jth=this.data.get(j);
-		this.data.set(i,jth);
-		this.data.set(j,ith);
-		map.put(ith,j);
-		map.put(jth,i);
-	}
-	public void updatePriority(T item) {
-		int index=map.get(item);
-		//because we enter lesser value then old vale
-		upHeapify(index);
-	}
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeap.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b8a289db60b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeap.java
@@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+
+/**
+ * A generic implementation of a max heap data structure.
+ *
+ * @param <T> the type of elements in this heap, must extend Comparable.
+ */
+public class GenericHeap<T extends Comparable<T>> {
+
+    private final ArrayList<T> data = new ArrayList<>();
+    private final HashMap<T, Integer> map = new HashMap<>();
+
+    /**
+     * Adds an item to the heap, maintaining the heap property.
+     *
+     * @param item the item to be added
+     */
+    public void add(T item) {
+        if (item == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cannot insert null into the heap.");
+        }
+
+        this.data.add(item);
+        map.put(item, this.data.size() - 1);
+        upHeapify(this.data.size() - 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Restores the heap property by moving the item at the given index upwards.
+     *
+     * @param ci the index of the current item
+     */
+    private void upHeapify(int ci) {
+        int pi = (ci - 1) / 2;
+        if (ci > 0 && isLarger(this.data.get(ci), this.data.get(pi)) > 0) {
+            swap(pi, ci);
+            upHeapify(pi);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of elements in the heap.
+     *
+     * @return the size of the heap
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return this.data.size();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the heap is empty.
+     *
+     * @return true if the heap is empty, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return this.size() == 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes and returns the maximum item from the heap.
+     *
+     * @return the maximum item
+     */
+    public T remove() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Heap is empty");
+        }
+        this.swap(0, this.size() - 1);
+        T rv = this.data.remove(this.size() - 1);
+        map.remove(rv);
+        downHeapify(0);
+        return rv;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Restores the heap property by moving the item at the given index downwards.
+     *
+     * @param pi the index of the current item
+     */
+    private void downHeapify(int pi) {
+        int lci = 2 * pi + 1;
+        int rci = 2 * pi + 2;
+        int mini = pi;
+        if (lci < this.size() && isLarger(this.data.get(lci), this.data.get(mini)) > 0) {
+            mini = lci;
+        }
+        if (rci < this.size() && isLarger(this.data.get(rci), this.data.get(mini)) > 0) {
+            mini = rci;
+        }
+        if (mini != pi) {
+            this.swap(pi, mini);
+            downHeapify(mini);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the maximum item from the heap without removing it.
+     *
+     * @return the maximum item
+     */
+    public T get() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Heap is empty");
+        }
+        return this.data.getFirst();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compares two items to determine their order.
+     *
+     * @param t the first item
+     * @param o the second item
+     * @return a positive integer if t is greater than o, negative if t is less, and zero if they are equal
+     */
+    private int isLarger(T t, T o) {
+        return t.compareTo(o);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Swaps two items in the heap and updates their indices in the map.
+     *
+     * @param i index of the first item
+     * @param j index of the second item
+     */
+    private void swap(int i, int j) {
+        T ith = this.data.get(i);
+        T jth = this.data.get(j);
+        this.data.set(i, jth);
+        this.data.set(j, ith);
+        map.put(ith, j);
+        map.put(jth, i);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Updates the priority of the specified item by restoring the heap property.
+     *
+     * @param item the item whose priority is to be updated
+     */
+    public void updatePriority(T item) {
+        if (!map.containsKey(item)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Item not found in the heap");
+        }
+        int index = map.get(item);
+        upHeapify(index);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/Heap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/Heap.java
index da0795158cb3..8cb93edf78f3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/Heap.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/Heap.java
@@ -19,7 +19,6 @@
  * @author Nicolas Renard
  */
 public interface Heap {
-
     /**
      * @return the top element in the heap, the one with lowest key for min-heap
      * or with the highest key for max-heap
@@ -41,5 +40,5 @@ public interface Heap {
      * @param elementIndex int containing the position in the heap of the
      * element to be deleted.
      */
-    void deleteElement(int elementIndex);
+    void deleteElement(int elementIndex) throws EmptyHeapException;
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElement.java
index 5d31a2bdc0a4..a9cfac7036eb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElement.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElement.java
@@ -1,14 +1,24 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
 
 /**
- * Class for heap elements.<br>
+ * Class representing an element in a heap.
  *
  * <p>
- * A heap element contains two attributes: a key which will be used to build the
- * tree (int or double, either primitive type or object) and any kind of
- * IMMUTABLE object the user sees fit to carry any information he/she likes. Be
- * aware that the use of a mutable object might jeopardize the integrity of this
- * information.
+ * A heap element contains two attributes: a key used for ordering in the heap
+ * (which can be of type int or double, either as primitive types or as wrapper objects)
+ * and an additional immutable object that can store any supplementary information the user desires.
+ * Note that using mutable objects may compromise the integrity of this information.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The key attribute is used to determine the order of elements in the heap,
+ * while the additionalInfo attribute can carry user-defined data associated with the key.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * This class provides multiple constructors to accommodate various key types and includes
+ * methods to retrieve the key and additional information.
+ * </p>
  *
  * @author Nicolas Renard
  */
@@ -19,9 +29,10 @@ public class HeapElement {
 
     // Constructors
     /**
-     * @param key : a number of primitive type 'double'
-     * @param info : any kind of IMMUTABLE object. May be null, since the
-     * purpose is only to carry additional information of use for the user
+     * Creates a HeapElement with the specified key and additional information.
+     *
+     * @param key  the key of the element (primitive type double)
+     * @param info any immutable object containing additional information, may be null
      */
     public HeapElement(double key, Object info) {
         this.key = key;
@@ -29,9 +40,10 @@ public HeapElement(double key, Object info) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param key : a number of primitive type 'int'
-     * @param info : any kind of IMMUTABLE object. May be null, since the
-     * purpose is only to carry additional information of use for the user
+     * Creates a HeapElement with the specified key and additional information.
+     *
+     * @param key  the key of the element (primitive type int)
+     * @param info any immutable object containing additional information, may be null
      */
     public HeapElement(int key, Object info) {
         this.key = key;
@@ -39,9 +51,10 @@ public HeapElement(int key, Object info) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param key : a number of object type 'Integer'
-     * @param info : any kind of IMMUTABLE object. May be null, since the
-     * purpose is only to carry additional information of use for the user
+     * Creates a HeapElement with the specified key and additional information.
+     *
+     * @param key  the key of the element (object type Integer)
+     * @param info any immutable object containing additional information, may be null
      */
     public HeapElement(Integer key, Object info) {
         this.key = key;
@@ -49,9 +62,10 @@ public HeapElement(Integer key, Object info) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param key : a number of object type 'Double'
-     * @param info : any kind of IMMUTABLE object. May be null, since the
-     * purpose is only to carry additional information of use for the user
+     * Creates a HeapElement with the specified key and additional information.
+     *
+     * @param key  the key of the element (object type Double)
+     * @param info any immutable object containing additional information, may be null
      */
     public HeapElement(Double key, Object info) {
         this.key = key;
@@ -59,7 +73,9 @@ public HeapElement(Double key, Object info) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param key : a number of primitive type 'double'
+     * Creates a HeapElement with the specified key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key of the element (primitive type double)
      */
     public HeapElement(double key) {
         this.key = key;
@@ -67,7 +83,9 @@ public HeapElement(double key) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param key : a number of primitive type 'int'
+     * Creates a HeapElement with the specified key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key of the element (primitive type int)
      */
     public HeapElement(int key) {
         this.key = key;
@@ -75,7 +93,9 @@ public HeapElement(int key) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param key : a number of object type 'Integer'
+     * Creates a HeapElement with the specified key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key of the element (object type Integer)
      */
     public HeapElement(Integer key) {
         this.key = key;
@@ -83,7 +103,9 @@ public HeapElement(Integer key) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param key : a number of object type 'Double'
+     * Creates a HeapElement with the specified key.
+     *
+     * @param key the key of the element (object type Double)
      */
     public HeapElement(Double key) {
         this.key = key;
@@ -92,47 +114,60 @@ public HeapElement(Double key) {
 
     // Getters
     /**
-     * @return the object containing the additional info provided by the user.
+     * Returns the object containing the additional information provided by the user.
+     *
+     * @return the additional information
      */
     public Object getInfo() {
         return additionalInfo;
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return the key value of the element
+     * Returns the key value of the element.
+     *
+     * @return the key of the element
      */
     public double getKey() {
         return key;
     }
 
     // Overridden object methods
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the heap element.
+     *
+     * @return a string describing the key and additional information
+     */
+    @Override
     public String toString() {
-        return "Key: " + key + " - " + additionalInfo.toString();
+        return "Key: " + key + " - " + (additionalInfo != null ? additionalInfo.toString() : "No additional info");
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param otherHeapElement
+     * @param o : an object to compare with the current element
      * @return true if the keys on both elements are identical and the
      * additional info objects are identical.
      */
     @Override
     public boolean equals(Object o) {
-        if (o != null) {
-            if (!(o instanceof HeapElement)) {
-                return false;
-            }
-            HeapElement otherHeapElement = (HeapElement) o;
-            return (this.key == otherHeapElement.key)
-                    && (this.additionalInfo.equals(otherHeapElement.additionalInfo));
+        if (o instanceof HeapElement otherHeapElement) {
+            return this.key == otherHeapElement.key && (this.additionalInfo != null ? this.additionalInfo.equals(otherHeapElement.additionalInfo) : otherHeapElement.additionalInfo == null);
         }
         return false;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns a hash code value for the heap element.
+     *
+     * @return a hash code value for this heap element
+     */
     @Override
     public int hashCode() {
-        int result = 0;
-        result = 31 * result + (int) key;
-        result = 31 * result + (additionalInfo != null ? additionalInfo.hashCode() : 0);
+        int result = 31 * (int) key;
+        result += (additionalInfo != null) ? additionalInfo.hashCode() : 0;
         return result;
     }
+
+    public String getValue() {
+        return additionalInfo.toString();
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinder.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7ad92e8ba3c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides methods to find the Kth largest or Kth smallest element
+ * in an array using heaps. It leverages a min-heap to find the Kth largest element
+ * and a max-heap to find the Kth smallest element efficiently.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class KthElementFinder {
+    private KthElementFinder() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the Kth largest element in the given array.
+     * Uses a min-heap of size K to track the largest K elements.
+     *
+     * Time Complexity: O(n * log(k)), where n is the size of the input array.
+     * Space Complexity: O(k), as we maintain a heap of size K.
+     *
+     * @param nums the input array of integers
+     * @param k the desired Kth position (1-indexed, i.e., 1 means the largest element)
+     * @return the Kth largest element in the array
+     */
+    public static int findKthLargest(int[] nums, int k) {
+        PriorityQueue<Integer> minHeap = new PriorityQueue<>(k);
+        for (int num : nums) {
+            minHeap.offer(num);
+            if (minHeap.size() > k) {
+                minHeap.poll();
+            }
+        }
+        return minHeap.peek();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the Kth smallest element in the given array.
+     * Uses a max-heap of size K to track the smallest K elements.
+     *
+     * Time Complexity: O(n * log(k)), where n is the size of the input array.
+     * Space Complexity: O(k), as we maintain a heap of size K.
+     *
+     * @param nums the input array of integers
+     * @param k the desired Kth position (1-indexed, i.e., 1 means the smallest element)
+     * @return the Kth smallest element in the array
+     */
+    public static int findKthSmallest(int[] nums, int k) {
+        PriorityQueue<Integer> maxHeap = new PriorityQueue<>((a, b) -> b - a);
+        for (int num : nums) {
+            maxHeap.offer(num);
+            if (maxHeap.size() > k) {
+                maxHeap.poll();
+            }
+        }
+        return maxHeap.peek();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/LeftistHeap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/LeftistHeap.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1c91d24f0fb5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/LeftistHeap.java
@@ -0,0 +1,164 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements a Leftist Heap, which is a type of priority queue
+ * that follows similar operations to a binary min-heap but allows for
+ * unbalanced structures based on the leftist property.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * A Leftist Heap maintains the leftist property, which ensures that the
+ * left subtree is heavier than the right subtree based on the
+ * null-path length (npl) values. This allows for efficient merging
+ * of heaps and supports operations like insertion, extraction of
+ * the minimum element, and in-order traversal.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * For more information on Leftist Heaps, visit:
+ * <a href="https://iq.opengenus.org/leftist-heap/">OpenGenus</a>
+ * </p>
+ */
+public class LeftistHeap {
+    // Node class representing each element in the Leftist Heap
+    private static final class Node {
+        private final int element;
+        private int npl;
+        private Node left;
+        private Node right;
+
+        // Node constructor that initializes the element and sets child pointers to null
+        private Node(int element) {
+            this.element = element;
+            left = null;
+            right = null;
+            npl = 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private Node root;
+
+    // Constructor initializing an empty Leftist Heap
+    public LeftistHeap() {
+        root = null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the heap is empty.
+     *
+     * @return true if the heap is empty; false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return root == null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Resets the heap to its initial state, effectively clearing all elements.
+     */
+    public void clear() {
+        root = null; // Set root to null to clear the heap
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges the contents of another Leftist Heap into this one.
+     *
+     * @param h1 the LeftistHeap to be merged into this heap
+     */
+    public void merge(LeftistHeap h1) {
+        // Merge the current heap with the provided heap and set the provided heap's root to null
+        root = merge(root, h1.root);
+        h1.root = null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges two nodes, maintaining the leftist property.
+     *
+     * @param a the first node
+     * @param b the second node
+     * @return the merged node maintaining the leftist property
+     */
+    public Node merge(Node a, Node b) {
+        if (a == null) {
+            return b;
+        }
+
+        if (b == null) {
+            return a;
+        }
+
+        // Ensure that the leftist property is maintained
+        if (a.element > b.element) {
+            Node temp = a;
+            a = b;
+            b = temp;
+        }
+
+        // Merge the right child of node a with node b
+        a.right = merge(a.right, b);
+
+        // If left child is null, make right child the left child
+        if (a.left == null) {
+            a.left = a.right;
+            a.right = null;
+        } else {
+            if (a.left.npl < a.right.npl) {
+                Node temp = a.left;
+                a.left = a.right;
+                a.right = temp;
+            }
+            a.npl = a.right.npl + 1;
+        }
+        return a;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts a new element into the Leftist Heap.
+     *
+     * @param a the element to be inserted
+     */
+    public void insert(int a) {
+        root = merge(new Node(a), root);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Extracts and removes the minimum element from the heap.
+     *
+     * @return the minimum element in the heap, or -1 if the heap is empty
+     */
+    public int extractMin() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            return -1;
+        }
+
+        int min = root.element;
+        root = merge(root.left, root.right);
+        return min;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a list of the elements in the heap in in-order traversal.
+     *
+     * @return an ArrayList containing the elements in in-order
+     */
+    public ArrayList<Integer> inOrder() {
+        ArrayList<Integer> lst = new ArrayList<>();
+        inOrderAux(root, lst);
+        return new ArrayList<>(lst);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Auxiliary function for in-order traversal
+     *
+     * @param n the current node
+     * @param lst the list to store the elements in in-order
+     */
+    private void inOrderAux(Node n, ArrayList<Integer> lst) {
+        if (n == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        inOrderAux(n.left, lst);
+        lst.add(n.element);
+        inOrderAux(n.right, lst);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java
index 13eb7a20cbbc..5b4b29cf1c2d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java
@@ -4,131 +4,245 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * Heap tree where a node's key is higher than or equal to its parent's and
- * lower than or equal to its children's.
+ * A Max Heap implementation where each node's key is higher than or equal to its children's keys.
+ * This data structure provides O(log n) time complexity for insertion and deletion operations,
+ * and O(1) for retrieving the maximum element.
+ *
+ * Properties:
+ * 1. Complete Binary Tree
+ * 2. Parent node's key ≥ Children nodes' keys
+ * 3. Root contains the maximum element
+ *
+ * Example usage:
+ * <pre>
+ * List<HeapElement> elements = Arrays.asList(
+ *     new HeapElement(5, "Five"),
+ *     new HeapElement(2, "Two")
+ * );
+ * MaxHeap heap = new MaxHeap(elements);
+ * heap.insertElement(new HeapElement(7, "Seven"));
+ * HeapElement max = heap.getElement(); // Returns and removes the maximum element
+ * </pre>
  *
  * @author Nicolas Renard
  */
 public class MaxHeap implements Heap {
 
+    /** The internal list that stores heap elements */
     private final List<HeapElement> maxHeap;
 
+    /**
+     * Constructs a new MaxHeap from a list of elements.
+     * Null elements in the input list are ignored.
+     *
+     * @param listElements List of HeapElement objects to initialize the heap
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input list is null
+     */
     public MaxHeap(List<HeapElement> listElements) {
+        if (listElements == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input list cannot be null");
+        }
+
         maxHeap = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Safe initialization: directly add non-null elements first
         for (HeapElement heapElement : listElements) {
             if (heapElement != null) {
-                insertElement(heapElement);
-            } else {
-                System.out.println("Null element. Not added to heap");
+                maxHeap.add(heapElement);
             }
         }
-        if (maxHeap.size() == 0) {
-            System.out.println("No element has been added, empty heap.");
+
+        // Heapify the array bottom-up
+        for (int i = maxHeap.size() / 2; i >= 0; i--) {
+            heapifyDown(i + 1); // +1 because heapifyDown expects 1-based index
         }
     }
 
     /**
-     * Get the element at a given index. The key for the list is equal to index
-     * value - 1
+     * Maintains heap properties by moving an element down the heap.
+     * Similar to toggleDown but used specifically during initialization.
      *
-     * @param elementIndex index
-     * @return heapElement
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element to heapify
+     */
+    private void heapifyDown(int elementIndex) {
+        int largest = elementIndex - 1;
+        int leftChild = 2 * elementIndex - 1;
+        int rightChild = 2 * elementIndex;
+
+        if (leftChild < maxHeap.size() && maxHeap.get(leftChild).getKey() > maxHeap.get(largest).getKey()) {
+            largest = leftChild;
+        }
+
+        if (rightChild < maxHeap.size() && maxHeap.get(rightChild).getKey() > maxHeap.get(largest).getKey()) {
+            largest = rightChild;
+        }
+
+        if (largest != elementIndex - 1) {
+            HeapElement swap = maxHeap.get(elementIndex - 1);
+            maxHeap.set(elementIndex - 1, maxHeap.get(largest));
+            maxHeap.set(largest, swap);
+
+            heapifyDown(largest + 1);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the element at the specified index without removing it.
+     * Note: The index is 1-based for consistency with heap operations.
+     *
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element to retrieve
+     * @return HeapElement at the specified index
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if the index is invalid
      */
     public HeapElement getElement(int elementIndex) {
         if ((elementIndex <= 0) || (elementIndex > maxHeap.size())) {
-            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index out of heap range");
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index " + elementIndex + " is out of heap range [1, " + maxHeap.size() + "]");
         }
         return maxHeap.get(elementIndex - 1);
     }
 
-    // Get the key of the element at a given index
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the key value of an element at the specified index.
+     *
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element
+     * @return double value representing the key
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if the index is invalid
+     */
     private double getElementKey(int elementIndex) {
+        if ((elementIndex <= 0) || (elementIndex > maxHeap.size())) {
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index " + elementIndex + " is out of heap range [1, " + maxHeap.size() + "]");
+        }
         return maxHeap.get(elementIndex - 1).getKey();
     }
 
-    // Swaps two elements in the heap
+    /**
+     * Swaps two elements in the heap.
+     *
+     * @param index1 1-based index of first element
+     * @param index2 1-based index of second element
+     */
     private void swap(int index1, int index2) {
         HeapElement temporaryElement = maxHeap.get(index1 - 1);
         maxHeap.set(index1 - 1, maxHeap.get(index2 - 1));
         maxHeap.set(index2 - 1, temporaryElement);
     }
 
-    // Toggle an element up to its right place as long as its key is lower than its parent's
+    /**
+     * Moves an element up the heap until heap properties are satisfied.
+     * This operation is called after insertion to maintain heap properties.
+     *
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element to move up
+     */
     private void toggleUp(int elementIndex) {
         double key = maxHeap.get(elementIndex - 1).getKey();
-        while (getElementKey((int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0)) < key) {
+        while (elementIndex > 1 && getElementKey((int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0)) < key) {
             swap(elementIndex, (int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0));
             elementIndex = (int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0);
         }
     }
 
-    // Toggle an element down to its right place as long as its key is higher
-    // than any of its children's
+    /**
+     * Moves an element down the heap until heap properties are satisfied.
+     * This operation is called after deletion to maintain heap properties.
+     *
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element to move down
+     */
     private void toggleDown(int elementIndex) {
         double key = maxHeap.get(elementIndex - 1).getKey();
-        boolean wrongOrder
-                = (key < getElementKey(elementIndex * 2))
-                || (key < getElementKey(Math.min(elementIndex * 2, maxHeap.size())));
-        while ((2 * elementIndex <= maxHeap.size()) && wrongOrder) {
-            // Check whether it shall swap the element with its left child or its right one if any.
-            if ((2 * elementIndex < maxHeap.size())
-                    && (getElementKey(elementIndex * 2 + 1) > getElementKey(elementIndex * 2))) {
-                swap(elementIndex, 2 * elementIndex + 1);
-                elementIndex = 2 * elementIndex + 1;
+        boolean wrongOrder = (2 * elementIndex <= maxHeap.size() && key < getElementKey(elementIndex * 2)) || (2 * elementIndex + 1 <= maxHeap.size() && key < getElementKey(elementIndex * 2 + 1));
+
+        while (2 * elementIndex <= maxHeap.size() && wrongOrder) {
+            int largerChildIndex;
+            if (2 * elementIndex + 1 <= maxHeap.size() && getElementKey(elementIndex * 2 + 1) > getElementKey(elementIndex * 2)) {
+                largerChildIndex = 2 * elementIndex + 1;
             } else {
-                swap(elementIndex, 2 * elementIndex);
-                elementIndex = 2 * elementIndex;
+                largerChildIndex = 2 * elementIndex;
             }
-            wrongOrder
-                    = (key < getElementKey(elementIndex * 2))
-                    || (key < getElementKey(Math.min(elementIndex * 2, maxHeap.size())));
+
+            swap(elementIndex, largerChildIndex);
+            elementIndex = largerChildIndex;
+
+            wrongOrder = (2 * elementIndex <= maxHeap.size() && key < getElementKey(elementIndex * 2)) || (2 * elementIndex + 1 <= maxHeap.size() && key < getElementKey(elementIndex * 2 + 1));
         }
     }
 
-    private HeapElement extractMax() {
-        HeapElement result = maxHeap.get(0);
-        deleteElement(0);
+    /**
+     * Extracts and returns the maximum element from the heap.
+     *
+     * @return HeapElement with the highest key
+     * @throws EmptyHeapException if the heap is empty
+     */
+    private HeapElement extractMax() throws EmptyHeapException {
+        if (maxHeap.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new EmptyHeapException("Cannot extract from an empty heap");
+        }
+        HeapElement result = maxHeap.getFirst();
+        deleteElement(1);
         return result;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * {@inheritDoc}
+     */
     @Override
     public void insertElement(HeapElement element) {
+        if (element == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cannot insert null element");
+        }
         maxHeap.add(element);
         toggleUp(maxHeap.size());
     }
 
+    /**
+     * {@inheritDoc}
+     */
     @Override
-    public void deleteElement(int elementIndex) {
-        if (maxHeap.isEmpty())
-      try {
-            throw new EmptyHeapException("Attempt to delete an element from an empty heap");
-        } catch (EmptyHeapException e) {
-            e.printStackTrace();
+    public void deleteElement(int elementIndex) throws EmptyHeapException {
+        if (maxHeap.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new EmptyHeapException("Cannot delete from an empty heap");
         }
         if ((elementIndex > maxHeap.size()) || (elementIndex <= 0)) {
-            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index out of heap range");
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index " + elementIndex + " is out of heap range [1, " + maxHeap.size() + "]");
         }
-        // The last element in heap replaces the one to be deleted
-        maxHeap.set(elementIndex - 1, getElement(maxHeap.size()));
-        maxHeap.remove(maxHeap.size());
-        // Shall the new element be moved up...
-        if (getElementKey(elementIndex) > getElementKey((int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0))) {
-            toggleUp(elementIndex);
-        } // ... or down ?
-        else if (((2 * elementIndex <= maxHeap.size())
-                && (getElementKey(elementIndex) < getElementKey(elementIndex * 2)))
-                || ((2 * elementIndex < maxHeap.size())
-                && (getElementKey(elementIndex) < getElementKey(elementIndex * 2)))) {
-            toggleDown(elementIndex);
+
+        // Replace with last element and remove last position
+        maxHeap.set(elementIndex - 1, maxHeap.getLast());
+        maxHeap.removeLast();
+
+        // No need to toggle if we just removed the last element
+        if (!maxHeap.isEmpty() && elementIndex <= maxHeap.size()) {
+            // Determine whether to toggle up or down
+            if (elementIndex > 1 && getElementKey(elementIndex) > getElementKey((int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0))) {
+                toggleUp(elementIndex);
+            } else {
+                toggleDown(elementIndex);
+            }
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * {@inheritDoc}
+     */
     @Override
     public HeapElement getElement() throws EmptyHeapException {
-        try {
-            return extractMax();
-        } catch (Exception e) {
-            throw new EmptyHeapException("Heap is empty. Error retrieving element");
-        }
+        return extractMax();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current size of the heap.
+     *
+     * @return number of elements in the heap
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return maxHeap.size();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the heap is empty.
+     *
+     * @return true if the heap contains no elements
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return maxHeap.isEmpty();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinder.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4e74aaec4a10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * This class maintains the median of a dynamically changing data stream using
+ * two heaps: a max-heap and a min-heap. The max-heap stores the smaller half
+ * of the numbers, and the min-heap stores the larger half.
+ * This data structure ensures that retrieving the median is efficient.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity:
+ * - Adding a number: O(log n) due to heap insertion.
+ * - Finding the median: O(1).
+ *
+ * Space Complexity: O(n), where n is the total number of elements added.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class MedianFinder {
+    MedianFinder() {
+    }
+
+    private PriorityQueue<Integer> minHeap = new PriorityQueue<>();
+    private PriorityQueue<Integer> maxHeap = new PriorityQueue<>((a, b) -> b - a);
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a new number to the data stream. The number is placed in the appropriate
+     * heap to maintain the balance between the two heaps.
+     *
+     * @param num the number to be added to the data stream
+     */
+    public void addNum(int num) {
+        if (maxHeap.isEmpty() || num <= maxHeap.peek()) {
+            maxHeap.offer(num);
+        } else {
+            minHeap.offer(num);
+        }
+
+        if (maxHeap.size() > minHeap.size() + 1) {
+            minHeap.offer(maxHeap.poll());
+        } else if (minHeap.size() > maxHeap.size()) {
+            maxHeap.offer(minHeap.poll());
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the median of the numbers added so far. If the total number of elements
+     * is even, the median is the average of the two middle elements. If odd, the
+     * median is the middle element from the max-heap.
+     *
+     * @return the median of the numbers in the data stream
+     */
+    public double findMedian() {
+        if (maxHeap.size() == minHeap.size()) {
+            return (maxHeap.peek() + minHeap.peek()) / 2.0;
+        }
+        return maxHeap.peek();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArrays.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArrays.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e41711f05914
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArrays.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to merge multiple sorted arrays into a single sorted array.
+ * It utilizes a min-heap to efficiently retrieve the smallest elements from each array.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(n * log k), where n is the total number of elements across all arrays
+ * and k is the number of arrays.
+ *
+ * Space Complexity: O(k) for the heap, where k is the number of arrays.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class MergeKSortedArrays {
+    private MergeKSortedArrays() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges k sorted arrays into one sorted array using a min-heap.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Create a min-heap to store elements in the format: {value, array index, element index}
+     * 2. Add the first element from each array to the heap
+     * 3. While the heap is not empty, remove the smallest element from the heap
+     *   and add it to the result array. If there are more elements in the same array,
+     *   add the next element to the heap.
+     *   Continue until all elements have been processed.
+     *   The result array will contain all elements in sorted order.
+     * 4. Return the result array.
+     *
+     * @param arrays a 2D array, where each subarray is sorted in non-decreasing order
+     * @return a single sorted array containing all elements from the input arrays
+     */
+    public static int[] mergeKArrays(int[][] arrays) {
+        PriorityQueue<int[]> minHeap = new PriorityQueue<>(Comparator.comparingInt(a -> a[0]));
+
+        int totalLength = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < arrays.length; i++) {
+            if (arrays[i].length > 0) {
+                minHeap.offer(new int[] {arrays[i][0], i, 0});
+                totalLength += arrays[i].length;
+            }
+        }
+
+        int[] result = new int[totalLength];
+        int index = 0;
+        while (!minHeap.isEmpty()) {
+            int[] top = minHeap.poll();
+            result[index++] = top[0];
+
+            if (top[2] + 1 < arrays[top[1]].length) {
+                minHeap.offer(new int[] {arrays[top[1]][top[2] + 1], top[1], top[2] + 1});
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java
index 37434d207725..3a4822142b5f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java
@@ -4,8 +4,25 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * Heap tree where a node's key is higher than or equal to its parent's and
- * lower than or equal to its children's.
+ * A Min Heap implementation where each node's key is lower than or equal to its children's keys.
+ * This data structure provides O(log n) time complexity for insertion and deletion operations,
+ * and O(1) for retrieving the minimum element.
+ *
+ * Properties:
+ * 1. Complete Binary Tree
+ * 2. Parent node's key ≤ Children nodes' keys
+ * 3. Root contains the minimum element
+ *
+ * Example usage:
+ * ```java
+ * List<HeapElement> elements = Arrays.asList(
+ *     new HeapElement(5, "Five"),
+ *     new HeapElement(2, "Two")
+ * );
+ * MinHeap heap = new MinHeap(elements);
+ * heap.insertElement(new HeapElement(1, "One"));
+ * HeapElement min = heap.getElement(); // Returns and removes the minimum element
+ * ```
  *
  * @author Nicolas Renard
  */
@@ -13,116 +30,242 @@ public class MinHeap implements Heap {
 
     private final List<HeapElement> minHeap;
 
+    /**
+     * Constructs a new MinHeap from a list of elements.
+     * Null elements in the input list are ignored with a warning message.
+     *
+     * @param listElements List of HeapElement objects to initialize the heap
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input list is null
+     */
     public MinHeap(List<HeapElement> listElements) {
+        if (listElements == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input list cannot be null");
+        }
+
         minHeap = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Safe initialization: directly add elements first
         for (HeapElement heapElement : listElements) {
             if (heapElement != null) {
-                insertElement(heapElement);
+                minHeap.add(heapElement);
             } else {
                 System.out.println("Null element. Not added to heap");
             }
         }
-        if (minHeap.size() == 0) {
+
+        // Heapify the array bottom-up
+        for (int i = minHeap.size() / 2; i >= 0; i--) {
+            heapifyDown(i + 1);
+        }
+
+        if (minHeap.isEmpty()) {
             System.out.println("No element has been added, empty heap.");
         }
     }
 
-    // Get the element at a given index. The key for the list is equal to index value - 1
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the element at the specified index without removing it.
+     * Note: The index is 1-based for consistency with heap operations.
+     *
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element to retrieve
+     * @return HeapElement at the specified index
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if the index is invalid
+     */
     public HeapElement getElement(int elementIndex) {
         if ((elementIndex <= 0) || (elementIndex > minHeap.size())) {
-            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index out of heap range");
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index " + elementIndex + " is out of heap range [1, " + minHeap.size() + "]");
         }
         return minHeap.get(elementIndex - 1);
     }
 
-    // Get the key of the element at a given index
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the key value of an element at the specified index.
+     *
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element
+     * @return double value representing the key
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if the index is invalid
+     */
     private double getElementKey(int elementIndex) {
+        if ((elementIndex <= 0) || (elementIndex > minHeap.size())) {
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index " + elementIndex + " is out of heap range [1, " + minHeap.size() + "]");
+        }
         return minHeap.get(elementIndex - 1).getKey();
     }
 
-    // Swaps two elements in the heap
+    /**
+     * Swaps two elements in the heap.
+     *
+     * @param index1 1-based index of first element
+     * @param index2 1-based index of second element
+     */
     private void swap(int index1, int index2) {
         HeapElement temporaryElement = minHeap.get(index1 - 1);
         minHeap.set(index1 - 1, minHeap.get(index2 - 1));
         minHeap.set(index2 - 1, temporaryElement);
     }
 
-    // Toggle an element up to its right place as long as its key is lower than its parent's
+    /**
+     * Maintains heap properties by moving an element down the heap.
+     * Used specifically during initialization.
+     *
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element to heapify
+     */
+    private void heapifyDown(int elementIndex) {
+        int smallest = elementIndex - 1; // Convert to 0-based index
+        int leftChild = 2 * elementIndex - 1;
+        int rightChild = 2 * elementIndex;
+
+        // Check if left child is smaller than root
+        if (leftChild < minHeap.size() && minHeap.get(leftChild).getKey() < minHeap.get(smallest).getKey()) {
+            smallest = leftChild;
+        }
+
+        // Check if right child is smaller than smallest so far
+        if (rightChild < minHeap.size() && minHeap.get(rightChild).getKey() < minHeap.get(smallest).getKey()) {
+            smallest = rightChild;
+        }
+
+        // If smallest is not root
+        if (smallest != elementIndex - 1) {
+            HeapElement swap = minHeap.get(elementIndex - 1);
+            minHeap.set(elementIndex - 1, minHeap.get(smallest));
+            minHeap.set(smallest, swap);
+
+            // Recursively heapify the affected sub-tree
+            heapifyDown(smallest + 1); // Convert back to 1-based index
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Moves an element up the heap until heap properties are satisfied.
+     * This operation is called after insertion to maintain heap properties.
+     *
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element to move up
+     */
     private void toggleUp(int elementIndex) {
+        if (elementIndex <= 1) {
+            return;
+        }
+
         double key = minHeap.get(elementIndex - 1).getKey();
-        while (getElementKey((int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0)) > key) {
-            swap(elementIndex, (int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0));
-            elementIndex = (int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0);
+        int parentIndex = (int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0);
+
+        while (elementIndex > 1 && getElementKey(parentIndex) > key) {
+            swap(elementIndex, parentIndex);
+            elementIndex = parentIndex;
+            parentIndex = (int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0);
         }
     }
 
-    // Toggle an element down to its right place as long as its key is higher
-    // than any of its children's
+    /**
+     * Moves an element down the heap until heap properties are satisfied.
+     * This operation is called after deletion to maintain heap properties.
+     *
+     * @param elementIndex 1-based index of the element to move down
+     */
     private void toggleDown(int elementIndex) {
         double key = minHeap.get(elementIndex - 1).getKey();
-        boolean wrongOrder
-                = (key > getElementKey(elementIndex * 2))
-                || (key > getElementKey(Math.min(elementIndex * 2, minHeap.size())));
-        while ((2 * elementIndex <= minHeap.size()) && wrongOrder) {
-            // Check whether it shall swap the element with its left child or its right one if any.
-            if ((2 * elementIndex < minHeap.size())
-                    && (getElementKey(elementIndex * 2 + 1) < getElementKey(elementIndex * 2))) {
-                swap(elementIndex, 2 * elementIndex + 1);
-                elementIndex = 2 * elementIndex + 1;
-            } else {
-                swap(elementIndex, 2 * elementIndex);
-                elementIndex = 2 * elementIndex;
+        int size = minHeap.size();
+
+        while (true) {
+            int smallest = elementIndex;
+            int leftChild = 2 * elementIndex;
+            int rightChild = 2 * elementIndex + 1;
+
+            if (leftChild <= size && getElementKey(leftChild) < key) {
+                smallest = leftChild;
+            }
+
+            if (rightChild <= size && getElementKey(rightChild) < getElementKey(smallest)) {
+                smallest = rightChild;
             }
-            wrongOrder
-                    = (key > getElementKey(elementIndex * 2))
-                    || (key > getElementKey(Math.min(elementIndex * 2, minHeap.size())));
+
+            if (smallest == elementIndex) {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            swap(elementIndex, smallest);
+            elementIndex = smallest;
         }
     }
 
-    private HeapElement extractMin() {
-        HeapElement result = minHeap.get(0);
-        deleteElement(0);
+    /**
+     * Extracts and returns the minimum element from the heap.
+     *
+     * @return HeapElement with the lowest key
+     * @throws EmptyHeapException if the heap is empty
+     */
+    private HeapElement extractMin() throws EmptyHeapException {
+        if (minHeap.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new EmptyHeapException("Cannot extract from empty heap");
+        }
+        HeapElement result = minHeap.getFirst();
+        deleteElement(1);
         return result;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * {@inheritDoc}
+     */
     @Override
     public void insertElement(HeapElement element) {
+        if (element == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cannot insert null element");
+        }
         minHeap.add(element);
         toggleUp(minHeap.size());
     }
 
+    /**
+     * {@inheritDoc}
+     */
     @Override
-    public void deleteElement(int elementIndex) {
-        if (minHeap.isEmpty())
-      try {
-            throw new EmptyHeapException("Attempt to delete an element from an empty heap");
-        } catch (EmptyHeapException e) {
-            e.printStackTrace();
+    public void deleteElement(int elementIndex) throws EmptyHeapException {
+        if (minHeap.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new EmptyHeapException("Cannot delete from empty heap");
         }
         if ((elementIndex > minHeap.size()) || (elementIndex <= 0)) {
-            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index out of heap range");
-        }
-        // The last element in heap replaces the one to be deleted
-        minHeap.set(elementIndex - 1, getElement(minHeap.size()));
-        minHeap.remove(minHeap.size());
-        // Shall the new element be moved up...
-        if (getElementKey(elementIndex) < getElementKey((int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0))) {
-            toggleUp(elementIndex);
-        } // ... or down ?
-        else if (((2 * elementIndex <= minHeap.size())
-                && (getElementKey(elementIndex) > getElementKey(elementIndex * 2)))
-                || ((2 * elementIndex < minHeap.size())
-                && (getElementKey(elementIndex) > getElementKey(elementIndex * 2)))) {
-            toggleDown(elementIndex);
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index " + elementIndex + " is out of heap range [1, " + minHeap.size() + "]");
+        }
+
+        // Replace with last element and remove last position
+        minHeap.set(elementIndex - 1, minHeap.getLast());
+        minHeap.removeLast();
+
+        // No need to toggle if we just removed the last element
+        if (!minHeap.isEmpty() && elementIndex <= minHeap.size()) {
+            // Determine whether to toggle up or down
+            if (elementIndex > 1 && getElementKey(elementIndex) < getElementKey((int) Math.floor(elementIndex / 2.0))) {
+                toggleUp(elementIndex);
+            } else {
+                toggleDown(elementIndex);
+            }
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * {@inheritDoc}
+     */
     @Override
     public HeapElement getElement() throws EmptyHeapException {
-        try {
-            return extractMin();
-        } catch (Exception e) {
-            throw new EmptyHeapException("Heap is empty. Error retrieving element");
-        }
+        return extractMin();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current size of the heap.
+     *
+     * @return number of elements in the heap
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return minHeap.size();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the heap is empty.
+     *
+     * @return true if the heap contains no elements
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return minHeap.isEmpty();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueue.java
index 114159234aab..a1360b14dc5a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueue.java
@@ -1,35 +1,49 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
 
 /**
- * Minimum Priority Queue It is a part of heap data structure A heap is a
- * specific tree based data structure in which all the nodes of tree are in a
- * specific order. that is the children are arranged in some respect of their
- * parents, can either be greater or less than the parent. This makes it a min
- * priority queue or max priority queue.
+ * A MinPriorityQueue is a specialized data structure that maintains the
+ * min-heap property, where the smallest element has the highest priority.
  *
- * <p>
+ * <p>In a min-priority queue, every parent node is less than or equal
+ * to its child nodes, which ensures that the smallest element can
+ * always be efficiently retrieved.</p>
  *
- * <p>
- * Functions: insert, delete, peek, isEmpty, print, heapSort, sink
+ * <p>Functions:</p>
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li><b>insert(int key)</b>: Inserts a new key into the queue.</li>
+ *     <li><b>delete()</b>: Removes and returns the highest priority value (the minimum).</li>
+ *     <li><b>peek()</b>: Returns the highest priority value without removing it.</li>
+ *     <li><b>isEmpty()</b>: Checks if the queue is empty.</li>
+ *     <li><b>isFull()</b>: Checks if the queue is full.</li>
+ *     <li><b>heapSort()</b>: Sorts the elements in ascending order.</li>
+ *     <li><b>print()</b>: Prints the current elements in the queue.</li>
+ * </ul>
  */
 public class MinPriorityQueue {
 
-    private int[] heap;
-    private int capacity;
+    private final int[] heap;
+    private final int capacity;
     private int size;
 
-    // calss the constructor and initializes the capacity
-    MinPriorityQueue(int c) {
+    /**
+     * Initializes a new MinPriorityQueue with a specified capacity.
+     *
+     * @param c the maximum number of elements the queue can hold
+     */
+    public MinPriorityQueue(int c) {
         this.capacity = c;
         this.size = 0;
         this.heap = new int[c + 1];
     }
 
-    // inserts the key at the end and rearranges it
-    // so that the binary heap is in appropriate order
+    /**
+     * Inserts a new key into the min-priority queue.
+     *
+     * @param key the value to be inserted
+     */
     public void insert(int key) {
         if (this.isFull()) {
-            return;
+            throw new IllegalStateException("MinPriorityQueue is full. Cannot insert new element.");
         }
         this.heap[this.size + 1] = key;
         int k = this.size + 1;
@@ -44,95 +58,98 @@ public void insert(int key) {
         this.size++;
     }
 
-    // returns the highest priority value
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the highest priority value (the minimum) without removing it.
+     *
+     * @return the minimum value in the queue
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the queue is empty
+     */
     public int peek() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("MinPriorityQueue is empty. Cannot peek.");
+        }
         return this.heap[1];
     }
 
-    // returns boolean value whether the heap is empty or not
+    /**
+     * Checks whether the queue is empty.
+     *
+     * @return true if the queue is empty, false otherwise
+     */
     public boolean isEmpty() {
-        if (0 == this.size) {
-            return true;
-        }
-        return false;
+        return size == 0;
     }
 
-    // returns boolean value whether the heap is full or not
+    /**
+     * Checks whether the queue is full.
+     *
+     * @return true if the queue is full, false otherwise
+     */
     public boolean isFull() {
-        if (this.size == this.capacity) {
-            return true;
-        }
-        return false;
+        return size == capacity;
     }
 
-    // prints the heap
+    /**
+     * Prints the elements of the queue.
+     */
     public void print() {
-        for (int i = 1; i <= this.capacity; i++) {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= this.size; i++) {
             System.out.print(this.heap[i] + " ");
         }
         System.out.println();
     }
 
-    // heap sorting can be done by performing
-    // delete function to the number of times of the size of the heap
-    // it returns reverse sort because it is a min priority queue
+    /**
+     * Sorts the elements in the queue using heap sort.
+     */
     public void heapSort() {
-        for (int i = 1; i < this.capacity; i++) {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= this.size; i++) {
             this.delete();
         }
     }
 
-    // this function reorders the heap after every delete function
+    /**
+     * Reorders the heap after a deletion to maintain the heap property.
+     */
     private void sink() {
         int k = 1;
-        while (2 * k <= this.size || 2 * k + 1 <= this.size) {
-            int minIndex;
-            if (this.heap[2 * k] >= this.heap[k]) {
-                if (2 * k + 1 <= this.size && this.heap[2 * k + 1] >= this.heap[k]) {
-                    break;
-                } else if (2 * k + 1 > this.size) {
-                    break;
-                }
+        while (2 * k <= this.size) {
+            int minIndex = k; // Assume current index is the minimum
+
+            if (2 * k <= this.size && this.heap[2 * k] < this.heap[minIndex]) {
+                minIndex = 2 * k; // Left child is smaller
+            }
+            if (2 * k + 1 <= this.size && this.heap[2 * k + 1] < this.heap[minIndex]) {
+                minIndex = 2 * k + 1; // Right child is smaller
             }
-            if (2 * k + 1 > this.size) {
-                minIndex = this.heap[2 * k] < this.heap[k] ? 2 * k : k;
-            } else {
-                if (this.heap[k] > this.heap[2 * k] || this.heap[k] > this.heap[2 * k + 1]) {
-                    minIndex = this.heap[2 * k] < this.heap[2 * k + 1] ? 2 * k : 2 * k + 1;
-                } else {
-                    minIndex = k;
-                }
+
+            if (minIndex == k) {
+                break; // No swap needed, heap property is satisfied
             }
+
+            // Swap with the smallest child
             int temp = this.heap[k];
             this.heap[k] = this.heap[minIndex];
             this.heap[minIndex] = temp;
-            k = minIndex;
+
+            k = minIndex; // Move down to the smallest child
         }
     }
 
-    // deletes the highest priority value from the heap
+    /**
+     * Deletes and returns the highest priority value (the minimum) from the queue.
+     *
+     * @return the minimum value from the queue
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the queue is empty
+     */
     public int delete() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("MinPriorityQueue is empty. Cannot delete.");
+        }
         int min = this.heap[1];
-        this.heap[1] = this.heap[this.size];
-        this.heap[this.size] = min;
+        this.heap[1] = this.heap[this.size]; // Move last element to the root
         this.size--;
         this.sink();
         return min;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // testing
-        MinPriorityQueue q = new MinPriorityQueue(8);
-        q.insert(5);
-        q.insert(2);
-        q.insert(4);
-        q.insert(1);
-        q.insert(7);
-        q.insert(6);
-        q.insert(3);
-        q.insert(8);
-        q.print(); // [ 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 6, 4, 8 ]
-        q.heapSort();
-        q.print(); // [ 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 ]
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java
index c5dd7f91ac3a..72a12cd58401 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java
@@ -1,8 +1,24 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
 
+/**
+ * This class is a circular singly linked list implementation. In a circular linked list,
+ * the last node points back to the first node, creating a circular chain.
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation includes basic operations such as appending elements
+ * to the end, removing elements from a specified position, and converting
+ * the list to a string representation.
+ *
+ * @param <E> the type of elements held in this list
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
 public class CircleLinkedList<E> {
 
-    private static class Node<E> {
+    /**
+     * A static nested class representing a node in the circular linked list.
+     *
+     * @param <E> the type of element stored in the node
+     */
+    static final class Node<E> {
 
         Node<E> next;
         E value;
@@ -13,87 +29,94 @@ private Node(E value, Node<E> next) {
         }
     }
 
-    // For better O.O design this should be private allows for better black box design
     private int size;
-    // this will point to dummy node;
-    private Node<E> head = null;
-    private Node<E> tail = null; // keeping a tail pointer to keep track of the end of list
+    Node<E> head = null;
+    private Node<E> tail;
 
-    // constructer for class.. here we will make a dummy node for circly linked list implementation
-    // with reduced error catching as our list will never be empty;
+    /**
+     * Initializes a new circular linked list. A dummy head node is used for simplicity,
+     * pointing initially to itself to ensure the list is never empty.
+     */
     public CircleLinkedList() {
-        // creation of the dummy node
-        head = new Node<E>(null, head);
+        head = new Node<>(null, head);
         tail = head;
         size = 0;
     }
 
-    // getter for the size... needed because size is private.
+    /**
+     * Returns the current size of the list.
+     *
+     * @return the number of elements in the list
+     */
     public int getSize() {
         return size;
     }
 
-    // for the sake of simplistiy this class will only contain the append function or addLast other
-    // add functions can be implemented however this is the basses of them all really.
+    /**
+     * Appends a new element to the end of the list. Throws a NullPointerException if
+     * a null value is provided.
+     *
+     * @param value the value to append to the list
+     * @throws NullPointerException if the value is null
+     */
     public void append(E value) {
         if (value == null) {
-            // we do not want to add null elements to the list.
             throw new NullPointerException("Cannot add null element to the list");
         }
-        // head.next points to the last element;
         if (tail == null) {
-            tail = new Node<E>(value, head);
+            tail = new Node<>(value, head);
             head.next = tail;
         } else {
-            tail.next = new Node<E>(value, head);
+            tail.next = new Node<>(value, head);
             tail = tail.next;
         }
         size++;
     }
 
-    // utility function for teraversing the list
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the list in the format "[ element1, element2, ... ]".
+     * An empty list is represented as "[]".
+     *
+     * @return the string representation of the list
+     */
     public String toString() {
-        Node p = head.next;
-        String s = "[ ";
-        while (p != head) {
-            s += p.value;
-            s += " , ";
-            p = p.next;
+        if (size == 0) {
+            return "[]";
         }
-        return s + " ]";
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        CircleLinkedList cl = new CircleLinkedList<Integer>();
-        cl.append(12);
-        System.out.println(cl);
-        cl.append(23);
-        System.out.println(cl);
-        cl.append(34);
-        System.out.println(cl);
-        cl.append(56);
-        System.out.println(cl);
-        cl.remove(3);
-        System.out.println(cl);
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("[ ");
+        Node<E> current = head.next;
+        while (current != head) {
+            sb.append(current.value);
+            if (current.next != head) {
+                sb.append(", ");
+            }
+            current = current.next;
+        }
+        sb.append(" ]");
+        return sb.toString();
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Removes and returns the element at the specified position in the list.
+     * Throws an IndexOutOfBoundsException if the position is invalid.
+     *
+     * @param pos the position of the element to remove
+     * @return the value of the removed element
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if the position is out of range
+     */
     public E remove(int pos) {
-        if (pos > size || pos < 0) {
-            // catching errors
-            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("position cannot be greater than size or negative");
+        if (pos >= size || pos < 0) {
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Position out of bounds");
         }
-        // we need to keep track of the element before the element we want to remove we can see why
-        // bellow.
+
         Node<E> before = head;
         for (int i = 1; i <= pos; i++) {
             before = before.next;
         }
         Node<E> destroy = before.next;
         E saved = destroy.value;
-        // assigning the next reference to the the element following the element we want to remove...
-        // the last element will be assigned to the head.
-        before.next = before.next.next;
-        // scrubbing
+        before.next = destroy.next;
+
         if (destroy == tail) {
             tail = before;
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedList.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fbb48854c449
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedList.java
@@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+/**
+ * This class is a circular doubly linked list implementation. In a circular
+ * doubly linked list,
+ * the last node points back to the first node and the first node points back to
+ * the last node,
+ * creating a circular chain in both directions.
+ *
+ * This implementation includes basic operations such as appending elements to
+ * the end,
+ * removing elements from a specified position, and converting the list to a
+ * string representation.
+ *
+ * @param <E> the type of elements held in this list
+ */
+public class CircularDoublyLinkedList<E> {
+    static final class Node<E> {
+        Node<E> next;
+        Node<E> prev;
+        E value;
+
+        private Node(E value, Node<E> next, Node<E> prev) {
+            this.value = value;
+            this.next = next;
+            this.prev = prev;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private int size;
+    Node<E> head = null;
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes a new circular doubly linked list. A dummy head node is used for
+     * simplicity,
+     * pointing initially to itself to ensure the list is never empty.
+     */
+    public CircularDoublyLinkedList() {
+        head = new Node<>(null, null, null);
+        head.next = head;
+        head.prev = head;
+        size = 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the current size of the list.
+     *
+     * @return the number of elements in the list
+     */
+    public int getSize() {
+        return size;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Appends a new element to the end of the list. Throws a NullPointerException
+     * if
+     * a null value is provided.
+     *
+     * @param value the value to append to the list
+     * @throws NullPointerException if the value is null
+     */
+    public void append(E value) {
+        if (value == null) {
+            throw new NullPointerException("Cannot add null element to the list");
+        }
+        Node<E> newNode = new Node<>(value, head, head.prev);
+        head.prev.next = newNode;
+        head.prev = newNode;
+        size++;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the list in the format "[ element1,
+     * element2, ... ]".
+     * An empty list is represented as "[]".
+     *
+     * @return the string representation of the list
+     */
+    public String toString() {
+        if (size == 0) {
+            return "[]";
+        }
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("[ ");
+        Node<E> current = head.next;
+        while (current != head) {
+            sb.append(current.value);
+            if (current.next != head) {
+                sb.append(", ");
+            }
+            current = current.next;
+        }
+        sb.append(" ]");
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes and returns the element at the specified position in the list.
+     * Throws an IndexOutOfBoundsException if the position is invalid.
+     *
+     * @param pos the position of the element to remove
+     * @return the value of the removed element - pop operation
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if the position is out of range
+     */
+    public E remove(int pos) {
+        if (pos >= size || pos < 0) {
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Position out of bounds");
+        }
+        Node<E> current = head.next;
+        for (int i = 0; i < pos; i++) {
+            current = current.next;
+        }
+        current.prev.next = current.next;
+        current.next.prev = current.prev;
+        E removedValue = current.value;
+        size--;
+        return removedValue;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java
index 8d864bc8caae..b58d51e7e5fe 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java
@@ -1,27 +1,26 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
 
+/**
+ * CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion extends a singly linked list to include a
+ * recursive count method, which calculates the number of nodes in the list.
+ */
 public class CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion extends SinglyLinkedList {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion list = new CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion();
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 5; ++i) {
-            list.insert(i);
-        }
-        assert list.count() == 5;
-    }
-
     /**
-     * Calculate the count of the list manually using recursion.
+     * Recursively calculates the number of nodes in the list.
      *
-     * @param head head of the list.
-     * @return count of the list.
+     * @param head the head node of the list segment being counted.
+     * @return the count of nodes from the given head node onward.
      */
-    private int countRecursion(Node head) {
+    private int countRecursion(SinglyLinkedListNode head) {
         return head == null ? 0 : 1 + countRecursion(head.next);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns the count of the list.
+     * Returns the total number of nodes in the list by invoking the recursive
+     * count helper method.
+     *
+     * @return the total node count in the list.
      */
     @Override
     public int count() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java
index ac3724406798..3902d08bfd14 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java
@@ -1,63 +1,80 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
+/**
+ * CreateAndDetectLoop provides utility methods for creating and detecting loops
+ * (cycles) in a singly linked list. Loops in a linked list are created by
+ * connecting the "next" pointer of one node to a previous node in the list,
+ * forming a cycle.
+ */
+public final class CreateAndDetectLoop {
 
-public class CreateAndDetectLoop {
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private CreateAndDetectLoop() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Utility class");
+    }
 
     /**
-     * Prints the linked list.
-     *
-     * @param	head	head node of the linked list
+     * Node represents an individual element in the linked list, containing
+     * data and a reference to the next node.
      */
-    static void printList(Node head) {
-        Node cur = head;
+    static final class Node {
+        int data;
+        Node next;
 
-        while (cur != null) {
-            System.out.print(cur.value + " ");
-            cur = cur.next;
+        Node(int data) {
+            this.data = data;
+            next = null;
         }
     }
 
     /**
-     * Creates a loop in the linked list.
+     * Creates a loop in a linked list by connecting the next pointer of a node
+     * at a specified starting position (position2) to another node at a specified
+     * destination position (position1). If either position is invalid, no loop
+     * will be created.
      *
-     * @see
-     * 	<a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/make-loop-k-th-position-linked-list/">
-     * GeeksForGeeks: Make a loop at K-th position</a>
-     * @param	head	head node of the linked list
-     * @param	k	position of node where loop is to be created
+     * @param head the head node of the linked list
+     * @param position1 the position in the list where the loop should end
+     * @param position2 the position in the list where the loop should start
      */
-    static void createLoop(Node head, int k) {
-        if (head == null) {
+    static void createLoop(Node head, int position1, int position2) {
+        if (position1 == 0 || position2 == 0) {
             return;
         }
-        Node temp = head;
-        int count = 1;
-        while (count < k) { 		// Traverse the list till the kth node
-            temp = temp.next;
-            count++;
-        }
 
-        Node connectedPoint = temp;
+        Node node1 = head;
+        Node node2 = head;
 
-        while (temp.next != null) // Traverse remaining nodes
-        {
-            temp = temp.next;
+        int count1 = 1;
+        int count2 = 1;
+        // Traverse to the node at position1
+        while (count1 < position1 && node1 != null) {
+            node1 = node1.next;
+            count1++;
         }
 
-        temp.next = connectedPoint; // Connect last node to k-th element
+        // Traverse to the node at position2
+        while (count2 < position2 && node2 != null) {
+            node2 = node2.next;
+            count2++;
+        }
+
+        // If both nodes are valid, create the loop
+        if (node1 != null && node2 != null) {
+            node2.next = node1;
+        }
     }
 
     /**
-     * Detects the presence of a loop in the linked list.
-     *
-     * @see
-     * 	<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_detection#Floyd's_tortoise_and_hare">
-     * Floyd's Cycle Detection Algorithm</a>
+     * Detects the presence of a loop in the linked list using Floyd's cycle-finding
+     * algorithm, also known as the "tortoise and hare" method.
      *
      * @param head the head node of the linked list
-     *
-     * @return true if loop exists else false
+     * @return true if a loop is detected, false otherwise
+     * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_detection#Floyd's_tortoise_and_hare">
+     *     Floyd's Cycle Detection Algorithm</a>
      */
     static boolean detectLoop(Node head) {
         Node sptr = head;
@@ -66,40 +83,10 @@ static boolean detectLoop(Node head) {
         while (fptr != null && fptr.next != null) {
             sptr = sptr.next;
             fptr = fptr.next.next;
-            if (fptr == sptr) {
+            if (sptr == fptr) {
                 return true;
             }
         }
-
         return false;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        SinglyLinkedList singlyLinkedList = new SinglyLinkedList();
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        System.out.println("Enter the number of elements to be inserted: ");
-        int n = sc.nextInt();
-        System.out.printf("Enter the %d elements: \n", n);
-        while (n-- > 0) {
-            singlyLinkedList.insert(sc.nextInt());
-        }
-
-        System.out.print("Given list: ");
-        printList(singlyLinkedList.getHead());
-        System.out.println();
-
-        System.out.println("Enter the location to generate loop: ");
-        int k = sc.nextInt();
-
-        createLoop(singlyLinkedList.getHead(), k);
-
-        if (detectLoop(singlyLinkedList.getHead())) {
-            System.out.println("Loop found");
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("No loop found");
-        }
-
-        sc.close();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedList.java
index b0149feccdd7..63bb29034df2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedList.java
@@ -3,18 +3,21 @@
 import java.util.Objects;
 
 /**
- * This class implements a Cursor Linked List.
- *
- * A CursorLinkedList is an array version of a Linked List. Essentially you have
- * an array of list nodes but instead of each node containing a pointer to the
- * next item in the linked list, each node element in the array contains the
- * index for the next node element.
+ * CursorLinkedList is an array-based implementation of a singly linked list.
+ * Each node in the array simulates a linked list node, storing an element and
+ * the index of the next node. This structure allows for efficient list operations
+ * without relying on traditional pointers.
  *
+ * @param <T> the type of elements in this list
  */
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
 public class CursorLinkedList<T> {
 
+    /**
+     * Node represents an individual element in the list, containing the element
+     * itself and a pointer (index) to the next node.
+     */
     private static class Node<T> {
-
         T element;
         int next;
 
@@ -31,7 +34,7 @@ private static class Node<T> {
     private static final int CURSOR_SPACE_SIZE = 100;
 
     {
-        // init at loading time
+        // Initialize cursor space array and free list pointers
         cursorSpace = new Node[CURSOR_SPACE_SIZE];
         for (int i = 0; i < CURSOR_SPACE_SIZE; i++) {
             cursorSpace[i] = new Node<>(null, i + 1);
@@ -39,19 +42,22 @@ private static class Node<T> {
         cursorSpace[CURSOR_SPACE_SIZE - 1].next = 0;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Constructs an empty CursorLinkedList with the default capacity.
+     */
     public CursorLinkedList() {
         os = 0;
         count = 0;
         head = -1;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Prints all elements in the list in their current order.
+     */
     public void printList() {
-
         if (head != -1) {
-
             int start = head;
             while (start != -1) {
-
                 T element = cursorSpace[start].element;
                 System.out.println(element.toString());
                 start = cursorSpace[start].next;
@@ -60,141 +66,144 @@ public void printList() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @return the logical index of the element within the list , not the actual
-     * index of the [cursorSpace] array
+     * Finds the logical index of a specified element in the list.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to search for in the list
+     * @return the logical index of the element, or -1 if not found
+     * @throws NullPointerException if element is null
      */
     public int indexOf(T element) {
-
-        Objects.requireNonNull(element);
-        Node<T> iterator = cursorSpace[head];
-        for (int i = 0; i < count; i++) {
-            if (iterator.element.equals(element)) {
-                return i;
+        if (element == null) {
+            throw new NullPointerException("Element cannot be null");
+        }
+        try {
+            Objects.requireNonNull(element);
+            Node<T> iterator = cursorSpace[head];
+            for (int i = 0; i < count; i++) {
+                if (iterator.element.equals(element)) {
+                    return i;
+                }
+                iterator = cursorSpace[iterator.next];
             }
-            iterator = cursorSpace[iterator.next];
+        } catch (Exception e) {
+            return -1;
         }
-
         return -1;
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param position , the logical index of the element , not the actual one
-     * within the [cursorSpace] array . this method should be used to get the
-     * index give by indexOf() method.
-     * @return
+     * Retrieves an element at a specified logical index in the list.
+     *
+     * @param position the logical index of the element
+     * @return the element at the specified position, or null if index is out of bounds
      */
     public T get(int position) {
-
         if (position >= 0 && position < count) {
-
             int start = head;
             int counter = 0;
             while (start != -1) {
-
                 T element = cursorSpace[start].element;
                 if (counter == position) {
                     return element;
                 }
-
                 start = cursorSpace[start].next;
                 counter++;
             }
         }
-
         return null;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Removes the element at a specified logical index from the list.
+     *
+     * @param index the logical index of the element to remove
+     */
     public void removeByIndex(int index) {
-
         if (index >= 0 && index < count) {
-
             T element = get(index);
             remove(element);
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Removes a specified element from the list.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to be removed
+     * @throws NullPointerException if element is null
+     */
     public void remove(T element) {
-
         Objects.requireNonNull(element);
-
-        // case element is in the head
-        T temp_element = cursorSpace[head].element;
-        int temp_next = cursorSpace[head].next;
-        if (temp_element.equals(element)) {
+        T tempElement = cursorSpace[head].element;
+        int tempNext = cursorSpace[head].next;
+        if (tempElement.equals(element)) {
             free(head);
-            head = temp_next;
-        } else { // otherwise cases
-
-            int prev_index = head;
-            int current_index = cursorSpace[prev_index].next;
-
-            while (current_index != -1) {
-
-                T current_element = cursorSpace[current_index].element;
-                if (current_element.equals(element)) {
-                    cursorSpace[prev_index].next = cursorSpace[current_index].next;
-                    free(current_index);
+            head = tempNext;
+        } else {
+            int prevIndex = head;
+            int currentIndex = cursorSpace[prevIndex].next;
+            while (currentIndex != -1) {
+                T currentElement = cursorSpace[currentIndex].element;
+                if (currentElement.equals(element)) {
+                    cursorSpace[prevIndex].next = cursorSpace[currentIndex].next;
+                    free(currentIndex);
                     break;
                 }
-
-                prev_index = current_index;
-                current_index = cursorSpace[prev_index].next;
+                prevIndex = currentIndex;
+                currentIndex = cursorSpace[prevIndex].next;
             }
         }
-
         count--;
     }
 
-    private void free(int index) {
+    /**
+     * Allocates a new node index for storing an element.
+     *
+     * @return the index of the newly allocated node
+     * @throws OutOfMemoryError if no space is available in cursor space
+     */
+    private int alloc() {
+        int availableNodeIndex = cursorSpace[os].next;
+        if (availableNodeIndex == 0) {
+            throw new OutOfMemoryError();
+        }
+        cursorSpace[os].next = cursorSpace[availableNodeIndex].next;
+        cursorSpace[availableNodeIndex].next = -1;
+        return availableNodeIndex;
+    }
 
-        Node os_node = cursorSpace[os];
-        int os_next = os_node.next;
+    /**
+     * Releases a node back to the free list.
+     *
+     * @param index the index of the node to release
+     */
+    private void free(int index) {
+        Node<T> osNode = cursorSpace[os];
+        int osNext = osNode.next;
         cursorSpace[os].next = index;
         cursorSpace[index].element = null;
-        cursorSpace[index].next = os_next;
+        cursorSpace[index].next = osNext;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Appends an element to the end of the list.
+     *
+     * @param element the element to append
+     * @throws NullPointerException if element is null
+     */
     public void append(T element) {
-
         Objects.requireNonNull(element);
         int availableIndex = alloc();
         cursorSpace[availableIndex].element = element;
-
         if (head == -1) {
             head = availableIndex;
+        } else {
+            int iterator = head;
+            while (cursorSpace[iterator].next != -1) {
+                iterator = cursorSpace[iterator].next;
+            }
+            cursorSpace[iterator].next = availableIndex;
         }
-
-        int iterator = head;
-        while (cursorSpace[iterator].next != -1) {
-            iterator = cursorSpace[iterator].next;
-        }
-
-        cursorSpace[iterator].next = availableIndex;
         cursorSpace[availableIndex].next = -1;
-
         count++;
     }
-
-    /**
-     * @return the index of the next available node
-     */
-    private int alloc() {
-
-        // 1- get the index at which the os is pointing
-        int availableNodeIndex = cursorSpace[os].next;
-
-        if (availableNodeIndex == 0) {
-            throw new OutOfMemoryError();
-        }
-
-        // 2- make the os point to the next of the  @var{availableNodeIndex}
-        int availableNext = cursorSpace[availableNodeIndex].next;
-        cursorSpace[os].next = availableNext;
-
-        // this to indicate an end of the list , helpful at testing since any err
-        // would throw an outOfBoundException
-        cursorSpace[availableNodeIndex].next = -1;
-
-        return availableNodeIndex;
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java
index 095904fdf1b8..58898ddc0fcf 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java
@@ -13,21 +13,20 @@
  *
  * @author Unknown
  */
-public class DoublyLinkedList {
+public final class DoublyLinkedList {
 
     /**
      * Head refers to the front of the list
      */
-    private Link head;
+    protected Link head;
     /**
      * Tail refers to the back of the list
      */
     private Link tail;
-
     /**
-     * Size refers to the number of elements present in the list
+     * Link Operations to perform operations on nodes of the list
      */
-    private int size;
+    private LinkOperations linkOperations;
 
     /**
      * Default Constructor
@@ -35,7 +34,6 @@ public class DoublyLinkedList {
     public DoublyLinkedList() {
         head = null;
         tail = null;
-        size = 0;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -49,20 +47,152 @@ public DoublyLinkedList(int[] array) {
             throw new NullPointerException();
         }
         for (int i : array) {
-            insertTail(i);
+            linkOperations.insertTail(i, this);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns true if list is empty
+     *
+     * @return true if list is empty
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return (head == null);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Prints contents of the list
+     */
+    public void display() { // Prints contents of the list
+        Link current = head;
+        while (current != null) {
+            current.displayLink();
+            current = current.next;
         }
-        size = array.length;
+        System.out.println();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Prints the contents of the list in reverse order
+     */
+    public void displayBackwards() {
+        Link current = tail;
+        while (current != null) {
+            current.displayLink();
+            current = current.previous;
+        }
+        System.out.println();
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * This class is used to implement the nodes of the linked list.
+ *
+ * @author Unknown
+ */
+class Link {
+
+    /**
+     * Value of node
+     */
+    public int value;
+    /**
+     * This points to the link in front of the new link
+     */
+    public Link next;
+    /**
+     * This points to the link behind the new link
+     */
+    public Link previous;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor
+     *
+     * @param value Value of node
+     */
+    Link(int value) {
+        this.value = value;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Displays the node
+     */
+    public void displayLink() {
+        System.out.print(value + " ");
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Main Method
+     *
+     * @param args Command line arguments
+     */
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        DoublyLinkedList myList = new DoublyLinkedList();
+        LinkOperations linkOperations = new LinkOperations();
+        linkOperations.insertHead(13, myList);
+        linkOperations.insertHead(7, myList);
+        linkOperations.insertHead(10, myList);
+        myList.display(); // <-- 10(head) <--> 7 <--> 13(tail) -->
+        myList.displayBackwards();
+
+        linkOperations.insertTail(11, myList);
+        myList.display(); // <-- 10(head) <--> 7 <--> 13 <--> 11(tail) -->
+        myList.displayBackwards();
+
+        linkOperations.deleteTail();
+        myList.display(); // <-- 10(head) <--> 7 <--> 13(tail) -->
+        myList.displayBackwards();
+
+        linkOperations.delete(7);
+        myList.display(); // <-- 10(head) <--> 13(tail) -->
+        myList.displayBackwards();
+
+        linkOperations.insertOrdered(23, myList);
+        linkOperations.insertOrdered(67, myList);
+        linkOperations.insertOrdered(3, myList);
+        myList.display(); // <-- 3(head) <--> 10 <--> 13 <--> 23 <--> 67(tail) -->
+        linkOperations.insertElementByIndex(5, 1, myList);
+        myList.display(); // <-- 3(head) <--> 5 <--> 10 <--> 13 <--> 23 <--> 67(tail) -->
+        myList.displayBackwards();
+        linkOperations.reverse(); // <-- 67(head) <--> 23 <--> 13 <--> 10 <--> 5 <--> 3(tail) -->
+        myList.display();
+
+        linkOperations.clearList();
+        myList.display();
+        myList.displayBackwards();
+        linkOperations.insertHead(20, myList);
+        myList.display();
+        myList.displayBackwards();
+    }
+}
+
+/*
+ * This class implements the operations of the Link nodes.
+ */
+class LinkOperations {
+
+    /**
+     * Head refers to the front of the list
+     */
+    private Link head;
+    /**
+     * Tail refers to the back of the list
+     */
+    private Link tail;
+
+    /**
+     * Size refers to the number of elements present in the list
+     */
+    private int size;
+
     /**
      * Insert an element at the head
      *
      * @param x Element to be inserted
      */
-    public void insertHead(int x) {
+    public void insertHead(int x, DoublyLinkedList doublyLinkedList) {
         Link newLink = new Link(x); // Create a new link with a value attached to it
-        if (isEmpty()) // Set the first element added to be the tail
-        {
+        if (doublyLinkedList.isEmpty()) { // Set the first element added to be the tail
             tail = newLink;
         } else {
             head.previous = newLink; // newLink <-- currenthead(head)
@@ -77,10 +207,10 @@ public void insertHead(int x) {
      *
      * @param x Element to be inserted
      */
-    public void insertTail(int x) {
+    public void insertTail(int x, DoublyLinkedList doublyLinkedList) {
         Link newLink = new Link(x);
         newLink.next = null; // currentTail(tail)     newlink -->
-        if (isEmpty()) { // Check if there are no elements in list then it adds first element
+        if (doublyLinkedList.isEmpty()) { // Check if there are no elements in list then it adds first element
             tail = newLink;
             head = tail;
         } else {
@@ -97,15 +227,15 @@ public void insertTail(int x) {
      * @param x Element to be inserted
      * @param index Index(from start) at which the element x to be inserted
      */
-    public void insertElementByIndex(int x, int index) {
+    public void insertElementByIndex(int x, int index, DoublyLinkedList doublyLinkedList) {
         if (index > size) {
             throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Index: " + index + ", Size: " + size);
         }
         if (index == 0) {
-            insertHead(x);
+            insertHead(x, doublyLinkedList);
         } else {
             if (index == size) {
-                insertTail(x);
+                insertTail(x, doublyLinkedList);
             } else {
                 Link newLink = new Link(x);
                 Link previousLink = head; //
@@ -134,8 +264,8 @@ public Link deleteHead() {
         if (head == null) {
             tail = null;
         } else {
-            head.previous
-                    = null; // oldHead --> 2ndElement(head) nothing pointing at old head so will be removed
+            head.previous = null; // oldHead --> 2ndElement(head) nothing pointing at old head so
+                                  // will be removed
         }
         --size;
         return temp;
@@ -192,18 +322,17 @@ public void delete(int x) {
      *
      * @param x Element to be added
      */
-    public void insertOrdered(int x) {
+    public void insertOrdered(int x, DoublyLinkedList doublyLinkedList) {
         Link newLink = new Link(x);
         Link current = head;
-        while (current != null && x > current.value) // Find the position to insert
-        {
+        while (current != null && x > current.value) { // Find the position to insert
             current = current.next;
         }
 
         if (current == head) {
-            insertHead(x);
+            insertHead(x, doublyLinkedList);
         } else if (current == null) {
-            insertTail(x);
+            insertTail(x, doublyLinkedList);
         } else { // Before: 1 <--> 2(current) <--> 3
             newLink.previous = current.previous; // 1 <-- newLink
             current.previous.next = newLink; // 1 <--> newLink
@@ -230,14 +359,13 @@ public void deleteNode(Link z) {
         --size;
     }
 
-    public static void removeDuplicates(DoublyLinkedList l) {
+    public void removeDuplicates(DoublyLinkedList l) {
         Link linkOne = l.head;
         while (linkOne.next != null) { // list is present
             Link linkTwo = linkOne.next; // second link for comparison
             while (linkTwo.next != null) {
-                if (linkOne.value == linkTwo.value) // if there are duplicates values then
-                {
-                    l.delete(linkTwo.value); // delete the link
+                if (linkOne.value == linkTwo.value) { // if there are duplicates values then
+                    delete(linkTwo.value); // delete the link
                 }
                 linkTwo = linkTwo.next; // go to next link
             }
@@ -247,8 +375,6 @@ public static void removeDuplicates(DoublyLinkedList l) {
 
     /**
      * Reverses the list in place
-     *
-     * @param l the DoublyLinkedList to reverse
      */
     public void reverse() {
         // Keep references to the head and tail
@@ -281,117 +407,4 @@ public void clearList() {
         tail = null;
         size = 0;
     }
-
-    /**
-     * Returns true if list is empty
-     *
-     * @return true if list is empty
-     */
-    public boolean isEmpty() {
-        return (head == null);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Prints contents of the list
-     */
-    public void display() { // Prints contents of the list
-        Link current = head;
-        while (current != null) {
-            current.displayLink();
-            current = current.next;
-        }
-        System.out.println();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Prints the contents of the list in reverse order
-     */
-    public void displayBackwards() {
-        Link current = tail;
-        while (current != null) {
-            current.displayLink();
-            current = current.previous;
-        }
-        System.out.println();
-    }
-}
-
-/**
- * This class is used to implement the nodes of the linked list.
- *
- * @author Unknown
- */
-class Link {
-
-    /**
-     * Value of node
-     */
-    public int value;
-    /**
-     * This points to the link in front of the new link
-     */
-    public Link next;
-    /**
-     * This points to the link behind the new link
-     */
-    public Link previous;
-
-    /**
-     * Constructor
-     *
-     * @param value Value of node
-     */
-    public Link(int value) {
-        this.value = value;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Displays the node
-     */
-    public void displayLink() {
-        System.out.print(value + " ");
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Main Method
-     *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        DoublyLinkedList myList = new DoublyLinkedList();
-        myList.insertHead(13);
-        myList.insertHead(7);
-        myList.insertHead(10);
-        myList.display(); // <-- 10(head) <--> 7 <--> 13(tail) -->
-        myList.displayBackwards();
-
-        myList.insertTail(11);
-        myList.display(); // <-- 10(head) <--> 7 <--> 13 <--> 11(tail) -->
-        myList.displayBackwards();
-
-        myList.deleteTail();
-        myList.display(); // <-- 10(head) <--> 7 <--> 13(tail) -->
-        myList.displayBackwards();
-
-        myList.delete(7);
-        myList.display(); // <-- 10(head) <--> 13(tail) -->
-        myList.displayBackwards();
-
-        myList.insertOrdered(23);
-        myList.insertOrdered(67);
-        myList.insertOrdered(3);
-        myList.display(); // <-- 3(head) <--> 10 <--> 13 <--> 23 <--> 67(tail) -->
-        myList.insertElementByIndex(5, 1);
-        myList.display(); // <-- 3(head) <--> 5 <--> 10 <--> 13 <--> 23 <--> 67(tail) -->
-        myList.displayBackwards();
-        myList.reverse(); // <-- 67(head) <--> 23 <--> 13 <--> 10 <--> 5 <--> 3(tail) -->
-        myList.display();
-
-        myList.clearList();
-        myList.display();
-        myList.displayBackwards();
-        myList.insertHead(20);
-        myList.display();
-        myList.displayBackwards();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3c4106f178b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.java
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+/**
+ * Implements an algorithm to flatten a multilevel linked list.
+ *
+ * In this specific problem structure, each node has a `next` pointer (to the
+ * next node at the same level) and a `child` pointer (which points to the head
+ * of another sorted linked list). The goal is to merge all these lists into a
+ * single, vertically sorted linked list using the `child` pointer.
+ *
+ * The approach is a recursive one that leverages a merge utility, similar to
+ * the merge step in Merge Sort. It recursively flattens the list starting from
+ * the rightmost node and merges each node's child list with the already
+ * flattened list to its right.
+ * @see <a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/flattening-a-linked-list/">GeeksforGeeks: Flattening a Linked List</a>
+ */
+public final class FlattenMultilevelLinkedList {
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private FlattenMultilevelLinkedList() {
+    }
+    /**
+     * Node represents an element in the multilevel linked list. It contains the
+     * integer data, a reference to the next node at the same level, and a
+     * reference to the head of a child list.
+     */
+    static class Node {
+        int data;
+        Node next;
+        Node child;
+
+        Node(int data) {
+            this.data = data;
+            this.next = null;
+            this.child = null;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges two sorted linked lists (connected via the `child` pointer).
+     * This is a helper function for the main flatten algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param a The head of the first sorted list.
+     * @param b The head of the second sorted list.
+     * @return The head of the merged sorted list.
+     */
+    private static Node merge(Node a, Node b) {
+        // If one of the lists is empty, return the other.
+        if (a == null) {
+            return b;
+        }
+        if (b == null) {
+            return a;
+        }
+
+        Node result;
+
+        // Choose the smaller value as the new head.
+        if (a.data < b.data) {
+            result = a;
+            result.child = merge(a.child, b);
+        } else {
+            result = b;
+            result.child = merge(a, b.child);
+        }
+        result.next = null; // Ensure the merged list has no `next` pointers.
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Flattens a multilevel linked list into a single sorted list.
+     * The flattened list is connected using the `child` pointers.
+     *
+     * @param head The head of the top-level list (connected via `next` pointers).
+     * @return The head of the fully flattened and sorted list.
+     */
+    public static Node flatten(Node head) {
+        // Base case: if the list is empty or has only one node, it's already flattened.
+        if (head == null || head.next == null) {
+            return head;
+        }
+
+        // Recursively flatten the list starting from the next node.
+        head.next = flatten(head.next);
+
+        // Now, merge the current list (head's child list) with the flattened rest of the list.
+        head = merge(head, head.next);
+
+        // Return the head of the fully merged list.
+        return head;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedList.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0f5c50530d92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedList.java
@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * The MergeKSortedLinkedList class provides a method to merge multiple sorted linked lists
+ * into a single sorted linked list.
+ * This implementation uses a min-heap (priority queue) to efficiently
+ * find the smallest node across all lists, thus optimizing the merge process.
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage:
+ * <pre>
+ * Node list1 = new Node(1, new Node(4, new Node(5)));
+ * Node list2 = new Node(1, new Node(3, new Node(4)));
+ * Node list3 = new Node(2, new Node(6));
+ * Node[] lists = { list1, list2, list3 };
+ *
+ * MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+ * Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+ * </pre>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>This class is designed to handle nodes of integer linked lists and can be expanded for additional data types if needed.</p>
+ *
+ * @author Arun Pandey (https://github.com/pandeyarun709)
+ */
+public class MergeKSortedLinkedList {
+
+    /**
+     * Merges K sorted linked lists into a single sorted linked list.
+     *
+     * <p>This method uses a priority queue (min-heap) to repeatedly extract the smallest node from the heads of all the lists,
+     * then inserts the next node from that list into the heap. The process continues until all nodes have been processed,
+     * resulting in a fully merged and sorted linked list.</p>
+     *
+     * @param a Array of linked list heads to be merged.
+     * @param n Number of linked lists.
+     * @return Head of the merged sorted linked list.
+     */
+    Node mergeKList(Node[] a, int n) {
+        if (a == null || n == 0) {
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        // Min Heap to store nodes based on their values for efficient retrieval of the smallest element.
+        PriorityQueue<Node> minHeap = new PriorityQueue<>(Comparator.comparingInt(x -> x.data));
+
+        // Initialize the min-heap with the head of each non-null linked list
+        for (Node node : a) {
+            if (node != null) {
+                minHeap.add(node);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Start merging process
+        Node head = minHeap.poll(); // Smallest head is the initial head of the merged list
+        if (head != null && head.next != null) {
+            minHeap.add(head.next);
+        }
+
+        Node curr = head;
+        while (!minHeap.isEmpty()) {
+            Node temp = minHeap.poll();
+            curr.next = temp;
+            curr = temp;
+
+            // Add the next node in the current list to the heap if it exists
+            if (temp.next != null) {
+                minHeap.add(temp.next);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return head;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a node in the linked list.
+     */
+    static class Node {
+        int data;
+        Node next;
+
+        Node(int data) {
+            this.data = data;
+            this.next = null;
+        }
+
+        Node(int data, Node next) {
+            this.data = data;
+            this.next = next;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java
index 80b36b8e4ab1..09eb854c8dc2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java
@@ -1,46 +1,55 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
 
-import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
+ * Utility class for merging two sorted ArrayLists of integers into a single sorted collection.
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides a static `merge` method to combine two pre-sorted lists of integers into a
+ * single sorted list. It does so without modifying the input lists by adding elements from both lists in sorted order
+ * into the result list.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage:</p>
+ * <pre>
+ * List<Integer> listA = Arrays.asList(1, 3, 5, 7, 9);
+ * List<Integer> listB = Arrays.asList(2, 4, 6, 8, 10);
+ * List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+ * MergeSortedArrayList.merge(listA, listB, result);
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p>The resulting `result` list will be [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].</p>
+ *
+ * <p>Note: This class cannot be instantiated as it is designed to be used only with its static `merge` method.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation assumes the input lists are already sorted in ascending order.</p>
+ *
  * @author https://github.com/shellhub
+ * @see List
  */
-public class MergeSortedArrayList {
+public final class MergeSortedArrayList {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        List<Integer> listA = new ArrayList<>();
-        List<Integer> listB = new ArrayList<>();
-        List<Integer> listC = new ArrayList<>();
-
-        /* init ListA and List B */
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i += 2) {
-            listA.add(i);
-            /* listA: [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]  */
-            listB.add(i + 1);
-            /* listB: [2, 4, 6, 8, 10] */
-        }
-
-        /* merge listA and listB to listC */
-        merge(listA, listB, listC);
-
-        System.out.println("listA: " + listA);
-        System.out.println("listB: " + listB);
-        System.out.println("listC: " + listC);
+    private MergeSortedArrayList() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * merge two sorted ArrayList
+     * Merges two sorted lists of integers into a single sorted collection.
      *
-     * @param listA the first list to merge
-     * @param listB the second list to merge
-     * @param listC the result list after merging
+     * <p>This method does not alter the original lists (`listA` and `listB`). Instead, it inserts elements from both
+     * lists into `listC` in a way that maintains ascending order.</p>
+     *
+     * @param listA The first sorted list of integers.
+     * @param listB The second sorted list of integers.
+     * @param listC The collection to hold the merged result, maintaining sorted order.
+     * @throws NullPointerException if any of the input lists or result collection is null.
      */
-    public static void merge(List<Integer> listA, List<Integer> listB, List<Integer> listC) {
+    public static void merge(List<Integer> listA, List<Integer> listB, Collection<Integer> listC) {
+        if (listA == null || listB == null || listC == null) {
+            throw new NullPointerException("Input lists and result collection must not be null.");
+        }
+
         int pa = 0;
-        /* the index of listA */
         int pb = 0;
-        /* the index of listB */
 
         while (pa < listA.size() && pb < listB.size()) {
             if (listA.get(pa) <= listB.get(pb)) {
@@ -50,12 +59,11 @@ public static void merge(List<Integer> listA, List<Integer> listB, List<Integer>
             }
         }
 
-        /* copy left element of listA to listC */
+        // Add remaining elements from listA, if any
         while (pa < listA.size()) {
             listC.add(listA.get(pa++));
         }
-
-        /* copy left element of listB to listC */
+        // Add remaining elements from listB, if any
         while (pb < listB.size()) {
             listC.add(listB.get(pb++));
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.java
index 2bee945c9db6..4e99642fccd8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.java
@@ -1,35 +1,53 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
 
+/**
+ * Utility class for merging two sorted singly linked lists.
+ *
+ * <p>This class extends the {@link SinglyLinkedList} class to support the merging of two sorted linked lists.
+ * It provides a static method, `merge`, that takes two sorted singly linked lists, merges them into a single sorted linked list,
+ * and returns the result.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage:</p>
+ * <pre>
+ * SinglyLinkedList listA = new SinglyLinkedList();
+ * SinglyLinkedList listB = new SinglyLinkedList();
+ * for (int i = 2; i <= 10; i += 2) {
+ *     listA.insert(i);   // listA: 2->4->6->8->10
+ *     listB.insert(i - 1); // listB: 1->3->5->7->9
+ * }
+ * SinglyLinkedList mergedList = MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.merge(listA, listB);
+ * System.out.println(mergedList); // Output: 1->2->3->4->5->6->7->8->9->10
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p>The `merge` method assumes that both input lists are already sorted in ascending order.
+ * It returns a new singly linked list that contains all elements from both lists in sorted order.</p>
+ *
+ * @see SinglyLinkedList
+ */
 public class MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList extends SinglyLinkedList {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        SinglyLinkedList listA = new SinglyLinkedList();
-        SinglyLinkedList listB = new SinglyLinkedList();
-
-        for (int i = 2; i <= 10; i += 2) {
-            listA.insert(i);
-            listB.insert(i - 1);
-        }
-        assert listA.toString().equals("2->4->6->8->10");
-        assert listB.toString().equals("1->3->5->7->9");
-        assert merge(listA, listB).toString().equals("1->2->3->4->5->6->7->8->9->10");
-    }
-
     /**
-     * Merge two sorted SingleLinkedList
+     * Merges two sorted singly linked lists into a single sorted singly linked list.
+     *
+     * <p>This method does not modify the input lists; instead, it creates a new merged linked list
+     * containing all elements from both lists in sorted order.</p>
      *
-     * @param listA the first sorted list
-     * @param listB the second sored list
-     * @return merged sorted list
+     * @param listA The first sorted singly linked list.
+     * @param listB The second sorted singly linked list.
+     * @return A new singly linked list containing all elements from both lists in sorted order.
+     * @throws NullPointerException if either input list is null.
      */
     public static SinglyLinkedList merge(SinglyLinkedList listA, SinglyLinkedList listB) {
-        Node headA = listA.getHead();
-        Node headB = listB.getHead();
+        if (listA == null || listB == null) {
+            throw new NullPointerException("Input lists must not be null.");
+        }
 
+        SinglyLinkedListNode headA = listA.getHead();
+        SinglyLinkedListNode headB = listB.getHead();
         int size = listA.size() + listB.size();
 
-        Node head = new Node();
-        Node tail = head;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = new SinglyLinkedListNode();
+        SinglyLinkedListNode tail = head;
         while (headA != null && headB != null) {
             if (headA.value <= headB.value) {
                 tail.next = headA;
@@ -40,12 +58,10 @@ public static SinglyLinkedList merge(SinglyLinkedList listA, SinglyLinkedList li
             }
             tail = tail.next;
         }
-        if (headA == null) {
-            tail.next = headB;
-        }
-        if (headB == null) {
-            tail.next = headA;
-        }
+
+        // Attach remaining nodes
+        tail.next = (headA == null) ? headB : headA;
+
         return new SinglyLinkedList(head.next, size);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/Merge_K_SortedLinkedlist.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/Merge_K_SortedLinkedlist.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 9a06b4a6587f..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/Merge_K_SortedLinkedlist.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,57 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
-
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Comparator;
-import java.util.PriorityQueue;
-
-/**
- * @author Arun Pandey (https://github.com/pandeyarun709)
- */
-public class Merge_K_SortedLinkedlist {
-
-    /**
-     * This function merge K sorted LinkedList
-     *
-     * @param a array of LinkedList
-     * @param N size of array
-     * @return node
-     */
-    Node mergeKList(Node[] a, int N) {
-        // Min Heap
-        PriorityQueue<Node> min = new PriorityQueue<>(Comparator.comparingInt(x -> x.data));
-
-        // adding head of all linkedList in min heap
-        min.addAll(Arrays.asList(a).subList(0, N));
-
-        // Make new head among smallest heads in K linkedList
-        Node head = min.poll();
-        min.add(head.next);
-        Node curr = head;
-
-        // merging LinkedList
-        while (!min.isEmpty()) {
-
-            Node temp = min.poll();
-            curr.next = temp;
-            curr = temp;
-
-            // Add Node in min Heap only if temp.next is not null
-            if (temp.next != null) {
-                min.add(temp.next);
-            }
-        }
-
-        return head;
-    }
-
-    private class Node {
-
-        private int data;
-        private Node next;
-
-        public Node(int d) {
-            this.data = d;
-            next = null;
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedList.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f018781ada70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedList.java
@@ -0,0 +1,183 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+/*
+ *
+ * @aurthor - Prabhat-Kumar-42
+ * @github - https://github.com/Prabhat-Kumar-42
+ *
+ * Problem :
+ *    QuickSort on Linked List
+ *
+ * Note: Taking head as pivot in current implementation.
+ *        N represents NULL node
+ *    Example:
+ *
+ *      -> Given Linked List :
+ *            5 -> 3 -> 8 -> 1 -> 10 -> 2 -> 7 -> 4 -> 9 -> 6
+ *
+ *      -> How Sorting will work according to the QuickSort Algo written below
+ *
+ *      current pivot : 5
+ *      List lessThanPivot : 3 -> 1 -> 2 -> 4
+ *      List greaterThanPivot : 5 -> 8 -> 10 -> 7 -> 9 -> 6
+ *
+ *      -> reccur for lessThanPivot and greaterThanPivot
+ *
+ *            lessThanPivot :
+ *                current pivot : 3
+ *                lessThanPivot : 1 -> 2
+ *                greaterThanPivot : 4
+ *
+ *             greaterThanPivot:
+ *                 current pivot : 5
+ *                 lessThanPivot : null
+ *                 greaterThanPivot : 8 -> 10 -> 7 -> 9 -> 6
+ *
+ *        By following the above pattern, reccuring tree will form like below :
+ *
+ *        List-> 5 -> 3 -> 8 -> 1 -> 10 -> 2 -> 7 -> 4 -> 9 -> 6
+ *
+ *        Pivot :                  5
+ *                                /\
+ *                               /  \
+ *                              /    \
+ *                             /      \
+ *                            /        \
+ *        List: (3 -> 1 -> 2 -> 4)   (5 -> 8 -> 10 -> 7 -> 9 -> 6)
+ *        Pivot :          3               5
+ *                        /\              /\
+ *                       /  \            /  \
+ *                      /    \          /    \
+ *                     /      \        /      \
+ *         List:   (1 -> 2)   (4)   (N)   (8 -> 10 -> 7 -> 9 -> 6)
+ *         Pivot:     1        4                8
+ *                   /\       /\               /\
+ *                  /  \     /  \             /  \
+ *                 /    \   /    \           /    \
+ *         List:  (N)  (2) (N)   (N)   (6 -> 7)   (9 -> 10)
+ *         Pivot:       2                  6         9
+ *                     /\                 /\        /\
+ *                    /  \               /  \      /  \
+ *                   /    \             /    \    /    \
+ *         List:   (N)   (N)          (N)   (7) (N)   (10)
+ *         Pivot:                            7          10
+ *                                          /\          /\
+ *                                         /  \        /  \
+ *                                        /    \      /    \
+ *                                       (N)   (N)   (N)   (N)
+ *
+ *
+ *      -> After this the tree will reccur back (or backtrack)
+ *         and the returning list from left and right subtree will attach
+ *         themselves around pivot.
+ *         i.e. ,
+ *                  (listFromLeftSubTree) -> (Pivot) -> (listFromRightSubtree)
+ *
+ *         This will continue until whole list is merged back
+ *
+ *          eg :
+ *             Megring the above Tree back we get :
+ *
+ *          List: (1 -> 2)        (4)           (6 -> 7)         (9 -> 10)
+ *                  \             /                  \             /
+ *                   \           /                    \           /
+ *                    \         /                      \         /
+ *                     \       /                        \       /
+ *                      \     /                          \     /
+ *                       \   /                            \   /
+ *                        \ /                              \ /
+ *          Pivot:         3                                8
+ *          List:   (1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4)            (6 -> 7 -> 8 -> 9 -> 10)
+ *                                  \              /
+ *                                   \            /
+ *                                    \          /
+ *                                     \        /
+ *                                      \      /
+ *                                       \    /
+ *                                        \  /
+ *                                         \/
+ *          Pivot:                          5
+ *          List:      (1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 -> 7 -> 8 -> 9 -> 10)
+ *
+ *
+ *      -> This will result in a sorted Linked List
+ */
+
+public class QuickSortLinkedList {
+
+    private final SinglyLinkedList list; // The linked list to be sorted
+    private SinglyLinkedListNode head; // Head of the list
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor that initializes the QuickSortLinkedList with a given linked list.
+     *
+     * @param list The singly linked list to be sorted
+     */
+    public QuickSortLinkedList(SinglyLinkedList list) {
+        this.list = list;
+        this.head = list.getHead();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the linked list using the QuickSort algorithm.
+     * The sorted list replaces the original list within the SinglyLinkedList instance.
+     */
+    public void sortList() {
+        head = sortList(head);
+        list.setHead(head);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively sorts a linked list by partitioning it around a pivot element.
+     *
+     * <p>Each recursive call selects a pivot, partitions the list into elements less
+     * than the pivot and elements greater than or equal to the pivot, then combines
+     * the sorted sublists around the pivot.</p>
+     *
+     * @param head The head node of the list to sort
+     * @return The head node of the sorted linked list
+     */
+    private SinglyLinkedListNode sortList(SinglyLinkedListNode head) {
+        if (head == null || head.next == null) {
+            return head;
+        }
+
+        SinglyLinkedListNode pivot = head;
+        head = head.next;
+        pivot.next = null;
+
+        SinglyLinkedListNode lessHead = new SinglyLinkedListNode();
+        SinglyLinkedListNode lessTail = lessHead;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode greaterHead = new SinglyLinkedListNode();
+        SinglyLinkedListNode greaterTail = greaterHead;
+
+        while (head != null) {
+            if (head.value < pivot.value) {
+                lessTail.next = head;
+                lessTail = lessTail.next;
+            } else {
+                greaterTail.next = head;
+                greaterTail = greaterTail.next;
+            }
+            head = head.next;
+        }
+
+        lessTail.next = null;
+        greaterTail.next = null;
+
+        SinglyLinkedListNode sortedLess = sortList(lessHead.next);
+        SinglyLinkedListNode sortedGreater = sortList(greaterHead.next);
+
+        if (sortedLess == null) {
+            pivot.next = sortedGreater;
+            return pivot;
+        } else {
+            SinglyLinkedListNode current = sortedLess;
+            while (current.next != null) {
+                current = current.next;
+            }
+            current.next = pivot;
+            pivot.next = sortedGreater;
+            return sortedLess;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/README.md b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/README.md
index 7030c3f82f84..5a19c3bfa990 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/README.md
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/README.md
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 ## Linked List
 ### Description
 
-LinkedList is a data structure in which data is stored in a linear manner. It usually contains a data field and a link to the memory location of the next mode.
+LinkedList is a data structure in which data is stored in a linear manner. It usually contains a data field and a link to the memory location of the next node.
 
 ### Structure
 
@@ -22,10 +22,12 @@ The `next` variable points to the next node in the data structure and value stor
 
 ### File descriptions:
 
-1. `CircleLinkedList.java` : A circular linked list where next pointer of last node points to first nide of linked list.
+1. `CircleLinkedList.java` : A circular linked list where next pointer of last node points to first node of linked list.
 2. `SinglyLinkedList.java` : The classic case of single links.
 3. `CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java`: Recursively counts the size of a list.
 4. `CreateAndDetectLoop.java` : Create and detect a loop in a linked list.
 5. `DoublyLinkedList.java` : A modification of singly linked list which has a `prev` pointer to point to the previous node.
-6. `Merge_K_SortedLinkedlist.java` : Merges K sorted linked list with mergesort (mergesort is also the most efficient sorting algorithm for linked list).
-7. `RandomNode.java` : Selects a random node from given linked list and diplays it.
\ No newline at end of file
+6. `MergeKSortedLinkedlist.java` : Merges K sorted linked list with mergesort (mergesort is also the most efficient sorting algorithm for linked list).
+7. `RandomNode.java` : Selects a random node from given linked list and diplays it.
+8. `SkipList.java` : Data Structure used for storing a sorted list of elements with help of a Linked list hierarchy that connects to subsequences of elements.
+9. `TortoiseHareAlgo.java` : Finds the middle element of a linked list using the fast and slow pointer (Tortoise-Hare) algorithm.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java
index 72cacab4331f..dac88dd9f241 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java
@@ -1,40 +1,40 @@
-/** Author : Suraj Kumar
- * Github : https://github.com/skmodi649
- */
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
 
-/** PROBLEM DESCRIPTION :
- * There is a single linked list and we are supposed to find a random node in the given linked list
- */
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
 
-/** ALGORITHM :
+/**
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/skmodi649">Suraj Kumar</a>
+ * <p>
+ * PROBLEM DESCRIPTION :
+ * There is a single linked list and we are supposed to find a random node in the given linked list
+ * <p>
+ * ALGORITHM :
  * Step 1 : START
  * Step 2 : Create an arraylist of type integer
  * Step 3 : Declare an integer type variable for size and linked list type for head
- * Step 4 : We will use two methods, one for traversing through the linked list using while loop and also increase the size by 1
- *
+ * Step 4 : We will use two methods, one for traversing through the linked list using while loop and
+ * also increase the size by 1
+ * <p>
  * (a) RandomNode(head)
  * (b) run a while loop till null;
  * (c) add the value to arraylist;
  * (d) increase the size;
- *
- * Step 5 : Now use another method for getting random values using Math.random() and return the value present in arraylist for the calculated index
- * Step 6 : Now in main() method we will simply insert nodes in the linked list and then call the appropriate method and then print the random node generated
- * Step 7 : STOP
+ * <p>
+ * Step 5 : Now use another method for getting random values using Math.random() and return the
+ * value present in arraylist for the calculated index Step 6 : Now in main() method we will simply
+ * insert nodes in the linked list and then call the appropriate method and then print the random
+ * node generated Step 7 : STOP
  */
-
-
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
-
-import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Random;
-
 public class RandomNode {
-    private List<Integer> list;
+
+    private final List<Integer> list;
     private int size;
-    private static Random rand = new Random();
+    private static final Random RAND = new Random();
 
     static class ListNode {
+
         int val;
         ListNode next;
 
@@ -57,10 +57,23 @@ public RandomNode(ListNode head) {
     }
 
     public int getRandom() {
-        int index = rand.nextInt(size);
+        int index = RAND.nextInt(size);
         return list.get(index);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * OUTPUT :
+     * First output :
+     * Random Node : 25
+     * Second output :
+     * Random Node : 78
+     * Time Complexity : O(n)
+     * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
+     * Time Complexity : O(n)
+     * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
+     * Time Complexity : O(n)
+     * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
+     */
     // Driver program to test above functions
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         ListNode head = new ListNode(15);
@@ -74,20 +87,3 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         System.out.println("Random Node : " + randomNum);
     }
 }
-
-
-/**
- * OUTPUT :
- * First output :
- * Random Node : 25
- * Second output :
- * Random Node : 78
- * Time Complexity : O(n)
- * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
- * Time Complexity : O(n)
- * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
- */
-
-/** Time Complexity : O(n)
- * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
- */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RemoveDuplicateNodes.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RemoveDuplicateNodes.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 268951f12171..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RemoveDuplicateNodes.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,51 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
-
-public class RemoveDuplicateNodes {
-
-    public Node deleteDuplicates(Node head) {
-        // sentinel
-        Node sentinel = new Node(0, head);
-
-        // predecessor = the last node 
-        // before the sublist of duplicates
-        Node pred = sentinel;
-
-        while (head != null) {
-            // if it's a beginning of duplicates sublist 
-            // skip all duplicates
-            if (head.next != null && head.value == head.next.value) {
-                // move till the end of duplicates sublist
-                while (head.next != null && head.value == head.next.value) {
-                    head = head.next;
-                }
-                // skip all duplicates
-                pred.next = head.next;
-                // otherwise, move predecessor
-            } else {
-                pred = pred.next;
-            }
-
-            // move forward
-            head = head.next;
-        }
-        return sentinel.next;
-    }
-
-    public void print(Node head) {
-        Node temp = head;
-        while (temp != null && temp.next != null) {
-            System.out.print(temp.value + "->");
-            temp = temp.next;
-        }
-        if (temp != null) {
-            System.out.print(temp.value);
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String arg[]) {
-        RemoveDuplicateNodes instance = new RemoveDuplicateNodes();
-        Node head = new Node(0, new Node(2, new Node(3, new Node(3, new Node(4)))));
-        head = instance.deleteDuplicates(head);
-        instance.print(head);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroup.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroup.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9b9464d388b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroup.java
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+/**
+ * The ReverseKGroup class provides functionality to reverse nodes in a
+ * linked list in groups of k nodes.
+ * <p>
+ * This algorithm follows the approach of reversing the linked list in segments of
+ * size k. If the remaining nodes are fewer than k, they remain unchanged.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Example:
+ * Given a linked list: 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 and k = 3,
+ * the output will be: 3 -> 2 -> 1 -> 4 -> 5.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * The implementation contains:
+ * - {@code length(SinglyLinkedListNode head)}: A method to calculate the length of the linked list.
+ * - {@code reverse(SinglyLinkedListNode head, int count, int k)}: A helper method that reverses the nodes
+ *   in the linked list in groups of k.
+ * - {@code reverseKGroup(SinglyLinkedListNode head, int k)}: The main method that initiates the reversal
+ *   process by calling the reverse method.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Complexity:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Time Complexity: O(n), where n is the number of nodes in the linked list.</li>
+ *   <li>Space Complexity: O(1), as we are reversing in place.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+public class ReverseKGroup {
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the length of the linked list.
+     *
+     * @param head The head node of the linked list.
+     * @return The total number of nodes in the linked list.
+     */
+    public int length(SinglyLinkedListNode head) {
+        SinglyLinkedListNode curr = head;
+        int count = 0;
+        while (curr != null) {
+            curr = curr.next;
+            count++;
+        }
+        return count;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Reverses the linked list in groups of k nodes.
+     *
+     * @param head The head node of the linked list.
+     * @param count The remaining number of nodes.
+     * @param k The size of the group to reverse.
+     * @return The new head of the reversed linked list segment.
+     */
+    public SinglyLinkedListNode reverse(SinglyLinkedListNode head, int count, int k) {
+        if (count < k) {
+            return head;
+        }
+        SinglyLinkedListNode prev = null;
+        int count1 = 0;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode curr = head;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode next = null;
+        while (curr != null && count1 < k) {
+            next = curr.next;
+            curr.next = prev;
+            prev = curr;
+            curr = next;
+            count1++;
+        }
+
+        if (next != null) {
+            head.next = reverse(next, count - k, k);
+        }
+        return prev;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Reverses the linked list in groups of k nodes.
+     *
+     * @param head The head node of the linked list.
+     * @param k The size of the group to reverse.
+     * @return The head of the modified linked list after reversal.
+     */
+    public SinglyLinkedListNode reverseKGroup(SinglyLinkedListNode head, int k) {
+        int count = length(head);
+        return reverse(head, count, k);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedLists.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedLists.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..47ee5397097c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedLists.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+/**
+ * The RotateSinglyLinkedLists class provides a method to rotate a singly linked list
+ * to the right by a specified number of positions.
+ * <p>
+ * In a right rotation by `k` steps, each node in the list moves `k` positions to the right.
+ * Nodes that are rotated off the end of the list are placed back at the beginning.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Example:
+ * Given linked list: 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 and k = 2, the output will be:
+ * 4 -> 5 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Edge Cases:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>If the list is empty, returns null.</li>
+ *   <li>If `k` is 0 or a multiple of the list length, the list remains unchanged.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Complexity:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Time Complexity: O(n), where n is the number of nodes in the linked list.</li>
+ *   <li>Space Complexity: O(1), as we only use a constant amount of additional space.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+public class RotateSinglyLinkedLists {
+
+    /**
+     * Rotates a singly linked list to the right by `k` positions.
+     *
+     * @param head The head node of the singly linked list.
+     * @param k The number of positions to rotate the list to the right.
+     * @return The head of the rotated linked list.
+     */
+    public SinglyLinkedListNode rotateRight(SinglyLinkedListNode head, int k) {
+        if (head == null || head.next == null || k == 0) {
+            return head;
+        }
+
+        SinglyLinkedListNode curr = head;
+        int len = 1;
+        while (curr.next != null) {
+            curr = curr.next;
+            len++;
+        }
+
+        curr.next = head;
+        k = k % len;
+        k = len - k;
+        while (k > 0) {
+            curr = curr.next;
+            k--;
+        }
+
+        head = curr.next;
+        curr.next = null;
+        return head;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java
index c6e38cebdcb3..4ac2de422595 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion.java
@@ -1,31 +1,45 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
 
+/**
+ * The SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion class extends SinglyLinkedList and provides
+ * a method to search for a value in a singly linked list using recursion.
+ * <p>
+ * This class demonstrates a recursive approach to check if a given integer value is
+ * present in the linked list. The search method calls a private recursive helper method
+ * `searchRecursion`, which checks each node's value and moves to the next node if necessary.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Example:
+ * Given a list containing the values 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4, calling search(3) will return `true`,
+ * while calling search(5) will return `false`.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Complexity:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Time Complexity: O(n), where n is the number of nodes in the linked list.</li>
+ *   <li>Space Complexity: O(n), due to the recursive call stack in the worst case.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ */
 public class SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion extends SinglyLinkedList {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion list = new SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion();
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 10; ++i) {
-            list.insert(i);
-        }
-
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 10; ++i) {
-            assert list.search(i);
-        }
-        assert !list.search(-1) && !list.search(100);
-    }
-
     /**
-     * Test if the value key is present in the list using recursion.
+     * Recursively searches for a given value in the linked list.
      *
-     * @param node the head node.
-     * @param key the value to be searched.
-     * @return {@code true} if key is present in the list, otherwise
-     * {@code false}.
+     * @param node the head node to start the search.
+     * @param key the integer value to be searched for.
+     * @return {@code true} if the value `key` is present in the list; otherwise, {@code false}.
      */
-    private boolean searchRecursion(Node node, int key) {
-        return node != null && (node.value == key || searchRecursion(node.next, key));
+    private boolean searchRecursion(SinglyLinkedListNode node, int key) {
+        return (node != null && (node.value == key || searchRecursion(node.next, key)));
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Public search method to determine if a key is present in the linked list.
+     *
+     * @param key the integer value to be searched for.
+     * @return {@code true} if the value `key` is present in the list; otherwise, {@code false}.
+     */
     @Override
     public boolean search(int key) {
         return searchRecursion(getHead(), key);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java
index ae06688bcf46..ff4af4437cc7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java
@@ -1,16 +1,18 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
 
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
 import java.util.StringJoiner;
 
 /**
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_list
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_list">wikipedia</a>
  */
-public class SinglyLinkedList {
+public class SinglyLinkedList implements Iterable<Integer> {
 
     /**
      * Head refer to the front of the list
      */
-    private Node head;
+    private SinglyLinkedListNode head;
 
     /**
      * Size of SinglyLinkedList
@@ -31,174 +33,143 @@ public SinglyLinkedList() {
      * @param head the head node of list
      * @param size the size of list
      */
-    public SinglyLinkedList(Node head, int size) {
+    public SinglyLinkedList(SinglyLinkedListNode head, int size) {
         this.head = head;
         this.size = size;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Inserts an element at the head of the list
+     * Detects if there is a loop in the singly linked list using floy'd turtle
+     * and hare algorithm.
      *
-     * @param x element to be added
      */
-    public void insertHead(int x) {
-        insertNth(x, 0);
+    public boolean detectLoop() {
+        SinglyLinkedListNode currentNodeFast = head;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode currentNodeSlow = head;
+        while (currentNodeFast != null && currentNodeFast.next != null) {
+            currentNodeFast = currentNodeFast.next.next;
+            currentNodeSlow = currentNodeSlow.next;
+            if (currentNodeFast == currentNodeSlow) {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Insert an element at the tail of the list
-     *
-     * @param data element to be added
+     * Return the node in the middle of the list
+     * If the length of the list is even then return item number length/2
+     * @return middle node of the list
      */
-    public void insert(int data) {
-        insertNth(data, size);
+    public SinglyLinkedListNode middle() {
+        if (head == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        SinglyLinkedListNode firstCounter = head;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode secondCounter = firstCounter.next;
+        while (secondCounter != null && secondCounter.next != null) {
+            firstCounter = firstCounter.next;
+            secondCounter = secondCounter.next.next;
+        }
+        return firstCounter;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Inserts a new node at a specified position of the list
+     * Swaps nodes of two given values a and b.
      *
-     * @param data data to be stored in a new node
-     * @param position position at which a new node is to be inserted
      */
-    public void insertNth(int data, int position) {
-        checkBounds(position, 0, size);
-        Node newNode = new Node(data);
-        if (head == null) {
-            /* the list is empty */
-            head = newNode;
-            size++;
-            return;
-        } else if (position == 0) {
-            /* insert at the head of the list */
-            newNode.next = head;
-            head = newNode;
-            size++;
+    public void swapNodes(int valueFirst, int valueSecond) {
+        if (valueFirst == valueSecond) {
             return;
         }
-        Node cur = head;
-        for (int i = 0; i < position - 1; ++i) {
-            cur = cur.next;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode previousA = null;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode currentA = head;
+        while (currentA != null && currentA.value != valueFirst) {
+            previousA = currentA;
+            currentA = currentA.next;
         }
-        newNode.next = cur.next;
-        cur.next = newNode;
-        size++;
-    }
 
-    /**
-     * Detects if there is a loop in the singly linked list using floy'd turtle
-     * and hare algorithm.
-  *
-     */
-    public boolean detectLoop() {
-        Node currentNodeFast = head;
-        Node currentNodeSlow = head;
-        boolean flag = false;
-        while (currentNodeFast != null && currentNodeFast.next != null && currentNodeSlow != null && currentNodeSlow.next != null) {
-            currentNodeFast = currentNodeFast.next.next;
-            currentNodeSlow = currentNodeSlow.next;
-            if (currentNodeFast == currentNodeSlow) {
-                flag = true;
-                break;
-            }
+        SinglyLinkedListNode previousB = null;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode currentB = head;
+        while (currentB != null && currentB.value != valueSecond) {
+            previousB = currentB;
+            currentB = currentB.next;
+        }
+        /* If either of 'a' or 'b' is not present, then return */
+        if (currentA == null || currentB == null) {
+            return;
         }
-        return flag;
-    }
 
-    /**
-     * Swaps nodes of two given values a and b.
-  *
-     */
-    public void swapNodes(int a, int b) {
-        Node currentNode = head;
-        Node temp = null;
-        while (currentNode != null) {
-            if (currentNode.next.value == a) {
-                temp = currentNode.next;
-            }
-            if (currentNode.next.value == b) {
-                currentNode.next = temp;
-            }
-            currentNode = currentNode.next;
+        // If 'a' is not head node of list
+        if (previousA != null) {
+            previousA.next = currentB;
+        } else {
+            // make 'b' as the new head
+            head = currentB;
         }
+
+        // If 'b' is not head node of list
+        if (previousB != null) {
+            previousB.next = currentA;
+        } else {
+            // Make 'a' as new head
+            head = currentA;
+        }
+        // Swap next pointer
+
+        var temp = currentA.next;
+        currentA.next = currentB.next;
+        currentB.next = temp;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Reverse a singly linked list from a given node till the end
-  *
+     * Reverse a singly linked list[Iterative] from a given node till the end
+     *
      */
-    Node reverseList(Node node) {
-        Node prev = null, curr = node, next;
-        while (curr != null) {
-            next = curr.next;
+    public SinglyLinkedListNode reverseListIter(SinglyLinkedListNode node) {
+        SinglyLinkedListNode prev = null;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode curr = node;
+
+        while (curr != null && curr.next != null) {
+            var next = curr.next;
             curr.next = prev;
             prev = curr;
             curr = next;
         }
-        node = prev;
-        return node;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Deletes a node at the head
-     */
-    public void deleteHead() {
-        deleteNth(0);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Deletes an element at the tail
-     */
-    public void delete() {
-        deleteNth(size - 1);
+        // when curr.next==null, the current element is left without pointing it to its prev,so
+        if (curr != null) {
+            curr.next = prev;
+            prev = curr;
+        }
+        // prev will be pointing to the last element in the Linkedlist, it will be the new head of
+        // the reversed linkedlist
+        return prev;
     }
-
     /**
-     * Deletes an element at Nth position
+     * Reverse a singly linked list[Recursive] from a given node till the end
+     *
      */
-    public void deleteNth(int position) {
-        checkBounds(position, 0, size - 1);
-        if (position == 0) {
-            Node destroy = head;
-            head = head.next;
-            destroy = null;
-            /* clear to let GC do its work */
-            size--;
-            return;
-        }
-        Node cur = head;
-        for (int i = 0; i < position - 1; ++i) {
-            cur = cur.next;
+    public SinglyLinkedListNode reverseListRec(SinglyLinkedListNode head) {
+        if (head == null || head.next == null) {
+            return head;
         }
 
-        Node destroy = cur.next;
-        cur.next = cur.next.next;
-        destroy = null; // clear to let GC do its work
+        SinglyLinkedListNode prev = null;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode h2 = reverseListRec(head.next);
 
-        size--;
-    }
+        head.next.next = head;
+        head.next = prev;
 
-    /**
-     * @param position to check position
-     * @param low low index
-     * @param high high index
-     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if {@code position} not in range
-     * {@code low} to {@code high}
-     */
-    public void checkBounds(int position, int low, int high) {
-        if (position > high || position < low) {
-            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException(position + "");
-        }
+        return h2;
     }
 
     /**
      * Clear all nodes in the list
      */
     public void clear() {
-        Node cur = head;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode cur = head;
         while (cur != null) {
-            Node prev = cur;
             cur = cur.next;
-            prev = null; // clear to let GC do its work
         }
         head = null;
         size = 0;
@@ -227,10 +198,18 @@ public int size() {
      *
      * @return head of the list.
      */
-    public Node getHead() {
+    public SinglyLinkedListNode getHead() {
         return head;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Set head of the list.
+     *
+     */
+    public void setHead(SinglyLinkedListNode head) {
+        this.head = head;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Calculate the count of the list manually
      *
@@ -238,10 +217,8 @@ public Node getHead() {
      */
     public int count() {
         int count = 0;
-        Node cur = head;
-        while (cur != null) {
-            cur = cur.next;
-            count++;
+        for (final var element : this) {
+            ++count;
         }
         return count;
     }
@@ -253,17 +230,144 @@ public int count() {
      * @return {@code true} if key is present in the list, otherwise
      * {@code false}.
      */
-    public boolean search(int key) {
-        Node cur = head;
-        while (cur != null) {
-            if (cur.value == key) {
+    public boolean search(final int key) {
+        for (final var element : this) {
+            if (element == key) {
                 return true;
             }
-            cur = cur.next;
         }
         return false;
     }
 
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        StringJoiner joiner = new StringJoiner("->");
+        for (final var element : this) {
+            joiner.add(element + "");
+        }
+        return joiner.toString();
+    }
+
+    public void deleteDuplicates() {
+        SinglyLinkedListNode pred = head;
+        // predecessor = the node
+        // having sublist of its duplicates
+        SinglyLinkedListNode newHead = head;
+        while (newHead != null) {
+            // if it's a beginning of duplicates sublist
+            // skip all duplicates
+            if (newHead.next != null && newHead.value == newHead.next.value) {
+                // move till the end of duplicates sublist
+                while (newHead.next != null && newHead.value == newHead.next.value) {
+                    newHead = newHead.next;
+                }
+                // skip all duplicates
+                pred.next = newHead.next;
+                newHead = null;
+                // otherwise, move predecessor
+            }
+            // move forward
+            pred = pred.next;
+            newHead = pred;
+        }
+    }
+
+    public void print() {
+        SinglyLinkedListNode temp = head;
+        while (temp != null && temp.next != null) {
+            System.out.print(temp.value + "->");
+            temp = temp.next;
+        }
+        if (temp != null) {
+            System.out.print(temp.value);
+            System.out.println();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts an element at the head of the list
+     *
+     * @param x element to be added
+     */
+    public void insertHead(int x) {
+        insertNth(x, 0);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Insert an element at the tail of the list
+     *
+     * @param data element to be added
+     */
+    public void insert(int data) {
+        insertNth(data, size);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts a new node at a specified position of the list
+     *
+     * @param data data to be stored in a new node
+     * @param position position at which a new node is to be inserted
+     */
+    public void insertNth(int data, int position) {
+        checkBounds(position, 0, size);
+        SinglyLinkedListNode newNode = new SinglyLinkedListNode(data);
+        if (head == null) {
+            /* the list is empty */
+            head = newNode;
+            size++;
+            return;
+        }
+        if (position == 0) {
+            /* insert at the head of the list */
+            newNode.next = head;
+            head = newNode;
+            size++;
+            return;
+        }
+
+        SinglyLinkedListNode cur = head;
+        for (int i = 0; i < position - 1; ++i) {
+            cur = cur.next;
+        }
+        newNode.next = cur.next;
+        cur.next = newNode;
+        size++;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Deletes a node at the head
+     */
+    public void deleteHead() {
+        deleteNth(0);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Deletes an element at the tail
+     */
+    public void delete() {
+        deleteNth(size - 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Deletes an element at Nth position
+     */
+    public void deleteNth(int position) {
+        checkBounds(position, 0, size - 1);
+        if (position == 0) {
+            head = head.next;
+            /* clear to let GC do its work */
+            size--;
+            return;
+        }
+        SinglyLinkedListNode cur = head;
+        for (int i = 0; i < position - 1; ++i) {
+            cur = cur.next;
+        }
+
+        cur.next = cur.next.next;
+        size--;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Return element at special index.
      *
@@ -272,22 +376,24 @@ public boolean search(int key) {
      */
     public int getNth(int index) {
         checkBounds(index, 0, size - 1);
-        Node cur = head;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode cur = head;
         for (int i = 0; i < index; ++i) {
             cur = cur.next;
         }
         return cur.value;
     }
 
-    @Override
-    public String toString() {
-        StringJoiner joiner = new StringJoiner("->");
-        Node cur = head;
-        while (cur != null) {
-            joiner.add(cur.value + "");
-            cur = cur.next;
+    /**
+     * @param position to check position
+     * @param low low index
+     * @param high high index
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if {@code position} not in range
+     * {@code low} to {@code high}
+     */
+    public void checkBounds(int position, int low, int high) {
+        if (position > high || position < low) {
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException(position + "");
         }
-        return joiner.toString();
     }
 
     /**
@@ -297,7 +403,7 @@ public static void main(String[] arg) {
         SinglyLinkedList list = new SinglyLinkedList();
         assert list.isEmpty();
         assert list.size() == 0 && list.count() == 0;
-        assert list.toString().equals("");
+        assert list.toString().isEmpty();
 
         /* Test insert function */
         list.insertHead(5);
@@ -306,7 +412,7 @@ public static void main(String[] arg) {
         list.insert(3);
         list.insertNth(1, 4);
         assert list.toString().equals("10->7->5->3->1");
-
+        System.out.println(list);
         /* Test search function */
         assert list.search(10) && list.search(5) && list.search(1) && !list.search(100);
 
@@ -318,7 +424,7 @@ public static void main(String[] arg) {
         list.deleteNth(1);
         list.delete();
         assert list.toString().equals("7->3");
-
+        System.out.println(list);
         assert list.size == 2 && list.size() == list.count();
 
         list.clear();
@@ -332,45 +438,39 @@ public static void main(String[] arg) {
             assert true;
             /* this should happen */
         }
-    }
-}
 
-/**
- * This class is the nodes of the SinglyLinked List. They consist of a value and
- * a pointer to the node after them.
- */
-class Node {
+        SinglyLinkedList instance = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = new SinglyLinkedListNode(0, new SinglyLinkedListNode(2, new SinglyLinkedListNode(3, new SinglyLinkedListNode(3, new SinglyLinkedListNode(4)))));
+        instance.setHead(head);
+        instance.deleteDuplicates();
+        instance.print();
+    }
 
-    /**
-     * The value of the node
-     */
-    int value;
+    @Override
+    public Iterator<Integer> iterator() {
+        return new SinglyLinkedListIterator();
+    }
 
-    /**
-     * Point to the next node
-     */
-    Node next;
+    private class SinglyLinkedListIterator implements Iterator<Integer> {
+        private SinglyLinkedListNode current;
 
-    Node() {
-    }
+        SinglyLinkedListIterator() {
+            current = head;
+        }
 
-    /**
-     * Constructor
-     *
-     * @param value Value to be put in the node
-     */
-    Node(int value) {
-        this(value, null);
-    }
+        @Override
+        public boolean hasNext() {
+            return current != null;
+        }
 
-    /**
-     * Constructor
-     *
-     * @param value Value to be put in the node
-     * @param next Reference to the next node
-     */
-    Node(int value, Node next) {
-        this.value = value;
-        this.next = next;
+        @Override
+        public Integer next() {
+            if (!hasNext()) {
+                throw new NoSuchElementException();
+            }
+            final var value = current.value;
+            current = current.next;
+            return value;
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListNode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListNode.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d0a06369215a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListNode.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+/**
+ * This class is the nodes of the SinglyLinked List. They consist of a value and
+ * a pointer to the node after them.
+ */
+class SinglyLinkedListNode {
+
+    int value;
+    SinglyLinkedListNode next = null;
+
+    SinglyLinkedListNode() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor
+     *
+     * @param value Value to be put in the node
+     */
+    SinglyLinkedListNode(int value) {
+        this(value, null);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor
+     *
+     * @param value Value to be put in the node
+     * @param next Reference to the next node
+     */
+    SinglyLinkedListNode(int value, SinglyLinkedListNode next) {
+        this.value = value;
+        this.next = next;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SkipList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SkipList.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0b4fcd91483c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SkipList.java
@@ -0,0 +1,330 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.Random;
+import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+
+/**
+ * Skip list is a data structure that allows {@code O(log n)} search complexity
+ * as well as {@code O(log n)} insertion complexity within an ordered sequence
+ * of {@code n} elements. Thus it can get the best features of a sorted array
+ * (for searching) while maintaining a linked list-like structure that allows
+ * insertion, which is not possible with a static array.
+ * <p>
+ * A skip list is built in layers. The bottom layer is an ordinary ordered
+ * linked list. Each higher layer acts as an "express lane" for the lists
+ * below.
+ * <pre>
+ * [ ] ------> [ ] --> [ ]
+ * [ ] --> [ ] [ ] --> [ ]
+ * [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
+ *  H   0   1   2   3   4
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * @param <E> type of elements
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skip_list">Wiki. Skip list</a>
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
+public class SkipList<E extends Comparable<E>> {
+
+    /**
+     * Node before first node.
+     */
+    private final Node<E> head;
+
+    /**
+     * Maximum layers count.
+     * Calculated by {@link #heightStrategy}.
+     */
+    private final int height;
+
+    /**
+     * Function for determining height of new nodes.
+     * @see HeightStrategy
+     */
+    private final HeightStrategy heightStrategy;
+
+    /**
+     * Current count of elements in list.
+     */
+    private int size;
+
+    private static final int DEFAULT_CAPACITY = 100;
+
+    public SkipList() {
+        this(DEFAULT_CAPACITY, new BernoulliHeightStrategy());
+    }
+
+    public SkipList(int expectedCapacity, HeightStrategy heightStrategy) {
+        this.heightStrategy = heightStrategy;
+        this.height = heightStrategy.height(expectedCapacity);
+        this.head = new Node<>(null, this.height);
+        this.size = 0;
+    }
+
+    public void add(E e) {
+        Objects.requireNonNull(e);
+        Node<E> current = head;
+        int layer = height;
+        Node<E>[] toFix = new Node[height + 1];
+
+        while (layer >= 0) {
+            Node<E> next = current.next(layer);
+            if (next == null || next.getValue().compareTo(e) > 0) {
+                toFix[layer] = current;
+                layer--;
+            } else {
+                current = next;
+            }
+        }
+        int nodeHeight = heightStrategy.nodeHeight(height);
+        Node<E> node = new Node<>(e, nodeHeight);
+        for (int i = 0; i <= nodeHeight; i++) {
+            if (toFix[i].next(i) != null) {
+                node.setNext(i, toFix[i].next(i));
+                toFix[i].next(i).setPrevious(i, node);
+            }
+
+            toFix[i].setNext(i, node);
+            node.setPrevious(i, toFix[i]);
+        }
+        size++;
+    }
+
+    public E get(int index) {
+        int counter = -1; // head index
+        Node<E> current = head;
+        while (counter != index) {
+            current = current.next(0);
+            counter++;
+        }
+        return current.value;
+    }
+
+    public void remove(E e) {
+        Objects.requireNonNull(e);
+        Node<E> current = head;
+        int layer = height;
+
+        while (layer >= 0) {
+            Node<E> next = current.next(layer);
+            if (e.equals(current.getValue())) {
+                break;
+            } else if (next == null || next.getValue().compareTo(e) > 0) {
+                layer--;
+            } else {
+                current = next;
+            }
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i <= layer; i++) {
+            current.previous(i).setNext(i, current.next(i));
+            if (current.next(i) != null) {
+                current.next(i).setPrevious(i, current.previous(i));
+            }
+        }
+        size--;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A search for a target element begins at the head element in the top
+     * list, and proceeds horizontally until the current element is greater
+     * than or equal to the target. If the current element is equal to the
+     * target, it has been found. If the current element is greater than the
+     * target, or the search reaches the end of the linked list, the procedure
+     * is repeated after returning to the previous element and dropping down
+     * vertically to the next lower list.
+     *
+     * @param e element whose presence in this list is to be tested
+     * @return true if this list contains the specified element
+     */
+    public boolean contains(E e) {
+        Objects.requireNonNull(e);
+        Node<E> current = head;
+        int layer = height;
+
+        while (layer >= 0) {
+            Node<E> next = current.next(layer);
+            if (e.equals(current.getValue())) {
+                return true;
+            } else if (next == null || next.getValue().compareTo(e) > 0) {
+                layer--;
+            } else {
+                current = next;
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    public int size() {
+        return size;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Print height distribution of the nodes in a manner:
+     * <pre>
+     * [ ] --- --- [ ] --- [ ]
+     * [ ] --- [ ] [ ] --- [ ]
+     * [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
+     *  H   0   1   2   3   4
+     * </pre>
+     * Values of nodes is not presented.
+     *
+     * @return string representation
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        List<boolean[]> layers = new ArrayList<>();
+        int sizeWithHeader = size + 1;
+        for (int i = 0; i <= height; i++) {
+            layers.add(new boolean[sizeWithHeader]);
+        }
+
+        Node<E> current = head;
+        int position = 0;
+        while (current != null) {
+            for (int i = 0; i <= current.height; i++) {
+                layers.get(i)[position] = true;
+            }
+            current = current.next(0);
+            position++;
+        }
+
+        Collections.reverse(layers);
+        String result = layers.stream()
+                            .map(layer -> {
+                                StringBuilder acc = new StringBuilder();
+                                for (boolean b : layer) {
+                                    if (b) {
+                                        acc.append("[ ]");
+                                    } else {
+                                        acc.append("---");
+                                    }
+                                    acc.append(" ");
+                                }
+                                return acc.toString();
+                            })
+                            .collect(Collectors.joining("\n"));
+        String positions = IntStream.range(0, sizeWithHeader - 1).mapToObj(i -> String.format("%3d", i)).collect(Collectors.joining(" "));
+
+        return result + String.format("%n H %s%n", positions);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Value container.
+     * Each node have pointers to the closest nodes left and right from current
+     * on each layer of nodes height.
+     * @param <E> type of elements
+     */
+    private static class Node<E> {
+
+        private final E value;
+        private final int height;
+        private final List<Node<E>> forward;
+        private final List<Node<E>> backward;
+
+        @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+        Node(E value, int height) {
+            this.value = value;
+            this.height = height;
+
+            // predefined size lists with null values in every cell
+            this.forward = Arrays.asList(new Node[height + 1]);
+            this.backward = Arrays.asList(new Node[height + 1]);
+        }
+
+        public Node<E> next(int layer) {
+            checkLayer(layer);
+            return forward.get(layer);
+        }
+
+        public void setNext(int layer, Node<E> node) {
+            forward.set(layer, node);
+        }
+
+        public void setPrevious(int layer, Node<E> node) {
+            backward.set(layer, node);
+        }
+
+        public Node<E> previous(int layer) {
+            checkLayer(layer);
+            return backward.get(layer);
+        }
+
+        public E getValue() {
+            return value;
+        }
+
+        private void checkLayer(int layer) {
+            if (layer < 0 || layer > height) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Height strategy is a way of calculating maximum height for skip list
+     * and height for each node.
+     * @see BernoulliHeightStrategy
+     */
+    public interface HeightStrategy {
+        int height(int expectedSize);
+        int nodeHeight(int heightCap);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * In most common skip list realisation element in layer {@code i} appears
+     * in layer {@code i+1} with some fixed probability {@code p}.
+     * Two commonly used values for {@code p} are 1/2 and 1/4.
+     * Probability of appearing element in layer {@code i} could be calculated
+     * with <code>P = p<sup>i</sup>(1 - p)</code>
+     * <p>
+     * Maximum height that would give the best search complexity
+     * calculated by <code>log<sub>1/p</sub>n</code>
+     * where {@code n} is an expected count of elements in list.
+     */
+    public static class BernoulliHeightStrategy implements HeightStrategy {
+
+        private final double probability;
+
+        private static final double DEFAULT_PROBABILITY = 0.5;
+        private static final Random RANDOM = new Random();
+
+        public BernoulliHeightStrategy() {
+            this.probability = DEFAULT_PROBABILITY;
+        }
+
+        public BernoulliHeightStrategy(double probability) {
+            if (probability <= 0 || probability >= 1) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Probability should be from 0 to 1. But was: " + probability);
+            }
+            this.probability = probability;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int height(int expectedSize) {
+            long height = Math.round(Math.log10(expectedSize) / Math.log10(1 / probability));
+            if (height > Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException();
+            }
+            return (int) height;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int nodeHeight(int heightCap) {
+            int level = 0;
+            double border = 100 * (1 - probability);
+            while (((RANDOM.nextInt(Integer.MAX_VALUE) % 100) + 1) > border) {
+                if (level + 1 >= heightCap) {
+                    return level;
+                }
+                level++;
+            }
+            return level;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedList.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e515c9e4adc4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedList.java
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The SortedLinkedList class represents a singly linked list that maintains its elements in sorted order.
+ * Elements are ordered based on their natural ordering, with smaller elements at the head and larger elements toward the tail.
+ * The class provides methods for inserting, deleting, and searching elements, as well as checking if the list is empty.
+ * <p>
+ * This implementation utilizes a singly linked list to maintain a dynamically sorted list.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * Further information can be found here:
+ * https://runestone.academy/ns/books/published/cppds/LinearLinked/ImplementinganOrderedList.html
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <b>Usage Example:</b>
+ * <pre>
+ *     SortedLinkedList list = new SortedLinkedList();
+ *     list.insert(10);
+ *     list.insert(5);
+ *     list.insert(20);
+ *     System.out.println(list); // Outputs: [5, 10, 20]
+ * </pre>
+ */
+public class SortedLinkedList {
+    private Node head;
+    private Node tail;
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes an empty sorted linked list.
+     */
+    public SortedLinkedList() {
+        this.head = null;
+        this.tail = null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts a new integer into the list, maintaining sorted order.
+     *
+     * @param value the integer to insert
+     */
+    public void insert(int value) {
+        Node newNode = new Node(value);
+        if (head == null) {
+            this.head = newNode;
+            this.tail = newNode;
+        } else if (value < head.value) {
+            newNode.next = this.head;
+            this.head = newNode;
+        } else if (value > tail.value) {
+            this.tail.next = newNode;
+            this.tail = newNode;
+        } else {
+            Node temp = head;
+            while (temp.next != null && temp.next.value < value) {
+                temp = temp.next;
+            }
+            newNode.next = temp.next;
+            temp.next = newNode;
+            if (newNode.next == null) {
+                this.tail = newNode;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Deletes the first occurrence of a specified integer in the list.
+     *
+     * @param value the integer to delete
+     * @return {@code true} if the element was found and deleted; {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean delete(int value) {
+        if (this.head == null) {
+            return false;
+        } else if (this.head.value == value) {
+            if (this.head.next == null) {
+                this.head = null;
+                this.tail = null;
+            } else {
+                this.head = this.head.next;
+            }
+            return true;
+        } else {
+            Node temp = this.head;
+            while (temp.next != null) {
+                if (temp.next.value == value) {
+                    if (temp.next == this.tail) {
+                        this.tail = temp;
+                    }
+                    temp.next = temp.next.next;
+                    return true;
+                }
+                temp = temp.next;
+            }
+            return false;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Searches for a specified integer in the list.
+     *
+     * @param value the integer to search for
+     * @return {@code true} if the value is present in the list; {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean search(int value) {
+        Node temp = this.head;
+        while (temp != null) {
+            if (temp.value == value) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            temp = temp.next;
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the list is empty.
+     *
+     * @return {@code true} if the list is empty; {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return head == null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the sorted linked list in the format [element1, element2, ...].
+     *
+     * @return a string representation of the sorted linked list
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        if (this.head != null) {
+            List<String> elements = new ArrayList<>();
+            Node temp = this.head;
+            while (temp != null) {
+                elements.add(String.valueOf(temp.value));
+                temp = temp.next;
+            }
+            return "[" + String.join(", ", elements) + "]";
+        } else {
+            return "[]";
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Node represents an element in the sorted linked list.
+     */
+    public final class Node {
+        public final int value;
+        public Node next;
+
+        public Node(int value) {
+            this.value = value;
+            this.next = null;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgo.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgo.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9d803003c658
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgo.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+public class TortoiseHareAlgo<E> {
+    static final class Node<E> {
+        Node<E> next;
+        E value;
+
+        private Node(E value, Node<E> next) {
+            this.value = value;
+            this.next = next;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private Node<E> head = null;
+
+    public TortoiseHareAlgo() {
+        head = null;
+    }
+
+    public void append(E value) {
+        Node<E> newNode = new Node<>(value, null);
+        if (head == null) {
+            head = newNode;
+            return;
+        }
+        Node<E> current = head;
+        while (current.next != null) {
+            current = current.next;
+        }
+        current.next = newNode;
+    }
+
+    public E getMiddle() {
+        if (head == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        Node<E> slow = head;
+        Node<E> fast = head;
+
+        while (fast != null && fast.next != null) {
+            slow = slow.next;
+            fast = fast.next.next;
+        }
+
+        return slow.value;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("[");
+        Node<E> current = head;
+        while (current != null) {
+            sb.append(current.value);
+            if (current.next != null) {
+                sb.append(", ");
+            }
+            current = current.next;
+        }
+        sb.append("]");
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueue.java
index f1e99e3c0e58..74ee06ca92e4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueue.java
@@ -1,115 +1,138 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
 
-//This program implements the concept of CircularQueue in Java
-//Link to the concept: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_buffer)
-public class CircularQueue {
-
-    int[] arr;
-    int topOfQueue;
-    int beginningOfQueue;
-    int size;
+/**
+ * The CircularQueue class represents a generic circular queue data structure that uses an array to
+ * store elements. This queue allows efficient utilization of space by wrapping around the array,
+ * thus avoiding the need to shift elements during enqueue and dequeue operations.
+ *
+ * <p>When the queue reaches its maximum capacity, further enqueues will raise an exception.
+ * Similarly, attempts to dequeue or peek from an empty queue will also result in an exception.
+ *
+ * <p>Reference: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_buffer">Circular Buffer</a>
+ *
+ * <p>Usage Example:
+ * <pre>
+ *     CircularQueue<Integer> queue = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+ *     queue.enQueue(1);
+ *     queue.enQueue(2);
+ *     queue.enQueue(3);
+ *     queue.deQueue(); // Removes 1
+ *     queue.enQueue(4); // Wraps around and places 4 at the position of removed 1
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * @param <T> the type of elements in this queue
+ */
+public class CircularQueue<T> {
+    private T[] array;
+    private int topOfQueue;
+    private int beginningOfQueue;
+    private final int size;
+    private int currentSize;
 
+    /**
+     * Constructs a CircularQueue with a specified capacity.
+     *
+     * @param size the maximum number of elements this queue can hold
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the size is less than 1
+     */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
     public CircularQueue(int size) {
-        arr = new int[size];
-        topOfQueue = -1;
-        beginningOfQueue = -1;
+        if (size < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Size must be greater than 0");
+        }
+        this.array = (T[]) new Object[size];
+        this.topOfQueue = -1;
+        this.beginningOfQueue = -1;
         this.size = size;
+        this.currentSize = 0;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Checks if the queue is empty.
+     *
+     * @return {@code true} if the queue is empty; {@code false} otherwise
+     */
     public boolean isEmpty() {
-        if (beginningOfQueue == -1) {
-            return true;
-        } else {
-            return false;
-        }
+        return currentSize == 0;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Checks if the queue is full.
+     *
+     * @return {@code true} if the queue has reached its maximum capacity; {@code false} otherwise
+     */
     public boolean isFull() {
-        if (topOfQueue + 1 == beginningOfQueue) {
-            return true;
-        } else if (topOfQueue == size - 1 && beginningOfQueue == 0) {
-            return true;
-        } else {
-            return false;
-        }
+        return currentSize == size;
     }
 
-    public void enQueue(int value) {
+    /**
+     * Adds a new element to the queue. If the queue is full, an exception is thrown.
+     *
+     * @param value the element to be added to the queue
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the queue is already full
+     */
+    public void enQueue(T value) {
         if (isFull()) {
-            System.out.println("The Queue is full!");
-        } else if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Queue is full");
+        }
+        if (isEmpty()) {
             beginningOfQueue = 0;
-            topOfQueue++;
-            arr[topOfQueue] = value;
-            System.out.println(value + " has been successfully inserted!");
-        } else {
-            if (topOfQueue + 1 == size) {
-                topOfQueue = 0;
-            } else {
-                topOfQueue++;
-            }
-            arr[topOfQueue] = value;
-            System.out.println(value + " has been successfully inserted!");
         }
+        topOfQueue = (topOfQueue + 1) % size;
+        array[topOfQueue] = value;
+        currentSize++;
     }
 
-    public int deQueue() {
+    /**
+     * Removes and returns the element at the front of the queue.
+     *
+     * @return the element at the front of the queue
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the queue is empty
+     */
+    public T deQueue() {
         if (isEmpty()) {
-            System.out.println("The Queue is Empty!");
-            return -1;
-        } else {
-            int res = arr[beginningOfQueue];
-            arr[beginningOfQueue] = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
-            if (beginningOfQueue == topOfQueue) {
-                beginningOfQueue = topOfQueue = -1;
-            } else if (beginningOfQueue + 1 == size) {
-                beginningOfQueue = 0;
-            } else {
-                beginningOfQueue++;
-            }
-            return res;
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Queue is empty");
         }
-
+        T removedValue = array[beginningOfQueue];
+        array[beginningOfQueue] = null; // Optional: Nullify to help garbage collection
+        beginningOfQueue = (beginningOfQueue + 1) % size;
+        currentSize--;
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            beginningOfQueue = -1;
+            topOfQueue = -1;
+        }
+        return removedValue;
     }
 
-    public int peek() {
+    /**
+     * Returns the element at the front of the queue without removing it.
+     *
+     * @return the element at the front of the queue
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the queue is empty
+     */
+    public T peek() {
         if (isEmpty()) {
-            System.out.println("The Queue is Empty!");
-            return -1;
-        } else {
-            return arr[beginningOfQueue];
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Queue is empty");
         }
+        return array[beginningOfQueue];
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Deletes the entire queue by resetting all elements and pointers.
+     */
     public void deleteQueue() {
-        arr = null;
-        System.out.println("The Queue is deleted!");
+        array = null;
+        beginningOfQueue = -1;
+        topOfQueue = -1;
+        currentSize = 0;
     }
 
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        CircularQueue cq = new CircularQueue(5);
-        System.out.println(cq.isEmpty());
-        System.out.println(cq.isFull());
-        cq.enQueue(1);
-        cq.enQueue(2);
-        cq.enQueue(3);
-        cq.enQueue(4);
-        cq.enQueue(5);
-
-        System.out.println(cq.deQueue());
-        System.out.println(cq.deQueue());
-        System.out.println(cq.deQueue());
-        System.out.println(cq.deQueue());
-        System.out.println(cq.deQueue());
-        System.out.println(cq.isFull());
-        System.out.println(cq.isEmpty());
-        cq.enQueue(6);
-        cq.enQueue(7);
-        cq.enQueue(8);
-        System.out.println(cq.peek());
-        System.out.println(cq.peek());
-        cq.deleteQueue();
-
+    /**
+     * Returns the current number of elements in the queue.
+     *
+     * @return the number of elements currently in the queue
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return currentSize;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deques.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deque.java
similarity index 61%
rename from src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deques.java
rename to src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deque.java
index 06d7c5995111..4cfa2b442ca0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deques.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deque.java
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
 
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+
 /**
  * A [deque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-ended_queue) is short for a
  * double ended queue pronounced "deck" and sometimes referred to as a head-tail
@@ -9,50 +11,24 @@
  *
  * @author [Ian Cowan](https://github.com/iccowan)
  */
-public class Deques<T> {
+public class Deque<T> {
 
     /**
      * Node for the deque
      */
-    class DequeNode<S> {
-
-        /**
-         * Value of the node
-         */
+    private static class DequeNode<S> {
         S val;
-
-        /**
-         * Next node in the deque from this node
-         */
         DequeNode<S> next = null;
-
-        /**
-         * Previous node in the deque from this node
-         */
         DequeNode<S> prev = null;
 
-        /**
-         * Constructor
-         */
         DequeNode(S val) {
             this.val = val;
         }
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Head of the deque
-     */
-    DequeNode<T> head = null;
-
-    /**
-     * Tail of the deque
-     */
-    DequeNode<T> tail = null;
-
-    /**
-     * Size of the deque
-     */
-    int size = 0;
+    private DequeNode<T> head = null;
+    private DequeNode<T> tail = null;
+    private int size = 0;
 
     /**
      * Adds the specified value to the head of the deque
@@ -60,16 +36,12 @@ class DequeNode<S> {
      * @param val Value to add to the deque
      */
     public void addFirst(T val) {
-        // Create a new node with the given value
-        DequeNode<T> newNode = new DequeNode<T>(val);
+        DequeNode<T> newNode = new DequeNode<>(val);
 
-        // Add the node
-        if (head == null) {
-            // If the deque is empty, add the node as the head and tail
+        if (isEmpty()) {
             head = newNode;
             tail = newNode;
         } else {
-            // If the deque is not empty, insert the node as the new head
             newNode.next = head;
             head.prev = newNode;
             head = newNode;
@@ -84,21 +56,15 @@ public void addFirst(T val) {
      * @param val Value to add to the deque
      */
     public void addLast(T val) {
-        // Create a new node with the given value
-        DequeNode<T> newNode = new DequeNode<T>(val);
-
-        // Add the node
+        DequeNode<T> newNode = new DequeNode<>(val);
         if (tail == null) {
-            // If the deque is empty, add the node as the head and tail
             head = newNode;
             tail = newNode;
         } else {
-            // If the deque is not empty, insert the node as the new tail
             newNode.prev = tail;
             tail.next = newNode;
             tail = newNode;
         }
-
         size++;
     }
 
@@ -106,33 +72,21 @@ public void addLast(T val) {
      * Removes and returns the first (head) value in the deque
      *
      * @return the value of the head of the deque
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the deque is empty
      */
     public T pollFirst() {
-        // If the head is null, return null
         if (head == null) {
-            return null;
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Deque is empty");
         }
 
-        // First, let's get the value of the old head
         T oldHeadVal = head.val;
-
-        // Now, let's remove the head
         if (head == tail) {
-            // If there is only one node, remove it
             head = null;
             tail = null;
         } else {
-            // If there is more than one node, fix the references
-            head.next.prev = null;
-            DequeNode<T> oldHead = head;
             head = head.next;
-
-            // Can be considered unnecessary...
-            // Unlinking the old head to make sure there are no random
-            // references possibly affecting garbage collection
-            oldHead.next = null;
+            head.prev = null;
         }
-
         size--;
         return oldHeadVal;
     }
@@ -141,32 +95,21 @@ public T pollFirst() {
      * Removes and returns the last (tail) value in the deque
      *
      * @return the value of the tail of the deque
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the deque is empty
      */
     public T pollLast() {
-        // If the tail is null, return null
         if (tail == null) {
-            return null;
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Deque is empty");
         }
 
-        // Let's get the value of the old tail
         T oldTailVal = tail.val;
-
-        // Now, remove the tail
         if (head == tail) {
-            // If there is only one node, remove it
             head = null;
             tail = null;
         } else {
-            // If there is more than one node, fix the references
-            tail.prev.next = null;
-            DequeNode<T> oldTail = tail;
             tail = tail.prev;
-
-            // Similarly to above, can be considered unnecessary
-            // See `pollFirst()` for explanation
-            oldTail.prev = null;
+            tail.next = null;
         }
-
         size--;
         return oldTailVal;
     }
@@ -174,19 +117,19 @@ public T pollLast() {
     /**
      * Returns the first (head) value of the deque WITHOUT removing
      *
-     * @return the value of the head of the deque
+     * @return the value of the head of the deque, or null if empty
      */
     public T peekFirst() {
-        return head.val;
+        return head != null ? head.val : null;
     }
 
     /**
      * Returns the last (tail) value of the deque WITHOUT removing
      *
-     * @return the value of the tail of the deque
+     * @return the value of the tail of the deque, or null if empty
      */
     public T peekLast() {
-        return tail.val;
+        return tail != null ? tail.val : null;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -204,7 +147,7 @@ public int size() {
      * @return whether or not the deque is empty
      */
     public boolean isEmpty() {
-        return head == null;
+        return size == 0;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -217,25 +160,21 @@ public boolean isEmpty() {
      */
     @Override
     public String toString() {
-        String dequeString = "Head -> ";
+        StringBuilder dequeString = new StringBuilder("Head -> ");
         DequeNode<T> currNode = head;
         while (currNode != null) {
-            dequeString += currNode.val;
-
+            dequeString.append(currNode.val);
             if (currNode.next != null) {
-                dequeString += " <-> ";
+                dequeString.append(" <-> ");
             }
-
             currNode = currNode.next;
         }
-
-        dequeString += " <- Tail";
-
-        return dequeString;
+        dequeString.append(" <- Tail");
+        return dequeString.toString();
     }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Deques<Integer> myDeque = new Deques<Integer>();
+        Deque<Integer> myDeque = new Deque<>();
         for (int i = 0; i < 42; i++) {
             if (i / 42.0 < 0.5) {
                 myDeque.addFirst(i);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueue.java
index b9331569e131..865da7bffc9f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueue.java
@@ -1,87 +1,60 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * This class implements a GenericArrayListQueue.
+ * This class implements a GenericArrayListQueue, a queue data structure that
+ * holds elements of any type specified at runtime, allowing flexibility in the type
+ * of elements it stores.
  *
- * A GenericArrayListQueue data structure functions the same as any
- * specific-typed queue. The GenericArrayListQueue holds elements of types
- * to-be-specified at runtime. The elements that are added first are the first
- * to be removed (FIFO). New elements are added to the back/rear of the queue.
+ * <p>The GenericArrayListQueue operates on a First-In-First-Out (FIFO) basis, where
+ * elements added first are the first to be removed. New elements are added to the back
+ * (or rear) of the queue, while removal of elements occurs from the front.
+ *
+ * @param <T> The type of elements held in this queue.
  */
 public class GenericArrayListQueue<T> {
 
     /**
-     * The generic ArrayList for the queue T is the generic element
+     * A list that stores the queue's elements in insertion order.
      */
-    ArrayList<T> _queue = new ArrayList<>();
+    private final List<T> elementList = new ArrayList<>();
 
     /**
-     * Checks if the queue has elements (not empty).
+     * Checks if the queue is empty.
      *
-     * @return True if the queue has elements. False otherwise.
+     * @return {@code true} if the queue has no elements; {@code false} otherwise.
      */
-    private boolean hasElements() {
-        return !_queue.isEmpty();
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return elementList.isEmpty();
     }
 
     /**
-     * Checks what's at the front of the queue.
+     * Retrieves, but does not remove, the element at the front of the queue.
      *
-     * @return If queue is not empty, element at the front of the queue.
-     * Otherwise, null
+     * @return The element at the front of the queue, or {@code null} if the queue is empty.
      */
     public T peek() {
-        T result = null;
-        if (this.hasElements()) {
-            result = _queue.get(0);
-        }
-        return result;
+        return isEmpty() ? null : elementList.getFirst();
     }
 
     /**
-     * Inserts an element of type T to the queue.
+     * Inserts an element at the back of the queue.
      *
-     * @param element of type T to be added
-     * @return True if the element was added successfully
+     * @param element The element to be added to the queue.
+     * @return {@code true} if the element was successfully added.
      */
     public boolean add(T element) {
-        return _queue.add(element);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Retrieve what's at the front of the queue
-     *
-     * @return If queue is not empty, element retrieved. Otherwise, null
-     */
-    public T pull() {
-        T result = null;
-        if (this.hasElements()) {
-            result = _queue.remove(0);
-        }
-        return result;
+        return elementList.add(element);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Main method
+     * Retrieves and removes the element at the front of the queue.
      *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
+     * @return The element removed from the front of the queue, or {@code null} if the queue is empty.
      */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        GenericArrayListQueue<Integer> queue = new GenericArrayListQueue<>();
-        System.out.println("Running...");
-        assert queue.peek() == null;
-        assert queue.pull() == null;
-        assert queue.add(1);
-        assert queue.peek() == 1;
-        assert queue.add(2);
-        assert queue.peek() == 1;
-        assert queue.pull() == 1;
-        assert queue.peek() == 2;
-        assert queue.pull() == 2;
-        assert queue.peek() == null;
-        assert queue.pull() == null;
-        System.out.println("Finished.");
+    public T poll() {
+        return isEmpty() ? null : elementList.removeFirst();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java
index 770582b78e18..6ba16199dbb8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java
@@ -1,178 +1,201 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
 
+import java.util.Iterator;
 import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
 
-public class LinkedQueue {
+public class LinkedQueue<T> implements Iterable<T> {
 
-    class Node {
-
-        int data;
-        Node next;
-
-        public Node() {
-            this(0);
-        }
-
-        public Node(int data) {
-            this(data, null);
-        }
+    /**
+     * Node class representing each element in the queue.
+     */
+    private static class Node<T> {
+        T data;
+        Node<T> next;
 
-        public Node(int data, Node next) {
+        Node(T data) {
             this.data = data;
-            this.next = next;
+            this.next = null;
         }
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Front of Queue
-     */
-    private Node front;
+    private Node<T> front; // Front of the queue
+    private Node<T> rear; // Rear of the queue
+    private int size; // Size of the queue
 
     /**
-     * Rear of Queue
-     */
-    private Node rear;
-
-    /**
-     * Size of Queue
-     */
-    private int size;
-
-    /**
-     * Init LinkedQueue
+     * Initializes an empty LinkedQueue.
      */
     public LinkedQueue() {
-        front = rear = new Node();
+        front = null;
+        rear = null;
+        size = 0;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Check if queue is empty
+     * Checks if the queue is empty.
      *
-     * @return true if queue is empty, otherwise false
+     * @return true if the queue is empty, otherwise false.
      */
     public boolean isEmpty() {
         return size == 0;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Add element to rear of queue
+     * Adds an element to the rear of the queue.
      *
-     * @param data insert value
-     * @return true if add successfully
+     * @param data the element to insert.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if data is null.
      */
-    public boolean enqueue(int data) {
-        Node newNode = new Node(data);
-        rear.next = newNode;
+    public void enqueue(T data) {
+        if (data == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cannot enqueue null data");
+        }
+
+        Node<T> newNode = new Node<>(data);
+
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            front = newNode;
+        } else {
+            rear.next = newNode;
+        }
         rear = newNode;
-        /* make rear point at last node */
         size++;
-        return true;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Remove element at the front of queue
+     * Removes and returns the element at the front of the queue.
      *
-     * @return element at the front of queue
+     * @return the element at the front of the queue.
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the queue is empty.
      */
-    public int dequeue() {
+    public T dequeue() {
         if (isEmpty()) {
-            throw new NoSuchElementException("queue is empty");
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Queue is empty");
         }
-        Node destroy = front.next;
-        int retValue = destroy.data;
-        front.next = front.next.next;
-        destroy = null;
-        /* clear let GC do it's work */
+
+        T retValue = front.data;
+        front = front.next;
         size--;
 
         if (isEmpty()) {
-            front = rear;
+            rear = null;
         }
 
         return retValue;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Peek element at the front of queue without removing
+     * Returns the element at the front of the queue without removing it.
      *
-     * @return element at the front
+     * @return the element at the front of the queue.
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the queue is empty.
      */
-    public int peekFront() {
+    public T peekFront() {
         if (isEmpty()) {
-            throw new NoSuchElementException("queue is empty");
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Queue is empty");
         }
-        return front.next.data;
+        return front.data;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Peek element at the rear of queue without removing
+     * Returns the element at the rear of the queue without removing it.
      *
-     * @return element at the front
+     * @return the element at the rear of the queue.
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the queue is empty.
      */
-    public int peekRear() {
+    public T peekRear() {
         if (isEmpty()) {
-            throw new NoSuchElementException("queue is empty");
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Queue is empty");
         }
         return rear.data;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Return size of queue
+     * Returns the element at the specified position (1-based index).
      *
-     * @return size of queue
+     * @param pos the position to peek at (1-based index).
+     * @return the element at the specified position.
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if the position is out of range.
+     */
+    public T peek(int pos) {
+        if (pos < 1 || pos > size) {
+            throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("Position " + pos + " out of range!");
+        }
+
+        Node<T> node = front;
+        for (int i = 1; i < pos; i++) {
+            node = node.next;
+        }
+        return node.data;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns an iterator over the elements in the queue.
+     *
+     * @return an iterator over the elements in the queue.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public Iterator<T> iterator() {
+        return new Iterator<>() {
+            private Node<T> current = front;
+
+            @Override
+            public boolean hasNext() {
+                return current != null;
+            }
+
+            @Override
+            public T next() {
+                if (!hasNext()) {
+                    throw new NoSuchElementException();
+                }
+
+                T data = current.data;
+                current = current.next;
+                return data;
+            }
+        };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the size of the queue.
+     *
+     * @return the size of the queue.
      */
     public int size() {
         return size;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Clear all nodes in queue
+     * Clears all elements from the queue.
      */
     public void clear() {
-        while (!isEmpty()) {
-            dequeue();
-        }
+        front = null;
+        rear = null;
+        size = 0;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the queue.
+     *
+     * @return a string representation of the queue.
+     */
     @Override
     public String toString() {
         if (isEmpty()) {
             return "[]";
         }
-        StringBuilder builder = new StringBuilder();
-        Node cur = front.next;
-        builder.append("[");
-        while (cur != null) {
-            builder.append(cur.data).append(", ");
-            cur = cur.next;
-        }
-        builder.replace(builder.length() - 2, builder.length(), "]");
-        return builder.toString();
-    }
 
-    /* Driver Code */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        LinkedQueue queue = new LinkedQueue();
-        assert queue.isEmpty();
-
-        queue.enqueue(1);
-        /* 1 */
-        queue.enqueue(2);
-        /* 1 2 */
-        queue.enqueue(3);
-        /* 1 2 3 */
-        System.out.println(queue);
-        /* [1, 2, 3] */
-
-        assert queue.size() == 3;
-        assert queue.dequeue() == 1;
-        assert queue.peekFront() == 2;
-        assert queue.peekRear() == 3;
-
-        queue.clear();
-        assert queue.isEmpty();
-
-        System.out.println(queue);
-        /* [] */
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("[");
+        Node<T> current = front;
+        while (current != null) {
+            sb.append(current.data);
+            if (current.next != null) {
+                sb.append(", ");
+            }
+            current = current.next;
+        }
+        sb.append(']');
+        return sb.toString();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java
index cf651dcee359..a5ca48670f2c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java
@@ -8,6 +8,8 @@
  * most important elements are placed at the front/on the top. In this example I
  * give numbers that are bigger, a higher priority. Queues in theory have no
  * fixed size but when using an array implementation it does.
+ * <p>
+ * Additional contibutions made by: PuneetTri(https://github.com/PuneetTri)
  */
 class PriorityQueue {
 
@@ -25,42 +27,118 @@ class PriorityQueue {
     private int nItems;
 
     /**
-     * Constructor
+     * Default Constructor
+     */
+
+    PriorityQueue() {
+        /* If capacity is not defined, default size of 11 would be used
+         *  capacity=max+1 because we cant access 0th element of PQ, and to
+         *  accomodate (max)th elements we need capacity to be max+1.
+         *  Parent is at position k, child at position (k*2,k*2+1), if we
+         *  use position 0 in our queue, its child would be at:
+         *  (0*2, 0*2+1) -> (0,0). This is why we start at position 1
+         */
+        int size = 11; // Default value of 11
+        maxSize = size + 1;
+        queueArray = new int[maxSize];
+        nItems = 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Parameterized Constructor
      *
      * @param size Size of the queue
      */
-    public PriorityQueue(int size) {
-        maxSize = size;
-        queueArray = new int[size];
+
+    PriorityQueue(int size) {
+        maxSize = size + 1;
+        queueArray = new int[maxSize];
         nItems = 0;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Helper function for the max-heap implementation of PQ
+     * Function would help demote parent node to their correct
+     * position
+     *
+     * @param pos Position of newly added element at bottom
+     */
+    private void swim(int pos) {
+        // Check if parent is smaller than child node
+        while (pos > 1 && (queueArray[pos / 2] < queueArray[pos])) {
+            // In such case swap value of child with parent
+            int temp = queueArray[pos];
+            queueArray[pos] = queueArray[pos / 2];
+            queueArray[pos / 2] = temp;
+            pos = pos / 2; // Jump to position of parent node
+        }
+        // Promotion of child node will go on until it becomes smaller than the parent
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper function for the max-heap implementation of PQ
+     * Function would help demote parent node to their correct
+     * position
+     *
+     * @param pos Position of element at top
+     */
+    private void sink(int pos) {
+        // Check if node's position is that of parent node
+        while (2 * pos <= nItems) {
+            int current = 2 * pos; // Jump to the positon of child node
+            // Compare both the children for the greater one
+            if (current < nItems && queueArray[current] < queueArray[current + 1]) {
+                current++;
+            }
+            // If the parent node is greater, sink operation is complete. Break the loop
+            if (queueArray[pos] >= queueArray[current]) {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            // If not exchange the value of parent with child
+            int temp = queueArray[pos];
+            queueArray[pos] = queueArray[current];
+            queueArray[current] = temp;
+            pos = current; // Exchange parent position to child position in the array
+        }
+    }
+
     /**
      * Inserts an element in it's appropriate place
      *
      * @param value Value to be inserted
      */
     public void insert(int value) {
+        // Print overflow message if the capacity is full
         if (isFull()) {
             throw new RuntimeException("Queue is full");
         } else {
-            int j = nItems - 1; // index of last element
-            while (j >= 0 && queueArray[j] > value) {
-                queueArray[j + 1] = queueArray[j]; // Shifts every element up to make room for insertion
-                j--;
-            }
-            queueArray[j + 1] = value; // Once the correct position is found the value is inserted
-            nItems++;
+            queueArray[++nItems] = value;
+            swim(nItems); // Swim up the element to its correct position
         }
     }
 
     /**
-     * Remove the element from the front of the queue
+     * Dequeue the element with the max priority from PQ
      *
      * @return The element removed
      */
     public int remove() {
-        return queueArray[--nItems];
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new RuntimeException("Queue is Empty");
+        } else {
+            int max = queueArray[1]; // By defintion of our max-heap, value at queueArray[1] pos is
+                                     // the greatest
+
+            // Swap max and last element
+            int temp = queueArray[1];
+            queueArray[1] = queueArray[nItems];
+            queueArray[nItems] = temp;
+            queueArray[nItems--] = 0; // Nullify the last element from the priority queue
+            sink(1); // Sink the element in order
+
+            return max;
+        }
     }
 
     /**
@@ -69,7 +147,7 @@ public int remove() {
      * @return element at the front of the queue
      */
     public int peek() {
-        return queueArray[nItems - 1];
+        return queueArray[1];
     }
 
     /**
@@ -87,7 +165,7 @@ public boolean isEmpty() {
      * @return true if the queue is full
      */
     public boolean isFull() {
-        return (nItems == maxSize);
+        return (nItems == maxSize - 1);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -99,31 +177,3 @@ public int getSize() {
         return nItems;
     }
 }
-
-/**
- * This class implements the PriorityQueue class above.
- *
- * @author Unknown
- */
-public class PriorityQueues {
-
-    /**
-     * Main method
-     *
-     * @param args Command Line Arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        PriorityQueue myQueue = new PriorityQueue(4);
-        myQueue.insert(10);
-        myQueue.insert(2);
-        myQueue.insert(5);
-        myQueue.insert(3);
-        // [2, 3, 5, 10] Here higher numbers have higher priority, so they are on the top
-
-        for (int i = 3; i >= 0; i--) {
-            System.out.print(
-                    myQueue.remove() + " "); // will print the queue in reverse order [10, 5, 3, 2]
-        }
-        // As you can see, a Priority Queue can be used as a sorting algotithm
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queue.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..046b79a020ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queue.java
@@ -0,0 +1,153 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements a Queue data structure using an array.
+ * A queue is a first-in-first-out (FIFO) data structure where elements are
+ * added to the rear and removed from the front.
+ *
+ * Note: This implementation is not thread-safe.
+ */
+public final class Queue<T> {
+
+    private static final int DEFAULT_CAPACITY = 10;
+
+    private final int maxSize;
+    private final Object[] queueArray;
+    private int front;
+    private int rear;
+    private int nItems;
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes a queue with a default capacity.
+     */
+    public Queue() {
+        this(DEFAULT_CAPACITY);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize a queue with a specified capacity.
+     *
+     * @param capacity The initial size of the queue.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the capacity is less than or equal to zero.
+     */
+    public Queue(int capacity) {
+        if (capacity <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Queue capacity must be greater than 0");
+        }
+        this.maxSize = capacity;
+        this.queueArray = new Object[capacity];
+        this.front = 0;
+        this.rear = -1;
+        this.nItems = 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts an element at the rear of the queue.
+     *
+     * @param element Element to be added.
+     * @return True if the element was added successfully, false if the queue is full.
+     */
+    public boolean insert(T element) {
+        if (isFull()) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        rear = (rear + 1) % maxSize;
+        queueArray[rear] = element;
+        nItems++;
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes and returns the element from the front of the queue.
+     *
+     * @return The element removed from the front of the queue.
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the queue is empty.
+     */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    public T remove() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Queue is empty, cannot remove element");
+        }
+        T removedElement = (T) queueArray[front];
+        queueArray[front] = null; // Optional: Clear the reference for garbage collection
+        front = (front + 1) % maxSize;
+        nItems--;
+        return removedElement;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks the element at the front of the queue without removing it.
+     *
+     * @return Element at the front of the queue.
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the queue is empty.
+     */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    public T peekFront() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Queue is empty, cannot peek front");
+        }
+        return (T) queueArray[front];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks the element at the rear of the queue without removing it.
+     *
+     * @return Element at the rear of the queue.
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the queue is empty.
+     */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    public T peekRear() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Queue is empty, cannot peek rear");
+        }
+        return (T) queueArray[rear];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns true if the queue is empty.
+     *
+     * @return True if the queue is empty.
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return nItems == 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns true if the queue is full.
+     *
+     * @return True if the queue is full.
+     */
+    public boolean isFull() {
+        return nItems == maxSize;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of elements currently in the queue.
+     *
+     * @return Number of elements in the queue.
+     */
+    public int getSize() {
+        return nItems;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the queue.
+     *
+     * @return String representation of the queue.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            return "[]";
+        }
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
+        sb.append("[");
+        for (int i = 0; i < nItems; i++) {
+            int index = (front + i) % maxSize;
+            sb.append(queueArray[index]).append(", ");
+        }
+        sb.setLength(sb.length() - 2); // Remove the last comma and space
+        sb.append("]");
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueByTwoStacks.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueByTwoStacks.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..981b3b32e0b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueByTwoStacks.java
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * A queue implementation using two stacks. This class provides methods to
+ * enqueue (add) elements to the end of the queue and dequeue (remove)
+ * elements from the front, while utilizing two internal stacks to manage
+ * the order of elements.
+ *
+ * @param <T> The type of elements held in this queue.
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+public class QueueByTwoStacks<T> {
+
+    private final Stack<T> enqueueStk;
+    private final Stack<T> dequeueStk;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor that initializes two empty stacks for the queue.
+     * The `enqueueStk` is used to push elements when enqueuing, and
+     * the `dequeueStk` is used to pop elements when dequeuing.
+     */
+    public QueueByTwoStacks() {
+        enqueueStk = new Stack<>();
+        dequeueStk = new Stack<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds an element to the end of the queue. This method pushes the element
+     * onto the `enqueueStk`.
+     *
+     * @param item The element to be added to the queue.
+     */
+    public void put(T item) {
+        enqueueStk.push(item);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes and returns the element at the front of the queue.
+     * If `dequeueStk` is empty, it transfers all elements from
+     * `enqueueStk` to `dequeueStk` to maintain the correct FIFO
+     * (First-In-First-Out) order before popping.
+     *
+     * @return The element at the front of the queue.
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException If the queue is empty.
+     */
+    public T get() {
+        if (dequeueStk.isEmpty()) {
+            while (!enqueueStk.isEmpty()) {
+                dequeueStk.push(enqueueStk.pop());
+            }
+        }
+        if (dequeueStk.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Queue is empty");
+        }
+        return dequeueStk.pop();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the total number of elements currently in the queue.
+     * This is the sum of the sizes of both stacks.
+     *
+     * @return The number of elements in the queue.
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return enqueueStk.size() + dequeueStk.size();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the queue, showing the elements
+     * in the correct order (from front to back).
+     * The `dequeueStk` is first cloned, and then all elements from the
+     * `enqueueStk` are added to the cloned stack in reverse order to
+     * represent the queue accurately.
+     *
+     * @return A string representation of the queue.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        Stack<T> tempStack = (Stack<T>) dequeueStk.clone();
+        while (!enqueueStk.isEmpty()) {
+            tempStack.push(enqueueStk.pop());
+        }
+        return "Queue(" + tempStack + ")";
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queues.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queues.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 47de89928628..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queues.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,182 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
-
-/**
- * This implements Queues by using the class Queue.
- *
- * A queue data structure functions the same as a real world queue. The elements
- * that are added first are the first to be removed. New elements are added to
- * the back/rear of the queue.
- */
-class Queue {
-
-    /**
-     * Default initial capacity.
-     */
-    private static final int DEFAULT_CAPACITY = 10;
-
-    /**
-     * Max size of the queue
-     */
-    private int maxSize;
-    /**
-     * The array representing the queue
-     */
-    private int[] queueArray;
-    /**
-     * Front of the queue
-     */
-    private int front;
-    /**
-     * Rear of the queue
-     */
-    private int rear;
-    /**
-     * How many items are in the queue
-     */
-    private int nItems;
-
-    /**
-     * init with DEFAULT_CAPACITY
-     */
-    public Queue() {
-        this(DEFAULT_CAPACITY);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Constructor
-     *
-     * @param size Size of the new queue
-     */
-    public Queue(int size) {
-        maxSize = size;
-        queueArray = new int[size];
-        front = 0;
-        rear = -1;
-        nItems = 0;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Inserts an element at the rear of the queue
-     *
-     * @param x element to be added
-     * @return True if the element was added successfully
-     */
-    public boolean insert(int x) {
-        if (isFull()) {
-            return false;
-        }
-        // If the back of the queue is the end of the array wrap around to the front
-        rear = (rear + 1) % maxSize;
-        queueArray[rear] = x;
-        nItems++;
-        return true;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Remove an element from the front of the queue
-     *
-     * @return the new front of the queue
-     */
-    public int remove() {
-        if (isEmpty()) {
-            return -1;
-        }
-        int temp = queueArray[front];
-        front = (front + 1) % maxSize;
-        nItems--;
-        return temp;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Checks what's at the front of the queue
-     *
-     * @return element at the front of the queue
-     */
-    public int peekFront() {
-        return queueArray[front];
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Checks what's at the rear of the queue
-     *
-     * @return element at the rear of the queue
-     */
-    public int peekRear() {
-        return queueArray[rear];
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Returns true if the queue is empty
-     *
-     * @return true if the queue is empty
-     */
-    public boolean isEmpty() {
-        return nItems == 0;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Returns true if the queue is full
-     *
-     * @return true if the queue is full
-     */
-    public boolean isFull() {
-        return nItems == maxSize;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Returns the number of elements in the queue
-     *
-     * @return number of elements in the queue
-     */
-    public int getSize() {
-        return nItems;
-    }
-
-    @Override
-    public String toString() {
-        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
-        sb.append("[");
-        for (int i = front;; i = ++i % maxSize) {
-            sb.append(queueArray[i]).append(", ");
-            if (i == rear) {
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-        sb.replace(sb.length() - 2, sb.length(), "]");
-        return sb.toString();
-    }
-}
-
-/**
- * This class is the example for the Queue class
- *
- * @author Unknown
- */
-public class Queues {
-
-    /**
-     * Main method
-     *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Queue myQueue = new Queue(4);
-        myQueue.insert(10);
-        myQueue.insert(2);
-        myQueue.insert(5);
-        myQueue.insert(3);
-        // [10(front), 2, 5, 3(rear)]
-
-        System.out.println(myQueue.isFull()); // Will print true
-
-        myQueue.remove(); // Will make 2 the new front, making 10 no longer part of the queue
-        // [10, 2(front), 5, 3(rear)]
-
-        myQueue.insert(7); // Insert 7 at the rear which will get 0 index because of wrap around
-        // [7(rear), 2(front), 5, 3]
-
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekFront()); // Will print 2
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekRear()); // Will print 7
-        System.out.println(myQueue.toString()); // Will print [2, 5, 3, 7]
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/README.md b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/README.md
index e110686acae9..ef1b89b5c9a4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/README.md
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/README.md
@@ -7,17 +7,83 @@
 - It supports all methods of Collection interface including insertion, deletion etc.
 - LinkedList, ArrayBlockingQueue and PriorityQueue are the most commonly used implementations.
 
-## Declaration
 
-`Queue<Obj> queue = new PriorityQueue<Obj> ();` 
+## Types Of Queue:-
+
+- **FIFO Queue (First-In-First-Out):** This is the most common type of queue where the first item added is the first one to be removed. It follows a strict order of insertion and removal.
+
+
+- **Priority Queue:** Elements in this queue are assigned priorities, and the item with the highest priority is dequeued first. It doesn't strictly follow the FIFO order.
+
+
+- **Double-ended Queue (Deque):** A queue that allows elements to be added and removed from both ends. It can function as both a FIFO queue and a LIFO stack.
+
+
+- **Circular Queue:** In this type, the last element is connected to the first element, forming a circular structure. It's often used for tasks like managing memory buffers.
+
+
+- **Blocking Queue:** Designed for multithreaded applications, it provides thread-safety and blocking operations. Threads can wait until an element is available or space is free.
+
+
+- **Priority Blocking Queue:** Similar to a priority queue but thread-safe, it allows multiple threads to access and modify the queue concurrently while maintaining priority.
+
+
+- **Delay Queue:** Used for scheduling tasks to run after a specific delay or at a certain time. Elements are removed from the queue when their delay expires.
+
+## Declaration
+`Queue<Obj> queue = new PriorityQueue<Obj>();`
 
 ## Important operations
 
-| Operations | Description |
-| ----------- | ----------- |
-|Enqueue|Adds an item to the queue|
-|Dequeue|Removes an item from the queue|
-|Front|Gets the front item from the queue|
-|Rear|Gets the last item from the queue|
+| Operations | Description |Time Complexity
+| ----------- | ----------- |-----------
+|Enqueue|Adds an item to the queue|O(1)
+|Dequeue|Removes an item from the queue|O(1)
+|Front|Gets the front item from the queue|O(1)
+|Rear|Gets the last item from the queue|O(n)
+
+## Enqueue
+ It adds  an item to the rear of the queue.
+
+ For example: If we have `1, 2, 3, 4, 5` in queue, and if we call Enqueue(8),
+
+`8` will be added to last index of queue -> `1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8`.
+## Dequeue
+ 
+ It removes an item to the front of the queue.
+ 
+ For example: If we have `1, 2, 3, 4, 5` in queue, and we call Dequeue(),
+
+`1` will be removed from front of queue and returned -> `2, 3, 4, 5`.
+
+## Front 
+  It returns an item to the front of the queue.
+
+For example: If we have `1, 2, 3, 5` in queue, and we call Front(),
+
+`1` will be returned (without removing it from the queue).
+
+## Rear
+  It returns an item to the rear of the queue.
+  
+  For example: If we have `1, 2, 3, 5` in queue, and we call Rear(),
+
+`5` will be returned (without removing it from the queue).
+
+# Real Life Applications
+`Task Scheduling in Operating Systems:`
+
+Processes in a multitasking system are often scheduled using queues. For example, the ready queue contains processes ready to be executed.
+
+`Multi-threaded Programming:`
+
+Queues are often used to facilitate communication and synchronization between different threads.
+
+`Breadth-First Search (BFS) in Graphs:`
+
+Queues are used in algorithms like BFS to explore a graph level by level.
+
+
+
 
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/SlidingWindowMaximum.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/SlidingWindowMaximum.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d6720dd01e29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/SlidingWindowMaximum.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code SlidingWindowMaximum} class provides a method to efficiently compute
+ * the maximum element within every sliding window of size {@code k} in a given array.
+ *
+ * <p>The algorithm uses a deque to maintain the indices of useful elements within
+ * the current sliding window. The time complexity of this approach is O(n) since
+ * each element is processed at most twice.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class SlidingWindowMaximum {
+    private SlidingWindowMaximum() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns an array of the maximum values for each sliding window of size {@code k}.
+     * <p>If {@code nums} has fewer elements than {@code k}, the result will be an empty array.
+     * <p>Example:
+     * <pre>
+     * Input: nums = [1, 3, -1, -3, 5, 3, 6, 7], k = 3
+     * Output: [3, 3, 5, 5, 6, 7]
+     * </pre>
+     *
+     * @param nums the input array of integers
+     * @param k the size of the sliding window
+     * @return an array containing the maximum element for each sliding window
+     */
+    public static int[] maxSlidingWindow(int[] nums, int k) {
+        int n = nums.length;
+        if (n < k || k == 0) {
+            return new int[0];
+        }
+
+        int[] result = new int[n - k + 1];
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new LinkedList<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            // Remove elements from the front of the deque if they are out of the current window
+            if (!deque.isEmpty() && deque.peekFirst() < i - k + 1) {
+                deque.pollFirst();
+            }
+
+            // Remove elements from the back if they are smaller than the current element
+            while (!deque.isEmpty() && nums[deque.peekLast()] < nums[i]) {
+                deque.pollLast();
+            }
+
+            // Add the current element's index to the deque
+            deque.offerLast(i);
+
+            // Store the maximum element for the current window (starting from the k-1th element)
+            if (i >= k - 1) {
+                result[i - k + 1] = nums[deque.peekFirst()];
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucket.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucket.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..999c963fab93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucket.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
+
+/**
+ * TokenBucket implements a token bucket rate limiter algorithm.
+ * This class is used to control the rate of requests in a distributed system.
+ * It allows a certain number of requests (tokens) to be processed in a time frame,
+ * based on the defined refill rate.
+ *
+ * Applications: Computer networks, API rate limiting, distributed systems, etc.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class TokenBucket {
+    private final int maxTokens;
+    private final int refillRate; // tokens per second
+    private int tokens;
+    private long lastRefill; // Timestamp in nanoseconds
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a TokenBucket instance.
+     *
+     * @param maxTokens  Maximum number of tokens the bucket can hold.
+     * @param refillRate The rate at which tokens are refilled (tokens per second).
+     */
+    public TokenBucket(int maxTokens, int refillRate) {
+        this.maxTokens = maxTokens;
+        this.refillRate = refillRate;
+        this.tokens = maxTokens;
+        this.lastRefill = System.nanoTime();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Attempts to allow a request based on the available tokens.
+     * If a token is available, it decrements the token count and allows the request.
+     * Otherwise, the request is denied.
+     *
+     * @return true if the request is allowed, false if the request is denied.
+     */
+    public synchronized boolean allowRequest() {
+        refillTokens();
+        if (tokens > 0) {
+            tokens--;
+            return true;
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Refills the tokens based on the time elapsed since the last refill.
+     * The number of tokens to be added is calculated based on the elapsed time
+     * and the refill rate, ensuring the total does not exceed maxTokens.
+     */
+    private void refillTokens() {
+        long now = System.nanoTime();
+        long tokensToAdd = (now - lastRefill) / TimeUnit.SECONDS.toNanos(1) * refillRate;
+        tokens = Math.min(maxTokens, tokens + (int) tokensToAdd);
+        lastRefill = now;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStack.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 1a71bf6928e3..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStack.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,44 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
-
-import java.util.Stack;
-
-public class DecimalToAnyUsingStack {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert convert(0, 2).equals("0");
-        assert convert(30, 2).equals("11110");
-        assert convert(30, 8).equals("36");
-        assert convert(30, 10).equals("30");
-        assert convert(30, 16).equals("1E");
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Convert decimal number to another radix
-     *
-     * @param number the number to be converted
-     * @param radix the radix
-     * @return another radix
-     * @throws ArithmeticException if <tt>number</tt> or <tt>radius</tt> is
-     * invalid
-     */
-    private static String convert(int number, int radix) {
-        if (radix < 2 || radix > 16) {
-            throw new ArithmeticException(
-                    String.format("Invalid input -> number:%d,radius:%d", number, radix));
-        }
-        char[] tables = {
-            '0', '1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F'
-        };
-        Stack<Character> bits = new Stack<>();
-        do {
-            bits.push(tables[number % radix]);
-            number = number / radix;
-        } while (number != 0);
-
-        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
-        while (!bits.isEmpty()) {
-            result.append(bits.pop());
-        }
-        return result.toString();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/DuplicateBrackets.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/DuplicateBrackets.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 1195dea36622..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/DuplicateBrackets.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,43 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
-
-//  1. You are given a string exp representing an expression.
-// 2. Assume that the expression is balanced  i.e. the opening and closing brackets match with each other.
-// 3. But, some of the pair of brackets maybe extra/needless. 
-// 4. You are required to print true if you detect extra brackets and false otherwise.
-// e.g.'
-// ((a + b) + (c + d)) -> false
-// (a + b) + ((c + d)) -> true
-import java.util.*;
-
-public class DuplicateBrackets {
-
-    public static boolean check(String str) {
-        Stack<Character> st = new Stack<>();
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < str.length(); i++) {
-            char ch = str.charAt(i);
-            if (ch == ')') {
-                if (st.peek() == '(') {
-                    return true;
-                } else {
-                    while (st.size() > 0 && st.peek() != '(') {
-                        st.pop();
-                    }
-                    st.pop();
-                }
-
-            } else {
-                st.push(ch);
-            }
-            // System.out.println(st);
-        }
-        return false;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        String str = sc.nextLine();
-        System.out.println(check(str));
-    }
-
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/InfixToPostfix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/InfixToPostfix.java
deleted file mode 100644
index cb19249a5e5b..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/InfixToPostfix.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,56 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
-
-import java.util.Stack;
-
-public class InfixToPostfix {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
-        assert "32+".equals(infix2PostFix("3+2"));
-        assert "123++".equals(infix2PostFix("1+(2+3)"));
-        assert "34+5*6-".equals(infix2PostFix("(3+4)*5-6"));
-    }
-
-    public static String infix2PostFix(String infixExpression) throws Exception {
-        if (!BalancedBrackets.isBalanced(infixExpression)) {
-            throw new Exception("invalid expression");
-        }
-        StringBuilder output = new StringBuilder();
-        Stack<Character> stack = new Stack<>();
-        for (char element : infixExpression.toCharArray()) {
-            if (Character.isLetterOrDigit(element)) {
-                output.append(element);
-            } else if (element == '(') {
-                stack.push(element);
-            } else if (element == ')') {
-                while (!stack.isEmpty() && stack.peek() != '(') {
-                    output.append(stack.pop());
-                }
-                stack.pop();
-            } else {
-                while (!stack.isEmpty() && precedence(element) <= precedence(stack.peek())) {
-                    output.append(stack.pop());
-                }
-                stack.push(element);
-            }
-        }
-        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
-            output.append(stack.pop());
-        }
-        return output.toString();
-    }
-
-    private static int precedence(char operator) {
-        switch (operator) {
-            case '+':
-            case '-':
-                return 0;
-            case '*':
-            case '/':
-                return 1;
-            case '^':
-                return 2;
-            default:
-                return -1;
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NextGraterElement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NextGraterElement.java
deleted file mode 100644
index df6375b70216..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NextGraterElement.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,69 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Stack;
-/*
-    Given an array "input" you need to print the first grater element for each element.
-    For a given element x of an array, the Next Grater element of that element is the
-    first grater element to the right side of it. If no such element is present print -1.
-
-    Example
-    input = { 2, 7, 3, 5, 4, 6, 8 };
-    At i = 0
-    Next Grater element between (1 to n) is 7
-    At i = 1
-    Next Grater element between (2 to n) is 8
-    At i = 2
-    Next Grater element between (3 to n) is 5
-    At i = 3
-    Next Grater element between (4 to n) is 6
-    At i = 4
-    Next Grater element between (5 to n) is 6
-    At i = 5
-    Next Grater element between (6 to n) is 8
-    At i = 6
-    Next Grater element between (6 to n) is -1
-
-    result : [7, 8, 5, 6, 6, 8, -1]
-
-    1. If the stack is empty Push an element in the stack.
-    2. If the stack is not empty:
-        a.  compare the top element of the stack with next.
-        b.  If next is greater than the top element, Pop element from the stack.
-            next is the next greater element for the popped element.
-        c.  Keep popping from the stack while the popped element is smaller
-            than next. next becomes the next greater element for all such
-            popped elements.
-        d. Finally, push the next in the stack.
-
-    3. If elements are left in stack after completing while loop then their Next Grater element is -1.
- */
-
-
-public class NextGraterElement {
- 
-    public static int[] findNextGreaterElements(int[] array) {
-
-        if (array == null) {
-            return array;
-        }
-
-        int[] result = new int[array.length];
-        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
-            while (!stack.isEmpty() && array[stack.peek()] < array[i]) {
-                result[stack.pop()] = array[i];
-            }
-            stack.push(i);
-        }
-
-        return result;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args)
-    {
-        int[] input = { 2, 7, 3, 5, 4, 6, 8 };
-        int[] result = findNextGreaterElements(input);
-        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(result));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NextSmallerElement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NextSmallerElement.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 22f79d32a6b6..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NextSmallerElement.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,69 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Stack;
-
-
-/*
-    Given an array "input" you need to print the first smaller element for each element to the left side of an array.
-    For a given element x of an array, the Next Smaller element of that element is the 
-    first smaller element to the left side of it. If no such element is present print -1.
-    
-    Example
-    input = { 2, 7, 3, 5, 4, 6, 8 };
-    At i = 0
-    No elements to left of it : -1
-    At i = 1
-    Next smaller element between (0 , 0) is 2
-    At i = 2
-    Next smaller element between (0 , 1) is 2
-    At i = 3
-    Next smaller element between (0 , 2) is 3
-    At i = 4
-    Next smaller element between (0 , 3) is 4
-    At i = 5
-    Next smaller element between (0 , 4) is 3
-    At i = 6
-    Next smaller element between (0 , 5) is 6
-    
-    result : [-1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 6]
-    
-    1) Create a new empty stack st
-    
-    2) Iterate over array "input" , where "i"  goes from 0 to input.length -1.
-        a) We are looking for value just smaller than `input[i]`. So keep popping from "stack" 
-           till elements in "stack.peek() >= input[i]" or stack becomes empty.
-        b) If the stack is non-empty, then the top element is our previous element. Else the previous element does not exist. 
-        c) push input[i] in stack.
-    3) If elements are left then their answer is -1
- */
-
-public class NextSmallerElement {
-    public static int[] findNextSmallerElements(int[] array)
-    {
-        // base case
-        if (array == null) {
-            return array;
-        }
-        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
-        int[] result = new int[array.length];
-        Arrays.fill(result, -1);
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
-            while (!stack.empty() && stack.peek() >= array[i]) stack.pop();
-            if (stack.empty()) {
-                result[i] = -1;
-            } else {
-                result[i] = stack.peek();
-            }
-            stack.push(array[i]);
-        }
-        return result;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args)
-    {
-        int[] input = { 2, 7, 3, 5, 4, 6, 8 };
-        int[] result = findNextSmallerElements(input);
-        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(result));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java
index a492a300ab29..bbcdfe1cc2a8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java
@@ -1,180 +1,98 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
 
 /**
- * Implementation of a stack using nodes. Unlimited size, no arraylist.
+ * A stack implementation using linked nodes, supporting unlimited size without an ArrayList.
  *
- * @author Kyler Smith, 2017
+ * <p>Each node in the stack contains data of generic type {@code Item}, along with references
+ * to the next and previous nodes, supporting typical stack operations.
+ *
+ * <p>The stack follows a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) order where elements added last are
+ * removed first. Supported operations include push, pop, and peek.
+ *
+ * @param <Item> the type of elements held in this stack
  */
 public class NodeStack<Item> {
 
     /**
-     * Entry point for the program.
+     * Node class representing each element in the stack.
      */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        NodeStack<Integer> Stack = new NodeStack<Integer>();
-
-        Stack.push(3);
-        Stack.push(4);
-        Stack.push(5);
-        System.out.println("Testing :");
-        Stack.print(); // prints : 5 4 3
-
-        Integer x = Stack.pop(); // x = 5
-        Stack.push(1);
-        Stack.push(8);
-        Integer y = Stack.peek(); // y = 8
-        System.out.println("Testing :");
-        Stack.print(); // prints : 8 1 4 3
+    private class Node {
+        Item data;
+        Node previous;
 
-        System.out.println("Testing :");
-        System.out.println("x : " + x);
-        System.out.println("y : " + y);
+        Node(Item data) {
+            this.data = data;
+            this.previous = null;
+        }
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Information each node should contain.
-     *
-     * @value data : information of the value in the node
-     * @value head : the head of the stack
-     * @value next : the next value from this node
-     * @value previous : the last value from this node
-     * @value size : size of the stack
-     */
-    private Item data;
-
-    private static NodeStack<?> head;
-    private NodeStack<?> next;
-    private NodeStack<?> previous;
-    private static int size = 0;
+    private Node head; // Top node in the stack
+    private int size; // Number of elements in the stack
 
     /**
-     * Constructors for the NodeStack.
+     * Constructs an empty NodeStack.
      */
     public NodeStack() {
-    }
-
-    private NodeStack(Item item) {
-        this.data = item;
+        head = null;
+        size = 0;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Put a value onto the stack.
+     * Pushes an item onto the stack.
      *
-     * @param item : value to be put on the stack.
+     * @param item the item to be pushed onto the stack
      */
     public void push(Item item) {
-
-        NodeStack<Item> newNs = new NodeStack<Item>(item);
-
-        if (this.isEmpty()) {
-            NodeStack.setHead(new NodeStack<>(item));
-            newNs.setNext(null);
-            newNs.setPrevious(null);
-        } else {
-            newNs.setPrevious(NodeStack.head);
-            NodeStack.head.setNext(newNs);
-            NodeStack.head.setHead(newNs);
-        }
-
-        NodeStack.setSize(NodeStack.getSize() + 1);
+        Node newNode = new Node(item);
+        newNode.previous = head;
+        head = newNode;
+        size++;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Value to be taken off the stack.
+     * Removes and returns the item at the top of the stack.
      *
-     * @return item : value that is returned.
+     * @return the item at the top of the stack, or {@code null} if the stack is empty
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the stack is empty
      */
     public Item pop() {
-
-        Item item = (Item) NodeStack.head.getData();
-
-        NodeStack.head.setHead(NodeStack.head.getPrevious());
-        NodeStack.head.setNext(null);
-
-        NodeStack.setSize(NodeStack.getSize() - 1);
-
-        return item;
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Cannot pop from an empty stack.");
+        }
+        Item data = head.data;
+        head = head.previous;
+        size--;
+        return data;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Value that is next to be taken off the stack.
+     * Returns the item at the top of the stack without removing it.
      *
-     * @return item : the next value that would be popped off the stack.
+     * @return the item at the top of the stack, or {@code null} if the stack is empty
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the stack is empty
      */
     public Item peek() {
-        return (Item) NodeStack.head.getData();
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Cannot peek from an empty stack.");
+        }
+        return head.data;
     }
 
     /**
-     * If the stack is empty or there is a value in.
+     * Checks whether the stack is empty.
      *
-     * @return boolean : whether or not the stack has anything in it.
+     * @return {@code true} if the stack has no elements, {@code false} otherwise
      */
     public boolean isEmpty() {
-        return NodeStack.getSize() == 0;
+        return head == null;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns the size of the stack.
+     * Returns the number of elements currently in the stack.
      *
-     * @return int : number of values in the stack.
+     * @return the size of the stack
      */
     public int size() {
-        return NodeStack.getSize();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Print the contents of the stack in the following format.
-     *
-     * <p>
-     * x <- head (next out) y z <- tail (first in) . . .
-     */
-    public void print() {
-        for (NodeStack<?> n = NodeStack.head; n != null; n = n.previous) {
-            System.out.println(n.getData().toString());
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Getters and setters (private)
-     */
-    private NodeStack<?> getHead() {
-        return NodeStack.head;
-    }
-
-    private static void setHead(NodeStack<?> ns) {
-        NodeStack.head = ns;
-    }
-
-    private NodeStack<?> getNext() {
-        return next;
-    }
-
-    private void setNext(NodeStack<?> next) {
-        this.next = next;
-    }
-
-    private NodeStack<?> getPrevious() {
-        return previous;
-    }
-
-    private void setPrevious(NodeStack<?> previous) {
-        this.previous = previous;
-    }
-
-    private static int getSize() {
         return size;
     }
-
-    private static void setSize(int size) {
-        NodeStack.size = size;
-    }
-
-    private Item getData() {
-        return this.data;
-    }
-
-    private void setData(Item item) {
-        this.data = item;
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/README.md b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/README.md
index 69fc3a990383..55c3ffd7de64 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/README.md
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/README.md
@@ -1,10 +1,14 @@
 # STACK
 
-Stack is an ADT (abstract data type) that acts like a list of objects but there is a difference.
+- Stack is an ADT (abstract data type) that is a collection of elements where items are added and removed from the end, known as the "top" of the stack.
 
-Stack works on the principle of _LIFO_ (Last In First Out), it means that the last item added to the stack will be the first item to be removed.
+- Stack works on the principle of _LIFO_ (Last In First Out), it means that the last item added to the stack will be the first item to be removed.
 
-Stack is based on two methods (functions)-
+## Declaration
+ `Stack<Obj> stack=new Stack<Obj>();`
+
+# Functionalities
+Stack is based on two functions (methods)-
 
 ## push(element)
 
@@ -29,3 +33,13 @@ It removes the last element (i.e. top of stack) from stack.
 For example: If we have `1, 3, 5 , 9` in stack, and we call pop(),
 
 the function will return `9` and the stack will change to `1, 3, 5`.
+
+# Real Life Applications 
+  - `Undo mechanisms:`
+     Many software applications use stacks to implement an "undo" feature.
+
+  - `Browser history:`
+    The "back" button in a web browser is implemented using a stack, allowing users to navigate through previously visited pages.
+
+  - `Function calls and recursion:` 
+    The computer's call stack keeps track of function calls, allowing programs to remember where to return after a function finishes execution.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java
index 9d253fb37d2b..d87f5f4ea86a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java
@@ -1,70 +1,77 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
 import java.util.Stack;
 
 /**
- * Reversal of a stack using recursion.
+ * Provides methods to reverse a stack using recursion.
+ *
+ * <p>This class includes methods to reverse the order of elements in a stack
+ * without using additional data structures. Elements are inserted at the bottom
+ * of the stack to achieve the reverse order.
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage:
+ * <pre>
+ *     Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+ *     stack.push(1);
+ *     stack.push(2);
+ *     stack.push(3);
+ *     ReverseStack.reverseStack(stack);
+ * </pre>
+ * After calling {@code reverseStack(stack)}, the stack's order is reversed.
+ *
+ * <p>This class is final and has a private constructor to prevent instantiation.
  *
  * @author Ishika Agarwal, 2021
  */
-public class ReverseStack {
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter the number of elements you wish to insert in the stack");
-        int n = sc.nextInt();
-        int i;
-        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<Integer>();
-        System.out.println("Enter the stack elements");
-        for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            stack.push(sc.nextInt());
-        }
-        sc.close();
-        reverseStack(stack);
-        System.out.println("The reversed stack is:");
-        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
-            System.out.print(stack.peek() + ",");
-            stack.pop();
-        }
-
+public final class ReverseStack {
+    private ReverseStack() {
     }
 
-    private static void reverseStack(Stack<Integer> stack) {
+    /**
+     * Reverses the order of elements in the given stack using recursion.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Check if the stack is empty. If so, return.
+     * 2. Pop the top element from the stack.
+     * 3. Recursively reverse the remaining stack.
+     * 4. Insert the originally popped element at the bottom of the reversed stack.
+     *
+     * @param stack the stack to reverse; should not be null
+     */
+    public static void reverseStack(Stack<Integer> stack) {
+        if (stack == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Stack cannot be null");
+        }
         if (stack.isEmpty()) {
             return;
         }
 
-        //Store the topmost element
-        int element = stack.peek();
-        //Remove the topmost element
-        stack.pop();
-
-        //Reverse the stack for the leftover elements
+        int element = stack.pop();
         reverseStack(stack);
-
-        //Insert the topmost element to the bottom of the stack
         insertAtBottom(stack, element);
-
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Inserts the specified element at the bottom of the stack.
+     *
+     * <p>This method is a helper for {@link #reverseStack(Stack)}.
+     *
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. If the stack is empty, push the element and return.
+     * 2. Remove the top element from the stack.
+     * 3. Recursively insert the new element at the bottom of the stack.
+     * 4. Push the removed element back onto the stack.
+     *
+     * @param stack the stack in which to insert the element; should not be null
+     * @param element the element to insert at the bottom of the stack
+     */
     private static void insertAtBottom(Stack<Integer> stack, int element) {
-
         if (stack.isEmpty()) {
-            //When stack is empty, insert the element so it will be present at the bottom of the stack
             stack.push(element);
             return;
         }
 
-        int ele = stack.peek();
-        /*Keep popping elements till stack becomes empty. Push the elements once the topmost element has
-            moved to the bottom of the stack.
-         */
-        stack.pop();
+        int topElement = stack.pop();
         insertAtBottom(stack, element);
-
-        stack.push(ele);
+        stack.push(topElement);
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/Stack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/Stack.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..87058bd9750f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/Stack.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
+
+/**
+ * A generic interface for Stack data structures.
+ *
+ * @param <T> the type of elements in this stack
+ */
+public interface Stack<T> {
+
+    /**
+     * Adds an element to the top of the stack.
+     *
+     * @param value The element to add.
+     */
+    void push(T value);
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the element at the top of this stack and returns it.
+     *
+     * @return The element popped from the stack.
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the stack is empty.
+     */
+    T pop();
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the element at the top of this stack without removing it.
+     *
+     * @return The element at the top of this stack.
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the stack is empty.
+     */
+    T peek();
+
+    /**
+     * Tests if this stack is empty.
+     *
+     * @return {@code true} if this stack is empty; {@code false} otherwise.
+     */
+    boolean isEmpty();
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the size of this stack.
+     *
+     * @return The number of elements in this stack.
+     */
+    int size();
+
+    /**
+     * Removes all elements from this stack.
+     */
+    void makeEmpty();
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArray.java
index cb2cb25e9e0c..9369b3fc9a64 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArray.java
@@ -1,173 +1,160 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
 
 /**
- * This class implements a Stack using a regular array.
+ * Implements a generic stack using an array.
  *
- * <p>
- * A stack is exactly what it sounds like. An element gets added to the top of
- * the stack and only the element on the top may be removed. This is an example
- * of an array implementation of a Stack. So an element can only be
- * added/removed from the end of the array. In theory stack have no fixed size,
- * but with an array implementation it does.
+ * <p>This stack automatically resizes when necessary, growing to accommodate additional elements and
+ * shrinking to conserve memory when its size significantly decreases.
+ *
+ * <p>Elements are pushed and popped in LIFO (last-in, first-out) order, where the last element added
+ * is the first to be removed.
+ *
+ * @param <T> the type of elements in this stack
  */
-public class StackArray {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Declare a stack of maximum size 4
-        StackArray myStackArray = new StackArray(4);
+public class StackArray<T> implements Stack<T> {
 
-        assert myStackArray.isEmpty();
-        assert !myStackArray.isFull();
-
-        // Populate the stack
-        myStackArray.push(5);
-        myStackArray.push(8);
-        myStackArray.push(2);
-        myStackArray.push(9);
-
-        assert !myStackArray.isEmpty();
-        assert myStackArray.isFull();
-        assert myStackArray.peek() == 9;
-        assert myStackArray.pop() == 9;
-        assert myStackArray.peek() == 2;
-        assert myStackArray.size() == 3;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Default initial capacity.
-     */
     private static final int DEFAULT_CAPACITY = 10;
 
-    /**
-     * The max size of the Stack
-     */
     private int maxSize;
-
-    /**
-     * The array representation of the Stack
-     */
-    private int[] stackArray;
-
-    /**
-     * The top of the stack
-     */
+    private T[] stackArray;
     private int top;
 
     /**
-     * init Stack with DEFAULT_CAPACITY
+     * Creates a stack with a default capacity.
      */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
     public StackArray() {
         this(DEFAULT_CAPACITY);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Constructor
+     * Creates a stack with a specified initial capacity.
      *
-     * @param size Size of the Stack
+     * @param size the initial capacity of the stack, must be greater than 0
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if size is less than or equal to 0
      */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
     public StackArray(int size) {
-        maxSize = size;
-        stackArray = new int[maxSize];
-        top = -1;
+        if (size <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Stack size must be greater than 0");
+        }
+        this.maxSize = size;
+        this.stackArray = (T[]) new Object[size];
+        this.top = -1;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Adds an element to the top of the stack
+     * Pushes an element onto the top of the stack. Resizes the stack if it is full.
      *
-     * @param value The element added
+     * @param value the element to push
      */
-    public void push(int value) {
-        if (!isFull()) { // Checks for a full stack
-            top++;
-            stackArray[top] = value;
-        } else {
+    @Override
+    public void push(T value) {
+        if (isFull()) {
             resize(maxSize * 2);
-            push(value); // don't forget push after resizing
         }
+        stackArray[++top] = value;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Removes the top element of the stack and returns the value you've removed
+     * Removes and returns the element from the top of the stack. Shrinks the stack if
+     * its size is below a quarter of its capacity, but not below the default capacity.
      *
-     * @return value popped off the Stack
+     * @return the element removed from the top of the stack
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the stack is empty
      */
-    public int pop() {
-        if (!isEmpty()) { // Checks for an empty stack
-            return stackArray[top--];
+    @Override
+    public T pop() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Stack is empty, cannot pop element");
         }
-
-        if (top < maxSize / 4) {
+        T value = stackArray[top--];
+        if (top + 1 < maxSize / 4 && maxSize > DEFAULT_CAPACITY) {
             resize(maxSize / 2);
-            return pop(); // don't forget pop after resizing
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("The stack is already empty");
-            return -1;
         }
+        return value;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns the element at the top of the stack
+     * Returns the element at the top of the stack without removing it.
      *
-     * @return element at the top of the stack
+     * @return the top element of the stack
+     * @throws IllegalStateException if the stack is empty
      */
-    public int peek() {
-        if (!isEmpty()) { // Checks for an empty stack
-            return stackArray[top];
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("The stack is empty, cant peek");
-            return -1;
+    @Override
+    public T peek() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Stack is empty, cannot peek element");
         }
+        return stackArray[top];
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Resizes the internal array to a new capacity.
+     *
+     * @param newSize the new size of the stack array
+     */
     private void resize(int newSize) {
-        int[] transferArray = new int[newSize];
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < stackArray.length; i++) {
-            transferArray[i] = stackArray[i];
-        }
-        // This reference change might be nice in here
-        stackArray = transferArray;
+        @SuppressWarnings("unchecked") T[] newArray = (T[]) new Object[newSize];
+        System.arraycopy(stackArray, 0, newArray, 0, top + 1);
+        stackArray = newArray;
         maxSize = newSize;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns true if the stack is empty
+     * Checks if the stack is full.
      *
-     * @return true if the stack is empty
+     * @return true if the stack is full, false otherwise
      */
-    public boolean isEmpty() {
-        return (top == -1);
+    public boolean isFull() {
+        return top + 1 == maxSize;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns true if the stack is full
+     * Checks if the stack is empty.
      *
-     * @return true if the stack is full
+     * @return true if the stack is empty, false otherwise
      */
-    public boolean isFull() {
-        return (top + 1 == maxSize);
+    @Override
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return top == -1;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Deletes everything in the Stack
-     *
-     * <p>
-     * Doesn't delete elements in the array but if you call push method after
-     * calling makeEmpty it will overwrite previous values
+     * Empties the stack, marking it as empty without deleting elements. Elements are
+     * overwritten on subsequent pushes.
      */
-    public void makeEmpty() { // Doesn't delete elements in the array but if you call
-        top = -1; // push method after calling makeEmpty it will overwrite previous values
+    @Override
+    public void makeEmpty() {
+        top = -1;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Return size of stack
+     * Returns the number of elements currently in the stack.
      *
-     * @return size of stack
+     * @return the size of the stack
      */
+    @Override
     public int size() {
         return top + 1;
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of the stack.
+     *
+     * @return a string representation of the stack
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
+        sb.append("StackArray [");
+        for (int i = 0; i <= top; i++) {
+            sb.append(stackArray[i]);
+            if (i < top) {
+                sb.append(", ");
+            }
+        }
+        sb.append("]");
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayList.java
index 9506ae385733..bd400adea317 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayList.java
@@ -4,112 +4,87 @@
 import java.util.EmptyStackException;
 
 /**
- * This class implements a Stack using an ArrayList.
+ * A stack implementation backed by an {@link ArrayList}, offering dynamic resizing
+ * and LIFO (Last-In-First-Out) behavior.
  *
- * <p>
- * A stack is exactly what it sounds like. An element gets added to the top of
- * the stack and only the element on the top may be removed.
+ * <p>The stack grows dynamically as elements are added, and elements are removed
+ * in reverse order of their addition.
  *
- * <p>
- * This is an ArrayList Implementation of a stack, where size is not a problem
- * we can extend the stack as much as we want.
+ * @param <T> the type of elements stored in this stack
  */
-public class StackArrayList {
+public class StackArrayList<T> implements Stack<T> {
 
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        StackArrayList stack = new StackArrayList();
-        assert stack.isEmpty();
-
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 5; ++i) {
-            stack.push(i);
-            assert stack.size() == i;
-        }
-
-        assert stack.size() == 5;
-        assert stack.peek() == 5 && stack.pop() == 5 && stack.peek() == 4;
-
-        /* pop elements at the top of this stack one by one */
-        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
-            stack.pop();
-        }
-        assert stack.isEmpty();
-
-        try {
-            stack.pop();
-            assert false;
-            /* this should not happen */
-        } catch (EmptyStackException e) {
-            assert true;
-            /* this should happen */
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * ArrayList representation of the stack
-     */
-    private ArrayList<Integer> stack;
+    private final ArrayList<T> stack;
 
     /**
-     * Constructor
+     * Constructs an empty stack.
      */
     public StackArrayList() {
         stack = new ArrayList<>();
     }
 
     /**
-     * Adds value to the end of list which is the top for stack
+     * Adds an element to the top of the stack.
      *
-     * @param value value to be added
+     * @param value the element to be added
      */
-    public void push(int value) {
+    @Override
+    public void push(T value) {
         stack.add(value);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Removes the element at the top of this stack and returns
+     * Removes and returns the element from the top of the stack.
      *
-     * @return Element popped
-     * @throws EmptyStackException if the stack is empty.
+     * @return the element removed from the top of the stack
+     * @throws EmptyStackException if the stack is empty
      */
-    public int pop() {
+    @Override
+    public T pop() {
         if (isEmpty()) {
             throw new EmptyStackException();
         }
+        return stack.removeLast();
+    }
 
-        /* remove the element on the top of the stack */
-        return stack.remove(stack.size() - 1);
+    /**
+     * Returns the element at the top of the stack without removing it.
+     *
+     * @return the top element of the stack
+     * @throws EmptyStackException if the stack is empty
+     */
+    @Override
+    public T peek() {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new EmptyStackException();
+        }
+        return stack.getLast();
     }
 
     /**
-     * Test if the stack is empty.
+     * Checks if the stack is empty.
      *
-     * @return {@code true} if this stack is empty, {@code false} otherwise.
+     * @return {@code true} if the stack is empty, {@code false} otherwise
      */
+    @Override
     public boolean isEmpty() {
         return stack.isEmpty();
     }
 
     /**
-     * Return the element at the top of this stack without removing it from the
-     * stack.
-     *
-     * @return the element at the top of this stack.
+     * Empties the stack, removing all elements.
      */
-    public int peek() {
-        if (isEmpty()) {
-            throw new EmptyStackException();
-        }
-        return stack.get(stack.size() - 1);
+    @Override
+    public void makeEmpty() {
+        stack.clear();
     }
 
     /**
-     * Return size of this stack.
+     * Returns the number of elements in the stack.
      *
-     * @return size of this stack.
+     * @return the current size of the stack
      */
+    @Override
     public int size() {
         return stack.size();
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java
index d350bb2d5565..c12097dfa28c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java
@@ -3,74 +3,59 @@
 import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
 
 /**
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
+ * A stack implementation using a singly linked list.
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides methods to push, pop, and peek elements in a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) manner.
+ * It keeps track of the number of elements in the stack and allows checking if the stack is empty.
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation does not allow null elements to be pushed onto the stack.
  */
-// An implementation of a Stack using a Linked List
-class StackOfLinkedList {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        LinkedListStack stack = new LinkedListStack();
-        stack.push(1);
-        stack.push(2);
-        stack.push(3);
-        stack.push(4);
-        stack.push(5);
-
-        System.out.println(stack);
-
-        System.out.println("Size of stack currently is: " + stack.getSize());
-
-        assert stack.pop() == 5;
-        assert stack.pop() == 4;
-
-        System.out.println("Top element of stack currently is: " + stack.peek());
+final class StackOfLinkedList {
+    private StackOfLinkedList() {
     }
 }
 
-// A node class
+// A node class for the linked list
 class Node {
-
     public int data;
     public Node next;
 
-    public Node(int data) {
+    Node(int data) {
         this.data = data;
         this.next = null;
     }
 }
 
 /**
- * A class which implements a stack using a linked list
+ * A class that implements a stack using a linked list.
  *
- * <p>
- * Contains all the stack methods : push, pop, printStack, isEmpty
+ * <p>This stack supports basic operations:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>push: Adds an element to the top of the stack</li>
+ * <li>pop: Removes and returns the top element of the stack</li>
+ * <li>peek: Returns the top element without removing it</li>
+ * <li>isEmpty: Checks if the stack is empty</li>
+ * <li>getSize: Returns the current size of the stack</li>
+ * </ul>
  */
 class LinkedListStack {
 
-    /**
-     * Top of stack
-     */
-    Node head;
+    private Node head; // Top of the stack
+    private int size; // Number of elements in the stack
 
     /**
-     * Size of stack
+     * Initializes an empty stack.
      */
-    private int size;
-
-    /**
-     * Init properties
-     */
-    public LinkedListStack() {
+    LinkedListStack() {
         head = null;
         size = 0;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Add element at top
+     * Adds an element to the top of the stack.
      *
-     * @param x to be added
-     * @return <tt>true</tt> if add successfully
+     * @param x the element to be added
+     * @return <tt>true</tt> if the element is added successfully
      */
     public boolean push(int x) {
         Node newNode = new Node(x);
@@ -81,10 +66,10 @@ public boolean push(int x) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Pop element at top of stack
+     * Removes and returns the top element of the stack.
      *
-     * @return element at top of stack
-     * @throws NoSuchElementException if stack is empty
+     * @return the element at the top of the stack
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the stack is empty
      */
     public int pop() {
         if (size == 0) {
@@ -93,20 +78,20 @@ public int pop() {
         Node destroy = head;
         head = head.next;
         int retValue = destroy.data;
-        destroy = null; // clear to let GC do it's work
+        destroy = null; // Help garbage collection
         size--;
         return retValue;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Peek element at top of stack
+     * Returns the top element of the stack without removing it.
      *
-     * @return element at top of stack
-     * @throws NoSuchElementException if stack is empty
+     * @return the element at the top of the stack
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the stack is empty
      */
     public int peek() {
         if (size == 0) {
-            throw new NoSuchElementException("Empty stack. Nothing to pop");
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Empty stack. Nothing to peek");
         }
         return head.data;
     }
@@ -119,24 +104,32 @@ public String toString() {
             builder.append(cur.data).append("->");
             cur = cur.next;
         }
-        return builder.replace(builder.length() - 2, builder.length(), "").toString();
+        return builder.replace(builder.length() - 2, builder.length(), "").toString(); // Remove the last "->"
     }
 
     /**
-     * Check if stack is empty
+     * Checks if the stack is empty.
      *
-     * @return <tt>true</tt> if stack is empty, otherwise <tt>false</tt>
+     * @return <tt>true</tt> if the stack is empty, <tt>false</tt> otherwise
      */
     public boolean isEmpty() {
         return size == 0;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Return size of stack
+     * Returns the current size of the stack.
      *
-     * @return size of stack
+     * @return the number of elements in the stack
      */
     public int getSize() {
         return size;
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes all elements from the stack.
+     */
+    public void makeEmpty() {
+        head = null;
+        size = 0;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple
deleted file mode 100644
index 8eb7191cc017..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,137 +0,0 @@
-  
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
-
-/*
-* Avl is algo that balance itself while adding new alues to tree
-* by rotating branches of binary tree and make itself Binary seaarch tree
-* there are four cases which has to tackle 
-* rotating - left right ,left left,right right,right left 
-
-Test Case:
-
-AVLTree tree=new AVLTree();
-		tree.insert(20);
-		tree.insert(25);
-		tree.insert(30);
-		tree.insert(10);
-		tree.insert(5);
-		tree.insert(15);
-		tree.insert(27);
-		tree.insert(19);
-		tree.insert(16);
-		
-		tree.display();
-
-
-
-
-*/
-
-
-
-public class AVLTree {
-	private class Node{
-		int data;
-		int height;
-		Node left;
-		Node right;
-		Node(int data){
-			this.data=data;
-			this.height=1;
-		}
-		
-	}
-	private Node root;
-	public void insert(int data) {
-		this.root=insert(this.root,data);
-	}
-	private Node insert(Node node,int item) {
-		if(node==null) {
-			Node add=new Node(item);
-			return add;
-		}
-		if(node.data>item) {
-			node.left=insert(node.left,item);
-		}
-		if(node.data<item) {
-			node.right=insert(node.right,item);
-		}
-		node.height=Math.max(height(node.left),height(node.right))+1;
-		int bf=bf(node);
-		//LL case
-		if(bf>1&&item<node.left.data)
-			return rightRotate(node);
-		//RR case
-		if(bf<-1&&item>node.right.data)
-			return leftRotate(node);
-		//RL case
-		if(bf<-1&&item<node.right.data) {
-			node.right=rightRotate(node.right);
-			return leftRotate(node);
-		}
-		//LR case
-		if(bf>1&&item>node.left.data) {
-			node.left=leftRotate(node.left);
-			return rightRotate(node);
-		}
-			
-		return node;
-	}
-	public void display() { 
-		this.display(this.root);
-		System.out.println(this.root.height);
-	}
-	private void display (Node node) {
-		Strings str="";
-		if(node.left!=null)
-			str+=node.left.data+"=>";
-		else
-			str+="END=>";
-		str+=node.data+"";
-		if(node.right!=null)
-			str+="<="+node.right.data;
-		else
-			str+="<=END";
-		System.out.println(str);
-		if(node.left!=null)
-			display(node.left);
-		if(node.right!=null)
-			display(node.right);
-	}
-	private int height(Node node) {
-		if(node==null) {
-			return 0;
-		}
-		return node.height;
-		
-	}
-	private int bf(Node node) {
-		if(node==null)
-			return 0;
-		return height(node.left)-height(node.right);
-	}
-	
-	private Node rightRotate(Node c) {
-		Node b=c.left;
-		Node T3=b.right;
-		
-		b.right=c;
-		c.left=T3;
-		c.height=Math.max(height(c.left),height(c.right))+1;
-		b.height=Math.max(height(b.left),height(b.right))+1;
-		return b;
-		
-	}
-	private Node leftRotate(Node c) {
-		Node b=c.right;
-		Node T3=b.left;
-		
-		b.left=c;
-		c.right=T3;
-		c.height=Math.max(height(c.left),height(c.right))+1;
-		b.height=Math.max(height(b.left),height(b.right))+1;
-		return b;
-		
-	}
-
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e0309122cc12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple.java
@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+/*
+* Avl is algo that balance itself while adding new alues to tree
+* by rotating branches of binary tree and make itself Binary seaarch tree
+* there are four cases which has to tackle
+* rotating - left right ,left left,right right,right left
+
+Test Case:
+
+AVLTree tree=new AVLTree();
+                tree.insert(20);
+                tree.insert(25);
+                tree.insert(30);
+                tree.insert(10);
+                tree.insert(5);
+                tree.insert(15);
+                tree.insert(27);
+                tree.insert(19);
+                tree.insert(16);
+
+                tree.display();
+
+
+
+
+*/
+
+public class AVLSimple {
+
+    private class Node {
+
+        int data;
+        int height;
+        Node left;
+        Node right;
+
+        Node(int data) {
+            this.data = data;
+            this.height = 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private Node root;
+
+    public void insert(int data) {
+        this.root = insert(this.root, data);
+    }
+
+    private Node insert(Node node, int item) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return new Node(item);
+        }
+        if (node.data > item) {
+            node.left = insert(node.left, item);
+        }
+        if (node.data < item) {
+            node.right = insert(node.right, item);
+        }
+        node.height = Math.max(height(node.left), height(node.right)) + 1;
+        int bf = bf(node);
+        // LL case
+        if (bf > 1 && item < node.left.data) {
+            return rightRotate(node);
+        }
+        // RR case
+        if (bf < -1 && item > node.right.data) {
+            return leftRotate(node);
+        }
+        // RL case
+        if (bf < -1 && item < node.right.data) {
+            node.right = rightRotate(node.right);
+            return leftRotate(node);
+        }
+        // LR case
+        if (bf > 1 && item > node.left.data) {
+            node.left = leftRotate(node.left);
+            return rightRotate(node);
+        }
+
+        return node;
+    }
+
+    public void display() {
+        this.display(this.root);
+        System.out.println(this.root.height);
+    }
+
+    private void display(Node node) {
+        String str = "";
+        if (node.left != null) {
+            str += node.left.data + "=>";
+        } else {
+            str += "END=>";
+        }
+        str += node.data + "";
+        if (node.right != null) {
+            str += "<=" + node.right.data;
+        } else {
+            str += "<=END";
+        }
+        System.out.println(str);
+        if (node.left != null) {
+            display(node.left);
+        }
+        if (node.right != null) {
+            display(node.right);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private int height(Node node) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        return node.height;
+    }
+
+    private int bf(Node node) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        return height(node.left) - height(node.right);
+    }
+
+    private Node rightRotate(Node c) {
+        Node b = c.left;
+        Node t3 = b.right;
+
+        b.right = c;
+        c.left = t3;
+        c.height = Math.max(height(c.left), height(c.right)) + 1;
+        b.height = Math.max(height(b.left), height(b.right)) + 1;
+        return b;
+    }
+
+    private Node leftRotate(Node c) {
+        Node b = c.right;
+        Node t3 = b.left;
+
+        b.left = c;
+        c.right = t3;
+        c.height = Math.max(height(c.left), height(c.right)) + 1;
+        b.height = Math.max(height(b.left), height(b.right)) + 1;
+        return b;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java
index 9551c2bd9732..77ee5d5fa23e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java
@@ -1,22 +1,42 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
 
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Represents an AVL Tree, a self-balancing binary search tree.
+ * In an AVL tree, the heights of the two child subtrees of any node
+ * differ by at most one. If they differ by more than one at any time,
+ * rebalancing is performed to restore this property.
+ */
 public class AVLTree {
 
     private Node root;
 
-    private class Node {
-
+    private static class Node {
         private int key;
         private int balance;
         private int height;
-        private Node left, right, parent;
+        private Node left;
+        private Node right;
+        private Node parent;
 
         Node(int k, Node p) {
             key = k;
             parent = p;
         }
+
+        public Integer getBalance() {
+            return balance;
+        }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Inserts a new key into the AVL tree.
+     *
+     * @param key the key to be inserted
+     * @return {@code true} if the key was inserted, {@code false} if the key already exists
+     */
     public boolean insert(int key) {
         if (root == null) {
             root = new Node(key, null);
@@ -29,7 +49,6 @@ public boolean insert(int key) {
                 }
 
                 parent = n;
-
                 boolean goLeft = n.key > key;
                 n = goLeft ? n.left : n.right;
 
@@ -47,8 +66,32 @@ public boolean insert(int key) {
         return true;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Deletes a key from the AVL tree.
+     *
+     * @param delKey the key to be deleted
+     */
+    public void delete(int delKey) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Find the node to be deleted
+        Node node = root;
+        Node child = root;
+        while (child != null) {
+            node = child;
+            child = delKey >= node.key ? node.right : node.left;
+            if (delKey == node.key) {
+                delete(node);
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     private void delete(Node node) {
         if (node.left == null && node.right == null) {
+            // Leaf node
             if (node.parent == null) {
                 root = null;
             } else {
@@ -62,50 +105,73 @@ private void delete(Node node) {
             }
             return;
         }
+
+        // Node has one or two children
+        Node child;
         if (node.left != null) {
-            Node child = node.left;
+            child = node.left;
             while (child.right != null) {
                 child = child.right;
             }
-            node.key = child.key;
-            delete(child);
         } else {
-            Node child = node.right;
+            child = node.right;
             while (child.left != null) {
                 child = child.left;
             }
-            node.key = child.key;
-            delete(child);
         }
+        node.key = child.key;
+        delete(child);
     }
 
-    public void delete(int delKey) {
-        if (root == null) {
-            return;
+    /**
+     * Returns a list of balance factors for each node in the tree.
+     *
+     * @return a list of integers representing the balance factors of the nodes
+     */
+    public List<Integer> returnBalance() {
+        List<Integer> balances = new ArrayList<>();
+        returnBalance(root, balances);
+        return balances;
+    }
+
+    private void returnBalance(Node n, List<Integer> balances) {
+        if (n != null) {
+            returnBalance(n.left, balances);
+            balances.add(n.getBalance());
+            returnBalance(n.right, balances);
         }
-        Node node = root;
-        Node child = root;
+    }
 
-        while (child != null) {
-            node = child;
-            child = delKey >= node.key ? node.right : node.left;
-            if (delKey == node.key) {
-                delete(node);
-                return;
-            }
+    /**
+     * Searches for a key in the AVL tree.
+     *
+     * @param key the key to be searched
+     * @return true if the key is found, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean search(int key) {
+        Node result = searchHelper(this.root, key);
+        return result != null;
+    }
+
+    private Node searchHelper(Node root, int key) {
+        if (root == null || root.key == key) {
+            return root;
         }
+
+        if (root.key > key) {
+            return searchHelper(root.left, key);
+        }
+        return searchHelper(root.right, key);
     }
 
     private void rebalance(Node n) {
         setBalance(n);
-
         if (n.balance == -2) {
             if (height(n.left.left) >= height(n.left.right)) {
                 n = rotateRight(n);
             } else {
                 n = rotateLeftThenRight(n);
             }
-
         } else if (n.balance == 2) {
             if (height(n.right.right) >= height(n.right.left)) {
                 n = rotateLeft(n);
@@ -122,7 +188,6 @@ private void rebalance(Node n) {
     }
 
     private Node rotateLeft(Node a) {
-
         Node b = a.right;
         b.parent = a.parent;
 
@@ -144,12 +209,10 @@ private Node rotateLeft(Node a) {
         }
 
         setBalance(a, b);
-
         return b;
     }
 
     private Node rotateRight(Node a) {
-
         Node b = a.left;
         b.parent = a.parent;
 
@@ -171,7 +234,6 @@ private Node rotateRight(Node a) {
         }
 
         setBalance(a, b);
-
         return b;
     }
 
@@ -199,57 +261,9 @@ private void setBalance(Node... nodes) {
         }
     }
 
-    public void printBalance() {
-        printBalance(root);
-    }
-
-    private void printBalance(Node n) {
-        if (n != null) {
-            printBalance(n.left);
-            System.out.printf("%s ", n.balance);
-            printBalance(n.right);
-        }
-    }
-
     private void reheight(Node node) {
         if (node != null) {
             node.height = 1 + Math.max(height(node.left), height(node.right));
         }
     }
-
-    public boolean search(int key) {
-        Node result = searchHelper(this.root, key);
-        if (result != null) {
-            return true;
-        }
-
-        return false;
-    }
-
-    private Node searchHelper(Node root, int key) {
-        // root is null or key is present at root
-        if (root == null || root.key == key) {
-            return root;
-        }
-
-        // key is greater than root's key
-        if (root.key > key) {
-            return searchHelper(root.left, key); // call the function on the node's left child
-        }
-        // key is less than root's key then
-        // call the function on the node's right child as it is greater
-        return searchHelper(root.right, key);
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        AVLTree tree = new AVLTree();
-
-        System.out.println("Inserting values 1 to 10");
-        for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
-            tree.insert(i);
-        }
-
-        System.out.print("Printing balance: ");
-        tree.printBalance();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArray.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1962eaa0a106
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArray.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BinaryTree.Node;
+
+/**
+ * Given a sorted array. Create a balanced binary search tree from it.
+ *
+ * Steps: 1. Find the middle element of array. This will act as root 2. Use the
+ * left half recursively to create left subtree 3. Use the right half
+ * recursively to create right subtree
+ */
+public final class BSTFromSortedArray {
+    private BSTFromSortedArray() {
+    }
+    public static Node createBST(int[] array) {
+        if (array == null || array.length == 0) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        return createBST(array, 0, array.length - 1);
+    }
+
+    private static Node createBST(int[] array, int startIdx, int endIdx) {
+        // No element left.
+        if (startIdx > endIdx) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        int mid = startIdx + (endIdx - startIdx) / 2;
+
+        // middle element will be the root
+        Node root = new Node(array[mid]);
+        root.left = createBST(array, startIdx, mid - 1);
+        root.right = createBST(array, mid + 1, endIdx);
+        return root;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterative.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterative.java
index 72d0f0de4f50..97c2667002b6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterative.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterative.java
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
 
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BinaryTree.Node;
+
 /**
  *
  *
@@ -8,12 +10,11 @@
  * <p>
  * An implementation of BST iteratively. Binary Search Tree is a binary tree
  * which satisfies three properties: left child is less than root node, right
- * child is grater than root node, both left and right childs must themselves be
+ * child is grater than root node, both left and right child must themselves be
  * a BST.
  *
- * @author [Lakhan Nad](https://github.com/Lakhan-Nad)
+ * @author [Lakhan Nad](<a href="https://github.com/Lakhan-Nad">git-Lakhan Nad</a>)
  */
-import java.util.Stack;
 
 public class BSTIterative {
 
@@ -29,28 +30,8 @@ public class BSTIterative {
         root = null;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * main function for tests
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        BSTIterative tree = new BSTIterative();
-        tree.add(3);
-        tree.add(2);
-        tree.add(9);
-        assert !tree.find(4) : "4 is not yet present in BST";
-        assert tree.find(2) : "2 should be present in BST";
-        tree.remove(2);
-        assert !tree.find(2) : "2 was just deleted from BST";
-        tree.remove(1);
-        assert !tree.find(1) : "Since 1 was not present so find deleting would do no change";
-        tree.add(30);
-        tree.add(40);
-        assert tree.find(40) : "40 was inserted but not found";
-        /*
-       Will print following order
-       3 9 30 40
-         */
-        tree.inorder();
+    public Node getRoot() {
+        return root;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -64,7 +45,7 @@ public void add(int data) {
         Node temp = this.root;
         int rightOrLeft = -1;
         /* Finds the proper place this node can
-     * be placed in according to rules of BST.
+         * be placed in according to rules of BST.
          */
         while (temp != null) {
             if (temp.data > data) {
@@ -81,18 +62,18 @@ public void add(int data) {
             }
         }
         /* Creates a newNode with the value passed
-     * Since this data doesn't already exists
+         * Since this data doesn't already exists
          */
         Node newNode = new Node(data);
         /* If the parent node is null
-     * then the insertion is to be done in
-     * root itself.
+         * then the insertion is to be done in
+         * root itself.
          */
         if (parent == null) {
             this.root = newNode;
         } else {
             /* Check if insertion is to be made in
-       * left or right subtree.
+             * left or right subtree.
              */
             if (rightOrLeft == 0) {
                 parent.left = newNode;
@@ -112,11 +93,11 @@ public void remove(int data) {
         Node temp = this.root;
         int rightOrLeft = -1;
         /* Find the parent of the node and node itself
-     * That is to be deleted.
-     * parent variable store parent
-     * temp stores node itself.
-     * rightOrLeft use to keep track weather child
-     * is left or right subtree
+         * That is to be deleted.
+         * parent variable store parent
+         * temp stores node itself.
+         * rightOrLeft use to keep track weather child
+         * is left or right subtree
          */
         while (temp != null) {
             if (temp.data == data) {
@@ -132,7 +113,7 @@ public void remove(int data) {
             }
         }
         /* If temp is null than node with given value is not
-     * present in our tree.
+         * present in our tree.
          */
         if (temp != null) {
             Node replacement; // used to store the new values for replacing nodes
@@ -146,10 +127,10 @@ public void remove(int data) {
                 temp.right = null;
             } else {
                 /* If both left and right child are present
-         * we replace this nodes data with
-         * leftmost node's data in its right subtree
-         * to maintain the balance of BST.
-         * And then delete that node
+                 * we replace this nodes data with
+                 * leftmost node's data in its right subtree
+                 * to maintain the balance of BST.
+                 * And then delete that node
                  */
                 if (temp.right.left == null) {
                     temp.data = temp.right.data;
@@ -168,7 +149,7 @@ public void remove(int data) {
                 }
             }
             /* Change references of parent after
-       * deleting the child.
+             * deleting the child.
              */
             if (parent == null) {
                 this.root = replacement;
@@ -182,86 +163,6 @@ public void remove(int data) {
         }
     }
 
-    /**
-     * A method for inorder traversal of BST.
-     */
-    public void inorder() {
-        if (this.root == null) {
-            System.out.println("This BST is empty.");
-            return;
-        }
-        System.out.println("Inorder traversal of this tree is:");
-        Stack<Node> st = new Stack<Node>();
-        Node cur = this.root;
-        while (cur != null || !st.empty()) {
-            while (cur != null) {
-                st.push(cur);
-                cur = cur.left;
-            }
-            cur = st.pop();
-            System.out.print(cur.data + " ");
-            cur = cur.right;
-        }
-        System.out.println(); // for next line
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * A method used to print postorder traversal of BST.
-     */
-    public void postorder() {
-        if (this.root == null) {
-            System.out.println("This BST is empty.");
-            return;
-        }
-        System.out.println("Postorder traversal of this tree is:");
-        Stack<Node> st = new Stack<Node>();
-        Node cur = this.root, temp2;
-        while (cur != null || !st.empty()) {
-            if (cur != null) {
-                st.push(cur);
-                cur = cur.left;
-            } else {
-                temp2 = st.peek();
-                if (temp2.right != null) {
-                    cur = temp2.right;
-                } else {
-                    st.pop();
-                    while (!st.empty() && st.peek().right == temp2) {
-                        System.out.print(temp2.data + " ");
-                        temp2 = st.pop();
-                    }
-                    System.out.print(temp2.data + " ");
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        System.out.println(); // for next line
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Method used to display preorder traversal of BST.
-     */
-    public void preorder() {
-        if (this.root == null) {
-            System.out.println("This BST is empty.");
-            return;
-        }
-        System.out.println("Preorder traversal of this tree is:");
-        Stack<Node> st = new Stack<Node>();
-        st.push(this.root);
-        Node temp;
-        while (!st.empty()) {
-            temp = st.pop();
-            System.out.print(temp.data + " ");
-            if (temp.right != null) {
-                st.push(temp.right);
-            }
-            if (temp.left != null) {
-                st.push(temp.left);
-            }
-        }
-        System.out.println(); // for next line
-    }
-
     /**
      * A method to check if given data exists in out Binary Search Tree.
      *
@@ -287,23 +188,4 @@ public boolean find(int data) {
         System.out.println(data + " not found.");
         return false;
     }
-
-    /**
-     * The Node class used for building binary search tree
-     */
-    private static class Node {
-
-        int data;
-        Node left;
-        Node right;
-
-        /**
-         * Constructor with data as parameter
-         */
-        Node(int d) {
-            data = d;
-            left = null;
-            right = null;
-        }
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursive.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursive.java
index 4d3640fc85e7..6c1f4f672ff0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursive.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursive.java
@@ -1,21 +1,23 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
 
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BinaryTree.Node;
+
 /**
  *
  *
  * <h1>Binary Search Tree (Recursive)</h1>
  *
  * An implementation of BST recursively. In recursive implementation the checks
- * are down the tree First root is checked if not found then its childs are
+ * are down the tree First root is checked if not found then its children are
  * checked Binary Search Tree is a binary tree which satisfies three properties:
  * left child is less than root node, right child is grater than root node, both
- * left and right childs must themselves be a BST.
+ * left and right children must themselves be a BST.
  *
  * <p>
  * I have made public functions as methods and to actually implement recursive
  * approach I have used private methods
  *
- * @author [Lakhan Nad](https://github.com/Lakhan-Nad)
+ * @author [Lakhan Nad](<a href="https://github.com/Lakhan-Nad">git-Lakhan Nad</a>)
  */
 public class BSTRecursive {
 
@@ -31,28 +33,8 @@ public class BSTRecursive {
         root = null;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * main function for tests
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        BSTRecursive tree = new BSTRecursive();
-        tree.add(5);
-        tree.add(10);
-        tree.add(9);
-        assert !tree.find(4) : "4 is not yet present in BST";
-        assert tree.find(10) : "10 should be present in BST";
-        tree.remove(9);
-        assert !tree.find(9) : "9 was just deleted from BST";
-        tree.remove(1);
-        assert !tree.find(1) : "Since 1 was not present so find deleting would do no change";
-        tree.add(20);
-        tree.add(70);
-        assert tree.find(70) : "70 was inserted but not found";
-        /*
-     Will print in following order
-     5 10 20 70
-         */
-        tree.inorder();
+    public Node getRoot() {
+        return root;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -80,7 +62,7 @@ private Node delete(Node node, int data) {
                 Node temp = node.left;
                 node.left = null;
                 node = temp;
-            } else { // both child are present
+            } else { // both children are present
                 Node temp = node.right;
                 // Find leftmost child of right subtree
                 while (temp.left != null) {
@@ -113,61 +95,7 @@ private Node insert(Node node, int data) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Recursively print Preorder traversal of the BST
-     *
-     * @param node the root node
-     */
-    private void preOrder(Node node) {
-        if (node == null) {
-            return;
-        }
-        System.out.print(node.data + " ");
-        if (node.left != null) {
-            preOrder(node.left);
-        }
-        if (node.right != null) {
-            preOrder(node.right);
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Recursively print Postorder travesal of BST.
-     *
-     * @param node the root node
-     */
-    private void postOrder(Node node) {
-        if (node == null) {
-            return;
-        }
-        if (node.left != null) {
-            postOrder(node.left);
-        }
-        if (node.right != null) {
-            postOrder(node.right);
-        }
-        System.out.print(node.data + " ");
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Recursively print Inorder traversal of BST.
-     *
-     * @param node the root node
-     */
-    private void inOrder(Node node) {
-        if (node == null) {
-            return;
-        }
-        if (node.left != null) {
-            inOrder(node.left);
-        }
-        System.out.print(node.data + " ");
-        if (node.right != null) {
-            inOrder(node.right);
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Serach recursively if the given value is present in BST or not.
+     * Search recursively if the given value is present in BST or not.
      *
      * @param node the current node to check
      * @param data the value to be checked
@@ -204,33 +132,6 @@ public void remove(int data) {
         this.root = delete(this.root, data);
     }
 
-    /**
-     * To call inorder traversal on tree
-     */
-    public void inorder() {
-        System.out.println("Inorder traversal of this tree is:");
-        inOrder(this.root);
-        System.out.println(); // for next line
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * To call postorder traversal on tree
-     */
-    public void postorder() {
-        System.out.println("Postorder traversal of this tree is:");
-        postOrder(this.root);
-        System.out.println(); // for next li
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * To call preorder traversal on tree.
-     */
-    public void preorder() {
-        System.out.println("Preorder traversal of this tree is:");
-        preOrder(this.root);
-        System.out.println(); // for next li
-    }
-
     /**
      * To check if given value is present in tree or not.
      *
@@ -244,23 +145,4 @@ public boolean find(int data) {
         System.out.println(data + " not found.");
         return false;
     }
-
-    /**
-     * The Node class used for building binary search tree
-     */
-    private static class Node {
-
-        int data;
-        Node left;
-        Node right;
-
-        /**
-         * Constructor with data as parameter
-         */
-        Node(int d) {
-            data = d;
-            left = null;
-            right = null;
-        }
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java
index 6299b1be1322..0245372fe012 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java
@@ -9,10 +9,11 @@
  * <p>
  * A recursive implementation of generic type BST.
  *
- * Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_search_tree
+ * Reference: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_search_tree">Wiki links for BST</a>
  * </p>
  *
- * @author [Madhur Panwar](https://github.com/mdrpanwar)
+ * @author [Madhur Panwar](<a href="https://github.com/mdrpanwar">git-Madhur Panwar</a>)
+ * @author [Udaya Krishnan M](<a href="https://github.com/UdayaKrishnanM/">git-Udaya Krishnan M</a>) {added prettyDisplay() method}
  */
 public class BSTRecursiveGeneric<T extends Comparable<T>> {
 
@@ -28,6 +29,29 @@ public BSTRecursiveGeneric() {
         root = null;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Displays the tree is a structed format
+     */
+    public void prettyDisplay() {
+        prettyDisplay(root, 0);
+    }
+
+    private void prettyDisplay(Node<T> node, int level) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        prettyDisplay(node.right, level + 1);
+        if (level != 0) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < level - 1; i++) {
+                System.out.print("|\t");
+            }
+            System.out.println("|---->" + node.data);
+        } else {
+            System.out.println(node.data);
+        }
+        prettyDisplay(node.left, level + 1);
+    }
+
     /**
      * main function for testing
      */
@@ -38,44 +62,67 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
 
         integerTree.add(5);
         integerTree.add(10);
-        integerTree.add(9);
-        assert !integerTree.find(4) : "4 is not yet present in BST";
-        assert integerTree.find(10) : "10 should be present in BST";
+        integerTree.add(-9);
+        integerTree.add(4);
+        integerTree.add(3);
+        integerTree.add(1);
+        System.out.println("Pretty Display of current tree is:");
+        integerTree.prettyDisplay();
+        assert !integerTree.find(4)
+            : "4 is not yet present in BST";
+        assert integerTree.find(10)
+            : "10 should be present in BST";
         integerTree.remove(9);
-        assert !integerTree.find(9) : "9 was just deleted from BST";
+        assert !integerTree.find(9)
+            : "9 was just deleted from BST";
         integerTree.remove(1);
-        assert !integerTree.find(1) : "Since 1 was not present so find deleting would do no change";
+        assert !integerTree.find(1)
+            : "Since 1 was not present so find deleting would do no change";
         integerTree.add(20);
         integerTree.add(70);
-        assert integerTree.find(70) : "70 was inserted but not found";
+        assert integerTree.find(70)
+            : "70 was inserted but not found";
         /*
-     Will print in following order
-     5 10 20 70
+            Will print in following order
+            5 10 20 70
          */
+        System.out.println("Pretty Display of current tree is:");
+        integerTree.prettyDisplay();
         integerTree.inorder();
+        System.out.println("Pretty Display of current tree is:");
+        integerTree.prettyDisplay();
         System.out.println();
         System.out.println("Testing for string data...");
         // String
         BSTRecursiveGeneric<String> stringTree = new BSTRecursiveGeneric<String>();
 
         stringTree.add("banana");
+        stringTree.add("apple");
         stringTree.add("pineapple");
         stringTree.add("date");
-        assert !stringTree.find("girl") : "girl is not yet present in BST";
-        assert stringTree.find("pineapple") : "10 should be present in BST";
+        assert !stringTree.find("girl")
+            : "girl is not yet present in BST";
+        assert stringTree.find("pineapple")
+            : "10 should be present in BST";
         stringTree.remove("date");
-        assert !stringTree.find("date") : "date was just deleted from BST";
+        assert !stringTree.find("date")
+            : "date was just deleted from BST";
         stringTree.remove("boy");
-        assert !stringTree.find("boy") : "Since boy was not present so deleting would do no change";
+        assert !stringTree.find("boy")
+            : "Since boy was not present so deleting would do no change";
         stringTree.add("india");
         stringTree.add("hills");
-        assert stringTree.find("hills") : "hills was inserted but not found";
+        assert stringTree.find("hills")
+            : "hills was inserted but not found";
+        System.out.println("Pretty Display of current tree is:");
+        stringTree.prettyDisplay();
         /*
      Will print in following order
      banana hills india pineapple
          */
         stringTree.inorder();
-
+        System.out.println("Pretty Display of current tree is:");
+        stringTree.prettyDisplay();
     }
 
     /**
@@ -210,7 +257,7 @@ private void inOrderSort(Node<T> node, List<T> sortedList) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Serach recursively if the given value is present in BST or not.
+     * Search recursively if the given value is present in BST or not.
      *
      * @param node the node under which to check
      * @param data the value to be checked
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTree.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2c19253b45e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTree.java
@@ -0,0 +1,323 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of a B-Tree, a self-balancing tree data structure that maintains sorted data
+ * and allows searches, sequential access, insertions, and deletions in logarithmic time.
+ *
+ * B-Trees are generalizations of binary search trees in that a node can have more than two children.
+ * They're widely used in databases and file systems.
+ *
+ * For more information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-tree
+ */
+
+public class BTree {
+    static class BTreeNode {
+        int[] keys;
+        int t; // Minimum degree (defines range for number of keys)
+        BTreeNode[] children;
+        int n; // Current number of keys
+        boolean leaf;
+
+        BTreeNode(int t, boolean leaf) {
+            this.t = t;
+            this.leaf = leaf;
+            this.keys = new int[2 * t - 1];
+            this.children = new BTreeNode[2 * t];
+            this.n = 0;
+        }
+
+        void traverse(ArrayList<Integer> result) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                if (!leaf) {
+                    children[i].traverse(result);
+                }
+                result.add(keys[i]);
+            }
+            if (!leaf) {
+                children[n].traverse(result);
+            }
+        }
+
+        BTreeNode search(int key) {
+            int i = 0;
+            while (i < n && key > keys[i]) {
+                i++;
+            }
+            if (i < n && keys[i] == key) {
+                return this;
+            }
+            if (leaf) {
+                return null;
+            }
+            return children[i].search(key);
+        }
+
+        void insertNonFull(int key) {
+            int i = n - 1;
+            if (leaf) {
+                while (i >= 0 && keys[i] > key) {
+                    keys[i + 1] = keys[i];
+                    i--;
+                }
+                keys[i + 1] = key;
+                n++;
+            } else {
+                while (i >= 0 && keys[i] > key) {
+                    i--;
+                }
+                if (children[i + 1].n == 2 * t - 1) {
+                    splitChild(i + 1, children[i + 1]);
+                    if (keys[i + 1] < key) {
+                        i++;
+                    }
+                }
+                children[i + 1].insertNonFull(key);
+            }
+        }
+
+        void splitChild(int i, BTreeNode y) {
+            BTreeNode z = new BTreeNode(y.t, y.leaf);
+            z.n = t - 1;
+
+            System.arraycopy(y.keys, t, z.keys, 0, t - 1);
+            if (!y.leaf) {
+                System.arraycopy(y.children, t, z.children, 0, t);
+            }
+            y.n = t - 1;
+
+            for (int j = n; j >= i + 1; j--) {
+                children[j + 1] = children[j];
+            }
+            children[i + 1] = z;
+
+            for (int j = n - 1; j >= i; j--) {
+                keys[j + 1] = keys[j];
+            }
+            keys[i] = y.keys[t - 1];
+            n++;
+        }
+
+        void remove(int key) {
+            int idx = findKey(key);
+
+            if (idx < n && keys[idx] == key) {
+                if (leaf) {
+                    removeFromLeaf(idx);
+                } else {
+                    removeFromNonLeaf(idx);
+                }
+            } else {
+                if (leaf) {
+                    return; // Key not found
+                }
+
+                boolean flag = idx == n;
+                if (children[idx].n < t) {
+                    fill(idx);
+                }
+
+                if (flag && idx > n) {
+                    children[idx - 1].remove(key);
+                } else {
+                    children[idx].remove(key);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        private int findKey(int key) {
+            int idx = 0;
+            while (idx < n && keys[idx] < key) {
+                ++idx;
+            }
+            return idx;
+        }
+
+        private void removeFromLeaf(int idx) {
+            for (int i = idx + 1; i < n; ++i) {
+                keys[i - 1] = keys[i];
+            }
+            n--;
+        }
+
+        private void removeFromNonLeaf(int idx) {
+            int key = keys[idx];
+            if (children[idx].n >= t) {
+                int pred = getPredecessor(idx);
+                keys[idx] = pred;
+                children[idx].remove(pred);
+            } else if (children[idx + 1].n >= t) {
+                int succ = getSuccessor(idx);
+                keys[idx] = succ;
+                children[idx + 1].remove(succ);
+            } else {
+                merge(idx);
+                children[idx].remove(key);
+            }
+        }
+
+        private int getPredecessor(int idx) {
+            BTreeNode cur = children[idx];
+            while (!cur.leaf) {
+                cur = cur.children[cur.n];
+            }
+            return cur.keys[cur.n - 1];
+        }
+
+        private int getSuccessor(int idx) {
+            BTreeNode cur = children[idx + 1];
+            while (!cur.leaf) {
+                cur = cur.children[0];
+            }
+            return cur.keys[0];
+        }
+
+        private void fill(int idx) {
+            if (idx != 0 && children[idx - 1].n >= t) {
+                borrowFromPrev(idx);
+            } else if (idx != n && children[idx + 1].n >= t) {
+                borrowFromNext(idx);
+            } else {
+                if (idx != n) {
+                    merge(idx);
+                } else {
+                    merge(idx - 1);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        private void borrowFromPrev(int idx) {
+            BTreeNode child = children[idx];
+            BTreeNode sibling = children[idx - 1];
+
+            for (int i = child.n - 1; i >= 0; --i) {
+                child.keys[i + 1] = child.keys[i];
+            }
+
+            if (!child.leaf) {
+                for (int i = child.n; i >= 0; --i) {
+                    child.children[i + 1] = child.children[i];
+                }
+            }
+
+            child.keys[0] = keys[idx - 1];
+
+            if (!child.leaf) {
+                child.children[0] = sibling.children[sibling.n];
+            }
+
+            keys[idx - 1] = sibling.keys[sibling.n - 1];
+
+            child.n += 1;
+            sibling.n -= 1;
+        }
+
+        private void borrowFromNext(int idx) {
+            BTreeNode child = children[idx];
+            BTreeNode sibling = children[idx + 1];
+
+            child.keys[child.n] = keys[idx];
+
+            if (!child.leaf) {
+                child.children[child.n + 1] = sibling.children[0];
+            }
+
+            keys[idx] = sibling.keys[0];
+
+            for (int i = 1; i < sibling.n; ++i) {
+                sibling.keys[i - 1] = sibling.keys[i];
+            }
+
+            if (!sibling.leaf) {
+                for (int i = 1; i <= sibling.n; ++i) {
+                    sibling.children[i - 1] = sibling.children[i];
+                }
+            }
+
+            child.n += 1;
+            sibling.n -= 1;
+        }
+
+        private void merge(int idx) {
+            BTreeNode child = children[idx];
+            BTreeNode sibling = children[idx + 1];
+
+            child.keys[t - 1] = keys[idx];
+
+            for (int i = 0; i < sibling.n; ++i) {
+                child.keys[i + t] = sibling.keys[i];
+            }
+
+            if (!child.leaf) {
+                for (int i = 0; i <= sibling.n; ++i) {
+                    child.children[i + t] = sibling.children[i];
+                }
+            }
+
+            for (int i = idx + 1; i < n; ++i) {
+                keys[i - 1] = keys[i];
+            }
+
+            for (int i = idx + 2; i <= n; ++i) {
+                children[i - 1] = children[i];
+            }
+
+            child.n += sibling.n + 1;
+            n--;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private BTreeNode root;
+    private final int t;
+
+    public BTree(int t) {
+        this.root = null;
+        this.t = t;
+    }
+
+    public void traverse(ArrayList<Integer> result) {
+        if (root != null) {
+            root.traverse(result);
+        }
+    }
+
+    public boolean search(int key) {
+        return root != null && root.search(key) != null;
+    }
+
+    public void insert(int key) {
+        if (search(key)) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if (root == null) {
+            root = new BTreeNode(t, true);
+            root.keys[0] = key;
+            root.n = 1;
+        } else {
+            if (root.n == 2 * t - 1) {
+                BTreeNode s = new BTreeNode(t, false);
+                s.children[0] = root;
+                s.splitChild(0, root);
+                int i = 0;
+                if (s.keys[0] < key) {
+                    i++;
+                }
+                s.children[i].insertNonFull(key);
+                root = s;
+            } else {
+                root.insertNonFull(key);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    public void delete(int key) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        root.remove(key);
+        if (root.n == 0) {
+            root = root.leaf ? null : root.children[0];
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTree.java
index 6d1c166644a2..ff02fe38970b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTree.java
@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
 
-import java.util.Queue;
 import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.Queue;
 
-/**
+/*
  * This entire class is used to build a Binary Tree data structure. There is the
  * Node Class and the Tree Class, both explained below.
  */
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ static class Node {
          *
          * @param value Value to put in the node
          */
-        public Node(int value) {
+        Node(int value) {
             data = value;
             left = null;
             right = null;
@@ -117,11 +117,9 @@ public void put(int value) {
             if (value < parent.data) {
                 parent.left = newNode;
                 parent.left.parent = parent;
-                return;
             } else {
                 parent.right = newNode;
                 parent.right.parent = parent;
-                return;
             }
         }
     }
@@ -145,7 +143,8 @@ public boolean remove(int value) {
         if (temp.right == null && temp.left == null) {
             if (temp == root) {
                 root = null;
-            } // This if/else assigns the new node to be either the left or right child of the parent
+            } // This if/else assigns the new node to be either the left or right child of the
+            // parent
             else if (temp.parent.data < temp.data) {
                 temp.parent.right = null;
             } else {
@@ -165,31 +164,29 @@ else if (temp.left != null && temp.right != null) {
                 if (successor.right != null) {
                     successor.right.parent = successor.parent;
                     successor.parent.left = successor.right;
-                    successor.right = temp.right;
-                    successor.right.parent = successor;
                 } else {
                     successor.parent.left = null;
-                    successor.right = temp.right;
-                    successor.right.parent = successor;
                 }
+                successor.right = temp.right;
+                successor.right.parent = successor;
             }
 
             if (temp == root) {
                 successor.parent = null;
                 root = successor;
-                return true;
             } // If you're not deleting the root
             else {
                 successor.parent = temp.parent;
 
-                // This if/else assigns the new node to be either the left or right child of the parent
+                // This if/else assigns the new node to be either the left or right child of the
+                // parent
                 if (temp.parent.data < temp.data) {
                     temp.parent.right = successor;
                 } else {
                     temp.parent.left = successor;
                 }
-                return true;
             }
+            return true;
         } // One child
         else {
             // If it has a right child
@@ -207,7 +204,6 @@ else if (temp.left != null && temp.right != null) {
                 } else {
                     temp.parent.right = temp.right;
                 }
-                return true;
             } // If it has a left child
             else {
                 if (temp == root) {
@@ -223,8 +219,8 @@ else if (temp.left != null && temp.right != null) {
                 } else {
                     temp.parent.right = temp.left;
                 }
-                return true;
             }
+            return true;
         }
     }
 
@@ -285,7 +281,7 @@ public void preOrder(Node localRoot) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Prints rightChild - leftChild - root
+     * Prints leftChild - rightChild - root
      *
      * @param localRoot The local root of the binary tree
      */
@@ -306,7 +302,7 @@ public void postOrder(Node localRoot) {
      */
     public void bfs(Node localRoot) {
         // Create a queue for the order of the nodes
-        Queue<Node> queue = new LinkedList<Node>();
+        Queue<Node> queue = new LinkedList<>();
 
         // If the give root is null, then we don't add to the queue
         // and won't do anything
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BoundaryTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BoundaryTraversal.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9a79902cc598
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BoundaryTraversal.java
@@ -0,0 +1,168 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * BoundaryTraversal
+ * <p>
+ * Start with the Root:
+ * Add the root node to the boundary list.
+ * Traverse the Left Boundary (Excluding Leaf Nodes):
+ * Move down the left side of the tree, adding each non-leaf node to the boundary list.
+ * If a node has a left child, go left; otherwise, go right.
+ * Visit All Leaf Nodes:
+ * Traverse the tree and add all leaf nodes to the boundary list, from left to right.
+ * Traverse the Right Boundary (Excluding Leaf Nodes) in Reverse Order:
+ * Move up the right side of the tree, adding each non-leaf node to a temporary list.
+ * If a node has a right child, go right; otherwise, go left.
+ * Reverse the temporary list and add it to the boundary list.
+ * Combine and Output:
+ * The final boundary list contains the root, left boundary, leaf nodes, and reversed right boundary in that order.
+ */
+public final class BoundaryTraversal {
+    private BoundaryTraversal() {
+    }
+
+    // Main function for boundary traversal, returns a list of boundary nodes in order
+    public static List<Integer> boundaryTraversal(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        if (root == null) {
+            return result;
+        }
+
+        // Add root node if it's not a leaf node
+        if (!isLeaf(root)) {
+            result.add(root.data);
+        }
+
+        // Add left boundary
+        addLeftBoundary(root, result);
+
+        // Add leaf nodes
+        addLeaves(root, result);
+
+        // Add right boundary
+        addRightBoundary(root, result);
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    // Adds the left boundary, including nodes that have no left child but have a right child
+    private static void addLeftBoundary(BinaryTree.Node node, List<Integer> result) {
+        BinaryTree.Node cur = node.left;
+
+        // If there is no left child but there is a right child, treat the right child as part of the left boundary
+        if (cur == null && node.right != null) {
+            cur = node.right;
+        }
+
+        while (cur != null) {
+            if (!isLeaf(cur)) {
+                result.add(cur.data); // Add non-leaf nodes to result
+            }
+            if (cur.left != null) {
+                cur = cur.left; // Move to the left child
+            } else if (cur.right != null) {
+                cur = cur.right; // If left child is null, move to the right child
+            } else {
+                break; // Stop if there are no children
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Adds leaf nodes (nodes without children)
+    private static void addLeaves(BinaryTree.Node node, List<Integer> result) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if (isLeaf(node)) {
+            result.add(node.data); // Add leaf node
+        } else {
+            addLeaves(node.left, result); // Recur for left subtree
+            addLeaves(node.right, result); // Recur for right subtree
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Adds the right boundary, excluding leaf nodes
+    private static void addRightBoundary(BinaryTree.Node node, List<Integer> result) {
+        BinaryTree.Node cur = node.right;
+        List<Integer> temp = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // If no right boundary is present and there is no left subtree, skip
+        if (cur != null && node.left == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        while (cur != null) {
+            if (!isLeaf(cur)) {
+                temp.add(cur.data); // Store non-leaf nodes temporarily
+            }
+            if (cur.right != null) {
+                cur = cur.right; // Move to the right child
+            } else if (cur.left != null) {
+                cur = cur.left; // If right child is null, move to the left child
+            } else {
+                break; // Stop if there are no children
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Add the right boundary nodes in reverse order
+        for (int i = temp.size() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            result.add(temp.get(i));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Checks if a node is a leaf node
+    private static boolean isLeaf(BinaryTree.Node node) {
+        return node.left == null && node.right == null;
+    }
+
+    // Iterative boundary traversal
+    public static List<Integer> iterativeBoundaryTraversal(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        if (root == null) {
+            return result;
+        }
+
+        // Add root node if it's not a leaf node
+        if (!isLeaf(root)) {
+            result.add(root.data);
+        }
+
+        // Handle the left boundary
+        BinaryTree.Node cur = root.left;
+        if (cur == null && root.right != null) {
+            cur = root.right;
+        }
+        while (cur != null) {
+            if (!isLeaf(cur)) {
+                result.add(cur.data); // Add non-leaf nodes to result
+            }
+            cur = (cur.left != null) ? cur.left : cur.right; // Prioritize left child, move to right if left is null
+        }
+
+        // Add leaf nodes
+        addLeaves(root, result);
+
+        // Handle the right boundary using a stack (reverse order)
+        cur = root.right;
+        Deque<Integer> stack = new LinkedList<>();
+        if (cur != null && root.left == null) {
+            return result;
+        }
+        while (cur != null) {
+            if (!isLeaf(cur)) {
+                stack.push(cur.data); // Temporarily store right boundary nodes in a stack
+            }
+            cur = (cur.right != null) ? cur.right : cur.left; // Prioritize right child, move to left if right is null
+        }
+
+        // Add the right boundary nodes from the stack to maintain the correct order
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            result.add(stack.pop());
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java
index a6878c75981d..214e111b9f1a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java
@@ -18,8 +18,6 @@
  *
  * Ex.2. [30,20,40,10,25,35,50] represents level order traversal of a binary
  * search tree. Find ceil for 52 Answer: -1
- */
-/**
  *
  * Solution 1: Brute Force Solution: Do an inorder traversal and save result
  * into an array. Iterate over the array to get an element equal to or greater
@@ -39,10 +37,12 @@
  * ii) If key is lesser than root value than ceil will be in right subtree so
  * call recursively on right subtree iii) if key is greater than current root,
  * then either a) the root is ceil b) ceil is in left subtree: call for left
- * subtree. If left subtree returns a non null value then that will be ceil
+ * subtree. If left subtree returns a non-null value then that will be ceil
  * otherwise the root is ceil
  */
-public class CeilInBinarySearchTree {
+public final class CeilInBinarySearchTree {
+    private CeilInBinarySearchTree() {
+    }
 
     public static Node getCeil(Node root, int key) {
         if (root == null) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0c2b44d78d74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+/**
+ * This code recursively validates whether given Binary Search Tree (BST) is balanced or not.
+ * Trees with only distinct values are supported.
+ * Key points:
+ * 1. According to the definition of a BST, each node in a tree must be in range [min, max],
+ *    where 'min' and 'max' values represent the child nodes (left, right).
+ * 2. The smallest possible node value is Integer.MIN_VALUE, the biggest - Integer.MAX_VALUE.
+ */
+public final class CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST {
+    private CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST() {
+    }
+    public static boolean isBST(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        return isBSTUtil(root, Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+    }
+
+    private static boolean isBSTUtil(BinaryTree.Node node, int min, int max) {
+        // empty tree is a BST
+        if (node == null) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        if (node.data < min || node.data > max) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        return (isBSTUtil(node.left, min, node.data - 1) && isBSTUtil(node.right, node.data + 1, max));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.java
index a60de7be6e2b..9aa4d5a1fef2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.java
@@ -1,73 +1,38 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
 
-import java.util.Stack;
 import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Stack;
 
 /**
  * This class will check if a BinaryTree is balanced. A balanced binary tree is
- * defined as a binary tree where the differenced in height between the left and
+ * defined as a binary tree where the difference in height between the left and
  * right subtree of each node differs by at most one.
- *
+ * <p>
  * This can be done in both an iterative and recursive fashion. Below,
  * `isBalancedRecursive()` is implemented in a recursive fashion, and
  * `isBalancedIterative()` is implemented in an iterative fashion.
  *
- * @author [Ian Cowan](https://github.com/iccowan)
+ * @author [Ian Cowan](<a href="https://github.com/iccowan">Git-Ian Cowan</a>)
  */
-public class CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced {
-
-    /**
-     * This class implements the BinaryTree for these algorithms
-     */
-    class BinaryTree {
-
-        /**
-         * The root node of the binary tree
-         */
-        BTNode root = null;
+public final class CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced {
+    private CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced() {
     }
-
-    /**
-     * This class implements the nodes for the binary tree
-     */
-    class BTNode {
-
-        /**
-         * The value of the node
-         */
-        int value;
-
-        /**
-         * The left child of the node
-         */
-        BTNode left = null;
-
-        /**
-         * The right child of the node
-         */
-        BTNode right = null;
-
-        /**
-         * Constructor
-         */
-        BTNode(int value) {
-            this.value = value;
-        }
-    }
-
     /**
      * Recursive is BT balanced implementation
      *
-     * @param binaryTree The binary tree to check if balanced
+     * @param root The binary tree to check if balanced
      */
-    public boolean isBalancedRecursive(BinaryTree binaryTree) {
+    public static boolean isBalancedRecursive(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return true;
+        }
         // Create an array of length 1 to keep track of our balance
-        // Default to true. We use an array so we have an efficient mutable object
+        // Default to true. We use an array, so we have an efficient mutable object
         boolean[] isBalanced = new boolean[1];
         isBalanced[0] = true;
 
-        // Check for balance and return whether or not we are balanced
-        isBalancedRecursive(binaryTree.root, 0, isBalanced);
+        // Check for balance and return whether we are balanced
+        isBalancedRecursive(root, 0, isBalanced);
         return isBalanced[0];
     }
 
@@ -76,11 +41,11 @@ public boolean isBalancedRecursive(BinaryTree binaryTree) {
      * recursion. We effectively perform a modified post-order traversal where
      * we are looking at the heights of both children of each node in the tree
      *
-     * @param node The current node to explore
-     * @param depth The current depth of the node
+     * @param node       The current node to explore
+     * @param depth      The current depth of the node
      * @param isBalanced The array of length 1 keeping track of our balance
      */
-    private int isBalancedRecursive(BTNode node, int depth, boolean[] isBalanced) {
+    private static int isBalancedRecursive(BinaryTree.Node node, int depth, boolean[] isBalanced) {
         // If the node is null, we should not explore it and the height is 0
         // If the tree is already not balanced, might as well stop because we
         // can't make it balanced now!
@@ -106,22 +71,26 @@ private int isBalancedRecursive(BTNode node, int depth, boolean[] isBalanced) {
     /**
      * Iterative is BT balanced implementation
      */
-    public boolean isBalancedIterative(BinaryTree binaryTree) {
+    public static boolean isBalancedIterative(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
         // Default that we are balanced and our algo will prove it wrong
         boolean isBalanced = true;
 
         // Create a stack for our post order traversal
-        Stack<BTNode> nodeStack = new Stack<BTNode>();
+        Stack<BinaryTree.Node> nodeStack = new Stack<>();
 
         // For post order traversal, we'll have to keep track of where we
         // visited last
-        BTNode lastVisited = null;
+        BinaryTree.Node lastVisited = null;
 
         // Create a HashMap to keep track of the subtree heights for each node
-        HashMap<BTNode, Integer> subtreeHeights = new HashMap<BTNode, Integer>();
+        HashMap<BinaryTree.Node, Integer> subtreeHeights = new HashMap<>();
 
         // We begin at the root of the tree
-        BTNode node = binaryTree.root;
+        BinaryTree.Node node = root;
 
         // We loop while:
         // - the node stack is empty and the node we explore is null
@@ -165,7 +134,7 @@ public boolean isBalancedIterative(BinaryTree binaryTree) {
                     }
 
                     // The height of the subtree containing this node is the
-                    // max of the left and right subtree heighs plus 1
+                    // max of the left and right subtree heights plus 1
                     subtreeHeights.put(node, Math.max(rightHeight, leftHeight) + 1);
 
                     // We've now visited this node, so we pop it from the stack
@@ -182,86 +151,7 @@ public boolean isBalancedIterative(BinaryTree binaryTree) {
             }
         }
 
-        // Return whether or not the tree is balanced
+        // Return whether the tree is balanced
         return isBalanced;
     }
-
-    /**
-     * Generates the following unbalanced binary tree for testing 0 / \ / \ 0 0
-     * / / \ / / \ 0 0 0 / \ / \ 0 0 / / 0
-     */
-    private BinaryTree buildUnbalancedTree() {
-        BinaryTree tree = new BinaryTree();
-        tree.root = new BTNode(0);
-
-        BTNode root = tree.root;
-        root.left = new BTNode(0);
-        root.right = new BTNode(0);
-
-        BTNode left = root.left;
-        BTNode right = root.right;
-
-        left.left = new BTNode(0);
-        right.left = new BTNode(0);
-        right.right = new BTNode(0);
-        right.left.right = new BTNode(0);
-
-        left = left.left;
-        left.left = new BTNode(0);
-        left.left.left = new BTNode(0);
-        left.left.left.left = new BTNode(0);
-
-        return tree;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Generates the following balanced binary tree for testing 0 / \ / \ 0 0 /
-     * \ / \ / 0 / \ 0 0 0 / / / / 0 0
-     */
-    private BinaryTree buildBalancedTree() {
-        BinaryTree tree = new BinaryTree();
-        tree.root = new BTNode(0);
-
-        BTNode root = tree.root;
-        root.left = new BTNode(0);
-        root.right = new BTNode(0);
-
-        BTNode left = root.left;
-        BTNode right = root.right;
-
-        left.left = new BTNode(0);
-        left.right = new BTNode(0);
-        right.left = new BTNode(0);
-        right.right = new BTNode(0);
-
-        right.right.left = new BTNode(0);
-
-        left.left.left = new BTNode(0);
-
-        return tree;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Main
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // We create a new object to check the binary trees for balance
-        CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced balanceCheck = new CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced();
-
-        // Build a balanced and unbalanced binary tree
-        BinaryTree balancedTree = balanceCheck.buildBalancedTree();
-        BinaryTree unbalancedTree = balanceCheck.buildUnbalancedTree();
-
-        // Run basic tests on the algorithms to check for balance
-        boolean isBalancedRB = balanceCheck.isBalancedRecursive(balancedTree); // true
-        boolean isBalancedRU = balanceCheck.isBalancedRecursive(unbalancedTree); // false
-        boolean isBalancedIB = balanceCheck.isBalancedIterative(balancedTree); // true
-        boolean isBalancedIU = balanceCheck.isBalancedIterative(unbalancedTree); // false
-
-        // Print the results
-        System.out.println("isBalancedRB: " + isBalancedRB);
-        System.out.println("isBalancedRU: " + isBalancedRU);
-        System.out.println("isBalancedIB: " + isBalancedIB);
-        System.out.println("isBalancedIU: " + isBalancedIU);
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetric.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetric.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..17d84bf11d54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetric.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BinaryTree.Node;
+
+/**
+ * Check if a binary tree is symmetric or not.
+ * A binary tree is a symmetric tree if the left and right subtree of root are mirror image.
+ * Below is a symmetric tree
+ *                               1
+ *                   /                         \
+ *                2                           2
+ *         /                \             /             \
+ *      3                    4         4                3
+ *
+ * Below is not symmetric because values is different in last level
+ *                               1
+ *                   /                         \
+ *                 2                           2
+ *         /                \             /             \
+ *      3                    5         4                3
+ * <p>
+ * Approach:
+ * Recursively check for left and right subtree of root
+ * 1. left subtrees root's values should be equal right subtree's root value
+ * 2. recursively check with left subtrees' left child VS right subtree's right child AND
+ * left subtree's right child VS right subtree left child
+ * Complexity
+ * 1. Time: O(n)
+ * 2. Space: O(lg(n)) for height of tree
+ *
+ * @author kumanoit on 10/10/22 IST 12:52 AM
+ */
+public final class CheckTreeIsSymmetric {
+    private CheckTreeIsSymmetric() {
+    }
+
+    public static boolean isSymmetric(Node root) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        return isSymmetric(root.left, root.right);
+    }
+
+    private static boolean isSymmetric(Node leftSubtreeRoot, Node rightSubtreeRoot) {
+        if (leftSubtreeRoot == null && rightSubtreeRoot == null) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        if (isInvalidSubtree(leftSubtreeRoot, rightSubtreeRoot)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        return isSymmetric(leftSubtreeRoot.right, rightSubtreeRoot.left) && isSymmetric(leftSubtreeRoot.left, rightSubtreeRoot.right);
+    }
+
+    private static boolean isInvalidSubtree(Node leftSubtreeRoot, Node rightSubtreeRoot) {
+        return leftSubtreeRoot == null || rightSubtreeRoot == null || leftSubtreeRoot.data != rightSubtreeRoot.data;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBSTFromSortedArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBSTFromSortedArray.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 5fd12c99537d..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBSTFromSortedArray.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,44 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
-
-import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BinaryTree.Node;
-
-/**
- * Given a sorted array. Create a balanced binary search tree from it.
- *
- * Steps: 1. Find the middle element of array. This will act as root 2. Use the
- * left half recursively to create left subtree 3. Use the right half
- * recursively to create right subtree
- */
-public class CreateBSTFromSortedArray {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        test(new int[]{});
-        test(new int[]{1, 2, 3});
-        test(new int[]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5});
-        test(new int[]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
-    }
-
-    private static void test(int[] array) {
-        BinaryTree root = new BinaryTree(createBst(array, 0, array.length - 1));
-        System.out.println("\n\nPreorder Traversal: ");
-        root.preOrder(root.getRoot());
-        System.out.println("\nInorder Traversal: ");
-        root.inOrder(root.getRoot());
-        System.out.println("\nPostOrder Traversal: ");
-        root.postOrder(root.getRoot());
-    }
-
-    private static Node createBst(int[] array, int start, int end) {
-        // No element left.
-        if (start > end) {
-            return null;
-        }
-        int mid = start + (end - start) / 2;
-
-        // middle element will be the root
-        Node root = new Node(array[mid]);
-        root.left = createBst(array, start, mid - 1);
-        root.right = createBst(array, mid + 1, end);
-        return root;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.java
index bcd00776e7b9..04caa0b9e9d2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.java
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
 
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BinaryTree.Node;
 import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.Map;
-import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BinaryTree.Node;
 
 /**
  * Approach: Naive Solution: Create root node from first value present in
@@ -11,71 +11,51 @@
  * subtree. Based on that index create left and right subtree. Complexity: Time:
  * O(n^2) for each node there is iteration to find index in inorder array Space:
  * Stack size = O(height) = O(lg(n))
- *
+ * <p>
  * Optimized Solution: Instead of iterating over inorder array to find index of
  * root value, create a hashmap and find out the index of root value.
  * Complexity: Time: O(n) hashmap reduced iteration to find index in inorder
  * array Space: O(n) space taken by hashmap
- *
  */
-public class CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        test(new Integer[]{}, new Integer[]{}); // empty tree
-        test(new Integer[]{1}, new Integer[]{1}); // single node tree
-        test(new Integer[]{1, 2, 3, 4}, new Integer[]{1, 2, 3, 4}); // right skewed tree
-        test(new Integer[]{1, 2, 3, 4}, new Integer[]{4, 3, 2, 1}); // left skewed tree
-        test(new Integer[]{3, 9, 20, 15, 7}, new Integer[]{9, 3, 15, 20, 7}); // normal tree
+public final class CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder {
+    private CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder() {
+    }
+    public static Node createTree(final Integer[] preorder, final Integer[] inorder) {
+        if (preorder == null || inorder == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        return createTree(preorder, inorder, 0, 0, inorder.length);
     }
 
-    private static void test(final Integer[] preorder, final Integer[] inorder) {
-        System.out.println("\n====================================================");
-        System.out.println("Naive Solution...");
-        BinaryTree root = new BinaryTree(createTree(preorder, inorder, 0, 0, inorder.length));
-        System.out.println("Preorder Traversal: ");
-        root.preOrder(root.getRoot());
-        System.out.println("\nInorder Traversal: ");
-        root.inOrder(root.getRoot());
-        System.out.println("\nPostOrder Traversal: ");
-        root.postOrder(root.getRoot());
-
-        Map<Integer, Integer> map = new HashMap<>();
+    public static Node createTreeOptimized(final Integer[] preorder, final Integer[] inorder) {
+        if (preorder == null || inorder == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        Map<Integer, Integer> inorderMap = new HashMap<>();
         for (int i = 0; i < inorder.length; i++) {
-            map.put(inorder[i], i);
+            inorderMap.put(inorder[i], i);
         }
-        BinaryTree optimizedRoot = new BinaryTree(createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorder, 0, 0, inorder.length, map));
-        System.out.println("\n\nOptimized solution...");
-        System.out.println("Preorder Traversal: ");
-        optimizedRoot.preOrder(root.getRoot());
-        System.out.println("\nInorder Traversal: ");
-        optimizedRoot.inOrder(root.getRoot());
-        System.out.println("\nPostOrder Traversal: ");
-        optimizedRoot.postOrder(root.getRoot());
+        return createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorderMap, 0, 0, inorder.length);
     }
 
-    private static Node createTree(final Integer[] preorder, final Integer[] inorder,
-            final int preStart, final int inStart, final int size) {
+    private static Node createTree(final Integer[] preorder, final Integer[] inorder, final int preStart, final int inStart, final int size) {
         if (size == 0) {
             return null;
         }
 
         Node root = new Node(preorder[preStart]);
         int i = inStart;
-        while (preorder[preStart] != inorder[i]) {
+        while (!preorder[preStart].equals(inorder[i])) {
             i++;
         }
         int leftNodesCount = i - inStart;
         int rightNodesCount = size - leftNodesCount - 1;
         root.left = createTree(preorder, inorder, preStart + 1, inStart, leftNodesCount);
-        root.right = createTree(preorder, inorder, preStart + leftNodesCount + 1, i + 1,
-                rightNodesCount);
+        root.right = createTree(preorder, inorder, preStart + leftNodesCount + 1, i + 1, rightNodesCount);
         return root;
-
     }
 
-    private static Node createTreeOptimized(final Integer[] preorder, final Integer[] inorder,
-            final int preStart, final int inStart, final int size,
-            final Map<Integer, Integer> inorderMap) {
+    private static Node createTreeOptimized(final Integer[] preorder, final Map<Integer, Integer> inorderMap, final int preStart, final int inStart, final int size) {
         if (size == 0) {
             return null;
         }
@@ -84,11 +64,8 @@ private static Node createTreeOptimized(final Integer[] preorder, final Integer[
         int i = inorderMap.get(preorder[preStart]);
         int leftNodesCount = i - inStart;
         int rightNodesCount = size - leftNodesCount - 1;
-        root.left = createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorder, preStart + 1, inStart,
-                leftNodesCount, inorderMap);
-        root.right = createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorder, preStart + leftNodesCount + 1,
-                i + 1, rightNodesCount, inorderMap);
+        root.left = createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorderMap, preStart + 1, inStart, leftNodesCount);
+        root.right = createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorderMap, preStart + leftNodesCount + 1, i + 1, rightNodesCount);
         return root;
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java
index e44984b1b9a7..5378a01f6642 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java
@@ -3,12 +3,12 @@
 public class FenwickTree {
 
     private int n;
-    private int fen_t[];
+    private int[] fenTree;
 
     /* Constructor which takes the size of the array as a parameter */
     public FenwickTree(int n) {
         this.n = n;
-        this.fen_t = new int[n + 1];
+        this.fenTree = new int[n + 1];
     }
 
     /* A function which will add the element val at index i*/
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ public void update(int i, int val) {
         // As index starts from 0, increment the index by 1
         i += 1;
         while (i <= n) {
-            fen_t[i] += val;
+            fenTree[i] += val;
             i += i & (-i);
         }
     }
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ public int query(int i) {
         i += 1;
         int cumSum = 0;
         while (i > 0) {
-            cumSum += fen_t[i];
+            cumSum += fenTree[i];
             i -= i & (-i);
         }
         return cumSum;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java
index 922cd62fcb2e..7d969a59def0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java
@@ -16,35 +16,33 @@
  */
 public class GenericTree {
 
-    private class Node {
+    private static final class Node {
 
         int data;
         ArrayList<Node> child = new ArrayList<>();
     }
 
-    private Node root;
-    private int size;
+    private final Node root;
 
     public GenericTree() { // Constructor
         Scanner scn = new Scanner(System.in);
-        root = create_treeG(null, 0, scn);
+        root = createTreeG(null, 0, scn);
     }
 
-    private Node create_treeG(Node node, int childindx, Scanner scn) {
+    private Node createTreeG(Node node, int childIndex, Scanner scanner) {
         // display
         if (node == null) {
             System.out.println("Enter root's data");
         } else {
-            System.out.println("Enter data of parent of index " + node.data + " " + childindx);
+            System.out.println("Enter data of parent of index " + node.data + " " + childIndex);
         }
         // input
         node = new Node();
-        node.data = scn.nextInt();
+        node.data = scanner.nextInt();
         System.out.println("number of children");
-        int number = scn.nextInt();
+        int number = scanner.nextInt();
         for (int i = 0; i < number; i++) {
-            Node child = create_treeG(node, i, scn);
-            size++;
+            Node child = createTreeG(node, i, scanner);
             node.child.add(child);
         }
         return node;
@@ -54,17 +52,17 @@ private Node create_treeG(Node node, int childindx, Scanner scn) {
      * Function to display the generic tree
      */
     public void display() { // Helper function
-        display_1(root);
+        display1(root);
     }
 
-    private void display_1(Node parent) {
+    private void display1(Node parent) {
         System.out.print(parent.data + "=>");
         for (int i = 0; i < parent.child.size(); i++) {
             System.out.print(parent.child.get(i).data + " ");
         }
         System.out.println(".");
         for (int i = 0; i < parent.child.size(); i++) {
-            display_1(parent.child.get(i));
+            display1(parent.child.get(i));
         }
     }
 
@@ -166,7 +164,6 @@ public void depth(Node node, int dep) {
         for (int i = 0; i < node.child.size(); i++) {
             depth(node.child.get(i), dep - 1);
         }
-        return;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -229,8 +226,6 @@ private void removeleaves(Node node) {
         for (int i = 0; i < node.child.size(); i++) {
             if (node.child.get(i).child.size() == 0) {
                 arr.add(i);
-                // node.child.remove(i);
-                // i--;
             } else {
                 removeleaves(node.child.get(i));
             }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversal.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5a001ff9ab9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversal.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Given tree is traversed in an 'inorder' way: LEFT -> ROOT -> RIGHT.
+ * Below are given the recursive and iterative implementations.
+ *
+ * Complexities:
+ * Recursive: O(n) - time, O(n) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree.
+ *
+ * Iterative: O(n) - time, O(h) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree
+ * and 'h' is the height of a binary tree.
+ * In the worst case 'h' can be O(n) if tree is completely unbalanced, for instance:
+ * 5
+ *  \
+ *   6
+ *    \
+ *     7
+ *      \
+ *       8
+ *
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 21/02/2023
+ */
+public final class InorderTraversal {
+    private InorderTraversal() {
+    }
+    public static List<Integer> recursiveInorder(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        recursiveInorder(root, result);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    public static List<Integer> iterativeInorder(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        if (root == null) {
+            return result;
+        }
+
+        Deque<BinaryTree.Node> stack = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        while (!stack.isEmpty() || root != null) {
+            while (root != null) {
+                stack.push(root);
+                root = root.left;
+            }
+            root = stack.pop();
+            result.add(root.data);
+            root = root.right;
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    private static void recursiveInorder(BinaryTree.Node root, List<Integer> result) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        recursiveInorder(root.left, result);
+        result.add(root.data);
+        recursiveInorder(root.right, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTree.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5190e82f74ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTree.java
@@ -0,0 +1,456 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.Optional;
+
+/*
+ * K-D Tree Implementation
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-d_tree
+ *
+ * Author: Amir Hosseini (https://github.com/itsamirhn)
+ *
+ * */
+
+public class KDTree {
+
+    private Node root;
+
+    private final int k; // Dimensions of the points
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor for empty KDTree
+     *
+     * @param k Number of dimensions
+     */
+    KDTree(int k) {
+        this.k = k;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Builds the KDTree from the specified points
+     *
+     * @param points Array of initial points
+     */
+    KDTree(Point[] points) {
+        if (points.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Points array cannot be empty");
+        }
+        this.k = points[0].getDimension();
+        for (Point point : points) {
+            if (point.getDimension() != k) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Points must have the same dimension");
+            }
+        }
+        this.root = build(points, 0);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Builds the KDTree from the specified coordinates of the points
+     *
+     * @param pointsCoordinates Array of initial points coordinates
+     *
+     */
+    KDTree(int[][] pointsCoordinates) {
+        if (pointsCoordinates.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Points array cannot be empty");
+        }
+        this.k = pointsCoordinates[0].length;
+        Point[] points = Arrays.stream(pointsCoordinates).map(Point::new).toArray(Point[] ::new);
+        for (Point point : points) {
+            if (point.getDimension() != k) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Points must have the same dimension");
+            }
+        }
+        this.root = build(points, 0);
+    }
+
+    static class Point {
+
+        int[] coordinates;
+
+        public int getCoordinate(int i) {
+            return coordinates[i];
+        }
+
+        public int getDimension() {
+            return coordinates.length;
+        }
+
+        Point(int[] coordinates) {
+            this.coordinates = coordinates;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object obj) {
+            if (obj instanceof Point other) {
+                return Arrays.equals(other.coordinates, this.coordinates);
+            }
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return Arrays.hashCode(coordinates);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public String toString() {
+            return Arrays.toString(coordinates);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Find the comparable distance between two points (without SQRT)
+         *
+         * @param p1 First point
+         * @param p2 Second point
+         *
+         * @return The comparable distance between the two points
+         */
+        public static int comparableDistance(Point p1, Point p2) {
+            int distance = 0;
+            for (int i = 0; i < p1.getDimension(); i++) {
+                int t = p1.getCoordinate(i) - p2.getCoordinate(i);
+                distance += t * t;
+            }
+            return distance;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Find the comparable distance between two points with ignoring specified axis
+         *
+         * @param p1 First point
+         * @param p2 Second point
+         * @param axis The axis to ignore
+         *
+         * @return The distance between the two points
+         */
+        public static int comparableDistanceExceptAxis(Point p1, Point p2, int axis) {
+            int distance = 0;
+            for (int i = 0; i < p1.getDimension(); i++) {
+                if (i == axis) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                int t = p1.getCoordinate(i) - p2.getCoordinate(i);
+                distance += t * t;
+            }
+            return distance;
+        }
+    }
+
+    static class Node {
+
+        private Point point;
+        private int axis; // 0 for x, 1 for y, 2 for z, etc.
+
+        private Node left = null; // Left child
+        private Node right = null; // Right child
+
+        Node(Point point, int axis) {
+            this.point = point;
+            this.axis = axis;
+        }
+
+        public Point getPoint() {
+            return point;
+        }
+
+        public Node getLeft() {
+            return left;
+        }
+
+        public Node getRight() {
+            return right;
+        }
+
+        public int getAxis() {
+            return axis;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Get the nearest child according to the specified point
+         *
+         * @param point The point to find the nearest child to
+         *
+         * @return The nearest child Node
+         */
+        public Node getNearChild(Point point) {
+            if (point.getCoordinate(axis) < this.point.getCoordinate(axis)) {
+                return left;
+            } else {
+                return right;
+            }
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Get the farthest child according to the specified point
+         *
+         * @param point The point to find the farthest child to
+         *
+         * @return The farthest child Node
+         */
+        public Node getFarChild(Point point) {
+            if (point.getCoordinate(axis) < this.point.getCoordinate(axis)) {
+                return right;
+            } else {
+                return left;
+            }
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Get the node axis coordinate of point
+         *
+         * @return The axis coordinate of the point
+         */
+        public int getAxisCoordinate() {
+            return point.getCoordinate(axis);
+        }
+    }
+
+    public Node getRoot() {
+        return root;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Builds the KDTree from the specified points
+     *
+     * @param points Array of initial points
+     * @param depth The current depth of the tree
+     *
+     * @return The root of the KDTree
+     */
+    private Node build(Point[] points, int depth) {
+        if (points.length == 0) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        int axis = depth % k;
+        if (points.length == 1) {
+            return new Node(points[0], axis);
+        }
+        Arrays.sort(points, Comparator.comparingInt(o -> o.getCoordinate(axis)));
+        int median = points.length >> 1;
+        Node node = new Node(points[median], axis);
+        node.left = build(Arrays.copyOfRange(points, 0, median), depth + 1);
+        node.right = build(Arrays.copyOfRange(points, median + 1, points.length), depth + 1);
+        return node;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Insert a point into the KDTree
+     *
+     * @param point The point to insert
+     *
+     */
+    public void insert(Point point) {
+        if (point.getDimension() != k) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Point has wrong dimension");
+        }
+        root = insert(root, point, 0);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Insert a point into a subtree
+     *
+     * @param root The root of the subtree
+     * @param point The point to insert
+     * @param depth The current depth of the tree
+     *
+     * @return The root of the KDTree
+     */
+    private Node insert(Node root, Point point, int depth) {
+        int axis = depth % k;
+        if (root == null) {
+            return new Node(point, axis);
+        }
+        if (point.getCoordinate(axis) < root.getAxisCoordinate()) {
+            root.left = insert(root.left, point, depth + 1);
+        } else {
+            root.right = insert(root.right, point, depth + 1);
+        }
+
+        return root;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Search for Node corresponding to the specified point in the KDTree
+     *
+     * @param point The point to search for
+     *
+     * @return The Node corresponding to the specified point
+     */
+    public Optional<Node> search(Point point) {
+        if (point.getDimension() != k) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Point has wrong dimension");
+        }
+        return search(root, point);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Search for Node corresponding to the specified point in a subtree
+     *
+     * @param root The root of the subtree to search in
+     * @param point The point to search for
+     *
+     * @return The Node corresponding to the specified point
+     */
+    public Optional<Node> search(Node root, Point point) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return Optional.empty();
+        }
+        if (root.point.equals(point)) {
+            return Optional.of(root);
+        }
+        return search(root.getNearChild(point), point);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find a point with minimum value in specified axis in the KDTree
+     *
+     * @param axis The axis to find the minimum value in
+     *
+     * @return The point with minimum value in the specified axis
+     */
+    public Point findMin(int axis) {
+        return findMin(root, axis).point;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find a point with minimum value in specified axis in a subtree
+     *
+     * @param root The root of the subtree to search in
+     * @param axis The axis to find the minimum value in
+     *
+     * @return The Node with minimum value in the specified axis of the point
+     */
+    public Node findMin(Node root, int axis) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        if (root.getAxis() == axis) {
+            if (root.left == null) {
+                return root;
+            }
+            return findMin(root.left, axis);
+        } else {
+            Node left = findMin(root.left, axis);
+            Node right = findMin(root.right, axis);
+            Node[] candidates = {left, root, right};
+            return Arrays.stream(candidates).filter(Objects::nonNull).min(Comparator.comparingInt(a -> a.point.getCoordinate(axis))).orElse(null);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find a point with maximum value in specified axis in the KDTree
+     *
+     * @param axis The axis to find the maximum value in
+     *
+     * @return The point with maximum value in the specified axis
+     */
+    public Point findMax(int axis) {
+        return findMax(root, axis).point;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find a point with maximum value in specified axis in a subtree
+     *
+     * @param root The root of the subtree to search in
+     * @param axis The axis to find the maximum value in
+     *
+     * @return The Node with maximum value in the specified axis of the point
+     */
+    public Node findMax(Node root, int axis) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        if (root.getAxis() == axis) {
+            if (root.right == null) {
+                return root;
+            }
+            return findMax(root.right, axis);
+        } else {
+            Node left = findMax(root.left, axis);
+            Node right = findMax(root.right, axis);
+            Node[] candidates = {left, root, right};
+            return Arrays.stream(candidates).filter(Objects::nonNull).max(Comparator.comparingInt(a -> a.point.getCoordinate(axis))).orElse(null);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Delete the node with the given point.
+     *
+     * @param point the point to delete
+     * */
+    public void delete(Point point) {
+        Node node = search(point).orElseThrow(() -> new IllegalArgumentException("Point not found"));
+        root = delete(root, node);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Delete the specified node from a subtree.
+     *
+     * @param root The root of the subtree to delete from
+     * @param node The node to delete
+     *
+     * @return The new root of the subtree
+     */
+    private Node delete(Node root, Node node) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        if (root.equals(node)) {
+            if (root.right != null) {
+                Node min = findMin(root.right, root.getAxis());
+                root.point = min.point;
+                root.right = delete(root.right, min);
+            } else if (root.left != null) {
+                Node min = findMin(root.left, root.getAxis());
+                root.point = min.point;
+                root.left = delete(root.left, min);
+            } else {
+                return null;
+            }
+        }
+        if (root.getAxisCoordinate() < node.point.getCoordinate(root.getAxis())) {
+            root.left = delete(root.left, node);
+        } else {
+            root.right = delete(root.right, node);
+        }
+        return root;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the nearest point in the tree to the given point.
+     *
+     * @param point The point to find the nearest neighbor to.
+     * */
+    public Point findNearest(Point point) {
+        return findNearest(root, point, root).point;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the nearest point in a subtree to the given point.
+     *
+     * @param root The root of the subtree to search in.
+     * @param point The point to find the nearest neighbor to.
+     * @param nearest The nearest neighbor found so far.
+     * */
+    private Node findNearest(Node root, Point point, Node nearest) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return nearest;
+        }
+        if (root.point.equals(point)) {
+            return root;
+        }
+        int distance = Point.comparableDistance(root.point, point);
+        int distanceExceptAxis = Point.comparableDistanceExceptAxis(root.point, point, root.getAxis());
+        if (distance < Point.comparableDistance(nearest.point, point)) {
+            nearest = root;
+        }
+        nearest = findNearest(root.getNearChild(point), point, nearest);
+        if (distanceExceptAxis < Point.comparableDistance(nearest.point, point)) {
+            nearest = findNearest(root.getFarChild(point), point, nearest);
+        }
+        return nearest;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LCA.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LCA.java
index 193e89d2772f..95a289493007 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LCA.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LCA.java
@@ -3,48 +3,50 @@
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Scanner;
 
-public class LCA {
+public final class LCA {
+    private LCA() {
+    }
 
-    private static Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
+    private static final Scanner SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        //The adjacency list representation of a tree:
+        // The adjacency list representation of a tree:
         ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj = new ArrayList<>();
 
-        //v is the number of vertices and e is the number of edges
-        int v = scanner.nextInt(), e = v - 1;
+        // v is the number of vertices and e is the number of edges
+        int v = SCANNER.nextInt();
+        int e = v - 1;
 
         for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
             adj.add(new ArrayList<Integer>());
         }
 
-        //Storing the given tree as an adjacency list
-        int to, from;
+        // Storing the given tree as an adjacency list
+        int to;
+        int from;
         for (int i = 0; i < e; i++) {
-
-            to = scanner.nextInt();
-            from = scanner.nextInt();
+            to = SCANNER.nextInt();
+            from = SCANNER.nextInt();
 
             adj.get(to).add(from);
             adj.get(from).add(to);
         }
 
-        //parent[v1] gives parent of a vertex v1
+        // parent[v1] gives parent of a vertex v1
         int[] parent = new int[v];
 
-        //depth[v1] gives depth of vertex v1 with respect to the root
+        // depth[v1] gives depth of vertex v1 with respect to the root
         int[] depth = new int[v];
 
-        //Assuming the tree to be rooted at 0, hence calculating parent and depth of every vertex
+        // Assuming the tree to be rooted at 0, hence calculating parent and depth of every vertex
         dfs(adj, 0, -1, parent, depth);
 
-        //Inputting the two vertices whose LCA is to be calculated
-        int v1 = scanner.nextInt(), v2 = scanner.nextInt();
+        // Inputting the two vertices whose LCA is to be calculated
+        int v1 = SCANNER.nextInt();
+        int v2 = SCANNER.nextInt();
 
-        //Outputting the LCA
+        // Outputting the LCA
         System.out.println(getLCA(v1, v2, depth, parent));
-
     }
 
     /**
@@ -94,8 +96,7 @@ private static int getLCA(int v1, int v2, int[] depth, int[] parent) {
         return v1;
     }
 }
-
-/**
+/*
  * Input:
  * 10
  * 0 1
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LazySegmentTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LazySegmentTree.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e7a8e23d6610
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LazySegmentTree.java
@@ -0,0 +1,174 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+public class LazySegmentTree {
+
+    /**
+     * Lazy Segment Tree
+     *
+     * @see
+     *	<a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/lazy-propagation-in-segment-tree/">
+     */
+    static class Node {
+
+        private final int start;
+        private final int end; // start and end of the segment represented by this node
+        private int value; // value is the sum of all elements in the range [start, end)
+        private int lazy; // lazied value that should be added to children nodes
+        Node left;
+        Node right; // left and right children
+
+        Node(int start, int end, int value) {
+            this.start = start;
+            this.end = end;
+            this.value = value;
+            this.lazy = 0;
+            this.left = null;
+            this.right = null;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Update the value of this node with the given value diff.
+         *
+         * @param diff The value to add to every index of this node range.
+         */
+        public void applyUpdate(int diff) {
+            this.lazy += diff;
+            this.value += (this.end - this.start) * diff;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Shift the lazy value of this node to its children.
+         */
+        public void shift() {
+            if (lazy == 0) {
+                return;
+            }
+            if (this.left == null && this.right == null) {
+                return;
+            }
+            this.value += this.lazy;
+            if (this.left != null) {
+                this.left.applyUpdate(this.lazy);
+            }
+            if (this.right != null) {
+                this.right.applyUpdate(this.lazy);
+            }
+            this.lazy = 0;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Create a new node that is the sum of this node and the given node.
+         *
+         * @param left The left Node of merging
+         * @param right The right Node of merging
+         * @return The new Node.
+         */
+        static Node merge(Node left, Node right) {
+            if (left == null) {
+                return right;
+            }
+            if (right == null) {
+                return left;
+            }
+            Node result = new Node(left.start, right.end, left.value + right.value);
+            result.left = left;
+            result.right = right;
+            return result;
+        }
+
+        public int getValue() {
+            return value;
+        }
+
+        public Node getLeft() {
+            return left;
+        }
+
+        public Node getRight() {
+            return right;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private final Node root;
+
+    /**
+     * Create a new LazySegmentTree with the given array.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to create the LazySegmentTree from.
+     */
+    public LazySegmentTree(int[] array) {
+        this.root = buildTree(array, 0, array.length);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Build a new LazySegmentTree from the given array in O(n) time.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to build the LazySegmentTree from.
+     * @param start The start index of the current node.
+     * @param end The end index of the current node.
+     * @return The root of the new LazySegmentTree.
+     */
+    private Node buildTree(int[] array, int start, int end) {
+        if (end - start < 2) {
+            return new Node(start, end, array[start]);
+        }
+        int mid = (start + end) >> 1;
+        Node left = buildTree(array, start, mid);
+        Node right = buildTree(array, mid, end);
+        return Node.merge(left, right);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Update the value of given range with the given value diff in O(log n) time.
+     *
+     * @param left The left index of the range to update.
+     * @param right The right index of the range to update.
+     * @param diff The value to add to every index of the range.
+     * @param curr The current node.
+     */
+    private void updateRange(int left, int right, int diff, Node curr) {
+        if (left <= curr.start && curr.end <= right) {
+            curr.applyUpdate(diff);
+            return;
+        }
+        if (left >= curr.end || right <= curr.start) {
+            return;
+        }
+        curr.shift();
+        updateRange(left, right, diff, curr.left);
+        updateRange(left, right, diff, curr.right);
+        Node merge = Node.merge(curr.left, curr.right);
+        curr.value = merge.value;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get Node of given range in O(log n) time.
+     *
+     * @param left The left index of the range to update.
+     * @param right The right index of the range to update.
+     * @return The Node representing the sum of the given range.
+     */
+    private Node getRange(int left, int right, Node curr) {
+        if (left <= curr.start && curr.end <= right) {
+            return curr;
+        }
+        if (left >= curr.end || right <= curr.start) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        curr.shift();
+        return Node.merge(getRange(left, right, curr.left), getRange(left, right, curr.right));
+    }
+
+    public int getRange(int left, int right) {
+        Node result = getRange(left, right, root);
+        return result == null ? 0 : result.getValue();
+    }
+
+    public void updateRange(int left, int right, int diff) {
+        updateRange(left, right, diff, root);
+    }
+
+    public Node getRoot() {
+        return root;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversal.java
index 64ce1f4bb6c1..f91aa303f66c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversal.java
@@ -1,51 +1,47 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
 
-public class LevelOrderTraversal {
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Queue;
 
-    class Node {
-
-        int data;
-        Node left, right;
-
-        public Node(int item) {
-            data = item;
-            left = right = null;
-        }
+public final class LevelOrderTraversal {
+    private LevelOrderTraversal() {
     }
 
-    // Root of the Binary Tree
-    Node root;
-
-    public LevelOrderTraversal(Node root) {
-        this.root = root;
-    }
-
-    /* function to print level order traversal of tree*/
-    void printLevelOrder() {
-        int h = height(root);
-        int i;
-        for (i = 1; i <= h; i++) {
-            printGivenLevel(root, i);
+    public static List<List<Integer>> traverse(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return List.of();
         }
-    }
 
-    /* Compute the "height" of a tree -- the number of
-  nodes along the longest path from the root node
-  down to the farthest leaf node.*/
-    int height(Node root) {
-        if (root == null) {
-            return 0;
-        } else {
-            /**
-             * Return the height of larger subtree
-             */
-            return Math.max(height(root.left), height(root.right)) + 1;
+        List<List<Integer>> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        Queue<BinaryTree.Node> q = new LinkedList<>();
+        q.add(root);
+        while (!q.isEmpty()) {
+            int nodesOnLevel = q.size();
+            List<Integer> level = new LinkedList<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < nodesOnLevel; i++) {
+                BinaryTree.Node tempNode = q.poll();
+                level.add(tempNode.data);
+
+                if (tempNode.left != null) {
+                    q.add(tempNode.left);
+                }
+
+                if (tempNode.right != null) {
+                    q.add(tempNode.right);
+                }
+            }
+            result.add(level);
         }
+        return result;
     }
 
     /* Print nodes at the given level */
-    void printGivenLevel(Node root, int level) {
+    public static void printGivenLevel(BinaryTree.Node root, int level) {
         if (root == null) {
+            System.out.println("Root node must not be null! Exiting.");
             return;
         }
         if (level == 1) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversalQueue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversalQueue.java
deleted file mode 100644
index c32b6653bcb0..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversalQueue.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
-
-import java.util.LinkedList;
-import java.util.Queue;
-
-/* Class to print Level Order Traversal */
-public class LevelOrderTraversalQueue {
-
-    /* Class to represent Tree node */
-    class Node {
-
-        int data;
-        Node left, right;
-
-        public Node(int item) {
-            data = item;
-            left = null;
-            right = null;
-        }
-    }
-
-    /* Given a binary tree. Print its nodes in level order
-  using array for implementing queue  */
-    void printLevelOrder(Node root) {
-        Queue<Node> queue = new LinkedList<Node>();
-        queue.add(root);
-        while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
-
-            /* poll() removes the present head.
-      For more information on poll() visit
-      http://www.tutorialspoint.com/java/util/linkedlist_poll.htm */
-            Node tempNode = queue.poll();
-            System.out.print(tempNode.data + " ");
-
-            /*Enqueue left child */
-            if (tempNode.left != null) {
-                queue.add(tempNode.left);
-            }
-
-            /*Enqueue right child */
-            if (tempNode.right != null) {
-                queue.add(tempNode.right);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PostOrderTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PostOrderTraversal.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..50dc88381a24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PostOrderTraversal.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Given tree is traversed in a 'post-order' way: LEFT -> RIGHT -> ROOT.
+ * Below are given the recursive and iterative implementations.
+ * <p>
+ * Complexities:
+ * Recursive: O(n) - time, O(n) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree.
+ * <p>
+ * Iterative: O(n) - time, O(h) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree
+ * and 'h' is the height of a binary tree.
+ * In the worst case 'h' can be O(n) if tree is completely unbalanced, for instance:
+ * 5
+ *  \
+ *   6
+ *    \
+ *     7
+ *      \
+ *       8
+ *
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 21/02/2023
+ */
+public final class PostOrderTraversal {
+    private PostOrderTraversal() {
+    }
+    public static List<Integer> recursivePostOrder(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        recursivePostOrder(root, result);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    public static List<Integer> iterativePostOrder(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        LinkedList<Integer> result = new LinkedList<>();
+        if (root == null) {
+            return result;
+        }
+
+        Deque<BinaryTree.Node> stack = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        stack.push(root);
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            BinaryTree.Node node = stack.pop();
+            result.addFirst(node.data);
+            if (node.left != null) {
+                stack.push(node.left);
+            }
+            if (node.right != null) {
+                stack.push(node.right);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    private static void recursivePostOrder(BinaryTree.Node root, List<Integer> result) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        recursivePostOrder(root.left, result);
+        recursivePostOrder(root.right, result);
+        result.add(root.data);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversal.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3aceac4d1852
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversal.java
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Given tree is traversed in a 'pre-order' way: ROOT -> LEFT -> RIGHT.
+ * Below are given the recursive and iterative implementations.
+ *
+ * Complexities:
+ * Recursive: O(n) - time, O(n) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree.
+ *
+ * Iterative: O(n) - time, O(h) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree
+ * and 'h' is the height of a binary tree.
+ * In the worst case 'h' can be O(n) if tree is completely unbalanced, for instance:
+ * 5
+ *  \
+ *   6
+ *    \
+ *     7
+ *      \
+ *       8
+ *
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 17/02/2023
+ */
+public final class PreOrderTraversal {
+    private PreOrderTraversal() {
+    }
+    public static List<Integer> recursivePreOrder(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        recursivePreOrder(root, result);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    public static List<Integer> iterativePreOrder(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        if (root == null) {
+            return result;
+        }
+
+        Deque<BinaryTree.Node> stack = new LinkedList<>();
+        stack.push(root);
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            BinaryTree.Node node = stack.pop();
+            result.add(node.data);
+            if (node.right != null) {
+                stack.push(node.right);
+            }
+            if (node.left != null) {
+                stack.push(node.left);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    private static void recursivePreOrder(BinaryTree.Node root, List<Integer> result) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        result.add(root.data);
+        recursivePreOrder(root.left, result);
+        recursivePreOrder(root.right, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java
index 2fcfd1827d1e..3ef664f3fa7d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java
@@ -6,15 +6,18 @@
 
 // Class for a tree node
 class TreeNode {
+
     // Members
 
     int key;
-    TreeNode left, right;
+    TreeNode left;
+    TreeNode right;
 
     // Constructor
-    public TreeNode(int key) {
+    TreeNode(int key) {
         this.key = key;
-        left = right = null;
+        left = null;
+        right = null;
     }
 }
 
@@ -26,7 +29,7 @@ class QItem {
     TreeNode node;
     int hd;
 
-    public QItem(TreeNode n, int h) {
+    QItem(TreeNode n, int h) {
         node = n;
         hd = h;
     }
@@ -38,11 +41,11 @@ class Tree {
     TreeNode root;
 
     // Constructors
-    public Tree() {
+    Tree() {
         root = null;
     }
 
-    public Tree(TreeNode n) {
+    Tree(TreeNode n) {
         root = n;
     }
 
@@ -57,13 +60,13 @@ public void printTopView() {
         HashSet<Integer> set = new HashSet<>();
 
         // Create a queue and add root to it
-        Queue<QItem> Q = new LinkedList<QItem>();
-        Q.add(new QItem(root, 0)); // Horizontal distance of root is 0
+        Queue<QItem> queue = new LinkedList<QItem>();
+        queue.add(new QItem(root, 0)); // Horizontal distance of root is 0
 
         // Standard BFS or level order traversal loop
-        while (!Q.isEmpty()) {
+        while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
             // Remove the front item and get its details
-            QItem qi = Q.remove();
+            QItem qi = queue.remove();
             int hd = qi.hd;
             TreeNode n = qi.node;
 
@@ -76,17 +79,19 @@ public void printTopView() {
 
             // Enqueue left and right children of current node
             if (n.left != null) {
-                Q.add(new QItem(n.left, hd - 1));
+                queue.add(new QItem(n.left, hd - 1));
             }
             if (n.right != null) {
-                Q.add(new QItem(n.right, hd + 1));
+                queue.add(new QItem(n.right, hd + 1));
             }
         }
     }
 }
 
 // Driver class to test above methods
-public class PrintTopViewofTree {
+public final class PrintTopViewofTree {
+    private PrintTopViewofTree() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         /* Create following Binary Tree
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTree.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e0d255b1e784
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTree.java
@@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Point is a simple class that represents a point in 2D space.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_(geometry)">Point</a>
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/sailok">Sailok Chinta</a>
+ */
+class Point {
+    public double x;
+    public double y;
+
+    Point(double x, double y) {
+        this.x = x;
+        this.y = y;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * BoundingBox is a simple class that represents a bounding box in 2D space.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounding_box">Bounding Box</a>
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/sailok">Sailok Chinta</a>
+ */
+class BoundingBox {
+    public Point center;
+    public double halfWidth;
+
+    BoundingBox(Point center, double halfWidth) {
+        this.center = center;
+        this.halfWidth = halfWidth;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the point is inside the bounding box
+     *
+     * @param point The point to check
+     * @return true if the point is inside the bounding box, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean containsPoint(Point point) {
+        return point.x >= center.x - halfWidth && point.x <= center.x + halfWidth && point.y >= center.y - halfWidth && point.y <= center.y + halfWidth;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the bounding box intersects with the other bounding box
+     *
+     * @param otherBoundingBox The other bounding box
+     * @return true if the bounding box intersects with the other bounding box, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean intersectsBoundingBox(BoundingBox otherBoundingBox) {
+        return otherBoundingBox.center.x - otherBoundingBox.halfWidth <= center.x + halfWidth && otherBoundingBox.center.x + otherBoundingBox.halfWidth >= center.x - halfWidth && otherBoundingBox.center.y - otherBoundingBox.halfWidth <= center.y + halfWidth
+            && otherBoundingBox.center.y + otherBoundingBox.halfWidth >= center.y - halfWidth;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * QuadTree is a tree data structure that is used to store spatial information
+ * in an efficient way.
+ *
+ * This implementation is specific to Point QuadTrees
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadtree">Quad Tree</a>
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/sailok">Sailok Chinta</a>
+ */
+public class QuadTree {
+    private final BoundingBox boundary;
+    private final int capacity;
+
+    private List<Point> pointList;
+    private boolean divided;
+    private QuadTree northWest;
+    private QuadTree northEast;
+    private QuadTree southWest;
+    private QuadTree southEast;
+
+    public QuadTree(BoundingBox boundary, int capacity) {
+        this.boundary = boundary;
+        this.capacity = capacity;
+
+        this.pointList = new ArrayList<>();
+        this.divided = false;
+        this.northWest = null;
+        this.northEast = null;
+        this.southWest = null;
+        this.southEast = null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts a point into the tree
+     *
+     * @param point The point to insert
+     * @return true if the point is successfully inserted, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean insert(Point point) {
+        if (point == null) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Ignore points that don't belong to this quad tree
+        if (!boundary.containsPoint(point)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // if the space is not already occupied, add it to the list
+        if (pointList.size() < capacity) {
+            pointList.add(point);
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        // if subdivision hasn't happened, divide the tree
+        if (!divided) {
+            subDivide();
+        }
+
+        // try to add the point in one of the four quadrants
+        if (northWest.insert(point)) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        if (northEast.insert(point)) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        if (southWest.insert(point)) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        if (southEast.insert(point)) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Create four children that fully divide this quad into four quads of equal area
+     */
+    private void subDivide() {
+        double quadrantHalfWidth = boundary.halfWidth / 2;
+
+        northWest = new QuadTree(new BoundingBox(new Point(boundary.center.x - quadrantHalfWidth, boundary.center.y + quadrantHalfWidth), quadrantHalfWidth), this.capacity);
+        northEast = new QuadTree(new BoundingBox(new Point(boundary.center.x + quadrantHalfWidth, boundary.center.y + quadrantHalfWidth), quadrantHalfWidth), this.capacity);
+        southWest = new QuadTree(new BoundingBox(new Point(boundary.center.x - quadrantHalfWidth, boundary.center.y - quadrantHalfWidth), quadrantHalfWidth), this.capacity);
+        southEast = new QuadTree(new BoundingBox(new Point(boundary.center.x + quadrantHalfWidth, boundary.center.y - quadrantHalfWidth), quadrantHalfWidth), this.capacity);
+        divided = true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Queries all the points that intersect with the other bounding box
+     *
+     * @param otherBoundingBox The other bounding box
+     * @return List of points that intersect with the other bounding box
+     */
+    public List<Point> query(BoundingBox otherBoundingBox) {
+        List<Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        if (!boundary.intersectsBoundingBox(otherBoundingBox)) {
+            return points;
+        }
+
+        // filter the points that intersect with the other bounding box
+        points.addAll(pointList.stream().filter(otherBoundingBox::containsPoint).toList());
+
+        if (divided) {
+            points.addAll(northWest.query(otherBoundingBox));
+            points.addAll(northEast.query(otherBoundingBox));
+            points.addAll(southWest.query(otherBoundingBox));
+            points.addAll(southEast.query(otherBoundingBox));
+        }
+
+        return points;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java
index 49d585be58e5..01222b739ff0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java
@@ -7,13 +7,16 @@
  */
 public class RedBlackBST {
 
-    private final int R = 0;
-    private final int B = 1;
+    private static final int RED = 0;
+    private static final int BLACK = 1;
 
     private class Node {
 
-        int key = -1, color = B;
-        Node left = nil, right = nil, p = nil;
+        int key = -1;
+        int color = BLACK;
+        Node left = nil;
+        Node right = nil;
+        Node p = nil;
 
         Node(int key) {
             this.key = key;
@@ -28,8 +31,7 @@ public void printTree(Node node) {
             return;
         }
         printTree(node.left);
-        System.out.print(
-                ((node.color == R) ? " R " : " B ") + "Key: " + node.key + " Parent: " + node.p.key + "\n");
+        System.out.print(((node.color == RED) ? " R " : " B ") + "Key: " + node.key + " Parent: " + node.p.key + "\n");
         printTree(node.right);
     }
 
@@ -37,10 +39,9 @@ public void printTreepre(Node node) {
         if (node == nil) {
             return;
         }
-        System.out.print(
-                ((node.color == R) ? " R " : " B ") + "Key: " + node.key + " Parent: " + node.p.key + "\n");
-        printTree(node.left);
-        printTree(node.right);
+        System.out.print(((node.color == RED) ? " R " : " B ") + "Key: " + node.key + " Parent: " + node.p.key + "\n");
+        printTreepre(node.left);
+        printTreepre(node.right);
     }
 
     private Node findNode(Node findNode, Node node) {
@@ -65,10 +66,10 @@ private void insert(Node node) {
         Node temp = root;
         if (root == nil) {
             root = node;
-            node.color = B;
+            node.color = BLACK;
             node.p = nil;
         } else {
-            node.color = R;
+            node.color = RED;
             while (true) {
                 if (node.key < temp.key) {
                     if (temp.left == nil) {
@@ -93,15 +94,15 @@ private void insert(Node node) {
     }
 
     private void fixTree(Node node) {
-        while (node.p.color == R) {
+        while (node.p.color == RED) {
             Node y = nil;
             if (node.p == node.p.p.left) {
                 y = node.p.p.right;
 
-                if (y != nil && y.color == R) {
-                    node.p.color = B;
-                    y.color = B;
-                    node.p.p.color = R;
+                if (y != nil && y.color == RED) {
+                    node.p.color = BLACK;
+                    y.color = BLACK;
+                    node.p.p.color = RED;
                     node = node.p.p;
                     continue;
                 }
@@ -109,15 +110,15 @@ private void fixTree(Node node) {
                     node = node.p;
                     rotateLeft(node);
                 }
-                node.p.color = B;
-                node.p.p.color = R;
+                node.p.color = BLACK;
+                node.p.p.color = RED;
                 rotateRight(node.p.p);
             } else {
                 y = node.p.p.left;
-                if (y != nil && y.color == R) {
-                    node.p.color = B;
-                    y.color = B;
-                    node.p.p.color = R;
+                if (y != nil && y.color == RED) {
+                    node.p.color = BLACK;
+                    y.color = BLACK;
+                    node.p.p.color = RED;
                     node = node.p.p;
                     continue;
                 }
@@ -125,12 +126,12 @@ private void fixTree(Node node) {
                     node = node.p;
                     rotateRight(node);
                 }
-                node.p.color = B;
-                node.p.p.color = R;
+                node.p.color = BLACK;
+                node.p.p.color = RED;
                 rotateLeft(node.p.p);
             }
         }
-        root.color = B;
+        root.color = BLACK;
     }
 
     void rotateLeft(Node node) {
@@ -203,7 +204,8 @@ Node treeMinimum(Node subTreeRoot) {
     }
 
     boolean delete(Node z) {
-        if ((z = findNode(z, root)) == null) {
+        Node result = findNode(z, root);
+        if (result == null) {
             return false;
         }
         Node x;
@@ -232,88 +234,85 @@ boolean delete(Node z) {
             y.left.p = y;
             y.color = z.color;
         }
-        if (yorigcolor == B) {
+        if (yorigcolor == BLACK) {
             deleteFixup(x);
         }
         return true;
     }
 
     void deleteFixup(Node x) {
-        while (x != root && x.color == B) {
+        while (x != root && x.color == BLACK) {
             if (x == x.p.left) {
                 Node w = x.p.right;
-                if (w.color == R) {
-                    w.color = B;
-                    x.p.color = R;
+                if (w.color == RED) {
+                    w.color = BLACK;
+                    x.p.color = RED;
                     rotateLeft(x.p);
                     w = x.p.right;
                 }
-                if (w.left.color == B && w.right.color == B) {
-                    w.color = R;
+                if (w.left.color == BLACK && w.right.color == BLACK) {
+                    w.color = RED;
                     x = x.p;
                     continue;
-                } else if (w.right.color == B) {
-                    w.left.color = B;
-                    w.color = R;
+                } else if (w.right.color == BLACK) {
+                    w.left.color = BLACK;
+                    w.color = RED;
                     rotateRight(w);
                     w = x.p.right;
                 }
-                if (w.right.color == R) {
+                if (w.right.color == RED) {
                     w.color = x.p.color;
-                    x.p.color = B;
-                    w.right.color = B;
+                    x.p.color = BLACK;
+                    w.right.color = BLACK;
                     rotateLeft(x.p);
                     x = root;
                 }
             } else {
                 Node w = x.p.left;
-                if (w.color == R) {
-                    w.color = B;
-                    x.p.color = R;
+                if (w.color == RED) {
+                    w.color = BLACK;
+                    x.p.color = RED;
                     rotateRight(x.p);
                     w = x.p.left;
                 }
-                if (w.right.color == B && w.left.color == B) {
-                    w.color = R;
+                if (w.right.color == BLACK && w.left.color == BLACK) {
+                    w.color = RED;
                     x = x.p;
                     continue;
-                } else if (w.left.color == B) {
-                    w.right.color = B;
-                    w.color = R;
+                } else if (w.left.color == BLACK) {
+                    w.right.color = BLACK;
+                    w.color = RED;
                     rotateLeft(w);
                     w = x.p.left;
                 }
-                if (w.left.color == R) {
+                if (w.left.color == RED) {
                     w.color = x.p.color;
-                    x.p.color = B;
-                    w.left.color = B;
+                    x.p.color = BLACK;
+                    w.left.color = BLACK;
                     rotateRight(x.p);
                     x = root;
                 }
             }
         }
-        x.color = B;
+        x.color = BLACK;
     }
 
     public void insertDemo() {
         Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
-        while (true) {
-            System.out.println("Add items");
+        System.out.println("Add items");
 
-            int item;
-            Node node;
+        int item;
+        Node node;
 
+        item = scan.nextInt();
+        while (item != -999) {
+            node = new Node(item);
+            insert(node);
             item = scan.nextInt();
-            while (item != -999) {
-                node = new Node(item);
-                insert(node);
-                item = scan.nextInt();
-            }
-            printTree(root);
-            System.out.println("Pre order");
-            printTreepre(root);
-            break;
         }
+        printTree(root);
+        System.out.println("Pre order");
+        printTreepre(root);
         scan.close();
     }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheck.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cff27c12f1ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheck.java
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.Deque;
+
+/**
+ * Given 2 binary trees.
+ * This code checks whether they are the same (structurally identical and have the same values) or
+ * not. <p> Example:
+ * 1. Binary trees:
+ *      1                 1
+ *     / \               / \
+ *    2   3             2   3
+ *   /\   /\           /\   /\
+ *  4  5 6  7         4  5 6  7
+ * These trees are the same, so the code returns 'true'.
+ * <p>
+ * 2. Binary trees:
+ *      1   1
+ *     /     \
+ *    2       2
+ * These trees are NOT the same (the structure differs), so the code returns 'false'.
+ * <p>
+ * This solution implements the breadth-first search (BFS) algorithm.
+ * For each tree we create a queue and iterate the trees using these queues.
+ * On each step we check the nodes for equality, and if the nodes are not the same, return false.
+ * Otherwise, add children nodes to the queues and continue traversing the trees.
+ * <p>
+ * Complexities:
+ * O(N) - time, where N is the number of nodes in a binary tree,
+ * O(N) - space, where N is the number of nodes in a binary tree.
+ *
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 13/01/2023
+ */
+public final class SameTreesCheck {
+    private SameTreesCheck() {
+    }
+    public static boolean check(BinaryTree.Node p, BinaryTree.Node q) {
+        if (p == null && q == null) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (p == null || q == null) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        Deque<BinaryTree.Node> q1 = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        Deque<BinaryTree.Node> q2 = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        q1.add(p);
+        q2.add(q);
+        while (!q1.isEmpty() && !q2.isEmpty()) {
+            BinaryTree.Node first = q1.poll();
+            BinaryTree.Node second = q2.poll();
+            // check that some node can be null
+            // if the check is true: both nodes are null or both nodes are not null
+            if (!equalNodes(first, second)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            if (first != null) {
+                if (!equalNodes(first.left, second.left)) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+                if (first.left != null) {
+                    q1.add(first.left);
+                    q2.add(second.left);
+                }
+
+                if (!equalNodes(first.right, second.right)) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+                if (first.right != null) {
+                    q1.add(first.right);
+                    q2.add(second.right);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean equalNodes(BinaryTree.Node p, BinaryTree.Node q) {
+        if (p == null && q == null) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (p == null || q == null) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        return p.data == q.data;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java
index 674c6a85385a..57b3edc163ca 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java
@@ -2,47 +2,46 @@
 
 public class SegmentTree {
 
-    private int seg_t[];
+    private int[] segTree;
     private int n;
-    private int arr[];
+    private int[] arr;
 
     /* Constructor which takes the size of the array and the array as a parameter*/
-    public SegmentTree(int n, int arr[]) {
+    public SegmentTree(int n, int[] arr) {
         this.n = n;
         int x = (int) (Math.ceil(Math.log(n) / Math.log(2)));
-        int seg_size = 2 * (int) Math.pow(2, x) - 1;
+        int segSize = 2 * (int) Math.pow(2, x) - 1;
 
-        this.seg_t = new int[seg_size];
+        this.segTree = new int[segSize];
         this.arr = arr;
         this.n = n;
         constructTree(arr, 0, n - 1, 0);
     }
 
     /* A function which will create the segment tree*/
-    public int constructTree(int[] arr, int start, int end, int index) {
+    public final int constructTree(int[] arr, int start, int end, int index) {
         if (start == end) {
-            this.seg_t[index] = arr[start];
+            this.segTree[index] = arr[start];
             return arr[start];
         }
 
         int mid = start + (end - start) / 2;
-        this.seg_t[index] = constructTree(arr, start, mid, index * 2 + 1)
-                + constructTree(arr, mid + 1, end, index * 2 + 2);
-        return this.seg_t[index];
+        this.segTree[index] = constructTree(arr, start, mid, index * 2 + 1) + constructTree(arr, mid + 1, end, index * 2 + 2);
+        return this.segTree[index];
     }
 
     /* A function which will update the value at a index i. This will be called by the
     update function internally*/
-    private void updateTree(int start, int end, int index, int diff, int seg_index) {
+    private void updateTree(int start, int end, int index, int diff, int segIndex) {
         if (index < start || index > end) {
             return;
         }
 
-        this.seg_t[seg_index] += diff;
+        this.segTree[segIndex] += diff;
         if (start != end) {
             int mid = start + (end - start) / 2;
-            updateTree(start, mid, index, diff, seg_index * 2 + 1);
-            updateTree(mid + 1, end, index, diff, seg_index * 2 + 2);
+            updateTree(start, mid, index, diff, segIndex * 2 + 1);
+            updateTree(mid + 1, end, index, diff, segIndex * 2 + 2);
         }
     }
 
@@ -57,18 +56,19 @@ public void update(int index, int value) {
         updateTree(0, n - 1, index, diff, 0);
     }
 
-    /* A function to get the sum of the elements from index l to index r. This will be called internally*/
-    private int getSumTree(int start, int end, int q_start, int q_end, int seg_index) {
-        if (q_start <= start && q_end >= end) {
-            return this.seg_t[seg_index];
+    /* A function to get the sum of the elements from index l to index r. This will be called
+     * internally*/
+    private int getSumTree(int start, int end, int qStart, int qEnd, int segIndex) {
+        if (qStart <= start && qEnd >= end) {
+            return this.segTree[segIndex];
         }
 
-        if (q_start > end || q_end < start) {
+        if (qStart > end || qEnd < start) {
             return 0;
         }
 
         int mid = start + (end - start) / 2;
-        return getSumTree(start, mid, q_start, q_end, seg_index * 2 + 1) + getSumTree(mid + 1, end, q_start, q_end, seg_index * 2 + 2);
+        return (getSumTree(start, mid, qStart, qEnd, segIndex * 2 + 1) + getSumTree(mid + 1, end, qStart, qEnd, segIndex * 2 + 2));
     }
 
     /* A function to query the sum of the subarray [start...end]*/
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTree.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2668b609aedc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTree.java
@@ -0,0 +1,324 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of a Splay Tree data structure.
+ *
+ * A splay tree is a self-adjusting binary search tree with the additional
+ * property
+ * that recently accessed elements are quick to access again. It performs basic
+ * operations such as insertion, deletion, and searching in O(log n) amortized
+ * time,
+ * where n is the number of elements in the tree.
+ *
+ * The key feature of splay trees is the splay operation, which moves a node
+ * closer
+ * to the root of the tree when it is accessed. This operation helps to maintain
+ * good balance and improves the overall performance of the tree. After
+ * performing
+ * a splay operation, the accessed node becomes the new root of the tree.
+ *
+ * Splay trees have applications in various areas, including caching, network
+ * routing,
+ * and dynamic optimality analysis.
+ */
+public class SplayTree {
+    public static final TreeTraversal PRE_ORDER = new PreOrderTraversal();
+    public static final TreeTraversal IN_ORDER = new InOrderTraversal();
+    public static final TreeTraversal POST_ORDER = new PostOrderTraversal();
+
+    private Node root;
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the tree is empty.
+     *
+     * @return True if the tree is empty, otherwise false.
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return root == null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Insert a key into the SplayTree.
+     *
+     * @param key The key to insert.
+     */
+    public void insert(final int key) {
+        root = insertRec(root, key);
+        root = splay(root, key);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Search for a key in the SplayTree.
+     *
+     * @param key The key to search for.
+     * @return True if the key is found, otherwise false.
+     */
+    public boolean search(int key) {
+        root = splay(root, key);
+        return root != null && root.key == key;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Deletes a key from the SplayTree.
+     *
+     * @param key The key to delete.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the tree is empty.
+     */
+    public void delete(final int key) {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            throw new EmptyTreeException("Cannot delete from an empty tree");
+        }
+
+        root = splay(root, key);
+
+        if (root.key != key) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        if (root.left == null) {
+            root = root.right;
+        } else {
+            Node temp = root;
+            root = splay(root.left, findMax(root.left).key);
+            root.right = temp.right;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Perform a traversal of the SplayTree.
+     *
+     * @param traversal The type of traversal method.
+     * @return A list containing the keys in the specified traversal order.
+     */
+    public List<Integer> traverse(TreeTraversal traversal) {
+        List<Integer> result = new LinkedList<>();
+        traversal.traverse(root, result);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the node with the maximum key in a given subtree.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * This method traverses the right children of the subtree until it finds the
+     * rightmost node, which contains the maximum key.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param root The root node of the subtree.
+     * @return The node with the maximum key in the subtree.
+     */
+    private Node findMax(Node root) {
+        while (root.right != null) {
+            root = root.right;
+        }
+        return root;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Zig operation.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * The zig operation is used to perform a single rotation on a node to move it
+     * closer to
+     * the root of the tree. It is typically applied when the node is a left child
+     * of its parent
+     * and needs to be rotated to the right.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param x The node to perform the zig operation on.
+     * @return The new root node after the operation.
+     */
+    private Node rotateRight(Node x) {
+        Node y = x.left;
+        x.left = y.right;
+        y.right = x;
+        return y;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Zag operation.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * The zag operation is used to perform a single rotation on a node to move it
+     * closer to
+     * the root of the tree. It is typically applied when the node is a right child
+     * of its parent
+     * and needs to be rotated to the left.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param x The node to perform the zag operation on.
+     * @return The new root node after the operation.
+     */
+    private Node rotateLeft(Node x) {
+        Node y = x.right;
+        x.right = y.left;
+        y.left = x;
+        return y;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Splay operation.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * The splay operation is the core operation of a splay tree. It moves a
+     * specified node
+     * closer to the root of the tree by performing a series of rotations. The goal
+     * of the splay
+     * operation is to improve the access time for frequently accessed nodes by
+     * bringing them
+     * closer to the root.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * The splay operation consists of three main cases:
+     * <ul>
+     * <li>Zig-Zig case: Perform two consecutive rotations.</li>
+     * <li>Zig-Zag case: Perform two consecutive rotations in opposite
+     * directions.</li>
+     * <li>Zag-Zag case: Perform two consecutive rotations.</li>
+     * </ul>
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * After performing the splay operation, the accessed node becomes the new root
+     * of the tree.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param root The root of the subtree to splay.
+     * @param key  The key to splay around.
+     * @return The new root of the splayed subtree.
+     */
+    private Node splay(Node root, final int key) {
+        if (root == null || root.key == key) {
+            return root;
+        }
+
+        if (root.key > key) {
+            if (root.left == null) {
+                return root;
+            }
+            // Zig-Zig case
+            if (root.left.key > key) {
+                root.left.left = splay(root.left.left, key);
+                root = rotateRight(root);
+            } else if (root.left.key < key) {
+                root.left.right = splay(root.left.right, key);
+                if (root.left.right != null) {
+                    root.left = rotateLeft(root.left);
+                }
+            }
+            return (root.left == null) ? root : rotateRight(root);
+        } else {
+            if (root.right == null) {
+                return root;
+            }
+            // Zag-Zag case
+            if (root.right.key > key) {
+                root.right.left = splay(root.right.left, key);
+                if (root.right.left != null) {
+                    root.right = rotateRight(root.right);
+                }
+            } else if (root.right.key < key) {
+                root.right.right = splay(root.right.right, key);
+                root = rotateLeft(root);
+            }
+            return (root.right == null) ? root : rotateLeft(root);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private Node insertRec(Node root, final int key) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return new Node(key);
+        }
+
+        if (key < root.key) {
+            root.left = insertRec(root.left, key);
+        } else if (key > root.key) {
+            root.right = insertRec(root.right, key);
+        } else {
+            throw new DuplicateKeyException("Duplicate key: " + key);
+        }
+
+        return root;
+    }
+
+    public static class EmptyTreeException extends RuntimeException {
+        private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
+
+        public EmptyTreeException(String message) {
+            super(message);
+        }
+    }
+
+    public static class DuplicateKeyException extends RuntimeException {
+        private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
+
+        public DuplicateKeyException(String message) {
+            super(message);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static class Node {
+        final int key;
+        Node left;
+        Node right;
+
+        Node(int key) {
+            this.key = key;
+            left = null;
+            right = null;
+        }
+    }
+
+    public interface TreeTraversal {
+        /**
+         * Recursive function for a specific order traversal.
+         *
+         * @param root   The root of the subtree to traverse.
+         * @param result The list to store the traversal result.
+         */
+        void traverse(Node root, List<Integer> result);
+    }
+
+    private static final class InOrderTraversal implements TreeTraversal {
+        private InOrderTraversal() {
+        }
+
+        public void traverse(Node root, List<Integer> result) {
+            if (root != null) {
+                traverse(root.left, result);
+                result.add(root.key);
+                traverse(root.right, result);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static final class PreOrderTraversal implements TreeTraversal {
+        private PreOrderTraversal() {
+        }
+
+        public void traverse(Node root, List<Integer> result) {
+            if (root != null) {
+                result.add(root.key);
+                traverse(root.left, result);
+                traverse(root.right, result);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static final class PostOrderTraversal implements TreeTraversal {
+        private PostOrderTraversal() {
+        }
+
+        public void traverse(Node root, List<Integer> result) {
+            if (root != null) {
+                traverse(root.left, result);
+                traverse(root.right, result);
+                result.add(root.key);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Treap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Treap.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1e5d551cc40b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Treap.java
@@ -0,0 +1,357 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * Treap -> Tree + Heap
+ * Also called as cartesian tree
+ *
+ * @see
+ * <a href = "https://cp-algorithms.com/data_structures/treap.html" />
+ */
+
+public class Treap {
+
+    public static class TreapNode {
+        /**
+         * TreapNode class defines the individual nodes in the Treap
+         *
+         * value -> holds the value of the node.
+         * Binary Search Tree is built based on value.
+         *
+         * priority -> holds the priority of the node.
+         * Heaps are maintained based on priority.
+         * It is randomly assigned
+         *
+         * size -> holds the size of the subtree with current node as root
+         *
+         * left -> holds the left subtree
+         * right -> holds the right subtree
+         */
+        public int value;
+        private int priority;
+        private int size;
+        public TreapNode left;
+        public TreapNode right;
+
+        public TreapNode(int valueParam, int priorityParam) {
+            value = valueParam;
+            priority = priorityParam;
+            size = 1;
+            left = null;
+            right = null;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * updateSize -> updates the subtree size of the current node
+         */
+        private void updateSize() {
+            size = 1;
+            if (left != null) {
+                size += left.size;
+            }
+            if (right != null) {
+                size += right.size;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * root -> holds the root node in the Treap
+     * random -> to generate random priority for the nodes in the Treap
+     */
+    private TreapNode root;
+    private Random random = new Random();
+
+    /**
+     * Constructors
+     *
+     * Treap() -> create an empty Treap
+     * Treap(int[] nodeValues) -> add the elements given in the array to the Treap
+     */
+    public Treap() {
+        root = null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * merges two Treaps left and right into a single Treap
+     *
+     * @param left left Treap
+     * @param right right Treap
+     * @return root of merged Treap
+     */
+    private TreapNode merge(TreapNode left, TreapNode right) {
+        if (left == null) {
+            return right;
+        }
+        if (right == null) {
+            return left;
+        }
+
+        if (left.priority > right.priority) {
+            left.right = merge(left.right, right);
+            left.updateSize();
+            return left;
+        } else {
+            right.left = merge(left, right.left);
+            right.updateSize();
+            return right;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * split the Treap into two Treaps where left Treap has nodes <= key and right Treap has nodes > key
+     *
+     * @param node root node to be split
+     * @param key key to compare the nodes
+     * @return TreapNode array of size 2.
+     * TreapNode[0] contains the root of left Treap after split
+     * TreapNode[1] contains the root of right Treap after split
+     */
+    private TreapNode[] split(TreapNode node, int key) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return new TreapNode[] {null, null};
+        }
+
+        TreapNode[] result;
+
+        if (node.value <= key) {
+            result = split(node.right, key);
+            node.right = result[0];
+            node.updateSize();
+            result[0] = node;
+        } else {
+            result = split(node.left, key);
+            node.left = result[1];
+            node.updateSize();
+            result[1] = node;
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * insert a node into the Treap
+     *
+     * @param value value to be inserted into the Treap
+     * @return root of the Treap where the value is inserted
+     */
+    public TreapNode insert(int value) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            root = new TreapNode(value, random.nextInt());
+            return root;
+        }
+
+        TreapNode[] splitted = split(root, value);
+
+        TreapNode node = new TreapNode(value, random.nextInt());
+
+        TreapNode tempMerged = merge(splitted[0], node);
+        tempMerged.updateSize();
+
+        TreapNode merged = merge(tempMerged, splitted[1]);
+        merged.updateSize();
+
+        root = merged;
+
+        return root;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * delete a value from root if present
+     *
+     * @param value value to be deleted from the Treap
+     * @return root of the Treap where delete has been performed
+     */
+    public TreapNode delete(int value) {
+        root = deleteNode(root, value);
+        return root;
+    }
+
+    private TreapNode deleteNode(TreapNode root, int value) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        if (value < root.value) {
+            root.left = deleteNode(root.left, value);
+        } else if (value > root.value) {
+            root.right = deleteNode(root.right, value);
+        } else {
+            root = merge(root.left, root.right);
+        }
+
+        if (root != null) {
+            root.updateSize();
+        }
+        return root;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * print inorder traversal of the Treap
+     */
+    public void inOrder() {
+        System.out.print("{");
+        printInorder(root);
+        System.out.print("}");
+    }
+
+    private void printInorder(TreapNode root) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        printInorder(root.left);
+        System.out.print(root.value + ",");
+        printInorder(root.right);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * print preOrder traversal of the Treap
+     */
+    public void preOrder() {
+        System.out.print("{");
+        printPreOrder(root);
+        System.out.print("}");
+    }
+
+    private void printPreOrder(TreapNode root) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        System.out.print(root.value + ",");
+        printPreOrder(root.left);
+        printPreOrder(root.right);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * print postOrder traversal of the Treap
+     */
+    public void postOrder() {
+        System.out.print("{");
+        printPostOrder(root);
+        System.out.print("}");
+    }
+
+    private void printPostOrder(TreapNode root) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        printPostOrder(root.left);
+        printPostOrder(root.right);
+        System.out.print(root.value + ",");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Search a value in the Treap
+     *
+     * @param value value to be searched for
+     * @return node containing the value
+     * null if not found
+     */
+    public TreapNode search(int value) {
+        return searchVal(root, value);
+    }
+
+    private TreapNode searchVal(TreapNode root, int value) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        if (root.value == value) {
+            return root;
+        } else if (root.value < value) {
+            return searchVal(root.right, value);
+        } else {
+            return searchVal(root.left, value);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * find the lowerBound of a value in the Treap
+     *
+     * @param value value for which lowerBound is to be found
+     * @return node which is the lowerBound of the value passed
+     */
+    public TreapNode lowerBound(int value) {
+        TreapNode lowerBoundNode = null;
+        TreapNode current = root;
+
+        while (current != null) {
+            if (current.value >= value) {
+                lowerBoundNode = current;
+                current = current.left;
+            } else {
+                current = current.right;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return lowerBoundNode;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * find the upperBound of a value in the Treap
+     *
+     * @param value value for which upperBound is to be found
+     * @return node which is the upperBound of the value passed
+     */
+    public TreapNode upperBound(int value) {
+        TreapNode upperBoundNode = null;
+        TreapNode current = root;
+
+        while (current != null) {
+            if (current.value > value) {
+                upperBoundNode = current;
+                current = current.left;
+            } else {
+                current = current.right;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return upperBoundNode;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * returns size of the Treap
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        return root.size;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * returns if Treap is empty
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return root == null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * returns root node of the Treap
+     */
+    public TreapNode getRoot() {
+        return root;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * returns left node of the TreapNode
+     */
+    public TreapNode getLeft(TreapNode node) {
+        return node.left;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * returns the right node of the TreapNode
+     */
+    public TreapNode getRight(TreapNode node) {
+        return node.right;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * prints the value, priority, size of the subtree of the TreapNode, left TreapNode and right TreapNode of the node
+     */
+    public String toString(TreapNode node) {
+        return "{value : " + node.value + ", priority : " + node.priority + ", subTreeSize = " + node.size + ", left = " + node.left + ", right = " + node.right + "}";
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeRandomNode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeRandomNode.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cf56731fb079
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeRandomNode.java
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+/* Author : Suraj Kumar
+  Github : https://github.com/skmodi649
+ */
+
+/* PROBLEM DESCRIPTION :
+  There is a Binary Search Tree given, and we are supposed to find a random node in the given binary
+  tree.
+ */
+
+/* ALGORITHM :
+  Step 1: START
+  Step 2: First create a binary tree using the steps mentioned in the first approach
+  Step 3: Now use a method inOrder() that takes a node as input parameter to traverse through the
+          binary tree in inorder fashion as also store the values in a ArrayList simultaneously.
+  Step 4: Now define a method getRandom() that takes a node as input parameter, in this first call
+          the inOrder() method to store the values in the arraylist, then find the size of the
+  binary tree and now just generate a random number between 0 to n-1. Step 5: After generating the
+  number display the value of the ArrayList at the generated index Step 6: STOP
+ */
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+
+// Using auxiliary array to find the random node in a given binary tree
+
+public class TreeRandomNode {
+
+    private final class Node {
+
+        int item;
+        Node left;
+        Node right;
+    }
+
+    // Using an arraylist to store the inorder traversal of the given binary tree
+    static ArrayList<Integer> list = new ArrayList<>();
+    // root of Tree
+    Node root;
+
+    TreeRandomNode() {
+        root = null;
+    }
+
+    // Now lets find the inorder traversal of the given binary tree
+    static void inOrder(Node node) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // traverse the left child
+        inOrder(node.left);
+
+        list.add(node.item);
+        // traverse the right child
+        inOrder(node.right);
+    }
+
+    public void getRandom(Node val) {
+        inOrder(val);
+        // getting the count of node of the binary tree
+        int n = list.size();
+        int min = 0;
+        int max = n - 1;
+        // Generate random int value from 0 to n-1
+        int b = (int) (Math.random() * (max - min + 1) + min);
+        // displaying the value at the generated index
+        int random = list.get(b);
+        System.out.println("Random Node : " + random);
+    }
+}
+/* Explanation of the Approach :
+  (a) Form the required binary tree
+  (b) Now use the inOrder() method to get the nodes in inOrder fashion and also store them in the
+  given arraylist 'list' (c) Using the getRandom() method generate a random number between 0 to n-1,
+  then get the value at the generated random number from the arraylist using get() method and
+  finally display the result.
+ */
+/* OUTPUT :
+  First output :
+  Random Node : 15
+  Second output :
+  Random Node : 99
+ */
+/* Time Complexity : O(n)
+  Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
+ */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeTraversal.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 586f740b1b14..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeTraversal.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,120 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
-
-import java.util.LinkedList;
-
-/**
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
- */
-// Driver Program
-public class TreeTraversal {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Node tree = new Node(5);
-        tree.insert(3);
-        tree.insert(2);
-        tree.insert(7);
-        tree.insert(4);
-        tree.insert(6);
-        tree.insert(8);
-
-        // Prints 5 3 2 4 7 6 8
-        System.out.println("Pre order traversal:");
-        tree.printPreOrder();
-        System.out.println();
-        // Prints 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-        System.out.println("In order traversal:");
-        tree.printInOrder();
-        System.out.println();
-        // Prints 2 4 3 6 8 7 5
-        System.out.println("Post order traversal:");
-        tree.printPostOrder();
-        System.out.println();
-        // Prints 5 3 7 2 4 6 8
-        System.out.println("Level order traversal:");
-        tree.printLevelOrder();
-        System.out.println();
-    }
-}
-
-/**
- * The Node class which initializes a Node of a tree Consists of all 4 traversal
- * methods: printInOrder, printPostOrder， printPreOrder & printLevelOrder
- * printInOrder: LEFT -> ROOT -> RIGHT printPreOrder: ROOT -> LEFT -> RIGHT
- * printPostOrder: LEFT -> RIGHT -> ROOT printLevelOrder: Prints by level
- * (starting at root), from left to right.
- */
-class Node {
-
-    Node left, right;
-    int data;
-
-    public Node(int data) {
-        this.data = data;
-    }
-
-    public void insert(int value) {
-        if (value < data) {
-            if (left == null) {
-                left = new Node(value);
-            } else {
-                left.insert(value);
-            }
-        } else {
-            if (right == null) {
-                right = new Node(value);
-            } else {
-                right.insert(value);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    public void printInOrder() {
-        if (left != null) {
-            left.printInOrder();
-        }
-        System.out.print(data + " ");
-        if (right != null) {
-            right.printInOrder();
-        }
-    }
-
-    public void printPreOrder() {
-        System.out.print(data + " ");
-        if (left != null) {
-            left.printPreOrder();
-        }
-        if (right != null) {
-            right.printPreOrder();
-        }
-    }
-
-    public void printPostOrder() {
-        if (left != null) {
-            left.printPostOrder();
-        }
-        if (right != null) {
-            right.printPostOrder();
-        }
-        System.out.print(data + " ");
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * O(n) time algorithm. Uses O(n) space to store nodes in a queue to aid in
-     * traversal.
-     */
-    public void printLevelOrder() {
-        LinkedList<Node> queue = new LinkedList<>();
-        queue.add(this);
-        while (queue.size() > 0) {
-            Node head = queue.remove();
-            System.out.print(head.data + " ");
-            // Add children of recently-printed node to queue, if they exist.
-            if (head.left != null) {
-                queue.add(head.left);
-            }
-            if (head.right != null) {
-                queue.add(head.right);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Trie.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Trie.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..02f28d4d83ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Trie.java
@@ -0,0 +1,202 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+
+/**
+ * Represents a Trie Node that stores a character and pointers to its children.
+ * Each node has a hashmap which can point to all possible characters.
+ * Each node also has a boolean value to indicate if it is the end of a word.
+ */
+class TrieNode {
+    char value;
+    HashMap<Character, TrieNode> child;
+    boolean end;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize a TrieNode with an empty hashmap
+     * and set end to false.
+     */
+    TrieNode(char value) {
+        this.value = value;
+        this.child = new HashMap<>();
+        this.end = false;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Trie Data structure implementation without any libraries.
+ * <p>
+ * The Trie (also known as a prefix tree) is a special tree-like data structure
+ * that is used to store a dynamic set or associative array where the keys are
+ * usually strings. It is highly efficient for prefix-based searches.
+ * <p>
+ * This implementation supports basic Trie operations like insertion, search,
+ * and deletion.
+ * <p>
+ * Each node of the Trie represents a character and has child nodes for each
+ * possible character.
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/dheeraj92">Dheeraj Kumar Barnwal</a>
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/sailok">Sailok Chinta</a>
+ */
+
+public class Trie {
+    private static final char ROOT_NODE_VALUE = '*';
+
+    private final TrieNode root;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize the Trie.
+     * The root node is created but doesn't represent any character.
+     */
+    public Trie() {
+        root = new TrieNode(ROOT_NODE_VALUE);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Inserts a word into the Trie.
+     * <p>
+     * The method traverses the Trie from the root, character by character, and adds
+     * nodes if necessary. It marks the last node of the word as an end node.
+     *
+     * @param word The word to be inserted into the Trie.
+     */
+    public void insert(String word) {
+        TrieNode currentNode = root;
+        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
+            TrieNode node = currentNode.child.getOrDefault(word.charAt(i), null);
+
+            if (node == null) {
+                node = new TrieNode(word.charAt(i));
+                currentNode.child.put(word.charAt(i), node);
+            }
+            currentNode = node;
+        }
+
+        currentNode.end = true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Searches for a word in the Trie.
+     * <p>
+     * This method traverses the Trie based on the input word and checks whether
+     * the word exists. It returns true if the word is found and its end flag is
+     * true.
+     *
+     * @param word The word to search in the Trie.
+     * @return true if the word exists in the Trie, false otherwise.
+     */
+    public boolean search(String word) {
+        TrieNode currentNode = root;
+        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
+            TrieNode node = currentNode.child.getOrDefault(word.charAt(i), null);
+
+            if (node == null) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            currentNode = node;
+        }
+
+        return currentNode.end;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Deletes a word from the Trie.
+     * <p>
+     * The method traverses the Trie to find the word and marks its end flag as
+     * false.
+     * It returns true if the word was successfully deleted, false if the word
+     * wasn't found.
+     *
+     * @param word The word to be deleted from the Trie.
+     * @return true if the word was found and deleted, false if it was not found.
+     */
+    public boolean delete(String word) {
+        TrieNode currentNode = root;
+        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
+            TrieNode node = currentNode.child.getOrDefault(word.charAt(i), null);
+            if (node == null) {
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            currentNode = node;
+        }
+
+        if (currentNode.end) {
+            currentNode.end = false;
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of words in the trie
+     *<p>
+     * The method traverses the Trie and counts the number of words.
+     *
+     * @return count of words
+     */
+    public int countWords() {
+        return countWords(root);
+    }
+
+    private int countWords(TrieNode node) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        int count = 0;
+        if (node.end) {
+            count++;
+        }
+
+        for (TrieNode child : node.child.values()) {
+            count += countWords(child);
+        }
+
+        return count;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Check if the prefix exists in the trie
+     *
+     * @param prefix the prefix to be checked in the Trie
+     * @return true / false depending on the prefix if exists in the Trie
+     */
+    public boolean startsWithPrefix(String prefix) {
+        TrieNode currentNode = root;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < prefix.length(); i++) {
+            TrieNode node = currentNode.child.getOrDefault(prefix.charAt(i), null);
+            if (node == null) {
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            currentNode = node;
+        }
+
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Count the number of words starting with the given prefix in the trie
+     *
+     * @param prefix the prefix to be checked in the Trie
+     * @return count of words
+     */
+    public int countWordsWithPrefix(String prefix) {
+        TrieNode currentNode = root;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < prefix.length(); i++) {
+            TrieNode node = currentNode.child.getOrDefault(prefix.charAt(i), null);
+            if (node == null) {
+                return 0;
+            }
+
+            currentNode = node;
+        }
+
+        return countWords(currentNode);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieImp.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieImp.java
deleted file mode 100644
index a650900a23ba..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieImp.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,144 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
-
-/**
- * Trie Data structure implementation without any libraries
- *
- * @author Dheeraj Kumar Barnwal (https://github.com/dheeraj92)
- */
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class TrieImp {
-
-    public class TrieNode {
-
-        TrieNode[] child;
-        boolean end;
-
-        public TrieNode() {
-            child = new TrieNode[26];
-            end = false;
-        }
-    }
-
-    private final TrieNode root;
-
-    public TrieImp() {
-        root = new TrieNode();
-    }
-
-    public void insert(String word) {
-        TrieNode currentNode = root;
-        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
-            TrieNode node = currentNode.child[word.charAt(i) - 'a'];
-            if (node == null) {
-                node = new TrieNode();
-                currentNode.child[word.charAt(i) - 'a'] = node;
-            }
-            currentNode = node;
-        }
-        currentNode.end = true;
-    }
-
-    public boolean search(String word) {
-        TrieNode currentNode = root;
-        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
-            char ch = word.charAt(i);
-            TrieNode node = currentNode.child[ch - 'a'];
-            if (node == null) {
-                return false;
-            }
-            currentNode = node;
-        }
-        return currentNode.end;
-    }
-
-    public boolean delete(String word) {
-        TrieNode currentNode = root;
-        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
-            char ch = word.charAt(i);
-            TrieNode node = currentNode.child[ch - 'a'];
-            if (node == null) {
-                return false;
-            }
-            currentNode = node;
-        }
-        if (currentNode.end == true) {
-            currentNode.end = false;
-            return true;
-        }
-        return false;
-    }
-
-    public static void sop(String print) {
-        System.out.println(print);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Regex to check if word contains only a-z character
-     */
-    public static boolean isValid(String word) {
-        return word.matches("^[a-z]+$");
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        TrieImp obj = new TrieImp();
-        String word;
-        @SuppressWarnings("resource")
-        Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
-        sop("string should contain only a-z character for all operation");
-        while (true) {
-            sop("1. Insert\n2. Search\n3. Delete\n4. Quit");
-            try {
-                int t = scan.nextInt();
-                switch (t) {
-                    case 1:
-                        word = scan.next();
-                        if (isValid(word)) {
-                            obj.insert(word);
-                        } else {
-                            sop("Invalid string: allowed only a-z");
-                        }
-                        break;
-                    case 2:
-                        word = scan.next();
-                        boolean resS = false;
-                        if (isValid(word)) {
-                            resS = obj.search(word);
-                        } else {
-                            sop("Invalid string: allowed only a-z");
-                        }
-                        if (resS) {
-                            sop("word found");
-                        } else {
-                            sop("word not found");
-                        }
-                        break;
-                    case 3:
-                        word = scan.next();
-                        boolean resD = false;
-                        if (isValid(word)) {
-                            resD = obj.delete(word);
-                        } else {
-                            sop("Invalid string: allowed only a-z");
-                        }
-                        if (resD) {
-                            sop("word got deleted successfully");
-                        } else {
-                            sop("word not found");
-                        }
-                        break;
-                    case 4:
-                        sop("Quit successfully");
-                        System.exit(1);
-                        break;
-                    default:
-                        sop("Input int from 1-4");
-                        break;
-                }
-            } catch (Exception e) {
-                String badInput = scan.next();
-                sop("This is bad input: " + badInput);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ValidBSTOrNot.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ValidBSTOrNot.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 1b9555c07650..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ValidBSTOrNot.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,45 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
-
-public class ValidBSTOrNot {
-
-    class Node {
-
-        int data;
-        Node left, right;
-
-        public Node(int item) {
-            data = item;
-            left = right = null;
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Root of the Binary Tree
-
-    /* can give min and max value according to your code or
-  can write a function to find min and max value of tree. */
-
- /* returns true if given search tree is binary
-  search tree (efficient version) */
-    boolean isBST(Node root) {
-        return isBSTUtil(root, Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
-    }
-
-    /* Returns true if the given tree is a BST and its
-  values are >= min and <= max. */
-    boolean isBSTUtil(Node node, int min, int max) {
-        /* an empty tree is BST */
-        if (node == null) {
-            return true;
-        }
-
-        /* false if this node violates the min/max constraints */
-        if (node.data < min || node.data > max) {
-            return false;
-        }
-
-        /* otherwise check the subtrees recursively
-    tightening the min/max constraints */
-        // Allow only distinct values
-        return (isBSTUtil(node.left, min, node.data - 1) && isBSTUtil(node.right, node.data + 1, max));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java
index 18577fbc5c9a..c1d15390d4b9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java
@@ -20,86 +20,76 @@
  the sequence will be :
  4 2 7 1 5 9 3 8 6 10
  */
-public class VerticalOrderTraversal {
+public final class VerticalOrderTraversal {
+    private VerticalOrderTraversal() {
+    }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        BinaryTree tree = new BinaryTree();
-        tree.put(5);
-        tree.put(6);
-        tree.put(3);
-        tree.put(1);
-        tree.put(4);
-        BinaryTree.Node root = tree.getRoot();
-        ArrayList<Integer> ans = verticalTraversal(root);
-        for (int i : ans) {
-            System.out.print(i + " ");
+    /*Function that receives a root Node and prints the tree
+        in Vertical Order.*/
+    public static ArrayList<Integer> verticalTraversal(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
         }
-    }
 
-    /*Function that receives a root Node and prints the tree 
-	in Vertical Order.*/
-    private static ArrayList<Integer> verticalTraversal(BinaryTree.Node root) {
         /*Queue to store the Nodes.*/
         Queue<BinaryTree.Node> queue = new LinkedList<>();
 
-        /*Queue to store the index of particular vertical 
-		 column of a tree , with root at 0, Nodes on left 
-		 with negative index and Nodes on right with positive
-		 index. */
+        /*Queue to store the index of particular vertical
+                 column of a tree , with root at 0, Nodes on left
+                 with negative index and Nodes on right with positive
+                 index. */
         Queue<Integer> index = new LinkedList<>();
 
-        /*Map of Integer and ArrayList to store all the 
-		 elements in a particular index in a single arrayList
-		 that will have a key equal to the index itself. */
+        /*Map of Integer and ArrayList to store all the
+                 elements in a particular index in a single arrayList
+                 that will have a key equal to the index itself. */
         Map<Integer, ArrayList<Integer>> map = new HashMap<>();
 
         /* min and max stores leftmost and right most index to
-		 later print the tree in vertical fashion.*/
-        int max = 0, min = 0;
+                 later print the tree in vertical fashion.*/
+        int max = 0;
+        int min = 0;
         queue.offer(root);
         index.offer(0);
 
         while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
-
             if (queue.peek().left != null) {
                 /*Adding the left Node if it is not null
-				and its index by subtracting 1 from it's 
-				parent's index*/
+                                and its index by subtracting 1 from it's
+                                parent's index*/
                 queue.offer(queue.peek().left);
                 index.offer(index.peek() - 1);
             }
             if (queue.peek().right != null) {
                 /*Adding the right Node if it is not null
-				and its index by adding 1 from it's 
-				parent's index*/
+                                and its index by adding 1 from it's
+                                parent's index*/
                 queue.offer(queue.peek().right);
                 index.offer(index.peek() + 1);
             }
             /*If the map does not contains the index a new
-			 ArrayList is created with the index as key.*/
+                         ArrayList is created with the index as key.*/
             if (!map.containsKey(index.peek())) {
                 ArrayList<Integer> a = new ArrayList<>();
                 map.put(index.peek(), a);
             }
             /*For a index, corresponding Node data is added
-			 to the respective ArrayList present at that
-			 index. */
+                         to the respective ArrayList present at that
+                         index. */
             map.get(index.peek()).add(queue.peek().data);
-            max = (int) Math.max(max, index.peek());
-            min = (int) Math.min(min, index.peek());
-            /*The Node and its index are removed 
-			 from their respective queues.*/
+            max = Math.max(max, index.peek());
+            min = Math.min(min, index.peek());
+            /*The Node and its index are removed
+                         from their respective queues.*/
             index.poll();
             queue.poll();
         }
         /*Finally map data is printed here which has keys
-		from min to max. Each ArrayList represents a 
-		vertical column that is added in ans ArrayList.*/
+                from min to max. Each ArrayList represents a
+                vertical column that is added in ans ArrayList.*/
         ArrayList<Integer> ans = new ArrayList<>();
         for (int i = min; i <= max; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < map.get(i).size(); j++) {
-                ans.add(map.get(i).get(j));
-            }
+            ans.addAll(map.get(i));
         }
         return ans;
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversal.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..84fe0eb2c42a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversal.java
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Given a binary tree.
+ * This code returns the zigzag level order traversal of its nodes' values.
+ * Binary tree:
+ *                               7
+ *                   /                         \
+ *                6                           3
+ *         /                \             /             \
+ *      2                    4         10                19
+ * Zigzag traversal:
+ * [[7], [3, 6], [2, 4, 10, 19]]
+ * <p>
+ * This solution implements the breadth-first search (BFS) algorithm using a queue.
+ * 1. The algorithm starts with a root node. This node is added to a queue.
+ * 2. While the queue is not empty:
+ *  - each time we enter the while-loop we get queue size. Queue size refers to the number of nodes
+ * at the current level.
+ *  - we traverse all the level nodes in 2 ways: from left to right OR from right to left
+ *    (this state is stored on `prevLevelFromLeftToRight` variable)
+ *  - if the current node has children we add them to a queue
+ *  - add level with nodes to a result.
+ * <p>
+ * Complexities:
+ * O(N) - time, where N is the number of nodes in a binary tree
+ * O(N) - space, where N is the number of nodes in a binary tree
+ *
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 11/01/2023
+ */
+public final class ZigzagTraversal {
+    private ZigzagTraversal() {
+    }
+    public static List<List<Integer>> traverse(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return List.of();
+        }
+
+        List<List<Integer>> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // create a queue
+        Deque<BinaryTree.Node> q = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        q.offer(root);
+        // start with writing nodes from left to right
+        boolean prevLevelFromLeftToRight = false;
+
+        while (!q.isEmpty()) {
+            int nodesOnLevel = q.size();
+            List<Integer> level = new LinkedList<>();
+            // traverse all the level nodes
+            for (int i = 0; i < nodesOnLevel; i++) {
+                BinaryTree.Node node = q.poll();
+                if (prevLevelFromLeftToRight) {
+                    level.add(0, node.data);
+                } else {
+                    level.add(node.data);
+                }
+                if (node.left != null) {
+                    q.offer(node.left);
+                }
+                if (node.right != null) {
+                    q.offer(node.right);
+                }
+            }
+            // the next level node traversal will be from the other side
+            prevLevelFromLeftToRight = !prevLevelFromLeftToRight;
+            result.add(level);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java
index a056c459f000..6c53666e5856 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java
@@ -3,18 +3,21 @@
 import java.util.Scanner;
 import java.util.concurrent.ThreadLocalRandom;
 
-class Main {
+final class NearestRightKey {
+    private NearestRightKey() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-        NRKTree root = BuildTree();
+        NRKTree root = buildTree();
         Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
         System.out.print("Enter first number: ");
         int inputX0 = sc.nextInt();
         int toPrint = nearestRightKey(root, inputX0);
         System.out.println("Key: " + toPrint);
+        sc.close();
     }
 
-    public static NRKTree BuildTree() {
+    public static NRKTree buildTree() {
         int randomX = ThreadLocalRandom.current().nextInt(0, 100 + 1);
         NRKTree root = new NRKTree(null, null, randomX);
 
@@ -27,7 +30,7 @@ public static NRKTree BuildTree() {
     }
 
     public static int nearestRightKey(NRKTree root, int x0) {
-        //Check whether tree is empty
+        // Check whether tree is empty
         if (root == null) {
             return 0;
         } else {
@@ -42,10 +45,8 @@ public static int nearestRightKey(NRKTree root, int x0) {
                 // Go right
                 return nearestRightKey(root.right, x0);
             }
-
         }
     }
-
 }
 
 class NRKTree {
@@ -54,13 +55,13 @@ class NRKTree {
     public NRKTree right;
     public int data;
 
-    public NRKTree(int x) {
+    NRKTree(int x) {
         this.left = null;
         this.right = null;
         this.data = x;
     }
 
-    public NRKTree(NRKTree right, NRKTree left, int x) {
+    NRKTree(NRKTree right, NRKTree left, int x) {
         this.left = left;
         this.right = right;
         this.data = x;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/entities/ProcessDetails.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/entities/ProcessDetails.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b8b863eda3fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/entities/ProcessDetails.java
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities;
+
+public class ProcessDetails {
+    private String processId;
+    private int arrivalTime;
+    private int burstTime;
+    private int waitingTime;
+    private int turnAroundTime;
+    private int priority;
+
+    public ProcessDetails(final String processId, final int arrivalTime, final int burstTime, int priority) {
+        this.processId = processId;
+        this.arrivalTime = arrivalTime;
+        this.burstTime = burstTime;
+        this.priority = priority;
+    }
+
+    public ProcessDetails(final String processId, final int arrivalTime, final int burstTime) {
+        this.processId = processId;
+        this.arrivalTime = arrivalTime;
+        this.burstTime = burstTime;
+    }
+
+    public String getProcessId() {
+        return processId;
+    }
+
+    public int getArrivalTime() {
+        return arrivalTime;
+    }
+
+    public int getBurstTime() {
+        return burstTime;
+    }
+
+    public int getWaitingTime() {
+        return waitingTime;
+    }
+
+    public int getTurnAroundTimeTime() {
+        return turnAroundTime;
+    }
+
+    public int getPriority() {
+        return priority;
+    }
+
+    public void setProcessId(final String processId) {
+        this.processId = processId;
+    }
+
+    public void setArrivalTime(final int arrivalTime) {
+        this.arrivalTime = arrivalTime;
+    }
+
+    public void setBurstTime(final int burstTime) {
+        this.burstTime = burstTime;
+    }
+
+    public void setWaitingTime(final int waitingTime) {
+        this.waitingTime = waitingTime;
+    }
+
+    public void setTurnAroundTimeTime(final int turnAroundTime) {
+        this.turnAroundTime = turnAroundTime;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java
index 1575e3649bc3..95d53ecb1f7a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ public LargeTreeNode(E data, LargeTreeNode<E> parentNode, Collection<LargeTreeNo
      */
     @Override
     public boolean isLeafNode() {
-        return (childNodes == null || childNodes.size() == 0);
+        return (childNodes == null || childNodes.isEmpty());
     }
 
     public Collection<LargeTreeNode<E>> getChildNodes() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/MatrixSearchAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/MatrixSearchAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..36587a21c863
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/MatrixSearchAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches;
+
+/**
+ * The common interface of most searching algorithms that search in matrixes.
+ *
+ * @author Aitor Fidalgo (https://github.com/aitorfi)
+ */
+public interface MatrixSearchAlgorithm {
+    /**
+     * @param key is an element which should be found
+     * @param matrix is a matrix where the element should be found
+     * @param <T> Comparable type
+     * @return array containing the first found coordinates of the element
+     */
+    <T extends Comparable<T>> int[] find(T[][] matrix, T key);
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java
index 96da4b3f8546..eb5b42756958 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java
@@ -6,12 +6,11 @@
  * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
  */
 public interface SearchAlgorithm {
-
     /**
      * @param key is an element which should be found
      * @param array is an array where the element should be found
      * @param <T> Comparable type
      * @return first found index of the element
      */
-    <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T array[], T key);
+    <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key);
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiation.java
index ee5ad9c9fb73..de829585891a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiation.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiation.java
@@ -1,22 +1,42 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
 
-public class BinaryExponentiation {
+// Java Program to Implement Binary Exponentiation (power in log n)
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        System.out.println(calculatePower(2, 30));
-    }
+// Reference Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation_by_squaring
+
+/*
+ * Binary Exponentiation is a method to calculate a to the power of b.
+ * It is used to calculate a^n in O(log n) time.
+ *
+ * Reference:
+ * https://iq.opengenus.org/binary-exponentiation/
+ */
+
+public class BinaryExponentiation {
 
-    // Function to calculate x^y
-    // Time Complexity: O(logn)
+    // recursive function to calculate a to the power of b
     public static long calculatePower(long x, long y) {
+        // Base Case
         if (y == 0) {
             return 1;
         }
-        long val = calculatePower(x, y / 2);
-        val *= val;
-        if (y % 2 == 1) {
-            val *= x;
+        if (y % 2 == 1) { // odd power
+            return x * calculatePower(x, y - 1);
+        }
+        return calculatePower(x * x, y / 2); // even power
+    }
+
+    // iterative function to calculate a to the power of b
+    long power(long n, long m) {
+        long power = n;
+        long sum = 1;
+        while (m > 0) {
+            if ((m & 1) == 1) {
+                sum *= power;
+            }
+            power = power * power;
+            m = m >> 1;
         }
-        return val;
+        return sum;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java
index 9751dce61c3f..cd26f9213651 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ public final class ClosestPair {
     /**
      * Input data, maximum 10000.
      */
-    private Location[] array;
+    Location[] array;
     /**
      * Minimum point coordinate.
      */
@@ -83,7 +83,6 @@ public Location buildLocation(double x, double y) {
      * @return pivot index
      */
     public int xPartition(final Location[] a, final int first, final int last) {
-
         Location pivot = a[last]; // pivot
         int i = first - 1;
         Location temp; // Temporarily store value for position transformation
@@ -111,7 +110,6 @@ public int xPartition(final Location[] a, final int first, final int last) {
      * @return pivot index
      */
     public int yPartition(final Location[] a, final int first, final int last) {
-
         Location pivot = a[last]; // pivot
         int i = first - 1;
         Location temp; // Temporarily store value for position transformation
@@ -138,7 +136,6 @@ public int yPartition(final Location[] a, final int first, final int last) {
      * @param last (IN Parameter) last point <br>
      */
     public void xQuickSort(final Location[] a, final int first, final int last) {
-
         if (first < last) {
             int q = xPartition(a, first, last); // pivot
             xQuickSort(a, first, q - 1); // Left
@@ -154,7 +151,6 @@ public void xQuickSort(final Location[] a, final int first, final int last) {
      * @param last (IN Parameter) last point <br>
      */
     public void yQuickSort(final Location[] a, final int first, final int last) {
-
         if (first < last) {
             int q = yPartition(a, first, last); // pivot
             yQuickSort(a, first, q - 1); // Left
@@ -170,7 +166,6 @@ public void yQuickSort(final Location[] a, final int first, final int last) {
      * @return minimum distance <br>
      */
     public double closestPair(final Location[] a, final int indexNum) {
-
         Location[] divideArray = new Location[indexNum];
         System.arraycopy(a, 0, divideArray, 0, indexNum); // Copy previous array
         int divideX = indexNum / 2; // Intermediate value for divide
@@ -257,7 +252,6 @@ public double closestPair(final Location[] a, final int indexNum) {
      * @return <br>
      */
     public double bruteForce(final Location[] arrayParam) {
-
         double minValue = Double.MAX_VALUE; // minimum distance
         double length;
         double xGap; // Difference between x coordinates
@@ -312,7 +306,6 @@ public double bruteForce(final Location[] arrayParam) {
      * @param args (IN Parameter) <br>
      */
     public static void main(final String[] args) {
-
         // Input data consists of one x-coordinate and one y-coordinate
         ClosestPair cp = new ClosestPair(12);
         cp.array[0] = cp.buildLocation(2, 3);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/CountingInversions.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/CountingInversions.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..15c8bc33b58f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/CountingInversions.java
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class for counting the number of inversions in an array.
+ * <p>
+ * An inversion is a pair (i, j) such that i < j and arr[i] > arr[j].
+ * This class implements a divide-and-conquer approach, similar to merge sort,
+ * to count the number of inversions efficiently.
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity: O(n log n)
+ * Space Complexity: O(n) (due to temporary arrays during merge step)
+ *
+ * <p>Applications:
+ * - Used in algorithms related to sorting and permutation analysis.
+ * - Helps in determining how far an array is from being sorted.
+ * - Applicable in bioinformatics and signal processing.
+ *
+ * <p>This class cannot be instantiated, as it is intended to provide
+ * only static utility methods.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class CountingInversions {
+    private CountingInversions() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of inversions in the given array.
+     *
+     * @param arr The input array of integers.
+     * @return The total number of inversions in the array.
+     */
+    public static int countInversions(int[] arr) {
+        return mergeSortAndCount(arr, 0, arr.length - 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively divides the array into two halves, sorts them, and counts
+     * the number of inversions. Uses a modified merge sort approach.
+     *
+     * @param arr  The input array.
+     * @param left The starting index of the current segment.
+     * @param right The ending index of the current segment.
+     * @return The number of inversions within the segment [left, right].
+     */
+    private static int mergeSortAndCount(int[] arr, int left, int right) {
+        if (left >= right) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        int mid = left + (right - left) / 2;
+        int inversions = 0;
+
+        inversions += mergeSortAndCount(arr, left, mid);
+        inversions += mergeSortAndCount(arr, mid + 1, right);
+        inversions += mergeAndCount(arr, left, mid, right);
+        return inversions;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges two sorted subarrays and counts the cross-inversions between them.
+     * A cross-inversion occurs when an element from the right subarray is
+     * smaller than an element from the left subarray.
+     *
+     * @param arr The input array.
+     * @param left The starting index of the first subarray.
+     * @param mid The ending index of the first subarray and midpoint of the segment.
+     * @param right The ending index of the second subarray.
+     * @return The number of cross-inversions between the two subarrays.
+     */
+    private static int mergeAndCount(int[] arr, int left, int mid, int right) {
+        int[] leftArr = new int[mid - left + 1];
+        int[] rightArr = new int[right - mid];
+
+        System.arraycopy(arr, left, leftArr, 0, mid - left + 1);
+        System.arraycopy(arr, mid + 1, rightArr, 0, right - mid);
+
+        int i = 0;
+        int j = 0;
+        int k = left;
+        int inversions = 0;
+
+        while (i < leftArr.length && j < rightArr.length) {
+            if (leftArr[i] <= rightArr[j]) {
+                arr[k++] = leftArr[i++];
+            } else {
+                arr[k++] = rightArr[j++];
+                inversions += mid + 1 - left - i;
+            }
+        }
+
+        while (i < leftArr.length) {
+            arr[k++] = leftArr[i++];
+        }
+        while (j < rightArr.length) {
+            arr[k++] = rightArr[j++];
+        }
+
+        return inversions;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/MedianOfTwoSortedArrays.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/MedianOfTwoSortedArrays.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d9e51442253c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/MedianOfTwoSortedArrays.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+public final class MedianOfTwoSortedArrays {
+
+    private MedianOfTwoSortedArrays() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the median of two sorted arrays in logarithmic time.
+     *
+     * @param nums1 the first sorted array
+     * @param nums2 the second sorted array
+     * @return the median of the combined sorted array
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input arrays are not sorted
+     */
+    public static double findMedianSortedArrays(int[] nums1, int[] nums2) {
+        if (nums1.length > nums2.length) {
+            return findMedianSortedArrays(nums2, nums1); // Ensure nums1 is the smaller array
+        }
+
+        int m = nums1.length;
+        int n = nums2.length;
+        int low = 0;
+        int high = m;
+        while (low <= high) {
+            int partition1 = (low + high) / 2; // Partition in the first array
+            int partition2 = (m + n + 1) / 2 - partition1; // Partition in the second array
+
+            int maxLeft1 = (partition1 == 0) ? Integer.MIN_VALUE : nums1[partition1 - 1];
+            int minRight1 = (partition1 == m) ? Integer.MAX_VALUE : nums1[partition1];
+            int maxLeft2 = (partition2 == 0) ? Integer.MIN_VALUE : nums2[partition2 - 1];
+            int minRight2 = (partition2 == n) ? Integer.MAX_VALUE : nums2[partition2];
+
+            // Check if partition is valid
+            if (maxLeft1 <= minRight2 && maxLeft2 <= minRight1) {
+                // If combined array length is odd
+                if (((m + n) & 1) == 1) {
+                    return Math.max(maxLeft1, maxLeft2);
+                }
+                // If combined array length is even
+                else {
+                    return (Math.max(maxLeft1, maxLeft2) + Math.min(minRight1, minRight2)) / 2.0;
+                }
+            } else if (maxLeft1 > minRight2) {
+                high = partition1 - 1;
+            } else {
+                low = partition1 + 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input arrays are not sorted");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java
index def2731ac7db..610b1b78a36a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java
@@ -45,7 +45,6 @@ public ArrayList<Point> getPoints() {
      * @see Point
      */
     public ArrayList<Point> produceSubSkyLines(ArrayList<Point> list) {
-
         // part where function exits flashback
         int size = list.size();
         if (size == 1) {
@@ -94,7 +93,6 @@ public ArrayList<Point> produceSubSkyLines(ArrayList<Point> list) {
      * @return left the final skyline
      */
     public ArrayList<Point> produceFinalSkyLine(ArrayList<Point> left, ArrayList<Point> right) {
-
         // dominated points of ArrayList left are removed
         for (int i = 0; i < left.size() - 1; i++) {
             if (left.get(i).x == left.get(i + 1).x && left.get(i).y > left.get(i + 1).y) {
@@ -168,7 +166,7 @@ public int getY() {
          */
         public boolean dominates(Point p1) {
             // checks if p1 is dominated
-            return (this.x < p1.x && this.y <= p1.y) || (this.x <= p1.x && this.y < p1.y);
+            return ((this.x < p1.x && this.y <= p1.y) || (this.x <= p1.x && this.y < p1.y));
         }
     }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplication.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplication.java
index 579ad4d517c0..86a6f3e11483 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplication.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplication.java
@@ -1,180 +1,142 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
 
-// Java Program to Implement Strassen Algorithm
-// Class Strassen matrix multiplication
+// Java Program to Implement Strassen Algorithm for Matrix Multiplication
+
+/*
+ * Uses the divide and conquer approach to multiply two matrices.
+ * Time Complexity: O(n^2.8074) better than the O(n^3) of the standard matrix multiplication
+ * algorithm. Space Complexity: O(n^2)
+ *
+ * This Matrix multiplication can be performed only on square matrices
+ * where n is a power of 2. Order of both of the matrices are n × n.
+ *
+ * Reference:
+ * https://www.tutorialspoint.com/design_and_analysis_of_algorithms/design_and_analysis_of_algorithms_strassens_matrix_multiplication.htm#:~:text=Strassen's%20Matrix%20multiplication%20can%20be,matrices%20are%20n%20%C3%97%20n.
+ * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/strassens-matrix-multiplication/
+ */
+
 public class StrassenMatrixMultiplication {
 
-    // Method 1
     // Function to multiply matrices
-    public int[][] multiply(int[][] A, int[][] B) {
-        int n = A.length;
+    public int[][] multiply(int[][] a, int[][] b) {
+        int n = a.length;
 
-        int[][] R = new int[n][n];
+        int[][] mat = new int[n][n];
 
         if (n == 1) {
-            R[0][0] = A[0][0] * B[0][0];
+            mat[0][0] = a[0][0] * b[0][0];
         } else {
             // Dividing Matrix into parts
             // by storing sub-parts to variables
-            int[][] A11 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
-            int[][] A12 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
-            int[][] A21 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
-            int[][] A22 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
-            int[][] B11 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
-            int[][] B12 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
-            int[][] B21 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
-            int[][] B22 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
+            int[][] a11 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
+            int[][] a12 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
+            int[][] a21 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
+            int[][] a22 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
+            int[][] b11 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
+            int[][] b12 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
+            int[][] b21 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
+            int[][] b22 = new int[n / 2][n / 2];
 
             // Dividing matrix A into 4 parts
-            split(A, A11, 0, 0);
-            split(A, A12, 0, n / 2);
-            split(A, A21, n / 2, 0);
-            split(A, A22, n / 2, n / 2);
+            split(a, a11, 0, 0);
+            split(a, a12, 0, n / 2);
+            split(a, a21, n / 2, 0);
+            split(a, a22, n / 2, n / 2);
 
             // Dividing matrix B into 4 parts
-            split(B, B11, 0, 0);
-            split(B, B12, 0, n / 2);
-            split(B, B21, n / 2, 0);
-            split(B, B22, n / 2, n / 2);
+            split(b, b11, 0, 0);
+            split(b, b12, 0, n / 2);
+            split(b, b21, n / 2, 0);
+            split(b, b22, n / 2, n / 2);
 
             // Using Formulas as described in algorithm
-            // M1:=(A1+A3)×(B1+B2)
-            int[][] M1
-                    = multiply(add(A11, A22), add(B11, B22));
+            // m1:=(A1+A3)×(B1+B2)
+            int[][] m1 = multiply(add(a11, a22), add(b11, b22));
 
-            // M2:=(A2+A4)×(B3+B4)
-            int[][] M2 = multiply(add(A21, A22), B11);
+            // m2:=(A2+A4)×(B3+B4)
+            int[][] m2 = multiply(add(a21, a22), b11);
 
-            // M3:=(A1−A4)×(B1+A4)
-            int[][] M3 = multiply(A11, sub(B12, B22));
+            // m3:=(A1−A4)×(B1+A4)
+            int[][] m3 = multiply(a11, sub(b12, b22));
 
-            // M4:=A1×(B2−B4)
-            int[][] M4 = multiply(A22, sub(B21, B11));
+            // m4:=A1×(B2−B4)
+            int[][] m4 = multiply(a22, sub(b21, b11));
 
-            // M5:=(A3+A4)×(B1)
-            int[][] M5 = multiply(add(A11, A12), B22);
+            // m5:=(A3+A4)×(B1)
+            int[][] m5 = multiply(add(a11, a12), b22);
 
-            // M6:=(A1+A2)×(B4)
-            int[][] M6
-                    = multiply(sub(A21, A11), add(B11, B12));
+            // m6:=(A1+A2)×(B4)
+            int[][] m6 = multiply(sub(a21, a11), add(b11, b12));
 
-            // M7:=A4×(B3−B1)
-            int[][] M7
-                    = multiply(sub(A12, A22), add(B21, B22));
+            // m7:=A4×(B3−B1)
+            int[][] m7 = multiply(sub(a12, a22), add(b21, b22));
 
-            // P:=M2+M3−M6−M7
-            int[][] C11 = add(sub(add(M1, M4), M5), M7);
+            // P:=m2+m3−m6−m7
+            int[][] c11 = add(sub(add(m1, m4), m5), m7);
 
-            // Q:=M4+M6
-            int[][] C12 = add(M3, M5);
+            // Q:=m4+m6
+            int[][] c12 = add(m3, m5);
 
-            // R:=M5+M7
-            int[][] C21 = add(M2, M4);
+            // mat:=m5+m7
+            int[][] c21 = add(m2, m4);
 
-            // S:=M1−M3−M4−M5
-            int[][] C22 = add(sub(add(M1, M3), M2), M6);
+            // S:=m1−m3−m4−m5
+            int[][] c22 = add(sub(add(m1, m3), m2), m6);
 
-            join(C11, R, 0, 0);
-            join(C12, R, 0, n / 2);
-            join(C21, R, n / 2, 0);
-            join(C22, R, n / 2, n / 2);
+            join(c11, mat, 0, 0);
+            join(c12, mat, 0, n / 2);
+            join(c21, mat, n / 2, 0);
+            join(c22, mat, n / 2, n / 2);
         }
 
-        return R;
+        return mat;
     }
 
-    // Method 2
     // Function to subtract two matrices
-    public int[][] sub(int[][] A, int[][] B) {
-        int n = A.length;
+    public int[][] sub(int[][] a, int[][] b) {
+        int n = a.length;
 
-        int[][] C = new int[n][n];
+        int[][] c = new int[n][n];
 
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-                C[i][j] = A[i][j] - B[i][j];
+                c[i][j] = a[i][j] - b[i][j];
             }
         }
 
-        return C;
+        return c;
     }
 
-    // Method 3
     // Function to add two matrices
-    public int[][] add(int[][] A, int[][] B) {
-
-        int n = A.length;
+    public int[][] add(int[][] a, int[][] b) {
+        int n = a.length;
 
-        int[][] C = new int[n][n];
+        int[][] c = new int[n][n];
 
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-                C[i][j] = A[i][j] + B[i][j];
+                c[i][j] = a[i][j] + b[i][j];
             }
         }
 
-        return C;
-    }
-
-    // Method 4
-    // Function to split parent matrix
-    // into child matrices
-    public void split(int[][] P, int[][] C, int iB, int jB) {
-        for (int i1 = 0, i2 = iB; i1 < C.length; i1++, i2++) {
-            for (int j1 = 0, j2 = jB; j1 < C.length; j1++, j2++) {
-                C[i1][j1] = P[i2][j2];
-            }
-        }
+        return c;
     }
 
-    // Method 5
-    // Function to join child matrices
-    // into (to) parent matrix
-    public void join(int[][] C, int[][] P, int iB, int jB) {
-        for (int i1 = 0, i2 = iB; i1 < C.length; i1++, i2++) {
-            for (int j1 = 0, j2 = jB; j1 < C.length; j1++, j2++) {
-                P[i2][j2] = C[i1][j1];
+    // Function to split parent matrix into child matrices
+    public void split(int[][] p, int[][] c, int iB, int jB) {
+        for (int i1 = 0, i2 = iB; i1 < c.length; i1++, i2++) {
+            for (int j1 = 0, j2 = jB; j1 < c.length; j1++, j2++) {
+                c[i1][j1] = p[i2][j2];
             }
         }
     }
 
-    // Method 5
-    // Main driver method
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        System.out.println("Strassen Multiplication Algorithm Implementation For Matrix Multiplication :\n");
-
-        StrassenMatrixMultiplication s = new StrassenMatrixMultiplication();
-
-        // Size of matrix
-        // Considering size as 4 in order to illustrate
-        int N = 4;
-
-        // Matrix A
-        // Custom input to matrix
-        int[][] A = {{1, 2, 5, 4},
-        {9, 3, 0, 6},
-        {4, 6, 3, 1},
-        {0, 2, 0, 6}};
-
-        // Matrix B
-        // Custom input to matrix
-        int[][] B = {{1, 0, 4, 1},
-        {1, 2, 0, 2},
-        {0, 3, 1, 3},
-        {1, 8, 1, 2}};
-
-        // Matrix C computations
-        // Matrix C calling method to get Result
-        int[][] C = s.multiply(A, B);
-
-        System.out.println("\nProduct of matrices A and  B : ");
-
-        // Print the output
-        for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < N; j++) {
-                System.out.print(C[i][j] + " ");
+    // Function to join child matrices into (to) parent matrix
+    public void join(int[][] c, int[][] p, int iB, int jB) {
+        for (int i1 = 0, i2 = iB; i1 < c.length; i1++, i2++) {
+            for (int j1 = 0, j2 = jB; j1 < c.length; j1++, j2++) {
+                p[i2][j2] = c[i1][j1];
             }
-            System.out.println();
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/TilingProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/TilingProblem.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ff2e1678ab48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/TilingProblem.java
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a solution to the Tiling Problem using divide-and-conquer.
+ * <p>
+ * The Tiling Problem involves filling a 2^n x 2^n board with a single missing
+ * square using L-shaped tiles (each tile covers exactly three squares).
+ * The algorithm recursively divides the board into four quadrants, places an
+ * L-shaped tile in the appropriate quadrant, and fills the remaining areas.
+ *
+ * <p>Applications:
+ * - Used in graphics and image processing.
+ * - Helpful in solving puzzles and tiling problems in competitive programming.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class TilingProblem {
+    private TilingProblem() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A counter used to label the L-shaped tiles placed on the board.
+     */
+    private static int tile = 1;
+
+    /**
+     * A 2D array representing the board to be tiled.
+     */
+    private static int[][] board;
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the tiling problem for a 2^n x 2^n board with one missing square.
+     *
+     * @param size The size of the board (must be a power of 2).
+     * @param missingRow The row index of the missing square.
+     * @param missingCol The column index of the missing square.
+     * @return A 2D array representing the tiled board with L-shaped tiles.
+     */
+    public static int[][] solveTiling(int size, int missingRow, int missingCol) {
+        board = new int[size][size];
+        fillBoard(size, 0, 0, missingRow, missingCol);
+        return board;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively fills the board with L-shaped tiles.
+     *
+     * <p>The board is divided into four quadrants. Depending on the location of
+     * the missing square, an L-shaped tile is placed at the center of the board
+     * to cover three of the four quadrants. The process is then repeated for
+     * each quadrant until the entire board is filled.
+     *
+     * @param size The current size of the sub-board.
+     * @param row The starting row index of the current sub-board.
+     * @param col The starting column index of the current sub-board.
+     * @param missingRow The row index of the missing square within the board.
+     * @param missingCol The column index of the missing square within the board.
+     */
+    private static void fillBoard(int size, int row, int col, int missingRow, int missingCol) {
+        if (size == 1) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        int half = size / 2;
+        int t = tile++;
+
+        // Top-left quadrant
+        if (missingRow < row + half && missingCol < col + half) {
+            fillBoard(half, row, col, missingRow, missingCol);
+        } else {
+            board[row + half - 1][col + half - 1] = t;
+            fillBoard(half, row, col, row + half - 1, col + half - 1);
+        }
+
+        // Top-right quadrant
+        if (missingRow < row + half && missingCol >= col + half) {
+            fillBoard(half, row, col + half, missingRow, missingCol);
+        } else {
+            board[row + half - 1][col + half] = t;
+            fillBoard(half, row, col + half, row + half - 1, col + half);
+        }
+
+        // Bottom-left quadrant
+        if (missingRow >= row + half && missingCol < col + half) {
+            fillBoard(half, row + half, col, missingRow, missingCol);
+        } else {
+            board[row + half][col + half - 1] = t;
+            fillBoard(half, row + half, col, row + half, col + half - 1);
+        }
+
+        // Bottom-right quadrant
+        if (missingRow >= row + half && missingCol >= col + half) {
+            fillBoard(half, row + half, col + half, missingRow, missingCol);
+        } else {
+            board[row + half][col + half] = t;
+            fillBoard(half, row + half, col + half, row + half, col + half);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Abbreviation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Abbreviation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..60c0fd0a3cde
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Abbreviation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * A class that provides a solution to the abbreviation problem.
+ *
+ * Problem: Given two strings, `a` and `b`, determine if string `a` can be
+ * transformed into string `b` by performing the following operations:
+ * 1. Capitalize zero or more of `a`'s lowercase letters (i.e., convert them to uppercase).
+ * 2. Delete any of the remaining lowercase letters from `a`.
+ *
+ * The task is to determine whether it is possible to make string `a` equal to string `b`.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class Abbreviation {
+    private Abbreviation() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Determines if string `a` can be transformed into string `b` by capitalizing
+     * some of its lowercase letters and deleting the rest.
+     *
+     * @param a The input string which may contain both uppercase and lowercase letters.
+     * @param b The target string containing only uppercase letters.
+     * @return {@code true} if string `a` can be transformed into string `b`,
+     *         {@code false} otherwise.
+     *
+     * Time Complexity: O(n * m) where n = length of string `a` and m = length of string `b`.
+     * Space Complexity: O(n * m) due to the dynamic programming table.
+     */
+    public static boolean abbr(String a, String b) {
+        int n = a.length();
+        int m = b.length();
+
+        boolean[][] dp = new boolean[n + 1][m + 1];
+
+        dp[0][0] = true;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j <= m; j++) {
+                if (dp[i][j]) {
+                    // Case 1: If the current characters match (or can be capitalized to match)
+                    if (j < m && Character.toUpperCase(a.charAt(i)) == b.charAt(j)) {
+                        dp[i + 1][j + 1] = true;
+                    }
+                    // Case 2: If the character in `a` is lowercase, we can skip it
+                    if (Character.isLowerCase(a.charAt(i))) {
+                        dp[i + 1][j] = true;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return dp[n][m];
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstruct.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstruct.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e7712b13a2b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstruct.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a solution to the "All Construct" problem.
+ *
+ * The problem is to determine all the ways a target string can be constructed
+ * from a given list of substrings. Each substring in the word bank can be used
+ * multiple times, and the order of substrings matters.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class AllConstruct {
+    private AllConstruct() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds all possible ways to construct the target string using substrings
+     * from the given word bank.
+     * Time Complexity: O(n * m * k), where n = length of the target,
+     * m = number of words in wordBank, and k = average length of a word.
+     *
+     * Space Complexity: O(n * m) due to the size of the table storing combinations.
+     *
+     * @param target   The target string to construct.
+     * @param wordBank An iterable collection of substrings that can be used to construct the target.
+     * @return A list of lists, where each inner list represents one possible
+     *         way of constructing the target string using the given word bank.
+     */
+    public static List<List<String>> allConstruct(String target, Iterable<String> wordBank) {
+        List<List<List<String>>> table = new ArrayList<>(target.length() + 1);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i <= target.length(); i++) {
+            table.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+
+        table.get(0).add(new ArrayList<>());
+
+        for (int i = 0; i <= target.length(); i++) {
+            if (!table.get(i).isEmpty()) {
+                for (String word : wordBank) {
+                    if (i + word.length() <= target.length() && target.substring(i, i + word.length()).equals(word)) {
+
+                        List<List<String>> newCombinations = new ArrayList<>();
+                        for (List<String> combination : table.get(i)) {
+                            List<String> newCombination = new ArrayList<>(combination);
+                            newCombination.add(word);
+                            newCombinations.add(newCombination);
+                        }
+
+                        table.get(i + word.length()).addAll(newCombinations);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return table.get(target.length());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AssignmentUsingBitmask.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AssignmentUsingBitmask.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5a894ca004b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AssignmentUsingBitmask.java
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The AssignmentUsingBitmask class is used to calculate the total number of ways
+ * tasks can be distributed among people, given specific constraints on who can perform which tasks.
+ * The approach uses bitmasking and dynamic programming to efficiently solve the problem.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class AssignmentUsingBitmask {
+
+    private final int totalTasks;
+    private final int[][] dp;
+    private final List<List<Integer>> task;
+    private final int finalMask;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor for the AssignmentUsingBitmask class.
+     *
+     * @param taskPerformed a list of lists, where each inner list contains the tasks that a person can perform.
+     * @param total        the total number of tasks.
+     */
+    public AssignmentUsingBitmask(List<List<Integer>> taskPerformed, int total) {
+        this.totalTasks = total;
+        this.dp = new int[1 << taskPerformed.size()][total + 1];
+        for (int[] row : dp) {
+            Arrays.fill(row, -1);
+        }
+
+        this.task = new ArrayList<>(totalTasks + 1);
+        for (int i = 0; i <= totalTasks; i++) {
+            this.task.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+
+        // Final mask to check if all persons are included
+        this.finalMask = (1 << taskPerformed.size()) - 1;
+
+        // Fill the task list
+        for (int i = 0; i < taskPerformed.size(); i++) {
+            for (int j : taskPerformed.get(i)) {
+                this.task.get(j).add(i);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the ways to assign tasks until the given task number with the specified mask.
+     *
+     * @param mask     the bitmask representing the current state of assignments.
+     * @param taskNo   the current task number being processed.
+     * @return the number of ways to assign tasks.
+     */
+    private int countWaysUntil(int mask, int taskNo) {
+        if (mask == finalMask) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+        if (taskNo > totalTasks) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        if (dp[mask][taskNo] != -1) {
+            return dp[mask][taskNo];
+        }
+
+        int totalWays = countWaysUntil(mask, taskNo + 1);
+
+        // Assign tasks to all possible persons
+        for (int p : task.get(taskNo)) {
+            // If the person is already assigned a task
+            if ((mask & (1 << p)) != 0) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            totalWays += countWaysUntil(mask | (1 << p), taskNo + 1);
+        }
+
+        dp[mask][taskNo] = totalWays;
+        return dp[mask][taskNo];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the total number of ways to distribute tasks among persons.
+     *
+     * @return the total number of ways to distribute tasks.
+     */
+    public int countNoOfWays() {
+        return countWaysUntil(0, 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPath.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPath.java
index dfb75717b970..cd761f96019c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPath.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPath.java
@@ -1,44 +1,16 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-/*
-* this is an important Algo in which
-* we have starting and ending of board and we have to reach
-* we have to count no. of ways
-* that help to reach end point i.e number by rolling dice
-* which have 1 to 6 digits
-
-Test Case:
-here target is 10
-
-int n=10;
-		startAlgo();
-		System.out.println(bpR(0,n));
-		System.out.println(endAlgo()+"ms");
-		int[] strg=new int [n+1];
-		startAlgo();
-		System.out.println(bpRS(0,n,strg));
-		System.out.println(endAlgo()+"ms");
-		startAlgo();
-		System.out.println(bpIS(0,n,strg));
-		System.out.println(endAlgo()+"ms");
-
-
-
- */
-public class BoardPath {
-
-    public static long startTime;
-    public static long endTime;
-
-    public static void startAlgo() {
-        startTime = System.currentTimeMillis();
-    }
-
-    public static long endAlgo() {
-        endTime = System.currentTimeMillis();
-        return endTime - startTime;
+public final class BoardPath {
+    private BoardPath() {
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Recursive solution without memoization
+     *
+     * @param start - the current position
+     * @param end   - the target position
+     * @return the number of ways to reach the end from the start
+     */
     public static int bpR(int start, int end) {
         if (start == end) {
             return 1;
@@ -52,7 +24,15 @@ public static int bpR(int start, int end) {
         return count;
     }
 
-    public static int bpRS(int curr, int end, int strg[]) {
+    /**
+     * Recursive solution with memoization
+     *
+     * @param curr - the current position
+     * @param end  - the target position
+     * @param strg - memoization array
+     * @return the number of ways to reach the end from the start
+     */
+    public static int bpRS(int curr, int end, int[] strg) {
         if (curr == end) {
             return 1;
         } else if (curr > end) {
@@ -69,15 +49,23 @@ public static int bpRS(int curr, int end, int strg[]) {
         return count;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Iterative solution with tabulation
+     *
+     * @param curr - the current position (always starts from 0)
+     * @param end  - the target position
+     * @param strg - memoization array
+     * @return the number of ways to reach the end from the start
+     */
     public static int bpIS(int curr, int end, int[] strg) {
         strg[end] = 1;
         for (int i = end - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
             int count = 0;
-            for (int dice = 1; dice <= 6 && dice + i < strg.length; dice++) {
+            for (int dice = 1; dice <= 6 && dice + i <= end; dice++) {
                 count += strg[i + dice];
             }
             strg[i] = count;
         }
-        return strg[0];
+        return strg[curr];
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java
index 6a547618cbf6..8494492f293f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java
@@ -4,108 +4,52 @@
  * Java program for Boundary fill algorithm.
  * @author Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
  */
-public class BoundaryFill {
-	
+public final class BoundaryFill {
+    private BoundaryFill() {
+    }
+
     /**
      * Get the color at the given co-odrinates of a 2D image
      *
      * @param image The image to be filled
-     * @param x_co_ordinate The x co-ordinate of which color is to be obtained
-     * @param y_co_ordinate The y co-ordinate of which color is to be obtained
+     * @param xCoordinate The x co-ordinate of which color is to be obtained
+     * @param yCoordinate The y co-ordinate of which color is to be obtained
      */
-	public static int getPixel(int[][] image, int x_co_ordinate, int y_co_ordinate) {
-	
-		return image[x_co_ordinate][y_co_ordinate];
-	
-	}
-	
+    public static int getPixel(int[][] image, int xCoordinate, int yCoordinate) {
+        return image[xCoordinate][yCoordinate];
+    }
+
     /**
      * Put the color at the given co-odrinates of a 2D image
      *
      * @param image The image to be filed
-     * @param x_co_ordinate The x co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
-     * @param y_co_ordinate The y co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     * @param xCoordinate The x co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     * @param yCoordinate The y co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
      */
-	public static void putPixel(int[][] image, int x_co_ordinate, int y_co_ordinate, int new_color) {
-		
-		image[x_co_ordinate][y_co_ordinate] = new_color;
-	
-	}
-	
+    public static void putPixel(int[][] image, int xCoordinate, int yCoordinate, int newColor) {
+        image[xCoordinate][yCoordinate] = newColor;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Fill the 2D image with new color
      *
      * @param image The image to be filed
-     * @param x_co_ordinate The x co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
-     * @param y_co_ordinate The y co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
-     * @param new_color The new color which to be filled in the image
-     * @param boundary_color The old color which is to be replaced in the image
+     * @param xCoordinate The x co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     * @param yCoordinate The y co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     * @param newColor The new color which to be filled in the image
+     * @param boundaryColor The old color which is to be replaced in the image
      */
-	public static void boundaryFill(int[][] image, int x_co_ordinate, int y_co_ordinate, int new_color, int boundary_color) {
-		if(x_co_ordinate >= 0 && y_co_ordinate >= 0 && getPixel(image, x_co_ordinate, y_co_ordinate) != new_color && getPixel(image, x_co_ordinate, y_co_ordinate) != boundary_color) {
-			
-			putPixel(image, x_co_ordinate, y_co_ordinate, new_color);
-			boundaryFill(image, x_co_ordinate + 1, y_co_ordinate, new_color, boundary_color);
-			boundaryFill(image, x_co_ordinate - 1, y_co_ordinate, new_color, boundary_color);
-			boundaryFill(image, x_co_ordinate, y_co_ordinate + 1, new_color, boundary_color);
-			boundaryFill(image, x_co_ordinate, y_co_ordinate - 1, new_color, boundary_color);
-			boundaryFill(image, x_co_ordinate + 1, y_co_ordinate - 1, new_color, boundary_color);
-			boundaryFill(image, x_co_ordinate - 1, y_co_ordinate + 1, new_color, boundary_color);
-			boundaryFill(image, x_co_ordinate + 1, y_co_ordinate + 1, new_color, boundary_color);
-			boundaryFill(image, x_co_ordinate - 1, y_co_ordinate - 1, new_color, boundary_color);
-			
-			
-		}
-		
-	}
-	
-    /**
-     * This method will print the 2D image matrix
-     *
-     * @param image The image to be printed on the console
-     */
-	public static void printImageArray(int[][] image) {
-		
-		for(int i=0 ; i<image.length ; i++) {
-			for(int j=0 ; j<image[0].length ; j++) {
-				
-				System.out.print(image[i][j]+"  ");
-			}
-			
-			System.out.println();
-		}
-		
-	}
-	
-	// Driver Program
-	public static void main(String[] args) {
-		
-		//Input 2D image matrix
-		int[][] image = {
-				{0,0,0,0,0,0,0},
-				{0,3,3,3,3,0,0},
-				{0,3,0,0,3,0,0},
-				{0,3,0,0,3,3,3},
-				{0,3,3,3,0,0,3},
-				{0,0,0,3,0,0,3},
-				{0,0,0,3,3,3,3}
-		};
-		
-		
-		boundaryFill(image,2,2,5,3);
-		
-		/* Output ==>
-		 * 0  0  0  0  0  0  0  
-		   0  3  3  3  3  0  0  
-		   0  3  5  5  3  0  0  
-           0  3  5  5  3  3  3  
-           0  3  3  3  5  5  3  
-           0  0  0  3  5  5  3  
-           0  0  0  3  3  3  3
-		 * */
-		
-		//print 2D image matrix
-		printImageArray(image);
-	}
-
-}
\ No newline at end of file
+    public static void boundaryFill(int[][] image, int xCoordinate, int yCoordinate, int newColor, int boundaryColor) {
+        if (xCoordinate >= 0 && yCoordinate >= 0 && getPixel(image, xCoordinate, yCoordinate) != newColor && getPixel(image, xCoordinate, yCoordinate) != boundaryColor) {
+            putPixel(image, xCoordinate, yCoordinate, newColor);
+            boundaryFill(image, xCoordinate + 1, yCoordinate, newColor, boundaryColor);
+            boundaryFill(image, xCoordinate - 1, yCoordinate, newColor, boundaryColor);
+            boundaryFill(image, xCoordinate, yCoordinate + 1, newColor, boundaryColor);
+            boundaryFill(image, xCoordinate, yCoordinate - 1, newColor, boundaryColor);
+            boundaryFill(image, xCoordinate + 1, yCoordinate - 1, newColor, boundaryColor);
+            boundaryFill(image, xCoordinate - 1, yCoordinate + 1, newColor, boundaryColor);
+            boundaryFill(image, xCoordinate + 1, yCoordinate + 1, newColor, boundaryColor);
+            boundaryFill(image, xCoordinate - 1, yCoordinate - 1, newColor, boundaryColor);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsack.java
index b4c9875427cb..3c1851a8c46c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsack.java
@@ -1,44 +1,67 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-/* A Naive recursive implementation
-of 0-1 Knapsack problem */
-public class BruteForceKnapsack {
-
-    // A utility function that returns
-    // maximum of two integers
-    static int max(int a, int b) {
-        return (a > b) ? a : b;
+/**
+ * A naive recursive implementation of the 0-1 Knapsack problem.
+ *
+ * <p>The 0-1 Knapsack problem is a classic optimization problem where you are
+ * given a set of items, each with a weight and a value, and a knapsack with a
+ * fixed capacity. The goal is to determine the maximum value that can be
+ * obtained by selecting a subset of the items such that the total weight does
+ * not exceed the knapsack's capacity. Each item can either be included (1) or
+ * excluded (0), hence the name "0-1" Knapsack.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides a brute-force recursive approach to solving the
+ * problem. It evaluates all possible combinations of items to find the optimal
+ * solution, but this approach has exponential time complexity and is not
+ * suitable for large input sizes.</p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Time Complexity:</b> O(2^n), where n is the number of items.</p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Space Complexity:</b> O(n), due to the recursive function call stack.</p>
+ */
+public final class BruteForceKnapsack {
+    private BruteForceKnapsack() {
     }
 
-    // Returns the maximum value that
-    // can be put in a knapsack of
-    // capacity W
-    static int knapSack(int W, int wt[], int val[], int n) {
-        // Base Case
-        if (n == 0 || W == 0) {
+    /**
+     * Solves the 0-1 Knapsack problem using a recursive brute-force approach.
+     *
+     * @param w   the total capacity of the knapsack
+     * @param wt  an array where wt[i] represents the weight of the i-th item
+     * @param val an array where val[i] represents the value of the i-th item
+     * @param n   the number of items available for selection
+     * @return    the maximum value that can be obtained with the given capacity
+     *
+     * <p>The function uses recursion to explore all possible subsets of items.
+     * For each item, it has two choices: either include it in the knapsack
+     * (if it fits) or exclude it. It returns the maximum value obtainable
+     * through these two choices.</p>
+     *
+     * <p><b>Base Cases:</b>
+     * <ul>
+     * <li>If no items are left (n == 0), the maximum value is 0.</li>
+     * <li>If the knapsack's remaining capacity is 0 (w == 0), no more items can
+     * be included, and the value is 0.</li>
+     * </ul></p>
+     *
+     * <p><b>Recursive Steps:</b>
+     * <ul>
+     * <li>If the weight of the n-th item exceeds the current capacity, it is
+     * excluded from the solution, and the function proceeds with the remaining
+     * items.</li>
+     * <li>Otherwise, the function considers two possibilities: include the n-th
+     * item or exclude it, and returns the maximum value of these two scenarios.</li>
+     * </ul></p>
+     */
+    static int knapSack(int w, int[] wt, int[] val, int n) {
+        if (n == 0 || w == 0) {
             return 0;
         }
 
-        // If weight of the nth item is
-        // more than Knapsack capacity W,
-        // then this item cannot be included
-        // in the optimal solution
-        if (wt[n - 1] > W) {
-            return knapSack(W, wt, val, n - 1);
-        } // Return the maximum of two cases:
-        // (1) nth item included
-        // (2) not included
-        else {
-            return max(val[n - 1] + knapSack(W - wt[n - 1], wt, val, n - 1), knapSack(W, wt, val, n - 1));
+        if (wt[n - 1] > w) {
+            return knapSack(w, wt, val, n - 1);
+        } else {
+            return Math.max(knapSack(w, wt, val, n - 1), val[n - 1] + knapSack(w - wt[n - 1], wt, val, n - 1));
         }
     }
-
-    // Driver code
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        int val[] = new int[]{60, 100, 120};
-        int wt[] = new int[]{10, 20, 30};
-        int W = 50;
-        int n = val.length;
-        System.out.println(knapSack(W, wt, val, n));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java
index 8f7d9c779b5f..d01066f611bd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java
@@ -1,16 +1,17 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
+import java.util.Scanner;
 /**
  * This file contains an implementation of finding the nth CATALAN NUMBER using
- * dynamic programming Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_number
+ * dynamic programming : <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_number">Wikipedia</a>
  *
  * Time Complexity: O(n^2) Space Complexity: O(n)
  *
- * @author AMRITESH ANAND (https://github.com/amritesh19)
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/amritesh19">AMRITESH ANAND</a>
  */
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class CatalanNumber {
+public final class CatalanNumber {
+    private CatalanNumber() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * This method finds the nth Catalan number
@@ -22,15 +23,14 @@ public class CatalanNumber {
      * @return catalanArray[n] the nth Catalan number
      */
     static long findNthCatalan(int n) {
-
         // Array to store the results of subproblems i.e Catalan numbers from [1...n-1]
-        long catalanArray[] = new long[n + 1];
+        long[] catalanArray = new long[n + 1];
 
-        // Initialising C₀ = 1 and C₁ = 1 
+        // Initialising C₀ = 1 and C₁ = 1
         catalanArray[0] = 1;
         catalanArray[1] = 1;
 
-        /**
+        /*
          * The Catalan numbers satisfy the recurrence relation C₀=1 and Cn = Σ
          * (Ci * Cn-1-i), i = 0 to n-1 , n > 0
          */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ClimbingStairs.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ClimbingStairs.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0f0f5375ba82
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ClimbingStairs.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/*
+ * A dynamic programming solution for the "Climbing Stairs" problem.
+ * Returns the no. of distinct ways to climb to the top
+ * of a staircase when you can climb either 1 or 2 steps at a time.
+ *
+ * For example, if there are 5 steps, the possible ways to climb the
+ * staircase are:
+ * 1. 1-1-1-1-1
+ * 2. 1-1-1-2
+ * 3. 1-2-1-1
+ * 4. 2-1-1-1
+ * 5. 2-2-1
+ * 6. 1-1-2-1
+ * 7. 1-2-2
+ * 8. 2-1-2
+ * Ans: 8 ways
+ */
+public final class ClimbingStairs {
+
+    private ClimbingStairs() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the no. of distinct ways to climb a staircase with n steps.
+     *
+     * @param n the no. of steps in the staircase (non-negative integer)
+     * @return the no. of distinct ways to climb to the top
+     *         - Returns 0 if n is 0 (no steps to climb).
+     *         - Returns 1 if n is 1 (only one way to climb).
+     *         - For n > 1, it returns the total no. of ways to climb.
+     */
+    public static int numberOfWays(int n) {
+
+        // Base case: if there are no steps or only one step, return n.
+        if (n == 1 || n == 0) {
+            return n;
+        }
+
+        int prev = 1; // Ways to reach the step before the current one (step 1)
+        int curr = 1; // Ways to reach the current step (step 2)
+        int next; // Total ways to reach the next step
+
+        for (int i = 2; i <= n; i++) { // step 2 to n
+            next = curr + prev;
+
+            // Move the pointers to the next step
+            prev = curr;
+            curr = next;
+        }
+
+        return curr; // Ways to reach the nth step
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java
index 40aba3d9ea7c..7edc9603dc8b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java
@@ -3,21 +3,8 @@
 /**
  * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
  */
-public class CoinChange {
-
-    // Driver Program
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        int amount = 12;
-        int[] coins = {2, 4, 5};
-
-        System.out.println(
-                "Number of combinations of getting change for " + amount + " is: " + change(coins, amount));
-        System.out.println(
-                "Minimum number of coins required for amount :"
-                + amount
-                + " is: "
-                + minimumCoins(coins, amount));
+public final class CoinChange {
+    private CoinChange() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -29,7 +16,6 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * number of combinations of change
      */
     public static int change(int[] coins, int amount) {
-
         int[] combinations = new int[amount + 1];
         combinations[0] = 1;
 
@@ -37,8 +23,6 @@ public static int change(int[] coins, int amount) {
             for (int i = coin; i < amount + 1; i++) {
                 combinations[i] += combinations[i - coin];
             }
-            // Uncomment the below line to see the state of combinations for each coin
-            // printAmount(combinations);
         }
 
         return combinations[amount];
@@ -49,7 +33,7 @@ public static int change(int[] coins, int amount) {
      *
      * @param coins The list of coins
      * @param amount The amount for which we need to find the minimum number of
-     * coins. Finds the the minimum number of coins that make a given value.
+     * coins. Finds the minimum number of coins that make a given value.
      */
     public static int minimumCoins(int[] coins, int amount) {
         // minimumCoins[i] will store the minimum coins needed for amount i
@@ -63,23 +47,14 @@ public static int minimumCoins(int[] coins, int amount) {
         for (int i = 1; i <= amount; i++) {
             for (int coin : coins) {
                 if (coin <= i) {
-                    int sub_res = minimumCoins[i - coin];
-                    if (sub_res != Integer.MAX_VALUE && sub_res + 1 < minimumCoins[i]) {
-                        minimumCoins[i] = sub_res + 1;
+                    int subRes = minimumCoins[i - coin];
+                    if (subRes != Integer.MAX_VALUE && subRes + 1 < minimumCoins[i]) {
+                        minimumCoins[i] = subRes + 1;
                     }
                 }
             }
         }
-        // Uncomment the below line to see the state of combinations for each coin
-        // printAmount(minimumCoins);
-        return minimumCoins[amount];
-    }
 
-    // A basic print method which prints all the contents of the array
-    public static void printAmount(int[] arr) {
-        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; i++) {
-            System.out.print(arr[i] + " ");
-        }
-        System.out.println();
+        return minimumCoins[amount];
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CountFriendsPairing.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CountFriendsPairing.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e731524d4958
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CountFriendsPairing.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/siddhant2002">Siddhant Swarup Mallick</a>
+
+ * In mathematics, the Golomb sequence is a non-decreasing integer sequence where n-th term is equal
+ * to number of times n appears in the sequence.
+
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golomb_sequence">Wikipedia</a>
+ * Program description - To find the Golomb sequence upto n
+ */
+public final class CountFriendsPairing {
+    private CountFriendsPairing() {
+    }
+
+    public static boolean countFriendsPairing(int n, int[] a) {
+        int[] dp = new int[n + 1];
+        // array of n+1 size is created
+        dp[0] = 1;
+        // since 1st index position value is fixed so it's marked as 1
+        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+            dp[i] = 1 + dp[i - dp[dp[i - 1]]];
+            // formula for ith golomb sequence is dp(i) = 1 + dp(i – dp(dp(i - 1)))
+        }
+        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+            if (a[i - 1] != dp[i]) {
+                return false;
+                // checks whether the calculated answer matches with the expected answer
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+        // returns true if calculated answer matches with the expected answer
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistance.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistance.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9721d4ab0ad5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistance.java
@@ -0,0 +1,185 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the full Damerau–Levenshtein distance algorithm.
+ *
+ * This algorithm calculates the minimum number of operations required
+ * to transform one string into another. Supported operations are:
+ * insertion, deletion, substitution, and transposition of adjacent characters.
+ *
+ * Unlike the restricted version (OSA), this implementation allows multiple
+ * edits on the same substring, computing the true edit distance.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(n * m * max(n, m))
+ * Space Complexity: O(n * m)
+ */
+public final class DamerauLevenshteinDistance {
+
+    private DamerauLevenshteinDistance() {
+        // Utility class
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the full Damerau–Levenshtein distance between two strings.
+     *
+     * @param s1 the first string
+     * @param s2 the second string
+     * @return the minimum edit distance between the two strings
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if either input string is null
+     */
+    public static int distance(String s1, String s2) {
+        validateInputs(s1, s2);
+
+        int n = s1.length();
+        int m = s2.length();
+
+        Map<Character, Integer> charLastPosition = buildCharacterMap(s1, s2);
+        int[][] dp = initializeTable(n, m);
+
+        fillTable(s1, s2, dp, charLastPosition);
+
+        return dp[n + 1][m + 1];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Validates that both input strings are not null.
+     *
+     * @param s1 the first string to validate
+     * @param s2 the second string to validate
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if either string is null
+     */
+    private static void validateInputs(String s1, String s2) {
+        if (s1 == null || s2 == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input strings must not be null.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Builds a character map containing all unique characters from both strings.
+     * Each character is initialized with a position value of 0.
+     *
+     * This map is used to track the last occurrence position of each character
+     * during the distance computation, which is essential for handling transpositions.
+     *
+     * @param s1 the first string
+     * @param s2 the second string
+     * @return a map containing all unique characters from both strings, initialized to 0
+     */
+    private static Map<Character, Integer> buildCharacterMap(String s1, String s2) {
+        Map<Character, Integer> charMap = new HashMap<>();
+        for (char c : s1.toCharArray()) {
+            charMap.putIfAbsent(c, 0);
+        }
+        for (char c : s2.toCharArray()) {
+            charMap.putIfAbsent(c, 0);
+        }
+        return charMap;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes the dynamic programming table for the algorithm.
+     *
+     * The table has dimensions (n+2) x (m+2) where n and m are the lengths
+     * of the input strings. The extra rows and columns are used to handle
+     * the transposition operation correctly.
+     *
+     * The first row and column are initialized with the maximum possible distance,
+     * while the second row and column represent the base case of transforming
+     * from an empty string.
+     *
+     * @param n the length of the first string
+     * @param m the length of the second string
+     * @return an initialized DP table ready for computation
+     */
+    private static int[][] initializeTable(int n, int m) {
+        int maxDist = n + m;
+        int[][] dp = new int[n + 2][m + 2];
+
+        dp[0][0] = maxDist;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
+            dp[i + 1][0] = maxDist;
+            dp[i + 1][1] = i;
+        }
+
+        for (int j = 0; j <= m; j++) {
+            dp[0][j + 1] = maxDist;
+            dp[1][j + 1] = j;
+        }
+
+        return dp;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Fills the dynamic programming table by computing the minimum edit distance
+     * for each substring pair.
+     *
+     * This method implements the core algorithm logic, iterating through both strings
+     * and computing the minimum cost of transforming substrings. It considers all
+     * four operations: insertion, deletion, substitution, and transposition.
+     *
+     * The character position map is updated as we progress through the first string
+     * to enable efficient transposition cost calculation.
+     *
+     * @param s1 the first string
+     * @param s2 the second string
+     * @param dp the dynamic programming table to fill
+     * @param charLastPosition map tracking the last position of each character in s1
+     */
+    private static void fillTable(String s1, String s2, int[][] dp, Map<Character, Integer> charLastPosition) {
+        int n = s1.length();
+        int m = s2.length();
+
+        for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
+            int lastMatchCol = 0;
+
+            for (int j = 1; j <= m; j++) {
+                char char1 = s1.charAt(i - 1);
+                char char2 = s2.charAt(j - 1);
+
+                int lastMatchRow = charLastPosition.get(char2);
+                int cost = (char1 == char2) ? 0 : 1;
+
+                if (char1 == char2) {
+                    lastMatchCol = j;
+                }
+
+                dp[i + 1][j + 1] = computeMinimumCost(dp, i, j, lastMatchRow, lastMatchCol, cost);
+            }
+
+            charLastPosition.put(s1.charAt(i - 1), i);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the minimum cost among all possible operations at the current position.
+     *
+     * This method evaluates four possible operations:
+     * 1. Substitution: replace character at position i with character at position j
+     * 2. Insertion: insert character from s2 at position j
+     * 3. Deletion: delete character from s1 at position i
+     * 4. Transposition: swap characters that have been seen before
+     *
+     * The transposition cost accounts for the gap between the current position
+     * and the last position where matching characters were found.
+     *
+     * @param dp the dynamic programming table
+     * @param i the current position in the first string (1-indexed in the DP table)
+     * @param j the current position in the second string (1-indexed in the DP table)
+     * @param lastMatchRow the row index where the current character of s2 last appeared in s1
+     * @param lastMatchCol the column index where the current character of s1 last matched in s2
+     * @param cost the substitution cost (0 if characters match, 1 otherwise)
+     * @return the minimum cost among all operations
+     */
+    private static int computeMinimumCost(int[][] dp, int i, int j, int lastMatchRow, int lastMatchCol, int cost) {
+        int substitution = dp[i][j] + cost;
+        int insertion = dp[i + 1][j] + 1;
+        int deletion = dp[i][j + 1] + 1;
+        int transposition = dp[lastMatchRow][lastMatchCol] + i - lastMatchRow - 1 + 1 + j - lastMatchCol - 1;
+
+        return Math.min(Math.min(substitution, insertion), Math.min(deletion, transposition));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DiceThrow.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DiceThrow.java
index fd272f8e5779..c3dc3f32ff7c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DiceThrow.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DiceThrow.java
@@ -9,18 +9,21 @@
 
 /* Hence, storing the results of the solved sub-problems saves time.
 And it can be done using Dynamic Programming(DP).
+// Time Complexity: O(m * n * x) where m is number of faces, n is number of dice and x is given sum.
 Following is implementation of Dynamic Programming approach. */
 // Code ---->
-// Java program to find number of ways to get sum 'x' with 'n' 
-// dice where every dice has 'm' faces 
-class DP {
+// Java program to find number of ways to get sum 'x' with 'n'
+// dice where every dice has 'm' faces
+final class DP {
+    private DP() {
+    }
 
-    /* The main function that returns the number of ways to get sum 'x' with 'n' dice and 'm' with m faces. */
+    /* The main function that returns the number of ways to get sum 'x' with 'n' dice and 'm' with m
+     * faces. */
     public static long findWays(int m, int n, int x) {
-
-        /* Create a table to store the results of subproblems. 
-    One extra row and column are used for simplicity 
-    (Number of dice is directly used as row index and sum is directly used as column index). 
+        /* Create a table to store the results of subproblems.
+    One extra row and column are used for simplicity
+    (Number of dice is directly used as row index and sum is directly used as column index).
     The entries in 0th row and 0th column are never used. */
         long[][] table = new long[n + 1][x + 1];
 
@@ -29,7 +32,7 @@ public static long findWays(int m, int n, int x) {
             table[1][j] = 1;
         }
 
-        /* Fill rest of the entries in table using recursive relation 
+        /* Fill rest of the entries in table using recursive relation
     i: number of dice, j: sum */
         for (int i = 2; i <= n; i++) {
             for (int j = 1; j <= x; j++) {
@@ -41,23 +44,4 @@ public static long findWays(int m, int n, int x) {
 
         return table[n][x];
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        System.out.println(findWays(4, 2, 1));
-        System.out.println(findWays(2, 2, 3));
-        System.out.println(findWays(6, 3, 8));
-        System.out.println(findWays(4, 2, 5));
-        System.out.println(findWays(4, 3, 5));
-    }
 }
-
-/*
-OUTPUT:
-0
-2
-21
-4
-6
- */
-// Time Complexity: O(m * n * x) where m is number of faces, n is number of dice and x is given sum.
-
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DyanamicProgrammingKnapsack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DyanamicProgrammingKnapsack.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 6f4df8f634d4..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DyanamicProgrammingKnapsack.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,41 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
-
-// A Dynamic Programming based solution
-// for 0-1 Knapsack problem
-public class DyanamicProgrammingKnapsack {
-
-    static int max(int a, int b) {
-        return (a > b) ? a : b;
-    }
-
-    // Returns the maximum value that can
-    // be put in a knapsack of capacity W
-    static int knapSack(int W, int wt[], int val[], int n) {
-        int i, w;
-        int K[][] = new int[n + 1][W + 1];
-
-        // Build table K[][] in bottom up manner
-        for (i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
-            for (w = 0; w <= W; w++) {
-                if (i == 0 || w == 0) {
-                    K[i][w] = 0;
-                } else if (wt[i - 1] <= w) {
-                    K[i][w] = max(val[i - 1] + K[i - 1][w - wt[i - 1]], K[i - 1][w]);
-                } else {
-                    K[i][w] = K[i - 1][w];
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        return K[n][W];
-    }
-
-    // Driver code
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        int val[] = new int[]{60, 100, 120};
-        int wt[] = new int[]{10, 20, 30};
-        int W = 50;
-        int n = val.length;
-        System.out.println(knapSack(W, wt, val, n));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistance.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistance.java
index b99d016c0a27..020d15197b28 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistance.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistance.java
@@ -22,9 +22,9 @@
  *
  * @author SUBHAM SANGHAI
  */
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class EditDistance {
+public final class EditDistance {
+    private EditDistance() {
+    }
 
     public static int minDistance(String word1, String word2) {
         int len1 = word1.length();
@@ -57,8 +57,8 @@ then take the minimum of the various operations(i.e insertion,removal,substituti
                     int insert = dp[i][j + 1] + 1;
                     int delete = dp[i + 1][j] + 1;
 
-                    int min = replace > insert ? insert : replace;
-                    min = delete > min ? min : delete;
+                    int min = Math.min(replace, insert);
+                    min = Math.min(delete, min);
                     dp[i + 1][j + 1] = min;
                 }
             }
@@ -67,25 +67,10 @@ then take the minimum of the various operations(i.e insertion,removal,substituti
         return dp[len1][len2];
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        String s1, s2;
-        System.out.println("Enter the First String");
-        s1 = input.nextLine();
-        System.out.println("Enter the Second String");
-        s2 = input.nextLine();
-        // ans stores the final Edit Distance between the two strings
-        int ans = minDistance(s1, s2);
-        System.out.println(
-                "The minimum Edit Distance between \"" + s1 + "\" and \"" + s2 + "\" is " + ans);
-        input.close();
-    }
-
     // edit distance problem
     public static int editDistance(String s1, String s2) {
         int[][] storage = new int[s1.length() + 1][s2.length() + 1];
         return editDistance(s1, s2, storage);
-
     }
 
     public static int editDistance(String s1, String s2, int[][] storage) {
@@ -93,28 +78,23 @@ public static int editDistance(String s1, String s2, int[][] storage) {
         int n = s2.length();
         if (storage[m][n] > 0) {
             return storage[m][n];
-
         }
         if (m == 0) {
             storage[m][n] = n;
             return storage[m][n];
-
         }
         if (n == 0) {
             storage[m][n] = m;
             return storage[m][n];
-
         }
         if (s1.charAt(0) == s2.charAt(0)) {
             storage[m][n] = editDistance(s1.substring(1), s2.substring(1), storage);
-            return storage[m][n];
-
         } else {
             int op1 = editDistance(s1, s2.substring(1), storage);
             int op2 = editDistance(s1.substring(1), s2, storage);
             int op3 = editDistance(s1.substring(1), s2.substring(1), storage);
             storage[m][n] = 1 + Math.min(op1, Math.min(op2, op3));
-            return storage[m][n];
         }
+        return storage[m][n];
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDropping.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDropping.java
index 4bcca33e7c33..be52ab166f18 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDropping.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDropping.java
@@ -3,13 +3,15 @@
 /**
  * DynamicProgramming solution for the Egg Dropping Puzzle
  */
-public class EggDropping {
+public final class EggDropping {
+    private EggDropping() {
+    }
 
     // min trials with n eggs and m floors
-    private static int minTrials(int n, int m) {
-
+    public static int minTrials(int n, int m) {
         int[][] eggFloor = new int[n + 1][m + 1];
-        int result, x;
+        int result;
+        int x;
 
         for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
             eggFloor[i][0] = 0; // Zero trial for zero floor.
@@ -39,8 +41,9 @@ private static int minTrials(int n, int m) {
         return eggFloor[n][m];
     }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        int n = 2, m = 4;
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        int n = 2;
+        int m = 4;
         // result outputs min no. of trials in worst case for n eggs and m floors
         int result = minTrials(n, m);
         System.out.println(result);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java
index ac97ba004197..0d6aff2bbef3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java
@@ -2,36 +2,29 @@
 
 import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.Map;
-import java.util.Scanner;
 
 /**
  * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
  */
-public class Fibonacci {
-
-    private static Map<Integer, Integer> map = new HashMap<>();
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        // Methods all returning [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ...] for n = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...]
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n = sc.nextInt();
-
-        System.out.println(fibMemo(n));
-        System.out.println(fibBotUp(n));
-        System.out.println(fibOptimized(n));
-        sc.close();
+public final class Fibonacci {
+    private Fibonacci() {
     }
 
+    static final Map<Integer, Integer> CACHE = new HashMap<>();
+
     /**
      * This method finds the nth fibonacci number using memoization technique
      *
      * @param n The input n for which we have to determine the fibonacci number
      * Outputs the nth fibonacci number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is negative
      */
     public static int fibMemo(int n) {
-        if (map.containsKey(n)) {
-            return map.get(n);
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input n must be non-negative");
+        }
+        if (CACHE.containsKey(n)) {
+            return CACHE.get(n);
         }
 
         int f;
@@ -40,7 +33,7 @@ public static int fibMemo(int n) {
             f = n;
         } else {
             f = fibMemo(n - 1) + fibMemo(n - 2);
-            map.put(n, f);
+            CACHE.put(n, f);
         }
         return f;
     }
@@ -50,9 +43,12 @@ public static int fibMemo(int n) {
      *
      * @param n The input n for which we have to determine the fibonacci number
      * Outputs the nth fibonacci number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is negative
      */
     public static int fibBotUp(int n) {
-
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input n must be non-negative");
+        }
         Map<Integer, Integer> fib = new HashMap<>();
 
         for (int i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
@@ -79,13 +75,19 @@ public static int fibBotUp(int n) {
      * Time Complexity will be O(n)
      * <p>
      * Whereas , the above functions will take O(n) Space.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is negative
      * @author Shoaib Rayeen (https://github.com/shoaibrayeen)
      */
     public static int fibOptimized(int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input n must be non-negative");
+        }
         if (n == 0) {
             return 0;
         }
-        int prev = 0, res = 1, next;
+        int prev = 0;
+        int res = 1;
+        int next;
         for (int i = 2; i <= n; i++) {
             next = prev + res;
             prev = res;
@@ -93,4 +95,25 @@ public static int fibOptimized(int n) {
         }
         return res;
     }
+
+    /**
+     * We have only defined the nth Fibonacci number in terms of the two before it. Now, we will
+     * look at Binet's formula to calculate the nth Fibonacci number in constant time. The Fibonacci
+     * terms maintain a ratio called golden ratio denoted by Φ, the Greek character pronounced
+     * ‘phi'. First, let's look at how the golden ratio is calculated: Φ = ( 1 + √5 )/2
+     * = 1.6180339887... Now, let's look at Binet's formula: Sn = Φⁿ–(– Φ⁻ⁿ)/√5 We first calculate
+     * the squareRootof5 and phi and store them in variables. Later, we apply Binet's formula to get
+     * the required term. Time Complexity will be O(1)
+     * @param n The input n for which we have to determine the fibonacci number
+     * Outputs the nth fibonacci number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is negative
+     */
+    public static int fibBinet(int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input n must be non-negative");
+        }
+        double squareRootOf5 = Math.sqrt(5);
+        double phi = (1 + squareRootOf5) / 2;
+        return (int) ((Math.pow(phi, n) - Math.pow(-phi, -n)) / squareRootOf5);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FloodFill.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FloodFill.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 8b7bd088da51..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FloodFill.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,114 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
-
-/**
- * Java program for Flood fill algorithm.
- * @author Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
- */
-public class FloodFill {
-
-    /**
-     * Get the color at the given co-odrinates of a 2D image
-     *
-     * @param image The image to be filled
-     * @param x_co_ordinate The x co-ordinate of which color is to be obtained
-     * @param y_co_ordinate The y co-ordinate of which color is to be obtained
-     */
-	
-	public static int getPixel(int[][] image, int x_co_ordinate, int y_co_ordinate) {
-	
-		return image[x_co_ordinate][y_co_ordinate];
-	
-	}
-	
-    /**
-     * Put the color at the given co-odrinates of a 2D image
-     *
-     * @param image The image to be filed
-     * @param x_co_ordinate The x co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
-     * @param y_co_ordinate The y co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
-     */
-	public static void putPixel(int[][] image, int x_co_ordinate, int y_co_ordinate, int new_color) {
-		
-		image[x_co_ordinate][y_co_ordinate] = new_color;
-	
-	}
-	
-	
-    /**
-     * Fill the 2D image with new color
-     *
-     * @param image The image to be filed
-     * @param x_co_ordinate The x co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
-     * @param y_co_ordinate The y co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
-     * @param new_color The new color which to be filled in the image
-     * @param old_color The old color which is to be replaced in the image
-     * @return
-     */
-	public static void floodFill(int[][] image, int x_co_ordinate, int y_co_ordinate, int new_color, int old_color) {
-		if(x_co_ordinate >= 0 && y_co_ordinate >= 0 && getPixel(image, x_co_ordinate, y_co_ordinate) == old_color) {
-			
-			putPixel(image, x_co_ordinate, y_co_ordinate, new_color);
-			floodFill(image, x_co_ordinate + 1, y_co_ordinate, new_color, old_color);
-			floodFill(image, x_co_ordinate - 1, y_co_ordinate, new_color, old_color);
-			floodFill(image, x_co_ordinate, y_co_ordinate + 1, new_color, old_color);
-			floodFill(image, x_co_ordinate, y_co_ordinate - 1, new_color, old_color);
-			floodFill(image, x_co_ordinate + 1, y_co_ordinate - 1, new_color, old_color);
-			floodFill(image, x_co_ordinate - 1, y_co_ordinate + 1, new_color, old_color);
-			floodFill(image, x_co_ordinate + 1, y_co_ordinate + 1, new_color, old_color);
-			floodFill(image, x_co_ordinate - 1, y_co_ordinate - 1, new_color, old_color);
-			
-			
-		}
-		
-	}
-	
-    /**
-     * This method will print the 2D image matrix
-     *
-     * @param image The image to be printed on the console
-     */
-	public static void printImageArray(int[][] image) {
-		
-		for(int i=0 ; i<image.length ; i++) {
-			for(int j=0 ; j<image[0].length ; j++) {
-				
-				System.out.print(image[i][j]+"  ");
-			}
-			
-			System.out.println();
-		}
-		
-	}
-	
-	// Driver Program
-	public static void main(String[] args) {
-		
-		
-		//Input 2D image matrix
-		int[][] image = {
-				{0,0,0,0,0,0,0},
-				{0,3,3,3,3,0,0},
-				{0,3,1,1,5,0,0},
-				{0,3,1,1,5,5,3},
-				{0,3,5,5,1,1,3},
-				{0,0,0,5,1,1,3},
-				{0,0,0,3,3,3,3}
-		};
-		
-		floodFill(image,2,2,2,1);
-
-		/* Output ==>
-		 * 0  0  0  0  0  0  0  
-		   0  3  3  3  3  0  0  
-		   0  3  2  2  5  0  0  
-           0  3  2  2  5  5  3  
-           0  3  5  5  2  2  3  
-           0  0  0  5  2  2  3  
-           0  0  0  3  3  3  3
-		 * */
-		
-		//print 2D image matrix
-		printImageArray(image);
-	}
-
-}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FordFulkerson.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FordFulkerson.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 63ec477c4590..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FordFulkerson.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,76 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
-
-import java.util.LinkedList;
-import java.util.Queue;
-import java.util.Vector;
-
-public class FordFulkerson {
-
-    static final int INF = 987654321;
-    // edges
-    static int V;
-    static int[][] capacity, flow;
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        System.out.println("V : 6");
-        V = 6;
-        capacity = new int[V][V];
-
-        capacity[0][1] = 12;
-        capacity[0][3] = 13;
-        capacity[1][2] = 10;
-        capacity[2][3] = 13;
-        capacity[2][4] = 3;
-        capacity[2][5] = 15;
-        capacity[3][2] = 7;
-        capacity[3][4] = 15;
-        capacity[4][5] = 17;
-
-        System.out.println("Max capacity in networkFlow : " + networkFlow(0, 5));
-    }
-
-    private static int networkFlow(int source, int sink) {
-        flow = new int[V][V];
-        int totalFlow = 0;
-        while (true) {
-            Vector<Integer> parent = new Vector<>(V);
-            for (int i = 0; i < V; i++) {
-                parent.add(-1);
-            }
-            Queue<Integer> q = new LinkedList<>();
-            parent.set(source, source);
-            q.add(source);
-            while (!q.isEmpty() && parent.get(sink) == -1) {
-                int here = q.peek();
-                q.poll();
-                for (int there = 0; there < V; ++there) {
-                    if (capacity[here][there] - flow[here][there] > 0 && parent.get(there) == -1) {
-                        q.add(there);
-                        parent.set(there, here);
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            if (parent.get(sink) == -1) {
-                break;
-            }
-
-            int amount = INF;
-            String printer = "path : ";
-            StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
-            for (int p = sink; p != source; p = parent.get(p)) {
-                amount = Math.min(capacity[parent.get(p)][p] - flow[parent.get(p)][p], amount);
-                sb.append(p + "-");
-            }
-            sb.append(source);
-            for (int p = sink; p != source; p = parent.get(p)) {
-                flow[parent.get(p)][p] += amount;
-                flow[p][parent.get(p)] -= amount;
-            }
-            totalFlow += amount;
-            printer += sb.reverse() + " / max flow : " + totalFlow;
-            System.out.println(printer);
-        }
-
-        return totalFlow;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java
index 364d16a3e9f5..7a0a3da94c1e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java
@@ -1,54 +1,52 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
- * Program to implement Kadane’s Algorithm to calculate maximum contiguous
- * subarray sum of an array Time Complexity: O(n)
+ * This class implements Kadane's Algorithm to find the maximum subarray sum
+ * within a given array of integers. The algorithm efficiently computes the maximum
+ * sum of a contiguous subarray in linear time.
  *
- * @author Nishita Aggarwal
+ * Author: <a href="https://github.com/siddhant2002">Siddhant Swarup Mallick</a>
  */
-public class KadaneAlgorithm {
+public final class KadaneAlgorithm {
+    private KadaneAlgorithm() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * This method implements Kadane's Algorithm
+     * Computes the maximum subarray sum using Kadane's Algorithm and checks
+     * if it matches a predicted answer.
+     *
+     * @param a              The input array of integers for which the maximum
+     *                       subarray sum is to be calculated.
+     * @param predictedAnswer The expected maximum subarray sum to be verified
+     *                       against the computed sum.
+     * @return true if the computed maximum subarray sum equals the predicted
+     *         answer, false otherwise.
      *
-     * @param arr The input array
-     * @return The maximum contiguous subarray sum of the array
+     * <p>Example:</p>
+     * <pre>
+     * Input: {89, 56, 98, 123, 26, 75, 12, 40, 39, 68, 91}
+     * Output: true if the maximum subarray sum is equal to the
+     *         predicted answer.
+     * </pre>
+     *
+     * <p>Algorithmic Complexity:</p>
+     * <ul>
+     * <li>Time Complexity: O(n) - the algorithm iterates through the array once.</li>
+     * <li>Auxiliary Space Complexity: O(1) - only a constant amount of additional space is used.</li>
+     * </ul>
      */
-    static int largestContiguousSum(int arr[]) {
-        int i, len = arr.length, cursum = 0, maxsum = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
-        if (len == 0) // empty array
-        {
-            return 0;
-        }
-        for (i = 0; i < len; i++) {
-            cursum += arr[i];
-            if (cursum > maxsum) {
-                maxsum = cursum;
-            }
-            if (cursum <= 0) {
-                cursum = 0;
+    public static boolean maxSum(int[] a, int predictedAnswer) {
+        int sum = a[0];
+        int runningSum = 0;
+
+        for (int k : a) {
+            runningSum += k;
+            sum = Math.max(sum, runningSum);
+            if (runningSum < 0) {
+                runningSum = 0;
             }
         }
-        return maxsum;
-    }
 
-    /**
-     * Main method
-     *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n, arr[], i;
-        n = sc.nextInt();
-        arr = new int[n];
-        for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            arr[i] = sc.nextInt();
-        }
-        int maxContSum = largestContiguousSum(arr);
-        System.out.println(maxContSum);
-        sc.close();
+        return sum == predictedAnswer;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java
index c4d990e4fb58..134561766830 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java
@@ -1,38 +1,55 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
 /**
- * A DynamicProgramming based solution for 0-1 Knapsack problem
+ * A Dynamic Programming based solution for the 0-1 Knapsack problem.
+ * This class provides a method, `knapSack`, that calculates the maximum value that can be
+ * obtained from a given set of items with weights and values, while not exceeding a
+ * given weight capacity.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=0-1_Knapsack_problem">0-1 Knapsack Problem </a>
  */
-public class Knapsack {
+public final class Knapsack {
+
+    private Knapsack() {
+    }
 
-    private static int knapSack(int W, int wt[], int val[], int n) throws IllegalArgumentException {
-        if (wt == null || val == null) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException();
+    private static void throwIfInvalidInput(final int weightCapacity, final int[] weights, final int[] values) {
+        if (weightCapacity < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Weight capacity should not be negative.");
         }
-        int i, w;
-        int rv[][] = new int[n + 1][W + 1]; // rv means return value
-
-        // Build table rv[][] in bottom up manner
-        for (i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
-            for (w = 0; w <= W; w++) {
-                if (i == 0 || w == 0) {
-                    rv[i][w] = 0;
-                } else if (wt[i - 1] <= w) {
-                    rv[i][w] = Math.max(val[i - 1] + rv[i - 1][w - wt[i - 1]], rv[i - 1][w]);
-                } else {
-                    rv[i][w] = rv[i - 1][w];
+        if (weights == null || values == null || weights.length != values.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input arrays must not be null and must have the same length.");
+        }
+        if (Arrays.stream(weights).anyMatch(w -> w <= 0)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array should not contain non-positive weight(s).");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the 0-1 Knapsack problem using Dynamic Programming.
+     *
+     * @param weightCapacity The maximum weight capacity of the knapsack.
+     * @param weights        An array of item weights.
+     * @param values         An array of item values.
+     * @return The maximum value that can be obtained without exceeding the weight capacity.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the input arrays are null or have different lengths.
+     */
+    public static int knapSack(final int weightCapacity, final int[] weights, final int[] values) throws IllegalArgumentException {
+        throwIfInvalidInput(weightCapacity, weights, values);
+
+        // DP table to store the state of the maximum possible return for a given weight capacity.
+        int[] dp = new int[weightCapacity + 1];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < values.length; i++) {
+            for (int w = weightCapacity; w > 0; w--) {
+                if (weights[i] <= w) {
+                    dp[w] = Math.max(dp[w], dp[w - weights[i]] + values[i]);
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        return rv[n][W];
-    }
-
-    // Driver program to test above function
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        int val[] = new int[]{50, 100, 130};
-        int wt[] = new int[]{10, 20, 40};
-        int W = 50;
-        System.out.println(knapSack(W, wt, val, val.length));
+        return dp[weightCapacity];
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoization.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoization.java
index d2e2e9c045fc..3501e302a6ef 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoization.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoization.java
@@ -4,48 +4,50 @@
 
 /**
  * Recursive Solution for 0-1 knapsack with memoization
+ * This method is basically an extension to the recursive approach so that we
+ * can overcome the problem of calculating redundant cases and thus increased
+ * complexity. We can solve this problem by simply creating a 2-D array that can
+ * store a particular state (n, w) if we get it the first time.
  */
 public class KnapsackMemoization {
 
-    private static int[][] t;
+    int knapSack(int capacity, int[] weights, int[] profits, int numOfItems) {
 
-    // Returns the maximum value that can
-    // be put in a knapsack of capacity W
-    public static int knapsack(int[] wt, int[] value, int W, int n) {
-        if (t[n][W] != -1) {
-            return t[n][W];
+        // Declare the table dynamically
+        int[][] dpTable = new int[numOfItems + 1][capacity + 1];
+
+        // Loop to initially fill the table with -1
+        for (int[] table : dpTable) {
+            Arrays.fill(table, -1);
         }
-        if (n == 0 || W == 0) {
+
+        return solveKnapsackRecursive(capacity, weights, profits, numOfItems, dpTable);
+    }
+
+    // Returns the value of maximum profit using recursive approach
+    int solveKnapsackRecursive(int capacity, int[] weights, int[] profits, int numOfItems, int[][] dpTable) {
+        // Base condition
+        if (numOfItems == 0 || capacity == 0) {
             return 0;
         }
-        if (wt[n - 1] <= W) {
-            t[n - 1][W - wt[n - 1]] = knapsack(wt, value, W - wt[n - 1], n - 1);
-            // Include item in the bag. In that case add the value of the item and call for the remaining items
-            int tmp1 = value[n - 1] + t[n - 1][W - wt[n - 1]];
-            // Don't include the nth item in the bag anl call for remaining item without reducing the weight
-            int tmp2 = knapsack(wt, value, W, n - 1);
-            t[n - 1][W] = tmp2;
-            // include the larger one
-            int tmp = tmp1 > tmp2 ? tmp1 : tmp2;
-            t[n][W] = tmp;
-            return tmp;
-            // If Weight for the item is more than the desired weight then don't include it
-            // Call for rest of the n-1 items
-        } else if (wt[n - 1] > W) {
-            t[n][W] = knapsack(wt, value, W, n - 1);
-            return t[n][W];
+
+        if (dpTable[numOfItems][capacity] != -1) {
+            return dpTable[numOfItems][capacity];
         }
-        return -1;
-    }
 
-    // Driver code
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        int[] wt = {1, 3, 4, 5};
-        int[] value = {1, 4, 5, 7};
-        int W = 10;
-        t = new int[wt.length + 1][W + 1];
-        Arrays.stream(t).forEach(a -> Arrays.fill(a, -1));
-        int res = knapsack(wt, value, W, wt.length);
-        System.out.println("Maximum knapsack value " + res);
+        if (weights[numOfItems - 1] > capacity) {
+            // Store the value of function call stack in table
+            dpTable[numOfItems][capacity] = solveKnapsackRecursive(capacity, weights, profits, numOfItems - 1, dpTable);
+        } else {
+            // case 1. include the item, if it is less than the capacity
+            final int includeCurrentItem = profits[numOfItems - 1] + solveKnapsackRecursive(capacity - weights[numOfItems - 1], weights, profits, numOfItems - 1, dpTable);
+
+            // case 2. exclude the item if it is more than the capacity
+            final int excludeCurrentItem = solveKnapsackRecursive(capacity, weights, profits, numOfItems - 1, dpTable);
+
+            // Store the value of function call stack in table and return
+            dpTable[numOfItems][capacity] = Math.max(includeCurrentItem, excludeCurrentItem);
+        }
+        return dpTable[numOfItems][capacity];
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOne.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOne.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..abc1e321ca8f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOne.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code KnapsackZeroOne} provides Recursive solution for the 0/1 Knapsack
+ * problem. Solves by exploring all combinations of items using recursion. No
+ * memoization or dynamic programming optimizations are applied.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(2^n) — explores all subsets.
+ * Space Complexity: O(n) — due to recursive call stack.
+ *
+ * Problem Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knapsack_problem
+ */
+public final class KnapsackZeroOne {
+
+    private KnapsackZeroOne() {
+        // Prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the 0/1 Knapsack problem using recursion.
+     *
+     * @param values   the array containing values of the items
+     * @param weights  the array containing weights of the items
+     * @param capacity the total capacity of the knapsack
+     * @param n        the number of items
+     * @return the maximum total value achievable within the given weight limit
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if input arrays are null, empty, or
+     *     lengths mismatch
+     */
+    public static int compute(final int[] values, final int[] weights, final int capacity, final int n) {
+        if (values == null || weights == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input arrays cannot be null.");
+        }
+        if (values.length != weights.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Value and weight arrays must be of the same length.");
+        }
+        if (capacity < 0 || n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid input: arrays must be non-empty and capacity/n "
+                + "non-negative.");
+        }
+        if (n == 0 || capacity == 0 || values.length == 0) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (weights[n - 1] <= capacity) {
+            final int include = values[n - 1] + compute(values, weights, capacity - weights[n - 1], n - 1);
+            final int exclude = compute(values, weights, capacity, n - 1);
+            return Math.max(include, exclude);
+        } else {
+            return compute(values, weights, capacity, n - 1);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c560efc61c71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * Tabulation (Bottom-Up) Solution for 0-1 Knapsack Problem.
+ * This method uses dynamic programming to build up a solution iteratively,
+ * filling a 2-D array where each entry dp[i][w] represents the maximum value
+ * achievable with the first i items and a knapsack capacity of w.
+ *
+ * The tabulation approach is efficient because it avoids redundant calculations
+ * by solving all subproblems in advance and storing their results, ensuring
+ * each subproblem is solved only once. This is a key technique in dynamic programming,
+ * making it possible to solve problems that would otherwise be infeasible due to
+ * exponential time complexity in naive recursive solutions.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(n * W), where n is the number of items and W is the knapsack capacity.
+ * Space Complexity: O(n * W) for the DP table.
+ *
+ * For more information, see:
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knapsack_problem#Dynamic_programming
+ */
+public final class KnapsackZeroOneTabulation {
+
+    private KnapsackZeroOneTabulation() {
+        // Prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the 0-1 Knapsack problem using the bottom-up tabulation technique.
+     * @param values the values of the items
+     * @param weights the weights of the items
+     * @param capacity the total capacity of the knapsack
+     * @param itemCount the number of items
+     * @return the maximum value that can be put in the knapsack
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if input arrays are null, of different lengths,or if capacity or itemCount is invalid
+     */
+    public static int compute(final int[] values, final int[] weights, final int capacity, final int itemCount) {
+        if (values == null || weights == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Values and weights arrays must not be null.");
+        }
+        if (values.length != weights.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Values and weights arrays must be non-null and of same length.");
+        }
+        if (capacity < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity must not be negative.");
+        }
+        if (itemCount < 0 || itemCount > values.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Item count must be between 0 and the length of the values array.");
+        }
+
+        final int[][] dp = new int[itemCount + 1][capacity + 1];
+
+        for (int i = 1; i <= itemCount; i++) {
+            final int currentValue = values[i - 1];
+            final int currentWeight = weights[i - 1];
+
+            for (int w = 1; w <= capacity; w++) {
+                if (currentWeight <= w) {
+                    final int includeItem = currentValue + dp[i - 1][w - currentWeight];
+                    final int excludeItem = dp[i - 1][w];
+                    dp[i][w] = Math.max(includeItem, excludeItem);
+                } else {
+                    dp[i][w] = dp[i - 1][w];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return dp[itemCount][capacity];
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java
index be36d9535064..119d65dfe365 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java
@@ -1,53 +1,84 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+
 /**
- * @author Kshitij VERMA (github.com/kv19971) LEVENSHTEIN DISTANCE dyamic
- * programming implementation to show the difference between two strings
- * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levenshtein_distance)
+ * Provides functions to calculate the Levenshtein distance between two strings.
+ *
+ * The Levenshtein distance is a measure of the similarity between two strings by calculating the minimum number of single-character
+ * edits (insertions, deletions, or substitutions) required to change one string into the other.
  */
-public class LevenshteinDistance {
-
-    private static int minimum(int a, int b, int c) {
-        if (a < b && a < c) {
-            return a;
-        } else if (b < a && b < c) {
-            return b;
-        } else {
-            return c;
-        }
+public final class LevenshteinDistance {
+    private LevenshteinDistance() {
     }
 
-    private static int calculate_distance(String a, String b) {
-        int len_a = a.length() + 1;
-        int len_b = b.length() + 1;
-        int[][] distance_mat = new int[len_a][len_b];
-        for (int i = 0; i < len_a; i++) {
-            distance_mat[i][0] = i;
-        }
-        for (int j = 0; j < len_b; j++) {
-            distance_mat[0][j] = j;
+    /**
+     * Calculates the Levenshtein distance between two strings using a naive dynamic programming approach.
+     *
+     * This function computes the Levenshtein distance by constructing a dynamic programming matrix and iteratively filling it in.
+     * It follows the standard top-to-bottom, left-to-right approach for filling in the matrix.
+     *
+     * @param string1 The first string.
+     * @param string2 The second string.
+     * @return The Levenshtein distance between the two input strings.
+     *
+     * Time complexity: O(nm),
+     * Space complexity: O(nm),
+     *
+     * where n and m are lengths of `string1` and `string2`.
+     *
+     * Note that this implementation uses a straightforward dynamic programming approach without any space optimization.
+     * It may consume more memory for larger input strings compared to the optimized version.
+     */
+    public static int naiveLevenshteinDistance(final String string1, final String string2) {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = IntStream.rangeClosed(0, string1.length()).mapToObj(i -> IntStream.rangeClosed(0, string2.length()).map(j -> (i == 0) ? j : (j == 0) ? i : 0).toArray()).toArray(int[][] ::new);
+
+        IntStream.range(1, string1.length() + 1).forEach(i -> IntStream.range(1, string2.length() + 1).forEach(j -> {
+            final int cost = (string1.charAt(i - 1) == string2.charAt(j - 1)) ? 0 : 1;
+            distanceMatrix[i][j] = Math.min(distanceMatrix[i - 1][j - 1] + cost, Math.min(distanceMatrix[i][j - 1] + 1, distanceMatrix[i - 1][j] + 1));
+        }));
+
+        return distanceMatrix[string1.length()][string2.length()];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the Levenshtein distance between two strings using an optimized dynamic programming approach.
+     *
+     * This edit distance is defined as 1 point per insertion, substitution, or deletion required to make the strings equal.
+     *
+     * @param string1 The first string.
+     * @param string2 The second string.
+     * @return The Levenshtein distance between the two input strings.
+     *
+     * Time complexity: O(nm),
+     * Space complexity: O(n),
+     *
+     * where n and m are lengths of `string1` and `string2`.
+     *
+     * Note that this implementation utilizes an optimized dynamic programming approach, significantly reducing the space complexity from O(nm) to O(n), where n and m are the lengths of `string1` and `string2`.
+     *
+     * Additionally, it minimizes space usage by leveraging the shortest string horizontally and the longest string vertically in the computation matrix.
+     */
+    public static int optimizedLevenshteinDistance(final String string1, final String string2) {
+        if (string1.isEmpty()) {
+            return string2.length();
         }
-        for (int i = 0; i < len_a; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < len_b; j++) {
-                int cost;
-                if (a.charAt(i) == b.charAt(j)) {
-                    cost = 0;
-                } else {
-                    cost = 1;
-                }
-                distance_mat[i][j]
-                        = minimum(distance_mat[i - 1][j], distance_mat[i - 1][j - 1], distance_mat[i][j - 1])
-                        + cost;
+
+        int[] previousDistance = IntStream.rangeClosed(0, string1.length()).toArray();
+
+        for (int j = 1; j <= string2.length(); j++) {
+            int prevSubstitutionCost = previousDistance[0];
+            previousDistance[0] = j;
+
+            for (int i = 1; i <= string1.length(); i++) {
+                final int deletionCost = previousDistance[i] + 1;
+                final int insertionCost = previousDistance[i - 1] + 1;
+                final int substitutionCost = (string1.charAt(i - 1) == string2.charAt(j - 1)) ? prevSubstitutionCost : prevSubstitutionCost + 1;
+                prevSubstitutionCost = previousDistance[i];
+                previousDistance[i] = Math.min(deletionCost, Math.min(insertionCost, substitutionCost));
             }
         }
-        return distance_mat[len_a - 1][len_b - 1];
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String a = ""; // enter your string here
-        String b = ""; // enter your string here
 
-        System.out.print("Levenshtein distance between " + a + " and " + b + " is: ");
-        System.out.println(calculate_distance(a, b));
+        return previousDistance[string1.length()];
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequence.java
index 47e55eceb8cb..08039b85ce40 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequence.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequence.java
@@ -1,70 +1,73 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-/*
-
- * Problem Statement: - 
- * Find Longest Alternating Subsequence
-
- * A sequence {x1, x2, .. xn} is alternating sequence if its elements satisfy one of the following relations : 
-
-   x1 < x2 > x3 < x4 > x5 < …. xn or 
-   x1 > x2 < x3 > x4 < x5 > …. xn
+/**
+ * Class for finding the length of the longest alternating subsequence in an array.
+ *
+ * <p>An alternating sequence is a sequence of numbers where the elements alternate
+ * between increasing and decreasing. Specifically, a sequence is alternating if its elements
+ * satisfy one of the following relations:
+ *
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>{@code x1 < x2 > x3 < x4 > x5 < ... < xn}</li>
+ *   <li>{@code x1 > x2 < x3 > x4 < x5 > ... > xn}</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides a method to compute the length of the longest such subsequence
+ * from a given array of integers.
  */
-public class LongestAlternatingSubsequence {
-
-    /* Function to return longest alternating subsequence length*/
-    static int AlternatingLength(int arr[], int n) {
-        /*
-
-		las[i][0] = Length of the longest
-			alternating subsequence ending at
-			index i and last element is
-			greater than its previous element
-
-		las[i][1] = Length of the longest
-			alternating subsequence ending at
-			index i and last element is
-			smaller than its previous
-			element 
-
-         */
-        int las[][] = new int[n][2]; // las = LongestAlternatingSubsequence
+public final class LongestAlternatingSubsequence {
+    private LongestAlternatingSubsequence() {
+    }
 
+    /**
+     * Finds the length of the longest alternating subsequence in the given array.
+     *
+     * @param arr an array of integers where the longest alternating subsequence is to be found
+     * @param n the length of the array {@code arr}
+     * @return the length of the longest alternating subsequence
+     *
+     * <p>The method uses dynamic programming to solve the problem. It maintains a 2D array
+     * {@code las} where:
+     * <ul>
+     *   <li>{@code las[i][0]} represents the length of the longest alternating subsequence
+     *   ending at index {@code i} with the last element being greater than the previous element.</li>
+     *   <li>{@code las[i][1]} represents the length of the longest alternating subsequence
+     *   ending at index {@code i} with the last element being smaller than the previous element.</li>
+     * </ul>
+     *
+     * <p>The method iterates through the array and updates the {@code las} array based on
+     * whether the current element is greater or smaller than the previous elements.
+     * The result is the maximum value found in the {@code las} array.
+     */
+    static int alternatingLength(int[] arr, int n) {
+        int[][] las = new int[n][2]; // las = LongestAlternatingSubsequence
+
+        // Initialize the dp array
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            las[i][0] = las[i][1] = 1;
+            las[i][0] = 1;
+            las[i][1] = 1;
         }
 
         int result = 1; // Initialize result
 
-        /* Compute values in bottom up manner */
+        // Compute values in a bottom-up manner
         for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
-
-            /* Consider all elements as previous of arr[i]*/
             for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
-
-                /* If arr[i] is greater, then check with las[j][1] */
+                // If arr[i] is greater than arr[j], update las[i][0]
                 if (arr[j] < arr[i] && las[i][0] < las[j][1] + 1) {
                     las[i][0] = las[j][1] + 1;
                 }
 
-                /* If arr[i] is smaller, then check with las[j][0]*/
+                // If arr[i] is smaller than arr[j], update las[i][1]
                 if (arr[j] > arr[i] && las[i][1] < las[j][0] + 1) {
                     las[i][1] = las[j][0] + 1;
                 }
             }
 
-            /* Pick maximum of both values at index i */
-            if (result < Math.max(las[i][0], las[i][1])) {
-                result = Math.max(las[i][0], las[i][1]);
-            }
+            // Pick the maximum of both values at index i
+            result = Math.max(result, Math.max(las[i][0], las[i][1]));
         }
 
         return result;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int arr[] = {10, 22, 9, 33, 49, 50, 31, 60};
-        int n = arr.length;
-        System.out.println("Length of Longest " + "alternating subsequence is " + AlternatingLength(arr, n));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequence.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ba1def551192
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequence.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
+final class LongestArithmeticSubsequence {
+    private LongestArithmeticSubsequence() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the length of the longest arithmetic subsequence in the given array.
+     *
+     * A sequence seq is arithmetic if seq[i + 1] - seq[i] are all the same value
+     * (for 0 <= i < seq.length - 1).
+     *
+     * @param nums the input array of integers
+     * @return the length of the longest arithmetic subsequence
+     */
+    public static int getLongestArithmeticSubsequenceLength(int[] nums) {
+        if (nums == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        if (nums.length <= 1) {
+            return nums.length;
+        }
+
+        HashMap<Integer, Integer>[] dp = new HashMap[nums.length];
+        int maxLength = 2;
+
+        // fill the dp array
+        for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
+            dp[i] = new HashMap<>();
+            for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
+                final int diff = nums[i] - nums[j];
+                dp[i].put(diff, dp[j].getOrDefault(diff, 1) + 1);
+                maxLength = Math.max(maxLength, dp[i].get(diff));
+            }
+        }
+
+        return maxLength;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java
index d28c0fe152e8..54837b5f4e71 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java
@@ -1,72 +1,98 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-class LongestCommonSubsequence {
+/**
+ * This class implements the Longest Common Subsequence (LCS) problem.
+ * The LCS of two sequences is the longest sequence that appears in both
+ * sequences
+ * in the same order, but not necessarily consecutively.
+ *
+ * This implementation uses dynamic programming to find the LCS of two strings.
+ */
+final class LongestCommonSubsequence {
 
-    public static String getLCS(String str1, String str2) {
+    private LongestCommonSubsequence() {
+    }
 
-        // At least one string is null
+    /**
+     * Returns the Longest Common Subsequence (LCS) of two given strings.
+     *
+     * @param str1 The first string.
+     * @param str2 The second string.
+     * @return The LCS of the two strings, or null if one of the strings is null.
+     */
+    public static String getLCS(String str1, String str2) {
+        // If either string is null, return null as LCS can't be computed.
         if (str1 == null || str2 == null) {
             return null;
         }
-
-        // At least one string is empty
+        // If either string is empty, return an empty string as LCS.
         if (str1.length() == 0 || str2.length() == 0) {
             return "";
         }
 
+        // Convert the strings into arrays of characters
         String[] arr1 = str1.split("");
         String[] arr2 = str2.split("");
 
-        // lcsMatrix[i][j]  = LCS of first i elements of arr1 and first j characters of arr2
+        // lcsMatrix[i][j] = LCS(first i characters of str1, first j characters of str2)
         int[][] lcsMatrix = new int[arr1.length + 1][arr2.length + 1];
 
+        // Base Case: Fill the LCS matrix 0th row & 0th column with 0s
+        // as LCS of any string with an empty string is 0.
         for (int i = 0; i < arr1.length + 1; i++) {
             lcsMatrix[i][0] = 0;
         }
         for (int j = 1; j < arr2.length + 1; j++) {
             lcsMatrix[0][j] = 0;
         }
+
+        // Build the LCS matrix by comparing characters of str1 & str2
         for (int i = 1; i < arr1.length + 1; i++) {
             for (int j = 1; j < arr2.length + 1; j++) {
+                // If characters match, the LCS increases by 1
                 if (arr1[i - 1].equals(arr2[j - 1])) {
                     lcsMatrix[i][j] = lcsMatrix[i - 1][j - 1] + 1;
                 } else {
-                    lcsMatrix[i][j]
-                            = lcsMatrix[i - 1][j] > lcsMatrix[i][j - 1] ? lcsMatrix[i - 1][j] : lcsMatrix[i][j - 1];
+                    // Otherwise, take the maximum of the left or above values
+                    lcsMatrix[i][j] = Math.max(lcsMatrix[i - 1][j], lcsMatrix[i][j - 1]);
                 }
             }
         }
+
+        // Call helper function to reconstruct the LCS from the matrix
         return lcsString(str1, str2, lcsMatrix);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Reconstructs the LCS string from the LCS matrix.
+     *
+     * @param str1      The first string.
+     * @param str2      The second string.
+     * @param lcsMatrix The matrix storing the lengths of LCSs
+     *                  of substrings of str1 and str2.
+     * @return The LCS string.
+     */
     public static String lcsString(String str1, String str2, int[][] lcsMatrix) {
-        StringBuilder lcs = new StringBuilder();
-        int i = str1.length(), j = str2.length();
+        StringBuilder lcs = new StringBuilder(); // Hold the LCS characters.
+        int i = str1.length(); // Start from the end of str1.
+        int j = str2.length(); // Start from the end of str2.
+
+        // Trace back through the LCS matrix to reconstruct the LCS
         while (i > 0 && j > 0) {
+            // If characters match, add to the LCS and move diagonally in the matrix
             if (str1.charAt(i - 1) == str2.charAt(j - 1)) {
                 lcs.append(str1.charAt(i - 1));
                 i--;
                 j--;
             } else if (lcsMatrix[i - 1][j] > lcsMatrix[i][j - 1]) {
+                // If the value above is larger, move up
                 i--;
             } else {
+                // If the value to the left is larger, move left
                 j--;
             }
         }
-        return lcs.reverse().toString();
-    }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String str1 = "DSGSHSRGSRHTRD";
-        String str2 = "DATRGAGTSHS";
-        String lcs = getLCS(str1, str2);
-
-        // Print LCS
-        if (lcs != null) {
-            System.out.println("String 1: " + str1);
-            System.out.println("String 2: " + str2);
-            System.out.println("LCS: " + lcs);
-            System.out.println("LCS length: " + lcs.length());
-        }
+        return lcs.reverse().toString(); // LCS built in reverse, so reverse it back
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java
index ecf6ad6c41cc..470833ce9c97 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java
@@ -1,25 +1,10 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
  * @author Afrizal Fikri (https://github.com/icalF)
  */
-public class LongestIncreasingSubsequence {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n = sc.nextInt();
-
-        int arr[] = new int[n];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            arr[i] = sc.nextInt();
-        }
-
-        System.out.println(LIS(arr));
-        System.out.println(findLISLen(arr));
-        sc.close();
+public final class LongestIncreasingSubsequence {
+    private LongestIncreasingSubsequence() {
     }
 
     private static int upperBound(int[] ar, int l, int r, int key) {
@@ -35,20 +20,19 @@ private static int upperBound(int[] ar, int l, int r, int key) {
         return r;
     }
 
-    private static int LIS(int[] array) {
-        int N = array.length;
-        if (N == 0) {
+    public static int lis(int[] array) {
+        int len = array.length;
+        if (len == 0) {
             return 0;
         }
 
-        int[] tail = new int[N];
+        int[] tail = new int[len];
 
         // always points empty slot in tail
         int length = 1;
 
         tail[0] = array[0];
-        for (int i = 1; i < N; i++) {
-
+        for (int i = 1; i < len; i++) {
             // new smallest value
             if (array[i] < tail[0]) {
                 tail[0] = array[i];
@@ -58,8 +42,8 @@ else if (array[i] > tail[length - 1]) {
             } // array[i] will become end candidate of an existing subsequence or
             // Throw away larger elements in all LIS, to make room for upcoming grater elements than
             // array[i]
-            // (and also, array[i] would have already appeared in one of LIS, identify the location and
-            // replace it)
+            // (and also, array[i] would have already appeared in one of LIS, identify the location
+            // and replace it)
             else {
                 tail[upperBound(tail, -1, length - 1, array[i])] = array[i];
             }
@@ -72,20 +56,24 @@ else if (array[i] > tail[length - 1]) {
      * @author Alon Firestein (https://github.com/alonfirestein)
      */
     // A function for finding the length of the LIS algorithm in O(nlogn) complexity.
-    public static int findLISLen(int a[]) {
-        int size = a.length;
-        int arr[] = new int[size];
+    public static int findLISLen(int[] a) {
+        final int size = a.length;
+        if (size == 0) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        int[] arr = new int[size];
         arr[0] = a[0];
         int lis = 1;
         for (int i = 1; i < size; i++) {
-            int index = binarySearchBetween(arr, lis, a[i]);
+            int index = binarySearchBetween(arr, lis - 1, a[i]);
             arr[index] = a[i];
-            if (index > lis) {
+            if (index == lis) {
                 lis++;
             }
         }
         return lis;
     }
+
     // O(logn)
 
     private static int binarySearchBetween(int[] t, int end, int key) {
@@ -98,7 +86,7 @@ private static int binarySearchBetween(int[] t, int end, int key) {
             return end + 1;
         }
         while (left < right - 1) {
-            int middle = (left + right) / 2;
+            final int middle = (left + right) >>> 1;
             if (t[middle] < key) {
                 left = middle;
             } else {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7bc0855e0566
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN.java
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the Longest Increasing Subsequence (LIS) problem using
+ * an O(n log n) dynamic programming solution enhanced with binary search.
+ *
+ * @author Vusal Huseynov (https://github.com/huseynovvusal)
+ */
+public final class LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN {
+    private LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the index of the smallest element in the array that is greater than
+     * or equal to the target using binary search. The search is restricted to
+     * the first `size` elements of the array.
+     *
+     * @param arr    The array to search in (assumed to be sorted up to `size`).
+     * @param size   The number of valid elements in the array.
+     * @param target The target value to find the lower bound for.
+     * @return The index of the lower bound.
+     */
+    private static int lowerBound(int[] arr, int target, int size) {
+        int l = 0;
+        int r = size;
+
+        while (l < r) {
+            int mid = l + (r - l) / 2;
+
+            if (target > arr[mid]) {
+                // Move right if target is greater than mid element
+                l = mid + 1;
+            } else {
+                // Move left if target is less than or equal to mid element
+                r = mid;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Return the index where the target can be inserted
+        return l;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the length of the Longest Increasing Subsequence (LIS) in the given array.
+     *
+     * @param arr The input array of integers.
+     * @return The length of the LIS.
+     */
+    public static int lengthOfLIS(int[] arr) {
+        if (arr == null || arr.length == 0) {
+            return 0; // Return 0 for empty or null arrays
+        }
+
+        // tails[i] - the smallest end element of an increasing subsequence of length i+1
+        int[] tails = new int[arr.length];
+        // size - the length of the longest increasing subsequence found so far
+        int size = 0;
+
+        for (int x : arr) {
+            // Find the position to replace or extend the subsequence
+            int index = lowerBound(tails, x, size);
+
+            // Update the tails array with the current element
+            tails[index] = x;
+
+            // If the element extends the subsequence, increase the size
+            if (index == size) {
+                size++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Return the length of the LIS
+        return size;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubsequence.java
index 5a0f8b2e7e86..0b40d4559341 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubsequence.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubsequence.java
@@ -4,20 +4,22 @@
  * Algorithm explanation
  * https://www.educative.io/edpresso/longest-palindromic-subsequence-algorithm
  */
-public class LongestPalindromicSubsequence {
+public final class LongestPalindromicSubsequence {
+    private LongestPalindromicSubsequence() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         String a = "BBABCBCAB";
         String b = "BABCBAB";
 
-        String aLPS = LPS(a);
-        String bLPS = LPS(b);
+        String aLPS = lps(a);
+        String bLPS = lps(b);
 
         System.out.println(a + " => " + aLPS);
         System.out.println(b + " => " + bLPS);
     }
 
-    public static String LPS(String original) throws IllegalArgumentException {
+    public static String lps(String original) throws IllegalArgumentException {
         StringBuilder reverse = new StringBuilder(original);
         reverse = reverse.reverse();
         return recursiveLPS(original, reverse.toString());
@@ -30,21 +32,16 @@ private static String recursiveLPS(String original, String reverse) {
         if (original.length() == 0 || reverse.length() == 0) {
             bestResult = "";
         } else {
-
             // if the last chars match, then remove it from both strings and recur
             if (original.charAt(original.length() - 1) == reverse.charAt(reverse.length() - 1)) {
-                String bestSubResult
-                        = recursiveLPS(
-                                original.substring(0, original.length() - 1),
-                                reverse.substring(0, reverse.length() - 1));
+                String bestSubResult = recursiveLPS(original.substring(0, original.length() - 1), reverse.substring(0, reverse.length() - 1));
 
                 bestResult = reverse.charAt(reverse.length() - 1) + bestSubResult;
             } else {
-                // otherwise (1) ignore the last character of reverse, and recur on original and updated
-                // reverse again
-                // (2) ignore the last character of original and recur on the updated original and reverse
-                // again
-                // then select the best result from these two subproblems.
+                // otherwise (1) ignore the last character of reverse, and recur on original and
+                // updated reverse again (2) ignore the last character of original and recur on the
+                // updated original and reverse again then select the best result from these two
+                // subproblems.
 
                 String bestSubResult1 = recursiveLPS(original, reverse.substring(0, reverse.length() - 1));
                 String bestSubResult2 = recursiveLPS(original.substring(0, original.length() - 1), reverse);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java
index 4452700fddec..8a4ab2f526a9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java
@@ -1,45 +1,31 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-/*
- * Algorithm explanation https://leetcode.com/problems/longest-palindromic-substring/
+/**
+ * Class for finding the longest palindromic substring within a given string.
+ * <p>
+ * A palindromic substring is a sequence of characters that reads the same backward as forward.
+ * This class uses a dynamic programming approach to efficiently find the longest palindromic substring.
+ *
  */
-public class LongestPalindromicSubstring {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String a = "babad";
-        String b = "cbbd";
-
-        String aLPS = LPS(a);
-        String bLPS = LPS(b);
-
-        System.out.println(a + " => " + aLPS);
-        System.out.println(b + " => " + bLPS);
+public final class LongestPalindromicSubstring {
+    private LongestPalindromicSubstring() {
     }
 
-    private static String LPS(String input) {
-        if (input == null || input.length() == 0) {
+    public static String lps(String input) {
+        if (input == null || input.isEmpty()) {
             return input;
         }
-        boolean arr[][] = new boolean[input.length()][input.length()];
-        int start = 0, end = 0;
+        boolean[][] arr = new boolean[input.length()][input.length()];
+        int start = 0;
+        int end = 0;
         for (int g = 0; g < input.length(); g++) {
             for (int i = 0, j = g; j < input.length(); i++, j++) {
-
                 if (g == 0) {
                     arr[i][j] = true;
                 } else if (g == 1) {
-                    if (input.charAt(i) == input.charAt(j)) {
-                        arr[i][j] = true;
-                    } else {
-                        arr[i][j] = false;
-                    }
+                    arr[i][j] = input.charAt(i) == input.charAt(j);
                 } else {
-
-                    if (input.charAt(i) == input.charAt(j) && arr[i + 1][j - 1]) {
-                        arr[i][j] = true;
-                    } else {
-                        arr[i][j] = false;
-                    }
+                    arr[i][j] = input.charAt(i) == input.charAt(j) && arr[i + 1][j - 1];
                 }
 
                 if (arr[i][j]) {
@@ -50,5 +36,4 @@ private static String LPS(String input) {
         }
         return input.substring(start, end + 1);
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java
index 5a4202b8be81..02696bfca9c2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
  * Given a string containing just the characters '(' and ')', find the length of
  * the longest valid (well-formed) parentheses substring.
@@ -9,7 +7,9 @@
  * @author Libin Yang (https://github.com/yanglbme)
  * @since 2018/10/5
  */
-public class LongestValidParentheses {
+public final class LongestValidParentheses {
+    private LongestValidParentheses() {
+    }
 
     public static int getLongestValidParentheses(String s) {
         if (s == null || s.length() < 2) {
@@ -40,19 +40,4 @@ public static int getLongestValidParentheses(String s) {
 
         return max;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        while (true) {
-            String str = sc.nextLine();
-            if ("quit".equals(str)) {
-                break;
-            }
-
-            System.out.println("Len is: " + getLongestValidParentheses(str));
-        }
-
-        sc.close();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplication.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplication.java
index 152d602c599e..1edb7207dee2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplication.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplication.java
@@ -2,36 +2,32 @@
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Scanner;
 
-public class MatrixChainMultiplication {
+/**
+ * The MatrixChainMultiplication class provides functionality to compute the
+ * optimal way to multiply a sequence of matrices. The optimal multiplication
+ * order is determined using dynamic programming, which minimizes the total
+ * number of scalar multiplications required.
+ */
+public final class MatrixChainMultiplication {
+    private MatrixChainMultiplication() {
+    }
 
-    private static Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
-    private static ArrayList<Matrix> mArray = new ArrayList<>();
-    private static int size;
+    // Matrices to store minimum multiplication costs and split points
     private static int[][] m;
     private static int[][] s;
     private static int[] p;
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int count = 1;
-        while (true) {
-            String[] mSize = input("input size of matrix A(" + count + ") ( ex. 10 20 ) : ");
-            int col = Integer.parseInt(mSize[0]);
-            if (col == 0) {
-                break;
-            }
-            int row = Integer.parseInt(mSize[1]);
-
-            Matrix matrix = new Matrix(count, col, row);
-            mArray.add(matrix);
-            count++;
-        }
-        for (Matrix m : mArray) {
-            System.out.format("A(%d)  =  %2d  x  %2d%n", m.count(), m.col(), m.row());
-        }
-
-        size = mArray.size();
+    /**
+     * Calculates the optimal order for multiplying a given list of matrices.
+     *
+     * @param matrices an ArrayList of Matrix objects representing the matrices
+     *                 to be multiplied.
+     * @return a Result object containing the matrices of minimum costs and
+     *         optimal splits.
+     */
+    public static Result calculateMatrixChainOrder(ArrayList<Matrix> matrices) {
+        int size = matrices.size();
         m = new int[size + 1][size + 1];
         s = new int[size + 1][size + 1];
         p = new int[size + 1];
@@ -42,51 +38,20 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         }
 
         for (int i = 0; i < p.length; i++) {
-            p[i] = i == 0 ? mArray.get(i).col() : mArray.get(i - 1).row();
-        }
-
-        matrixChainOrder();
-        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-            System.out.print("-------");
+            p[i] = i == 0 ? matrices.get(i).col() : matrices.get(i - 1).row();
         }
-        System.out.println();
-        printArray(m);
-        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-            System.out.print("-------");
-        }
-        System.out.println();
-        printArray(s);
-        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-            System.out.print("-------");
-        }
-        System.out.println();
-
-        System.out.println("Optimal solution : " + m[1][size]);
-        System.out.print("Optimal parens : ");
-        printOptimalParens(1, size);
-    }
 
-    private static void printOptimalParens(int i, int j) {
-        if (i == j) {
-            System.out.print("A" + i);
-        } else {
-            System.out.print("(");
-            printOptimalParens(i, s[i][j]);
-            printOptimalParens(s[i][j] + 1, j);
-            System.out.print(")");
-        }
+        matrixChainOrder(size);
+        return new Result(m, s);
     }
 
-    private static void printArray(int[][] array) {
-        for (int i = 1; i < size + 1; i++) {
-            for (int j = 1; j < size + 1; j++) {
-                System.out.print(String.format("%7d", array[i][j]));
-            }
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-    }
-
-    private static void matrixChainOrder() {
+    /**
+     * A helper method that computes the minimum cost of multiplying
+     * the matrices using dynamic programming.
+     *
+     * @param size the number of matrices in the multiplication sequence.
+     */
+    private static void matrixChainOrder(int size) {
         for (int i = 1; i < size + 1; i++) {
             m[i][i] = 0;
         }
@@ -107,33 +72,92 @@ private static void matrixChainOrder() {
         }
     }
 
-    private static String[] input(String string) {
-        System.out.print(string);
-        return (scan.nextLine().split(" "));
-    }
-}
-
-class Matrix {
+    /**
+     * The Result class holds the results of the matrix chain multiplication
+     * calculation, including the matrix of minimum costs and split points.
+     */
+    public static class Result {
+        private final int[][] m;
+        private final int[][] s;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a Result object with the specified matrices of minimum
+         * costs and split points.
+         *
+         * @param m the matrix of minimum multiplication costs.
+         * @param s the matrix of optimal split points.
+         */
+        public Result(int[][] m, int[][] s) {
+            this.m = m;
+            this.s = s;
+        }
 
-    private int count;
-    private int col;
-    private int row;
+        /**
+         * Returns the matrix of minimum multiplication costs.
+         *
+         * @return the matrix of minimum multiplication costs.
+         */
+        public int[][] getM() {
+            return m;
+        }
 
-    Matrix(int count, int col, int row) {
-        this.count = count;
-        this.col = col;
-        this.row = row;
+        /**
+         * Returns the matrix of optimal split points.
+         *
+         * @return the matrix of optimal split points.
+         */
+        public int[][] getS() {
+            return s;
+        }
     }
 
-    int count() {
-        return count;
-    }
+    /**
+     * The Matrix class represents a matrix with its dimensions and count.
+     */
+    public static class Matrix {
+        private final int count;
+        private final int col;
+        private final int row;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a Matrix object with the specified count, number of columns,
+         * and number of rows.
+         *
+         * @param count the identifier for the matrix.
+         * @param col   the number of columns in the matrix.
+         * @param row   the number of rows in the matrix.
+         */
+        public Matrix(int count, int col, int row) {
+            this.count = count;
+            this.col = col;
+            this.row = row;
+        }
 
-    int col() {
-        return col;
-    }
+        /**
+         * Returns the identifier of the matrix.
+         *
+         * @return the identifier of the matrix.
+         */
+        public int count() {
+            return count;
+        }
 
-    int row() {
-        return row;
+        /**
+         * Returns the number of columns in the matrix.
+         *
+         * @return the number of columns in the matrix.
+         */
+        public int col() {
+            return col;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Returns the number of rows in the matrix.
+         *
+         * @return the number of rows in the matrix.
+         */
+        public int row() {
+            return row;
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.java
index 6ccdbf98b7d6..0c1031c6805c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.java
@@ -1,25 +1,54 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-// Matrix-chain Multiplication
-// Problem Statement
-// we have given a chain A1,A2,...,Ani of n matrices, where for i = 1,2,...,n, 
-// matrix Ai has dimension pi−1 ×pi
-// , fully parenthesize the product A1A2 ···An in a way that
-// minimizes the number of scalar multiplications.
-public class MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation {
+/**
+ * The MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation class implements the matrix-chain
+ * multiplication problem using a top-down recursive approach with memoization.
+ *
+ * <p>Given a chain of matrices A1, A2, ..., An, where matrix Ai has dimensions
+ * pi-1 × pi, this algorithm finds the optimal way to fully parenthesize the
+ * product A1A2...An in a way that minimizes the total number of scalar
+ * multiplications required.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation uses a memoization technique to store the results of
+ * subproblems, which significantly reduces the number of recursive calls and
+ * improves performance compared to a naive recursive approach.</p>
+ */
+public final class MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation {
+    private MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation() {
+    }
 
-    static int Memoized_Matrix_Chain(int p[]) {
+    /**
+     * Calculates the minimum number of scalar multiplications needed to multiply
+     * a chain of matrices.
+     *
+     * @param p an array of integers representing the dimensions of the matrices.
+     *          The length of the array is n + 1, where n is the number of matrices.
+     * @return the minimum number of multiplications required to multiply the chain
+     *         of matrices.
+     */
+    static int memoizedMatrixChain(int[] p) {
         int n = p.length;
-        int m[][] = new int[n][n];
+        int[][] m = new int[n][n];
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
                 m[i][j] = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
             }
         }
-        return Lookup_Chain(m, p, 1, n - 1);
+        return lookupChain(m, p, 1, n - 1);
     }
 
-    static int Lookup_Chain(int m[][], int p[], int i, int j) {
+    /**
+     * A recursive helper method to lookup the minimum number of multiplications
+     * for multiplying matrices from index i to index j.
+     *
+     * @param m the memoization table storing the results of subproblems.
+     * @param p an array of integers representing the dimensions of the matrices.
+     * @param i the starting index of the matrix chain.
+     * @param j the ending index of the matrix chain.
+     * @return the minimum number of multiplications needed to multiply matrices
+     *         from i to j.
+     */
+    static int lookupChain(int[][] m, int[] p, int i, int j) {
         if (i == j) {
             m[i][j] = 0;
             return m[i][j];
@@ -28,7 +57,7 @@ static int Lookup_Chain(int m[][], int p[], int i, int j) {
             return m[i][j];
         } else {
             for (int k = i; k < j; k++) {
-                int q = Lookup_Chain(m, p, i, k) + Lookup_Chain(m, p, k + 1, j) + (p[i - 1] * p[k] * p[j]);
+                int q = lookupChain(m, p, i, k) + lookupChain(m, p, k + 1, j) + (p[i - 1] * p[k] * p[j]);
                 if (q < m[i][j]) {
                     m[i][j] = q;
                 }
@@ -36,12 +65,4 @@ static int Lookup_Chain(int m[][], int p[], int i, int j) {
         }
         return m[i][j];
     }
-
-    // in this code we are taking the example of 4 matrixes whose orders are 1x2,2x3,3x4,4x5 respectively
-    // output should be  Minimum number of multiplications is 38
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        int arr[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
-        System.out.println("Minimum number of multiplications is " + Memoized_Matrix_Chain(arr));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumProductSubarray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumProductSubarray.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1c16f612e98f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumProductSubarray.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * The MaximumProductSubarray class implements the algorithm to find the
+ * maximum product of a contiguous subarray within a given array of integers.
+ *
+ * <p>Given an array of integers (which may contain positive numbers, negative
+ * numbers, and zeros), this algorithm finds the contiguous subarray that has
+ * the largest product. The algorithm handles negative numbers efficiently by
+ * tracking both maximum and minimum products, since a negative number can turn
+ * a minimum product into a maximum product.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation uses a dynamic programming approach that runs in O(n)
+ * time complexity and O(1) space complexity, making it highly efficient for
+ * large arrays.</p>
+ */
+public final class MaximumProductSubarray {
+
+    private MaximumProductSubarray() {
+        // Prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the maximum product of any contiguous subarray in the given array.
+     *
+     * @param nums an array of integers which may contain positive, negative,
+     *             and zero values.
+     * @return the maximum product of a contiguous subarray. Returns 0 if the
+     *         array is null or empty.
+     */
+    public static int maxProduct(int[] nums) {
+        if (nums == null || nums.length == 0) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        long maxProduct = nums[0];
+        long currentMax = nums[0];
+        long currentMin = nums[0];
+
+        for (int i = 1; i < nums.length; i++) {
+            // Swap currentMax and currentMin if current number is negative
+            if (nums[i] < 0) {
+                long temp = currentMax;
+                currentMax = currentMin;
+                currentMin = temp;
+            }
+
+            // Update currentMax and currentMin
+            currentMax = Math.max(nums[i], currentMax * nums[i]);
+            currentMin = Math.min(nums[i], currentMin * nums[i]);
+
+            // Update global max product
+            maxProduct = Math.max(maxProduct, currentMax);
+        }
+
+        return (int) maxProduct;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..49af3ae3db88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.java
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * Class to find the maximum sum of non-adjacent elements in an array. This
+ * class contains two approaches: one with O(n) space complexity and another
+ * with O(1) space optimization. For more information, refer to
+ * https://takeuforward.org/data-structure/maximum-sum-of-non-adjacent-elements-dp-5/
+ */
+final class MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements {
+
+    private MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Approach 1: Uses a dynamic programming array to store the maximum sum at
+     * each index. Time Complexity: O(n) - where n is the length of the input
+     * array. Space Complexity: O(n) - due to the additional dp array.
+     * @param arr The input array of integers.
+     * @return The maximum sum of non-adjacent elements.
+     */
+    public static int getMaxSumApproach1(int[] arr) {
+        if (arr.length == 0) {
+            return 0; // Check for empty array
+        }
+
+        int n = arr.length;
+        int[] dp = new int[n];
+
+        // Base case: Maximum sum if only one element is present.
+        dp[0] = arr[0];
+
+        for (int ind = 1; ind < n; ind++) {
+
+            // Case 1: Do not take the current element, carry forward the previous max
+            // sum.
+            int notTake = dp[ind - 1];
+
+            // Case 2: Take the current element, add it to the max sum up to two
+            // indices before.
+            int take = arr[ind];
+            if (ind > 1) {
+                take += dp[ind - 2];
+            }
+
+            // Store the maximum of both choices in the dp array.
+            dp[ind] = Math.max(take, notTake);
+        }
+
+        return dp[n - 1];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Approach 2: Optimized space complexity approach using two variables instead
+     * of an array. Time Complexity: O(n) - where n is the length of the input
+     * array. Space Complexity: O(1) - as it only uses constant space for two
+     * variables.
+     * @param arr The input array of integers.
+     * @return The maximum sum of non-adjacent elements.
+     */
+    public static int getMaxSumApproach2(int[] arr) {
+        if (arr.length == 0) {
+            return 0; // Check for empty array
+        }
+
+        int n = arr.length;
+
+        // Two variables to keep track of previous two results:
+        // prev1 = max sum up to the last element (n-1)
+        // prev2 = max sum up to the element before last (n-2)
+
+        int prev1 = arr[0]; // Base case: Maximum sum for the first element.
+        int prev2 = 0;
+
+        for (int ind = 1; ind < n; ind++) {
+            // Case 1: Do not take the current element, keep the last max sum.
+            int notTake = prev1;
+
+            // Case 2: Take the current element and add it to the result from two
+            // steps back.
+            int take = arr[ind];
+            if (ind > 1) {
+                take += prev2;
+            }
+
+            // Calculate the current maximum sum and update previous values.
+            int current = Math.max(take, notTake);
+
+            // Shift prev1 and prev2 for the next iteration.
+            prev2 = prev1;
+            prev1 = current;
+        }
+
+        return prev1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MemoizationTechniqueKnapsack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MemoizationTechniqueKnapsack.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 12ad52cbf809..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MemoizationTechniqueKnapsack.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,64 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
-// Here is the top-down approach of
-// dynamic programming
-
-public class MemoizationTechniqueKnapsack {
-
-    // A utility function that returns
-    // maximum of two integers
-    static int max(int a, int b) {
-        return (a > b) ? a : b;
-    }
-
-    // Returns the value of maximum profit
-    static int knapSackRec(int W, int wt[], int val[], int n, int[][] dp) {
-
-        // Base condition
-        if (n == 0 || W == 0) {
-            return 0;
-        }
-
-        if (dp[n][W] != -1) {
-            return dp[n][W];
-        }
-
-        if (wt[n - 1] > W) // Store the value of function call
-        // stack in table before return
-        {
-            return dp[n][W] = knapSackRec(W, wt, val, n - 1, dp);
-        } else // Return value of table after storing
-        {
-            return dp[n][W]
-                    = max(
-                            (val[n - 1] + knapSackRec(W - wt[n - 1], wt, val, n - 1, dp)),
-                            knapSackRec(W, wt, val, n - 1, dp));
-        }
-    }
-
-    static int knapSack(int W, int wt[], int val[], int N) {
-
-        // Declare the table dynamically
-        int dp[][] = new int[N + 1][W + 1];
-
-        // Loop to initially filled the
-        // table with -1
-        for (int i = 0; i < N + 1; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < W + 1; j++) {
-                dp[i][j] = -1;
-            }
-        }
-
-        return knapSackRec(W, wt, val, N, dp);
-    }
-
-    // Driver Code
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int val[] = {60, 100, 120};
-        int wt[] = {10, 20, 30};
-
-        int W = 50;
-        int N = val.length;
-
-        System.out.println(knapSack(W, wt, val, N));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSum.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSum.java
index 04adb0cebdd0..98773de92f6b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSum.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSum.java
@@ -12,9 +12,8 @@
 (m)
 Find the path where its sum is the smallest.
 
-All numbers given are positive.
 The Time Complexity of your algorithm should be smaller than or equal to O(mn).
-The Space Complexity of your algorithm should be smaller than or equal to O(mn).
+The Space Complexity of your algorithm should be smaller than or equal to O(n).
 You can only move from the top left corner to the down right corner.
 You can only move one step down or right.
 
@@ -25,57 +24,41 @@ The Space Complexity of your algorithm should be smaller than or equal to O(mn).
 
 For more information see https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/maximum-path-sum-matrix/
  */
-public class MinimumPathSum {
+public final class MinimumPathSum {
 
-    public void testRegular() {
-        int[][] grid = {
-            {1, 3, 1},
-            {1, 5, 1},
-            {4, 2, 1}
-        };
-        System.out.println(minimumPathSum(grid));
+    private MinimumPathSum() {
     }
 
-    public void testLessColumns() {
-        int[][] grid = {
-            {1, 2},
-            {5, 6},
-            {1, 1}
-        };
-        System.out.println(minimumPathSum(grid));
-    }
-
-    public void testLessRows() {
-        int[][] grid = {
-            {2, 3, 3},
-            {7, 2, 1}
-        };
-        System.out.println(minimumPathSum(grid));
-    }
+    public static int minimumPathSum(final int[][] grid) {
+        int numRows = grid.length;
+        int numCols = grid[0].length;
 
-    public void testOneRowOneColumn() {
-        int[][] grid = {{2}};
-        System.out.println(minimumPathSum(grid));
-    }
-
-    public static int minimumPathSum(int[][] grid) {
-        int m = grid.length, n = grid[0].length;
-        if (n == 0) {
+        if (numCols == 0) {
             return 0;
         }
-        int[][] dp = new int[m][n];
-        dp[0][0] = grid[0][0];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n - 1; i++) {
-            dp[0][i + 1] = dp[0][i] + grid[0][i + 1];
-        }
-        for (int i = 0; i < m - 1; i++) {
-            dp[i + 1][0] = dp[i][0] + grid[i + 1][0];
+
+        int[] dp = new int[numCols];
+
+        // Initialize the first element of the dp array
+        dp[0] = grid[0][0];
+
+        // Calculate the minimum path sums for the first row
+        for (int col = 1; col < numCols; col++) {
+            dp[col] = dp[col - 1] + grid[0][col];
         }
-        for (int i = 1; i < m; i++) {
-            for (int j = 1; j < n; j++) {
-                dp[i][j] = Math.min(dp[i - 1][j], dp[i][j - 1]) + grid[i][j];
+
+        // Calculate the minimum path sums for the remaining rows
+        for (int row = 1; row < numRows; row++) {
+            // Update the minimum path sum for the first column
+            dp[0] += grid[row][0];
+
+            for (int col = 1; col < numCols; col++) {
+                // Choose the minimum path sum from the left or above
+                dp[col] = Math.min(dp[col - 1], dp[col]) + grid[row][col];
             }
         }
-        return dp[m - 1][n - 1];
+
+        // Return the minimum path sum for the last cell in the grid
+        return dp[numCols - 1];
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartition.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartition.java
index c6f8f18b8a1a..52308c23cf1c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartition.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartition.java
@@ -1,88 +1,57 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
-// Partition a set into two subsets such that the difference of subset sums is minimum
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
 
 /*
-Input:  arr[] = {1, 6, 11, 5}
-Output: 1
+Given an array of non-negative integers , partition the array in two subset that
+difference in sum of elements for both subset minimum.
+Return the minimum difference in sum of these subsets you can achieve.
+
+Input:  array[] = {1, 6, 11, 4}
+Output: 0
 Explanation:
-Subset1 = {1, 5, 6}, sum of Subset1 = 12
+Subset1 = {1, 4, 6}, sum of Subset1 = 11
 Subset2 = {11}, sum of Subset2 = 11
 
-Input:  arr[] = {36, 7, 46, 40}
+Input:  array[] = {36, 7, 46, 40}
 Output: 23
 Explanation:
 Subset1 = {7, 46} ;  sum of Subset1 = 53
 Subset2 = {36, 40} ; sum of Subset2  = 76
  */
-public class MinimumSumPartition {
-
-    public static int subSet(int[] arr) {
-        int n = arr.length;
-        int sum = getSum(arr);
-        boolean[][] dp = new boolean[n + 1][sum + 1];
-        for (int i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
-            dp[i][0] = true;
-        }
-        for (int j = 0; j <= sum; j++) {
-            dp[0][j] = false;
-        }
-
-        // fill dp array
-        for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
-            for (int j = 1; j <= sum; j++) {
-                if (arr[i - 1] < j) {
-                    dp[i][j] = dp[i - 1][j - arr[i - 1]] || dp[i - 1][j];
-                } else if (arr[i - 1] == j) {
-                    dp[i][j] = true;
-                } else {
-                    dp[i][j] = dp[i - 1][j];
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // fill the index array
-        int[] index = new int[sum];
-        int p = 0;
-        for (int i = 0; i <= sum / 2; i++) {
-            if (dp[n][i]) {
-                index[p++] = i;
-            }
-        }
-
-        return getMin(index, sum);
+public final class MinimumSumPartition {
+    private MinimumSumPartition() {
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Calculate sum of array elements
-     *
-     * @param arr the array
-     * @return sum of given array
-     */
-    public static int getSum(int[] arr) {
-        int sum = 0;
-        for (int temp : arr) {
-            sum += temp;
+    private static void throwIfInvalidInput(final int[] array) {
+        if (Arrays.stream(array).anyMatch(a -> a < 0)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array should not contain negative number(s).");
         }
-        return sum;
     }
 
-    public static int getMin(int[] arr, int sum) {
-        if (arr.length == 0) {
-            return 0;
-        }
-        int min = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
-        for (int temp : arr) {
-            min = Math.min(min, sum - 2 * temp);
-        }
-        return min;
-    }
+    public static int minimumSumPartition(final int[] array) {
+        throwIfInvalidInput(array);
+        int sum = Arrays.stream(array).sum();
+        boolean[] dp = new boolean[sum / 2 + 1];
+        dp[0] = true; // Base case , don't select any element from array
 
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert subSet(new int[]{1, 6, 11, 5}) == 1;
-        assert subSet(new int[]{36, 7, 46, 40}) == 23;
-        assert subSet(new int[]{1, 2, 3, 9}) == 3;
+        // Find the closest sum of subset array that we can achieve which is closest to half of sum of full array
+        int closestPartitionSum = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            for (int j = sum / 2; j > 0; j--) {
+                if (array[i] <= j) {
+                    dp[j] = dp[j] || dp[j - array[i]];
+                }
+                if (dp[j]) {
+                    closestPartitionSum = Math.max(closestPartitionSum, j);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        /*
+        Difference in sum = Big partition sum  - Small partition sum
+                          = ( Total sum - Small partition sum) - Small partition sum
+         */
+        return sum - (2 * closestPartitionSum);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunsch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunsch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..13b640cf0d04
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunsch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * The Needleman–Wunsch algorithm performs global sequence alignment between two strings.
+ * It computes the optimal alignment score using dynamic programming,
+ * given a scoring scheme for matches, mismatches, and gaps.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(n * m)
+ * Space Complexity: O(n * m)
+ */
+public final class NeedlemanWunsch {
+
+    private NeedlemanWunsch() {
+        // Utility Class
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the Needleman–Wunsch global alignment score between two strings.
+     *
+     * @param s1 the first string
+     * @param s2 the second string
+     * @param matchScore score for a character match
+     * @param mismatchPenalty penalty for a mismatch (should be negative)
+     * @param gapPenalty penalty for inserting a gap (should be negative)
+     * @return the optimal alignment score
+     */
+    public static int align(String s1, String s2, int matchScore, int mismatchPenalty, int gapPenalty) {
+        if (s1 == null || s2 == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input strings must not be null.");
+        }
+
+        int n = s1.length();
+        int m = s2.length();
+
+        int[][] dp = new int[n + 1][m + 1];
+
+        // Initialize gap penalties for first row and column
+        for (int i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
+            dp[i][0] = i * gapPenalty;
+        }
+        for (int j = 0; j <= m; j++) {
+            dp[0][j] = j * gapPenalty;
+        }
+
+        // Fill the DP matrix
+        for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
+            for (int j = 1; j <= m; j++) {
+                int matchOrMismatch = (s1.charAt(i - 1) == s2.charAt(j - 1)) ? matchScore : mismatchPenalty;
+
+                dp[i][j] = Math.max(Math.max(dp[i - 1][j - 1] + matchOrMismatch, // match/mismatch
+                                        dp[i - 1][j] + gapPenalty // deletion (gap in s2)
+                                        ),
+                    dp[i][j - 1] + gapPenalty // insertion (gap in s1)
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        return dp[n][m];
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NewManShanksPrime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NewManShanksPrime.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3db40148f1c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NewManShanksPrime.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * The NewManShanksPrime class provides a method to determine whether the nth
+ * New Man Shanks prime matches an expected answer.
+ *
+ * <p>This is based on the New Man Shanks prime sequence defined by the recurrence
+ * relation:</p>
+ *
+ * <pre>
+ * a(n) = 2 * a(n-1) + a(n-2) for n >= 2
+ * a(0) = 1
+ * a(1) = 1
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p>For more information on New Man Shanks primes, please refer to the
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newman%E2%80%93Shanks%E2%80%93Williams_prime">
+ * Wikipedia article</a>.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>Note: The class is designed to be non-instantiable.</p>
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/siddhant2002">Siddhant Swarup Mallick</a>
+ */
+public final class NewManShanksPrime {
+    private NewManShanksPrime() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the nth New Man Shanks prime and checks if it equals the
+     * expected answer.
+     *
+     * @param n the index of the New Man Shanks prime to calculate (0-based).
+     * @param expectedAnswer the expected value of the nth New Man Shanks prime.
+     * @return true if the calculated nth New Man Shanks prime matches the
+     *         expected answer; false otherwise.
+     */
+    public static boolean nthManShanksPrime(int n, int expectedAnswer) {
+        int[] a = new int[n + 1];
+        a[0] = 1;
+        a[1] = 1;
+
+        for (int i = 2; i <= n; i++) {
+            a[i] = 2 * a[i - 1] + a[i - 2];
+        }
+
+        return a[n] == expectedAnswer;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e31bb73096e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * This class refers to the Optimal Job Scheduling problem with the following constrains:
+ *  - precedence relation between the processes
+ *  - machine pair dependent transportation delays
+ *
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_job_scheduling
+ *
+ * @author georgioct@csd.auth.gr
+ */
+public class OptimalJobScheduling {
+
+    private final int numberProcesses;
+    private final int numberMachines;
+    private final int[][] run;
+    private final int[][] transfer;
+    private final int[][] cost;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor of the class.
+     * @param numberProcesses ,refers to the number of precedent processes(N)
+     * @param numberMachines ,refers to the number of different machines in our disposal(M)
+     * @param run , N*M matrix refers to the cost of running each process to each machine
+     * @param transfer ,M*M symmetric matrix refers to the transportation delay for each pair of
+     *     machines
+     */
+    public OptimalJobScheduling(int numberProcesses, int numberMachines, int[][] run, int[][] transfer) {
+        this.numberProcesses = numberProcesses;
+        this.numberMachines = numberMachines;
+        this.run = run;
+        this.transfer = transfer;
+        this.cost = new int[numberProcesses][numberMachines];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function which computes the cost of process scheduling to a number of VMs.
+     */
+    public void execute() {
+        this.calculateCost();
+        this.showResults();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function which computes the cost of running each Process to each and every Machine
+     */
+    private void calculateCost() {
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < numberProcesses; i++) { // for each Process
+
+            for (int j = 0; j < numberMachines; j++) { // for each Machine
+
+                cost[i][j] = runningCost(i, j);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function which returns the minimum cost of running a certain Process to a certain Machine.In
+     * order for the Machine to execute the Process ,he requires the output of the previously
+     * executed Process, which may have been executed to the same Machine or some other.If the
+     * previous Process has been executed to another Machine,we have to transfer her result, which
+     * means extra cost for transferring the data from one Machine to another(if the previous
+     * Process has been executed to the same Machine, there is no transport cost).
+     *
+     * @param process ,refers to the Process
+     * @param machine ,refers to the Machine
+     * @return the minimum cost of executing the process to the certain machine.
+     */
+    private int runningCost(int process, int machine) {
+
+        if (process == 0) { // refers to the first process,which does not require for a previous one
+            // to have been executed
+            return run[process][machine];
+        } else {
+
+            int[] runningCosts = new int[numberMachines]; // stores the costs of executing our Process depending on
+            // the Machine the previous one was executed
+
+            for (int k = 0; k < numberMachines; k++) { // computes the cost of executing the previous
+                // process to each and every Machine
+                runningCosts[k] = cost[process - 1][k] + transfer[k][machine] + run[process][machine]; // transferring the result to our Machine and executing
+                // the Process to our Machine
+            }
+            return findMin(runningCosts); // returns the minimum running cost
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function used in order to return the minimum Cost.
+     * @param costArr ,an Array of size M which refers to the costs of executing a Process to each
+     *     Machine
+     * @return the minimum cost
+     */
+    private int findMin(int[] costArr) {
+
+        int min = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 1; i < costArr.length; i++) {
+
+            if (costArr[i] < costArr[min]) {
+                min = i;
+            }
+        }
+        return costArr[min];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Method used in order to present the overall costs.
+     */
+    private void showResults() {
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < numberProcesses; i++) {
+
+            for (int j = 0; j < numberMachines; j++) {
+                System.out.print(cost[i][j]);
+                System.out.print(" ");
+            }
+
+            System.out.println();
+        }
+        System.out.println();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Getter for the running Cost of i process on j machine.
+     */
+    public int getCost(int process, int machine) {
+        return cost[process][machine];
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioning.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioning.java
index 46fbbb6569c3..a323a9a06f7d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioning.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioning.java
@@ -1,71 +1,75 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
- * @file @brief Implements [Palindrome
- * Partitioning](https://leetcode.com/problems/palindrome-partitioning-ii/)
- * algorithm, giving you the minimum number of partitions you need to make
+ * Provides functionality to solve the Palindrome Partitioning II problem, which involves finding
+ * the minimum number of partitions needed to divide a given string into palindromic substrings.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The problem is solved using dynamic programming. The approach involves checking all possible
+ * substrings and determining whether they are palindromes. The minimum number of cuts required
+ * for palindrome partitioning is computed in a bottom-up manner.
+ * </p>
  *
- * @details palindrome partitioning uses dynamic programming and goes to all the
- * possible partitions to find the minimum you are given a string and you need
- * to give minimum number of partitions needed to divide it into a number of
- * palindromes [Palindrome Partitioning]
- * (https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/palindrome-partitioning-dp-17/) overall time
- * complexity O(n^2) For example: example 1:- String : "nitik" Output : 2 => "n
- * | iti | k" For example: example 2:- String : "ababbbabbababa" Output : 3 =>
- * "aba | b | bbabb | ababa"
- * @author [Syed] (https://github.com/roeticvampire)
+ * <p>
+ * Example:
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li>Input: "nitik" => Output: 2 (Partitioning: "n | iti | k")</li>
+ *     <li>Input: "ababbbabbababa" => Output: 3 (Partitioning: "aba | b | bbabb | ababa")</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://leetcode.com/problems/palindrome-partitioning-ii/">Palindrome Partitioning II</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/palindrome-partitioning-dp-17/">Palindrome Partitioning (GeeksforGeeks)</a>
  */
-public class PalindromicPartitioning {
+public final class PalindromicPartitioning {
+    private PalindromicPartitioning() {
+    }
 
-    public static int minimalpartitions(String word) {
+    public static int minimalPartitions(String word) {
         int len = word.length();
         /* We Make two arrays to create a bottom-up solution.
-           minCuts[i] = Minimum number of cuts needed for palindrome partitioning of substring word[0..i]
-           isPalindrome[i][j] = true if substring str[i..j] is palindrome
-           Base Condition: C[i] is 0 if P[0][i]= true
+           minCuts[i] = Minimum number of cuts needed for palindrome partitioning of substring
+           word[0..i] isPalindrome[i][j] = true if substring str[i..j] is palindrome Base Condition:
+           C[i] is 0 if P[0][i]= true
          */
         int[] minCuts = new int[len];
         boolean[][] isPalindrome = new boolean[len][len];
 
-        int i, j, L; // different looping variables
+        int i;
+        int j;
+        int subLen; // different looping variables
 
         // Every substring of length 1 is a palindrome
         for (i = 0; i < len; i++) {
             isPalindrome[i][i] = true;
         }
 
-        /* L is substring length. Build the solution in bottom up manner by considering all substrings of length starting from 2 to n. */
-        for (L = 2; L <= len; L++) {
-            // For substring of length L, set different possible starting indexes
-            for (i = 0; i < len - L + 1; i++) {
-                j = i + L - 1; // Ending index
-                // If L is 2, then we just need to
+        /* subLen is substring length. Build the solution in bottom up manner by considering all
+         * substrings of length starting from 2 to n. */
+        for (subLen = 2; subLen <= len; subLen++) {
+            // For substring of length subLen, set different possible starting indexes
+            for (i = 0; i < len - subLen + 1; i++) {
+                j = i + subLen - 1; // Ending index
+                // If subLen is 2, then we just need to
                 // compare two characters. Else need to
                 // check two corner characters and value
                 // of P[i+1][j-1]
-                if (L == 2) {
+                if (subLen == 2) {
                     isPalindrome[i][j] = (word.charAt(i) == word.charAt(j));
                 } else {
-                    if ((word.charAt(i) == word.charAt(j)) && isPalindrome[i + 1][j - 1]) {
-                        isPalindrome[i][j] = true;
-                    } else {
-                        isPalindrome[i][j] = false;
-                    }
-
+                    isPalindrome[i][j] = (word.charAt(i) == word.charAt(j)) && isPalindrome[i + 1][j - 1];
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        //We find the minimum for each index
+        // We find the minimum for each index
         for (i = 0; i < len; i++) {
-            if (isPalindrome[0][i] == true) {
+            if (isPalindrome[0][i]) {
                 minCuts[i] = 0;
             } else {
                 minCuts[i] = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
                 for (j = 0; j < i; j++) {
-                    if (isPalindrome[j + 1][i] == true && 1 + minCuts[j] < minCuts[i]) {
+                    if (isPalindrome[j + 1][i] && 1 + minCuts[j] < minCuts[i]) {
                         minCuts[i] = 1 + minCuts[j];
                     }
                 }
@@ -76,16 +80,4 @@ public static int minimalpartitions(String word) {
         // string. i.e., str[0..n-1]
         return minCuts[len - 1];
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        String word;
-        System.out.println("Enter the First String");
-        word = input.nextLine();
-        // ans stores the final minimal cut count needed for partitioning
-        int ans = minimalpartitions(word);
-        System.out.println(
-                "The minimum cuts needed to partition \"" + word + "\" into palindromes is " + ans);
-        input.close();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblem.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8c72fa347f50
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblem.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+/**
+ * @author Md Asif Joardar
+ *
+ * Description: The partition problem is a classic problem in computer science
+ * that asks whether a given set can be partitioned into two subsets such that
+ * the sum of elements in each subset is the same.
+ *
+ * Example:
+ * Consider nums = {1, 2, 3}
+ * We can split the array "nums" into two partitions, where each having a sum of 3.
+ * nums1 = {1, 2}
+ * nums2 = {3}
+ *
+ * The time complexity of the solution is O(n × sum) and requires O(n × sum) space
+ */
+public final class PartitionProblem {
+    private PartitionProblem() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test if a set of integers can be partitioned into two subsets such that the sum of elements
+     * in each subset is the same.
+     *
+     * @param nums the array contains integers.
+     * @return {@code true} if two subset exists, otherwise {@code false}.
+     */
+    public static boolean partition(int[] nums) {
+        // calculate the sum of all the elements in the array
+        int sum = Arrays.stream(nums).sum();
+
+        // it will return true if the sum is even and the array can be divided into two
+        // subarrays/subset with equal sum. and here i reuse the SubsetSum class from dynamic
+        // programming section to check if there is exists a subsetsum into nums[] array same as the
+        // given sum
+        return (sum & 1) == 0 && SubsetSum.subsetSum(nums, sum / 2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java
index d9ab4c419511..181ac72a654d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java
@@ -6,17 +6,28 @@
  * cover the entire text ?-> matches single characters *-> match the sequence of
  * characters
  *
- */
-/**
- * For calculation of Time and Space Complexity. Let N be length of src and M be
- * length of pat
+ * For calculation of Time and Space Complexity. Let N be length of src and M be length of pat
  *
+ * Memoization vs Tabulation : https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tabulation-vs-memoization/
+ * Question Link : https://practice.geeksforgeeks.org/problems/wildcard-pattern-matching/1
  */
-public class RegexMatching {
+public final class RegexMatching {
+    private RegexMatching() {
+    }
 
-    // Method 1: Using Recursion
-    // Time Complexity=0(2^(N+M)) Space Complexity=Recursion Extra Space
-    static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat) {
+    /**
+     * Method 1: Determines if the given source string matches the given pattern using a recursive approach.
+     * This method directly applies recursion to check if the source string matches the pattern, considering
+     * the wildcards '?' and '*'.
+     *
+     * Time Complexity: O(2^(N+M)), where N is the length of the source string and M is the length of the pattern.
+     * Space Complexity: O(N + M) due to the recursion stack.
+     *
+     * @param src The source string to be matched against the pattern.
+     * @param pat The pattern containing wildcards ('*' matches a sequence of characters, '?' matches a single character).
+     * @return {@code true} if the source string matches the pattern, {@code false} otherwise.
+     */
+    public static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat) {
         if (src.length() == 0 && pat.length() == 0) {
             return true;
         }
@@ -50,8 +61,19 @@ static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat) {
         return ans;
     }
 
-    // Method 2: Using Recursion and breaking string using virtual index
-    // Time Complexity=0(2^(N+M)) Space Complexity=Recursion Extra Space
+    /**
+     * Method 2: Determines if the given source string matches the given pattern using recursion.
+     * This method utilizes a virtual index for both the source string and the pattern to manage the recursion.
+     *
+     * Time Complexity: O(2^(N+M)) where N is the length of the source string and M is the length of the pattern.
+     * Space Complexity: O(N + M) due to the recursion stack.
+     *
+     * @param src The source string to be matched against the pattern.
+     * @param pat The pattern containing wildcards ('*' matches a sequence of characters, '?' matches a single character).
+     * @param svidx The current index in the source string.
+     * @param pvidx The current index in the pattern.
+     * @return {@code true} if the source string matches the pattern, {@code false} otherwise.
+     */
     static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat, int svidx, int pvidx) {
         if (src.length() == svidx && pat.length() == pvidx) {
             return true;
@@ -83,9 +105,21 @@ static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat, int svidx, int pvidx) {
         return ans;
     }
 
-    // Method 3: Top-Down DP(Memoization)
-    // Time Complexity=0(N*M) Space Complexity=0(N*M)+Recursion Extra Space
-    static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat, int svidx, int pvidx, int[][] strg) {
+    /**
+     * Method 3: Determines if the given source string matches the given pattern using top-down dynamic programming (memoization).
+     * This method utilizes memoization to store intermediate results, reducing redundant computations and improving efficiency.
+     *
+     * Time Complexity: O(N * M), where N is the length of the source string and M is the length of the pattern.
+     * Space Complexity: O(N * M) for the memoization table, plus additional space for the recursion stack.
+     *
+     * @param src The source string to be matched against the pattern.
+     * @param pat The pattern containing wildcards ('*' matches a sequence of characters, '?' matches a single character).
+     * @param svidx The current index in the source string.
+     * @param pvidx The current index in the pattern.
+     * @param strg A 2D array used for memoization to store the results of subproblems.
+     * @return {@code true} if the source string matches the pattern, {@code false} otherwise.
+     */
+    public static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat, int svidx, int pvidx, int[][] strg) {
         if (src.length() == svidx && pat.length() == pvidx) {
             return true;
         }
@@ -101,7 +135,7 @@ static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat, int svidx, int pvidx, int[
             return true;
         }
         if (strg[svidx][pvidx] != 0) {
-            return strg[svidx][pvidx] == 1 ? false : true;
+            return strg[svidx][pvidx] != 1;
         }
         char chs = src.charAt(svidx);
         char chp = pat.charAt(pvidx);
@@ -116,15 +150,24 @@ static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat, int svidx, int pvidx, int[
         } else {
             ans = false;
         }
-        strg[svidx][pvidx] = ans == false ? 1 : 2;
+        strg[svidx][pvidx] = ans ? 2 : 1;
         return ans;
     }
 
-    // Method 4: Bottom-Up DP(Tabulation)
-    // Time Complexity=0(N*M) Space Complexity=0(N*M)
+    /**
+     * Method 4: Determines if the given source string matches the given pattern using bottom-up dynamic programming (tabulation).
+     * This method builds a solution iteratively by filling out a table, where each cell represents whether a substring
+     * of the source string matches a substring of the pattern.
+     *
+     * Time Complexity: O(N * M), where N is the length of the source string and M is the length of the pattern.
+     * Space Complexity: O(N * M) for the table used in the tabulation process.
+     *
+     * @param src The source string to be matched against the pattern.
+     * @param pat The pattern containing wildcards ('*' matches a sequence of characters, '?' matches a single character).
+     * @return {@code true} if the source string matches the pattern, {@code false} otherwise.
+     */
     static boolean regexBU(String src, String pat) {
-
-        boolean strg[][] = new boolean[src.length() + 1][pat.length() + 1];
+        boolean[][] strg = new boolean[src.length() + 1][pat.length() + 1];
         strg[src.length()][pat.length()] = true;
         for (int row = src.length(); row >= 0; row--) {
             for (int col = pat.length() - 1; col >= 0; col--) {
@@ -154,18 +197,4 @@ static boolean regexBU(String src, String pat) {
         }
         return strg[0][0];
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        String src = "aa";
-        String pat = "*";
-        System.out.println("Method 1: " + regexRecursion(src, pat));
-        System.out.println("Method 2: " + regexRecursion(src, pat, 0, 0));
-        System.out.println("Method 3: " + regexRecursion(src, pat, 0, 0, new int[src.length()][pat.length()]));
-        System.out.println("Method 4: " + regexBU(src, pat));
-
-    }
-
 }
-// Memoization vs Tabulation : https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tabulation-vs-memoization/
-// Question Link : https://practice.geeksforgeeks.org/problems/wildcard-pattern-matching/1
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCutting.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCutting.java
index 58c122c485c6..6d33826b6b17 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCutting.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCutting.java
@@ -1,32 +1,47 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
 /**
- * A DynamicProgramming solution for Rod cutting problem Returns the best
- * obtainable price for a rod of length n and price[] as prices of different
- * pieces
+ * A Dynamic Programming solution for the Rod cutting problem.
+ * Returns the best obtainable price for a rod of length n and price[] as prices of different pieces.
  */
-public class RodCutting {
+public final class RodCutting {
+    private RodCutting() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method calculates the maximum obtainable value for cutting a rod of length n
+     * into different pieces, given the prices for each possible piece length.
+     *
+     * @param price An array representing the prices of different pieces, where price[i-1]
+     *              represents the price of a piece of length i.
+     * @param n     The length of the rod to be cut.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the price array is null or empty, or if n is less than 0.
+     * @return The maximum obtainable value.
+     */
+    public static int cutRod(int[] price, int n) {
+        if (price == null || price.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Price array cannot be null or empty.");
+        }
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Rod length cannot be negative.");
+        }
 
-    private static int cutRod(int[] price, int n) {
-        int val[] = new int[n + 1];
+        // Create an array to store the maximum obtainable values for each rod length.
+        int[] val = new int[n + 1];
         val[0] = 0;
 
+        // Calculate the maximum value for each rod length from 1 to n.
         for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
-            int max_val = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
-            for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
-                max_val = Math.max(max_val, price[j] + val[i - j - 1]);
+            int maxVal = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
+            // Try all possible ways to cut the rod and find the maximum value.
+            for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++) {
+                maxVal = Math.max(maxVal, price[j - 1] + val[i - j]);
             }
-
-            val[i] = max_val;
+            // Store the maximum value for the current rod length.
+            val[i] = maxVal;
         }
 
+        // The final element of 'val' contains the maximum obtainable value for a rod of length 'n'.
         return val[n];
     }
-
-    // main function to test
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        int[] arr = new int[]{2, 5, 13, 19, 20};
-        int result = cutRod(arr, arr.length);
-        System.out.println("Maximum Obtainable Value is " + result);
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength.java
index 4b067d9fde72..56129dcdbb09 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength.java
@@ -1,57 +1,69 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-// Java program to find length of the shortest supersequence
-class ShortestSuperSequence {
+/**
+ * Class that provides methods to calculate the length of the shortest
+ * supersequence of two given strings. The shortest supersequence is the smallest string
+ * that contains both given strings as subsequences.
+ */
+final class ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength {
+    private ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength() {
+    }
 
-    // Function to find length of the
-    // shortest supersequence of X and Y.
-    static int shortestSuperSequence(String X, String Y) {
-        int m = X.length();
-        int n = Y.length();
+    /**
+     * Finds the length of the shortest supersequence of two given strings.
+     * The shortest supersequence is defined as the smallest string that contains both
+     * given strings as subsequences.
+     *
+     * @param x The first input string.
+     * @param y The second input string.
+     * @return The length of the shortest supersequence of the two strings.
+     */
+    static int shortestSuperSequence(String x, String y) {
+        int m = x.length();
+        int n = y.length();
 
         // find lcs
-        int l = lcs(X, Y, m, n);
+        int l = lcs(x, y, m, n);
 
         // Result is sum of input string
         // lengths - length of lcs
-        return (m + n - l);
+        return m + n - l;
     }
 
-    // Returns length of LCS
-    // for X[0..m - 1], Y[0..n - 1]
-    static int lcs(String X, String Y, int m, int n) {
-        int[][] L = new int[m + 1][n + 1];
-        int i, j;
+    /**
+     * Calculates the length of the longest common subsequence (LCS) between two strings.
+     * The LCS is the longest sequence that can be derived from both strings by deleting some
+     * (or none) of the characters without changing the order of the remaining characters.
+     *
+     * @param x The first input string.
+     * @param y The second input string.
+     * @param m The length of the first input string.
+     * @param n The length of the second input string.
+     * @return The length of the longest common subsequence of the two strings.
+     */
+    static int lcs(String x, String y, int m, int n) {
+        int[][] lN = new int[m + 1][n + 1];
+        int i;
+        int j;
 
-        // Following steps build L[m + 1][n + 1]
+        // Following steps build lN[m + 1][n + 1]
         // in bottom up fashion. Note that
-        // L[i][j] contains length of LCS
-        // of X[0..i - 1]and Y[0..j - 1]
+        // lN[i][j] contains length of lNCS
+        // of x[0..i - 1]and y[0..j - 1]
         for (i = 0; i <= m; i++) {
             for (j = 0; j <= n; j++) {
                 if (i == 0 || j == 0) {
-                    L[i][j] = 0;
-                } else if (X.charAt(i - 1) == Y.charAt(j - 1)) {
-                    L[i][j] = L[i - 1][j - 1] + 1;
+                    lN[i][j] = 0;
+                } else if (x.charAt(i - 1) == y.charAt(j - 1)) {
+                    lN[i][j] = lN[i - 1][j - 1] + 1;
                 } else {
-                    L[i][j] = Math.max(L[i - 1][j],
-                            L[i][j - 1]);
+                    lN[i][j] = Math.max(lN[i - 1][j], lN[i][j - 1]);
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        // L[m][n] contains length of LCS
-        // for X[0..n - 1] and Y[0..m - 1]
-        return L[m][n];
-    }
-
-    // Driver code
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        String X = "AGGTAB";
-        String Y = "GXTXAYB";
-
-        System.out.println("Length of the shortest "
-                + "supersequence is "
-                + shortestSuperSequence(X, Y));
+        // lN[m][n] contains length of LCS
+        // for x[0..n - 1] and y[0..m - 1]
+        return lN[m][n];
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWaterman.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWaterman.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c0d66f68b502
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWaterman.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * Smith–Waterman algorithm for local sequence alignment.
+ * Finds the highest scoring local alignment between substrings of two sequences.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(n * m)
+ * Space Complexity: O(n * m)
+ */
+public final class SmithWaterman {
+
+    private SmithWaterman() {
+        // Utility Class
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the Smith–Waterman local alignment score between two strings.
+     *
+     * @param s1 first string
+     * @param s2 second string
+     * @param matchScore score for a match
+     * @param mismatchPenalty penalty for mismatch (negative)
+     * @param gapPenalty penalty for insertion/deletion (negative)
+     * @return the maximum local alignment score
+     */
+    public static int align(String s1, String s2, int matchScore, int mismatchPenalty, int gapPenalty) {
+        if (s1 == null || s2 == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input strings must not be null.");
+        }
+
+        int n = s1.length();
+        int m = s2.length();
+        int maxScore = 0;
+
+        int[][] dp = new int[n + 1][m + 1];
+
+        for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
+            for (int j = 1; j <= m; j++) {
+                int matchOrMismatch = (s1.charAt(i - 1) == s2.charAt(j - 1)) ? matchScore : mismatchPenalty;
+
+                dp[i][j] = Math.max(0,
+                    Math.max(Math.max(dp[i - 1][j - 1] + matchOrMismatch, // match/mismatch
+                                 dp[i - 1][j] + gapPenalty // deletion
+                                 ),
+                        dp[i][j - 1] + gapPenalty // insertion
+                        ));
+
+                if (dp[i][j] > maxScore) {
+                    maxScore = dp[i][j];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return maxScore;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetCount.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetCount.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0c5bc2c5884d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetCount.java
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * Find the number of subsets present in the given array with a sum equal to target.
+ * Based on Solution discussed on
+ * <a href="https://stackoverflow.com/questions/22891076/count-number-of-subsets-with-sum-equal-to-k">StackOverflow</a>
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/samratpodder">Samrat Podder</a>
+ */
+public final class SubsetCount {
+    private SubsetCount() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Dynamic Programming Implementation.
+     * Method to find out the number of subsets present in the given array with a sum equal to
+     * target. Time Complexity is O(n*target) and Space Complexity is O(n*target)
+     * @param arr is the input array on which subsets are  to searched
+     * @param target is the sum of each element of the subset taken together
+     *
+     */
+    public static int getCount(int[] arr, int target) {
+        /*
+         * Base Cases - If target becomes zero, we have reached the required sum for the subset
+         * If we reach the end of the array arr then, either if target==arr[end], then we add one to
+         * the final count Otherwise we add 0 to the final count
+         */
+        int n = arr.length;
+        int[][] dp = new int[n][target + 1];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            dp[i][0] = 1;
+        }
+        if (arr[0] <= target) {
+            dp[0][arr[0]] = 1;
+        }
+        for (int t = 1; t <= target; t++) {
+            for (int idx = 1; idx < n; idx++) {
+                int notpick = dp[idx - 1][t];
+                int pick = 0;
+                if (arr[idx] <= t) {
+                    pick += dp[idx - 1][target - t];
+                }
+                dp[idx][target] = pick + notpick;
+            }
+        }
+        return dp[n - 1][target];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This Method is a Space Optimized version of the getCount(int[], int) method and solves the
+     * same problem This approach is a bit better in terms of Space Used Time Complexity is
+     * O(n*target) and Space Complexity is O(target)
+     * @param arr is the input array on which subsets are  to searched
+     * @param target is the sum of each element of the subset taken together
+     */
+    public static int getCountSO(int[] arr, int target) {
+        int n = arr.length;
+        int[] prev = new int[target + 1];
+        prev[0] = 1;
+        if (arr[0] <= target) {
+            prev[arr[0]] = 1;
+        }
+        for (int ind = 1; ind < n; ind++) {
+            int[] cur = new int[target + 1];
+            cur[0] = 1;
+            for (int t = 1; t <= target; t++) {
+                int notTaken = prev[t];
+                int taken = 0;
+                if (arr[ind] <= t) {
+                    taken = prev[t - arr[ind]];
+                }
+                cur[t] = notTaken + taken;
+            }
+            prev = cur;
+        }
+        return prev[target];
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSum.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSum.java
index 1da65ce68401..da8667afd0ce 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSum.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSum.java
@@ -1,48 +1,33 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
-public class SubsetSum {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] arr = new int[]{50, 4, 10, 15, 34};
-        assert subsetSum(arr, 64);
-        /* 4 + 10 + 15 + 34 = 64 */
-        assert subsetSum(arr, 99);
-        /* 50 + 15 + 34 = 99 */
-        assert !subsetSum(arr, 5);
-        assert !subsetSum(arr, 66);
+public final class SubsetSum {
+    private SubsetSum() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Test if a set of integers contains a subset that sum to a given integer.
+     * Test if a set of integers contains a subset that sums to a given integer.
      *
-     * @param arr the array contains integers.
-     * @param sum target sum of subset.
-     * @return {@code true} if subset exists, otherwise {@code false}.
+     * @param arr the array containing integers.
+     * @param sum the target sum of the subset.
+     * @return {@code true} if a subset exists that sums to the given value,
+     *         otherwise {@code false}.
      */
-    private static boolean subsetSum(int[] arr, int sum) {
+    public static boolean subsetSum(int[] arr, int sum) {
         int n = arr.length;
-        boolean[][] isSum = new boolean[n + 2][sum + 1];
 
-        isSum[n + 1][0] = true;
-        for (int i = 1; i <= sum; i++) {
-            isSum[n + 1][i] = false;
-        }
+        // Initialize a single array to store the possible sums
+        boolean[] isSum = new boolean[sum + 1];
 
-        for (int i = n; i > 0; i--) {
-            isSum[i][0] = true;
-            for (int j = 1; j <= arr[i - 1] - 1; j++) {
-                if (j <= sum) {
-                    isSum[i][j] = isSum[i + 1][j];
-                }
-            }
-            for (int j = arr[i - 1]; j <= sum; j++) {
-                isSum[i][j] = (isSum[i + 1][j] || isSum[i + 1][j - arr[i - 1]]);
+        // Mark isSum[0] = true since a sum of 0 is always possible with 0 elements
+        isSum[0] = true;
+
+        // Iterate through each Element in the array
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            // Traverse the isSum array backwards to prevent overwriting values
+            for (int j = sum; j >= arr[i]; j--) {
+                isSum[j] = isSum[j] || isSum[j - arr[i]];
             }
         }
-
-        return isSum[1][sum];
+        return isSum[sum];
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumSpaceOptimized.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumSpaceOptimized.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5c0167977ae4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumSpaceOptimized.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for solving the Subset Sum problem using a space-optimized dynamic programming approach.
+ *
+ * <p>This algorithm determines whether any subset of a given array sums up to a specific target value.</p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Time Complexity:</b> O(n * sum)</p>
+ * <p><b>Space Complexity:</b> O(sum)</p>
+ */
+public final class SubsetSumSpaceOptimized {
+    private SubsetSumSpaceOptimized() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Determines whether there exists a subset of the given array that adds up to the specified sum.
+     * This method uses a space-optimized dynamic programming approach with a 1D boolean array.
+     *
+     * @param nums The array of non-negative integers
+     * @param targetSum The desired subset sum
+     * @return {@code true} if such a subset exists, {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isSubsetSum(int[] nums, int targetSum) {
+        if (targetSum < 0) {
+            return false; // Subset sum can't be negative
+        }
+
+        boolean[] dp = new boolean[targetSum + 1];
+        dp[0] = true; // Empty subset always sums to 0
+
+        for (int number : nums) {
+            for (int j = targetSum; j >= number; j--) {
+                dp[j] = dp[j] || dp[j - number];
+            }
+        }
+
+        return dp[targetSum];
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubset.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubset.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e9c15c1b4f24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubset.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class that contains the Sum of Subset problem solution using
+ * recursion.
+ *
+ * The Sum of Subset problem determines whether a subset of elements from a
+ * given array sums up to a specific target value.
+ *
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset_sum_problem
+ */
+public final class SumOfSubset {
+
+    private SumOfSubset() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Determines if there exists a subset of elements in the array `arr` that
+     * adds up to the given `key` value using recursion.
+     *
+     * @param arr The array of integers.
+     * @param num The index of the current element being considered.
+     * @param key The target sum we are trying to achieve.
+     * @return true if a subset of `arr` adds up to `key`, false otherwise.
+     *
+     *         This is a recursive solution that checks for two possibilities at
+     *         each step:
+     *         1. Include the current element in the subset and check if the
+     *         remaining elements can sum up to the remaining target.
+     *         2. Exclude the current element and check if the remaining elements
+     *         can sum up to the target without this element.
+     */
+    public static boolean subsetSum(int[] arr, int num, int key) {
+        if (key == 0) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (num < 0 || key < 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        boolean include = subsetSum(arr, num - 1, key - arr[num]);
+        boolean exclude = subsetSum(arr, num - 1, key);
+        return include || exclude;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Sum_Of_Subset.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Sum_Of_Subset.java
deleted file mode 100644
index c40c65dbb886..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Sum_Of_Subset.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,30 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
-
-public class Sum_Of_Subset {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        int[] arr = {7, 3, 2, 5, 8};
-        int Key = 14;
-
-        if (subsetSum(arr, arr.length - 1, Key)) {
-            System.out.print("Yes, that sum exists");
-        } else {
-            System.out.print("Nope, that number does not exist");
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static boolean subsetSum(int[] arr, int num, int Key) {
-        if (Key == 0) {
-            return true;
-        }
-        if (num < 0 || Key < 0) {
-            return false;
-        }
-
-        boolean include = subsetSum(arr, num - 1, Key - arr[num]);
-        boolean exclude = subsetSum(arr, num - 1, Key);
-
-        return include || exclude;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatching.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatching.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9fd82ccaf078
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatching.java
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements the algorithm for calculating the maximum weighted matching in a tree.
+ * The tree is represented as an undirected graph with weighted edges.
+ *
+ * Problem Description:
+ *  Given an undirected tree G = (V, E) with edge weights γ: E → N and a root r ∈ V,
+ *  the goal is to find a maximum weight matching M ⊆ E such that no two edges in M
+ *  share a common vertex. The sum of the weights of the edges in M, ∑ e∈M γ(e), should be maximized.
+ *  For more Information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matching_(graph_theory)">Matching (graph theory)</a>
+ *
+ * @author  <a href="https://github.com/DenizAltunkapan">Deniz Altunkapan</a>
+ */
+public class TreeMatching {
+
+    private UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph graph;
+    private int[][] dp;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor that initializes the graph and the DP table.
+     *
+     * @param graph The graph that represents the tree and is used for the matching algorithm.
+     */
+    public TreeMatching(UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph graph) {
+        this.graph = graph;
+        this.dp = new int[graph.size()][2];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the maximum weighted matching for the tree, starting from the given root node.
+     *
+     * @param root The index of the root node of the tree.
+     * @param parent The index of the parent node (used for recursion).
+     * @return The maximum weighted matching for the tree, starting from the root node.
+     *
+     */
+    public int getMaxMatching(int root, int parent) {
+        if (root < 0 || root >= graph.size()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid root: " + root);
+        }
+        maxMatching(root, parent);
+        return Math.max(dp[root][0], dp[root][1]);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively computes the maximum weighted matching for a node, assuming that the node
+     * can either be included or excluded from the matching.
+     *
+     * @param node The index of the current node for which the matching is calculated.
+     * @param parent The index of the parent node (to avoid revisiting the parent node during recursion).
+     */
+    private void maxMatching(int node, int parent) {
+        dp[node][0] = 0;
+        dp[node][1] = 0;
+
+        int sumWithoutEdge = 0;
+        for (int adjNode : graph.getNeighbors(node)) {
+            if (adjNode == parent) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            maxMatching(adjNode, node);
+            sumWithoutEdge += Math.max(dp[adjNode][0], dp[adjNode][1]);
+        }
+
+        dp[node][0] = sumWithoutEdge;
+
+        for (int adjNode : graph.getNeighbors(node)) {
+            if (adjNode == parent) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            int weight = graph.getEdgeWeight(node, adjNode);
+            dp[node][1] = Math.max(dp[node][1], sumWithoutEdge - Math.max(dp[adjNode][0], dp[adjNode][1]) + dp[adjNode][0] + weight);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Tribonacci.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Tribonacci.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3ff6cc620236
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Tribonacci.java
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code Tribonacci} class provides a method to compute the n-th number in the Tribonacci sequence.
+ * N-th Tribonacci Number - https://leetcode.com/problems/n-th-tribonacci-number/description/
+ */
+public final class Tribonacci {
+    private Tribonacci() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the n-th Tribonacci number.
+     *
+     * @param n the index of the Tribonacci number to compute
+     * @return the n-th Tribonacci number
+     */
+    public static int compute(int n) {
+        if (n == 0) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        if (n == 1 || n == 2) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+
+        int first = 0;
+        int second = 1;
+        int third = 1;
+
+        for (int i = 3; i <= n; i++) {
+            int next = first + second + third;
+            first = second;
+            second = third;
+            third = next;
+        }
+
+        return third;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePaths.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePaths.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..22ad8a7dd8e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePaths.java
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * Author: Siddhant Swarup Mallick
+ * Github: https://github.com/siddhant2002
+ * <p>
+ * Problem Description:
+ * A robot is located at the top-left corner of a m x n grid (marked 'Start' in the diagram below).
+ * The robot can only move either down or right at any point in time.
+ * The robot is trying to reach the bottom-right corner of the grid (marked 'Finish' in the diagram below).
+ * How many possible unique paths are there?
+ * <p>
+ * Program Description:
+ * This program calculates the number of unique paths possible for a robot to reach the bottom-right corner
+ * of an m x n grid using dynamic programming.
+ */
+public final class UniquePaths {
+
+    private UniquePaths() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the number of unique paths using a 1D dynamic programming array.
+     * Time complexity O(n*m)
+     * Space complexity O(min(n,m))
+     *
+     * @param m The number of rows in the grid.
+     * @param n The number of columns in the grid.
+     * @return The number of unique paths.
+     */
+    public static int uniquePaths(final int m, final int n) {
+        if (m > n) {
+            return uniquePaths(n, m); // Recursive call to handle n > m cases
+        }
+        int[] dp = new int[n]; // Create a 1D array to store unique paths for each column
+        Arrays.fill(dp, 1); // Initialize all values to 1 (one way to reach each cell)
+        for (int i = 1; i < m; i++) {
+            for (int j = 1; j < n; j++) {
+                dp[j] = Math.addExact(dp[j], dp[j - 1]); // Update the number of unique paths for each cell
+            }
+        }
+        return dp[n - 1]; // The result is stored in the last column of the array
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the number of unique paths using a 2D dynamic programming array.
+     * Time complexity O(n*m)
+     * Space complexity O(n*m)
+     *
+     * @param m The number of rows in the grid.
+     * @param n The number of columns in the grid.
+     * @return The number of unique paths.
+     */
+    public static int uniquePaths2(final int m, final int n) {
+        int[][] dp = new int[m][n]; // Create a 2D array to store unique paths for each cell
+        for (int i = 0; i < m; i++) {
+            dp[i][0] = 1; // Initialize the first column to 1 (one way to reach each cell)
+        }
+        for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+            dp[0][j] = 1; // Initialize the first row to 1 (one way to reach each cell)
+        }
+        for (int i = 1; i < m; i++) {
+            for (int j = 1; j < n; j++) {
+                dp[i][j] = Math.addExact(dp[i - 1][j], dp[i][j - 1]); // Update the number of unique paths for each cell
+            }
+        }
+        return dp[m - 1][n - 1]; // The result is stored in the bottom-right cell of the array
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCount.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCount.java
new file mode 100755
index 000000000000..8c7ea6179e3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCount.java
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class to find the number of unique subsequences that can be
+ * produced from a given string.
+ *
+ * <p> This class contains static methods to compute the unique subsequence count
+ * using dynamic programming and recursion. It ensures that duplicate characters
+ * are not counted multiple times in the subsequences.</p>
+ *
+ * <p> Author: https://github.com/Tuhinm2002 </p>
+ */
+public final class UniqueSubsequencesCount {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     * This class should only be used in a static context.
+     *
+     * @throws UnsupportedOperationException if attempted to instantiate.
+     */
+    private UniqueSubsequencesCount() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Utility class");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the number of unique subsequences that can be generated from
+     * the given string.
+     *
+     * <p> This method initializes a dynamic programming (DP) array and invokes
+     * the recursive helper function to compute the subsequence count.</p>
+     *
+     * @param str the input string from which subsequences are generated
+     * @return the total count of unique subsequences
+     */
+    public static int countSubseq(String str) {
+
+        // DP array initialized to store intermediate results
+        int[] dp = new int[str.length() + 1];
+        Arrays.fill(dp, -1);
+
+        // Calls the recursive function to compute the result
+        return countSubsequences(str, 0, dp);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursive helper function to count the number of unique subsequences
+     * starting from the given index.
+     *
+     * <p> Uses a HashSet to avoid counting duplicate characters within
+     * a single subsequence.</p>
+     *
+     * @param st the input string
+     * @param idx the current index from which to calculate subsequences
+     * @param dp dynamic programming array used to memoize results
+     * @return the total number of unique subsequences starting from the
+     *         current index
+     */
+    public static int countSubsequences(String st, int idx, int[] dp) {
+
+        // Base case: when index exceeds the string length
+        if (idx >= st.length()) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        // If result is already calculated, return the memoized value
+        if (dp[idx] != -1) {
+            return dp[idx];
+        }
+
+        // Set to store characters to avoid duplicates
+        Set<Character> set = new HashSet<>();
+
+        int res = 0;
+
+        // Iterate over the string starting from current index
+        for (int j = idx; j < st.length(); j++) {
+
+            // If character is already in the set, skip it
+            if (set.contains(st.charAt(j))) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Add character to set and recursively calculate subsequences
+            set.add(st.charAt(j));
+
+            // 1 for the current subsequence + recursive call for the rest of the string
+            res = 1 + countSubsequences(st, j + 1, dp) + res;
+        }
+
+        // Memoize the result
+        dp[idx] = res;
+        return dp[idx];
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatching.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatching.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8658ea30af00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatching.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+/**
+ *
+ * Author: Janmesh Singh
+ * Github: https://github.com/janmeshjs
+
+ * Problem Statement: To determine if the pattern matches the text.
+ * The pattern can include two special wildcard characters:
+ *       ' ? ': Matches any single character.
+ *       ' * ': Matches zero or more of any character sequence.
+ *
+ * Use DP to return True if the pattern matches the entire text and False otherwise
+ *
+ */
+public final class WildcardMatching {
+    private WildcardMatching() {
+    }
+
+    public static boolean isMatch(String text, String pattern) {
+        int m = text.length();
+        int n = pattern.length();
+
+        // Create a DP table to store intermediate results
+        boolean[][] dp = new boolean[m + 1][n + 1];
+
+        // Base case: an empty pattern matches an empty text
+        dp[0][0] = true;
+
+        // Handle patterns starting with '*'
+        for (int j = 1; j <= n; j++) {
+            if (pattern.charAt(j - 1) == '*') {
+                dp[0][j] = dp[0][j - 1];
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Fill the DP table
+        for (int i = 1; i <= m; i++) {
+            for (int j = 1; j <= n; j++) {
+                char textChar = text.charAt(i - 1);
+                char patternChar = pattern.charAt(j - 1);
+
+                if (patternChar == textChar || patternChar == '?') {
+                    dp[i][j] = dp[i - 1][j - 1];
+                } else if (patternChar == '*') {
+                    // '*' can match zero or more characters
+                    dp[i][j] = dp[i - 1][j] || dp[i][j - 1];
+                } else {
+                    dp[i][j] = false;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        // The result is in the bottom-right cell of the DP table
+        return dp[m][n];
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java
index dc45a795b2dd..022b43184a88 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java
@@ -1,37 +1,63 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
 /**
- * Imagine you have a collection of N wines placed next to each other on the
- * shelf. The price of ith wine is pi(Prices of different wines are different).
- * Because wine gets better every year supposing today is year 1, on year y the
- * price would be y*pi i.e y times the value of the initial year. You want to
- * sell all wines but you have to sell one wine per year. One more constraint on
- * each year you are allowed to sell either leftmost or rightmost wine on the
- * shelf. You are not allowed to reorder. You have to find the maximum profit
+ * The WineProblem class provides a solution to the wine selling problem.
+ * Given a collection of N wines with different prices, the objective is to maximize profit by selling
+ * one wine each year, considering the constraint that only the leftmost or rightmost wine can be sold
+ * at any given time.
  *
+ * The price of the ith wine is pi, and the selling price increases by a factor of the year in which
+ * it is sold. This class implements three approaches to solve the problem:
+ *
+ * 1. **Recursion**: A straightforward recursive method that computes the maximum profit.
+ *    - Time Complexity: O(2^N)
+ *    - Space Complexity: O(N) due to recursive calls.
+ *
+ * 2. **Top-Down Dynamic Programming (Memoization)**: This approach caches the results of subproblems
+ *    to avoid redundant computations.
+ *    - Time Complexity: O(N^2)
+ *    - Space Complexity: O(N^2) for the storage of results and O(N) for recursion stack.
+ *
+ * 3. **Bottom-Up Dynamic Programming (Tabulation)**: This method builds a table iteratively to
+ *    compute the maximum profit for all possible subproblems.
+ *    - Time Complexity: O(N^2)
+ *    - Space Complexity: O(N^2) for the table.
  */
-public class WineProblem {
+public final class WineProblem {
+    private WineProblem() {
+    }
 
-    // Method 1: Using Recursion
-    // Time Complexity=0(2^N) Space Complexity=Recursion extra space
-    public static int WPRecursion(int[] arr, int si, int ei) {
+    /**
+     * Calculate maximum profit using recursion.
+     *
+     * @param arr Array of wine prices.
+     * @param si  Start index of the wine to consider.
+     * @param ei  End index of the wine to consider.
+     * @return Maximum profit obtainable by selling the wines.
+     */
+    public static int wpRecursion(int[] arr, int si, int ei) {
         int n = arr.length;
         int year = (n - (ei - si + 1)) + 1;
         if (si == ei) {
             return arr[si] * year;
         }
 
-        int start = WPRecursion(arr, si + 1, ei) + arr[si] * year;
-        int end = WPRecursion(arr, si, ei - 1) + arr[ei] * year;
+        int start = wpRecursion(arr, si + 1, ei) + arr[si] * year;
+        int end = wpRecursion(arr, si, ei - 1) + arr[ei] * year;
 
-        int ans = Math.max(start, end);
-
-        return ans;
+        return Math.max(start, end);
     }
 
-    // Method 2: Top-Down DP(Memoization)
-    // Time Complexity=0(N*N) Space Complexity=0(N*N)+Recursion extra space
-    public static int WPTD(int[] arr, int si, int ei, int[][] strg) {
+    /**
+     * Calculate maximum profit using top-down dynamic programming with memoization.
+     *
+     * @param arr  Array of wine prices.
+     * @param si   Start index of the wine to consider.
+     * @param ei   End index of the wine to consider.
+     * @param strg 2D array to store results of subproblems.
+     * @return Maximum profit obtainable by selling the wines.
+     */
+    public static int wptd(int[] arr, int si, int ei, int[][] strg) {
         int n = arr.length;
         int year = (n - (ei - si + 1)) + 1;
         if (si == ei) {
@@ -41,19 +67,26 @@ public static int WPTD(int[] arr, int si, int ei, int[][] strg) {
         if (strg[si][ei] != 0) {
             return strg[si][ei];
         }
-        int start = WPTD(arr, si + 1, ei, strg) + arr[si] * year;
-        int end = WPTD(arr, si, ei - 1, strg) + arr[ei] * year;
+        int start = wptd(arr, si + 1, ei, strg) + arr[si] * year;
+        int end = wptd(arr, si, ei - 1, strg) + arr[ei] * year;
 
         int ans = Math.max(start, end);
-
         strg[si][ei] = ans;
 
         return ans;
     }
 
-    // Method 3: Bottom-Up DP(Tabulation)
-    // Time Complexity=0(N*N/2)->0(N*N) Space Complexity=0(N*N)
-    public static int WPBU(int[] arr) {
+    /**
+     * Calculate maximum profit using bottom-up dynamic programming with tabulation.
+     *
+     * @param arr Array of wine prices.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input array is null or empty.
+     * @return Maximum profit obtainable by selling the wines.
+     */
+    public static int wpbu(int[] arr) {
+        if (arr == null || arr.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array cannot be null or empty.");
+        }
         int n = arr.length;
         int[][] strg = new int[n][n];
 
@@ -68,21 +101,9 @@ public static int WPBU(int[] arr) {
                     int end = strg[si][ei - 1] + arr[ei] * year;
 
                     strg[si][ei] = Math.max(start, end);
-
                 }
             }
         }
         return strg[0][n - 1];
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] arr = {2, 3, 5, 1, 4};
-        System.out.println("Method 1: " + WPRecursion(arr, 0, arr.length - 1));
-        System.out.println("Method 2: " + WPTD(arr, 0, arr.length - 1, new int[arr.length][arr.length]));
-        System.out.println("Method 3: " + WPBU(arr));
-
-    }
-
 }
-// Memoization vs Tabulation : https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tabulation-vs-memoization/
-// Question Link : https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/maximum-profit-sale-wines/
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BentleyOttmann.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BentleyOttmann.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a11acb87dd7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BentleyOttmann.java
@@ -0,0 +1,423 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.awt.geom.Point2D;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.NavigableSet;
+import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.SortedSet;
+import java.util.TreeSet;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the Bentley–Ottmann algorithm for finding all intersection
+ * points among a set of line segments in O((n + k) log n) time.
+ *
+ * <p>Uses a sweep-line approach with an event queue and status structure to
+ * efficiently detect intersections in 2D plane geometry.</p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentley%E2%80%93Ottmann_algorithm">
+ *      Bentley–Ottmann algorithm</a>
+ */
+public final class BentleyOttmann {
+
+    private BentleyOttmann() {
+    }
+
+    private static final double EPS = 1e-9;
+    private static double currentSweepX;
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a line segment with two endpoints.
+     */
+    public static class Segment {
+        final Point2D.Double p1;
+        final Point2D.Double p2;
+        final int id; // Unique identifier for each segment
+
+        Segment(Point2D.Double p1, Point2D.Double p2) {
+            this.p1 = p1;
+            this.p2 = p2;
+            this.id = segmentCounter++;
+        }
+
+        private static int segmentCounter = 0;
+
+        /**
+         * Computes the y-coordinate of this segment at a given x value.
+         */
+        double getY(double x) {
+            if (Math.abs(p2.x - p1.x) < EPS) {
+                // Vertical segment: return midpoint y
+                return (p1.y + p2.y) / 2.0;
+            }
+            double t = (x - p1.x) / (p2.x - p1.x);
+            return p1.y + t * (p2.y - p1.y);
+        }
+
+        Point2D.Double leftPoint() {
+            return p1.x < p2.x ? p1 : p1.x > p2.x ? p2 : p1.y < p2.y ? p1 : p2;
+        }
+
+        Point2D.Double rightPoint() {
+            return p1.x > p2.x ? p1 : p1.x < p2.x ? p2 : p1.y > p2.y ? p1 : p2;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public String toString() {
+            return String.format("S%d[(%.2f, %.2f), (%.2f, %.2f)]", id, p1.x, p1.y, p2.x, p2.y);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Event types for the sweep line algorithm.
+     */
+    private enum EventType { START, END, INTERSECTION }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents an event in the event queue.
+     */
+    private static class Event implements Comparable<Event> {
+        final Point2D.Double point;
+        final EventType type;
+        final Set<Segment> segments; // Segments involved in this event
+
+        Event(Point2D.Double point, EventType type) {
+            this.point = point;
+            this.type = type;
+            this.segments = new HashSet<>();
+        }
+
+        void addSegment(Segment s) {
+            segments.add(s);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Event other) {
+            // Sort by x-coordinate, then by y-coordinate
+            int cmp = Double.compare(this.point.x, other.point.x);
+            if (cmp == 0) {
+                cmp = Double.compare(this.point.y, other.point.y);
+            }
+            if (cmp == 0) {
+                // Process END events before START events at same point
+                cmp = this.type.compareTo(other.type);
+            }
+            return cmp;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object o) {
+            if (!(o instanceof Event e)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            return pointsEqual(this.point, e.point);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return Objects.hash(Math.round(point.x * 1e6), Math.round(point.y * 1e6));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Comparator for segments in the status structure (sweep line).
+     * Orders segments by their y-coordinate at the current sweep line position.
+     */
+    private static final class StatusComparator implements Comparator<Segment> {
+        @Override
+        public int compare(Segment s1, Segment s2) {
+            if (s1.id == s2.id) {
+                return 0;
+            }
+
+            double y1 = s1.getY(currentSweepX);
+            double y2 = s2.getY(currentSweepX);
+
+            int cmp = Double.compare(y1, y2);
+            if (Math.abs(y1 - y2) < EPS) {
+                // If y-coordinates are equal, use segment id for consistency
+                return Integer.compare(s1.id, s2.id);
+            }
+            return cmp;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds all intersection points among a set of line segments.
+     *
+     * <p>An intersection point is reported when two or more segments cross or touch.
+     * For overlapping segments, only actual crossing/touching points are reported,
+     * not all points along the overlap.</p>
+     *
+     * @param segments list of line segments represented as pairs of points
+     * @return a set of intersection points where segments meet or cross
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the list is null or contains null points
+     */
+    public static Set<Point2D.Double> findIntersections(List<Segment> segments) {
+        if (segments == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Segment list must not be null");
+        }
+
+        Segment.segmentCounter = 0; // Reset counter
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = new HashSet<>();
+        PriorityQueue<Event> eventQueue = new PriorityQueue<>();
+        TreeSet<Segment> status = new TreeSet<>(new StatusComparator());
+        Map<Point2D.Double, Event> eventMap = new HashMap<>();
+
+        // Initialize event queue with segment start and end points
+        for (Segment s : segments) {
+            Point2D.Double left = s.leftPoint();
+            Point2D.Double right = s.rightPoint();
+
+            Event startEvent = getOrCreateEvent(eventMap, left, EventType.START);
+            startEvent.addSegment(s);
+
+            Event endEvent = getOrCreateEvent(eventMap, right, EventType.END);
+            endEvent.addSegment(s);
+        }
+
+        // Add all unique events to the queue
+        for (Event e : eventMap.values()) {
+            if (!e.segments.isEmpty()) {
+                eventQueue.add(e);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Process events
+        while (!eventQueue.isEmpty()) {
+            Event event = eventQueue.poll();
+            currentSweepX = event.point.x;
+
+            handleEvent(event, status, eventQueue, eventMap, intersections);
+        }
+
+        return intersections;
+    }
+
+    private static Event getOrCreateEvent(Map<Point2D.Double, Event> eventMap, Point2D.Double point, EventType type) {
+        // Find existing event at this point
+        for (Map.Entry<Point2D.Double, Event> entry : eventMap.entrySet()) {
+            if (pointsEqual(entry.getKey(), point)) {
+                return entry.getValue();
+            }
+        }
+        // Create new event
+        Event event = new Event(point, type);
+        eventMap.put(point, event);
+        return event;
+    }
+
+    private static void handleEvent(Event event, TreeSet<Segment> status, PriorityQueue<Event> eventQueue, Map<Point2D.Double, Event> eventMap, Set<Point2D.Double> intersections) {
+        Point2D.Double p = event.point;
+        Set<Segment> segmentsAtPoint = new HashSet<>(event.segments);
+
+        // Check segments in status structure (much smaller than allSegments)
+        for (Segment s : status) {
+            if (pointsEqual(s.p1, p) || pointsEqual(s.p2, p) || (onSegment(s, p) && !pointsEqual(s.p1, p) && !pointsEqual(s.p2, p))) {
+                segmentsAtPoint.add(s);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // If 2 or more segments meet at this point, it's an intersection
+        if (segmentsAtPoint.size() >= 2) {
+            intersections.add(p);
+        }
+
+        // Categorize segments
+        Set<Segment> upperSegs = new HashSet<>(); // Segments starting at p
+        Set<Segment> lowerSegs = new HashSet<>(); // Segments ending at p
+        Set<Segment> containingSegs = new HashSet<>(); // Segments containing p in interior
+
+        for (Segment s : segmentsAtPoint) {
+            if (pointsEqual(s.leftPoint(), p)) {
+                upperSegs.add(s);
+            } else if (pointsEqual(s.rightPoint(), p)) {
+                lowerSegs.add(s);
+            } else {
+                containingSegs.add(s);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Remove ending segments and segments containing p from status
+        status.removeAll(lowerSegs);
+        status.removeAll(containingSegs);
+
+        // Update sweep line position slightly past the event
+        currentSweepX = p.x + EPS;
+
+        // Add starting segments and re-add containing segments
+        status.addAll(upperSegs);
+        status.addAll(containingSegs);
+
+        if (upperSegs.isEmpty() && containingSegs.isEmpty()) {
+            // Find neighbors and check for new intersections
+            Segment sl = getNeighbor(status, lowerSegs, true);
+            Segment sr = getNeighbor(status, lowerSegs, false);
+            if (sl != null && sr != null) {
+                findNewEvent(sl, sr, p, eventQueue, eventMap);
+            }
+        } else {
+            Set<Segment> unionSegs = new HashSet<>(upperSegs);
+            unionSegs.addAll(containingSegs);
+
+            Segment leftmost = getLeftmost(unionSegs, status);
+            Segment rightmost = getRightmost(unionSegs, status);
+
+            if (leftmost != null) {
+                Segment sl = status.lower(leftmost);
+                if (sl != null) {
+                    findNewEvent(sl, leftmost, p, eventQueue, eventMap);
+                }
+            }
+
+            if (rightmost != null) {
+                Segment sr = status.higher(rightmost);
+                if (sr != null) {
+                    findNewEvent(rightmost, sr, p, eventQueue, eventMap);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static Segment getNeighbor(NavigableSet<Segment> status, Set<Segment> removed, boolean lower) {
+        if (removed.isEmpty()) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        Segment ref = removed.iterator().next();
+        return lower ? status.lower(ref) : status.higher(ref);
+    }
+
+    private static Segment getLeftmost(Set<Segment> segments, SortedSet<Segment> status) {
+        Segment leftmost = null;
+        for (Segment s : segments) {
+            if (leftmost == null || Objects.requireNonNull(status.comparator()).compare(s, leftmost) < 0) {
+                leftmost = s;
+            }
+        }
+        return leftmost;
+    }
+
+    private static Segment getRightmost(Set<Segment> segments, SortedSet<Segment> status) {
+        Segment rightmost = null;
+        for (Segment s : segments) {
+            if (status.comparator() != null && (rightmost == null || status.comparator().compare(s, rightmost) > 0)) {
+                rightmost = s;
+            }
+        }
+        return rightmost;
+    }
+
+    private static void findNewEvent(Segment s1, Segment s2, Point2D.Double currentPoint, PriorityQueue<Event> eventQueue, Map<Point2D.Double, Event> eventMap) {
+        Point2D.Double intersection = getIntersection(s1, s2);
+
+        if (intersection != null && intersection.x > currentPoint.x - EPS && !pointsEqual(intersection, currentPoint)) {
+
+            // Check if event already exists
+            boolean exists = false;
+            for (Map.Entry<Point2D.Double, Event> entry : eventMap.entrySet()) {
+                if (pointsEqual(entry.getKey(), intersection)) {
+                    exists = true;
+                    Event existingEvent = entry.getValue();
+                    existingEvent.addSegment(s1);
+                    existingEvent.addSegment(s2);
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+
+            if (!exists) {
+                Event newEvent = new Event(intersection, EventType.INTERSECTION);
+                newEvent.addSegment(s1);
+                newEvent.addSegment(s2);
+                eventMap.put(intersection, newEvent);
+                eventQueue.add(newEvent);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static Point2D.Double getIntersection(Segment s1, Segment s2) {
+        double x1 = s1.p1.x;
+        double y1 = s1.p1.y;
+        double x2 = s1.p2.x;
+        double y2 = s1.p2.y;
+        double x3 = s2.p1.x;
+        double y3 = s2.p1.y;
+        double x4 = s2.p2.x;
+        double y4 = s2.p2.y;
+
+        double denom = (x1 - x2) * (y3 - y4) - (y1 - y2) * (x3 - x4);
+
+        if (Math.abs(denom) < EPS) {
+            // Parallel or collinear
+            if (areCollinear(s1, s2)) {
+                // For collinear segments, check if they overlap
+                // Return any overlapping point
+                List<Point2D.Double> overlapPoints = new ArrayList<>();
+
+                if (onSegment(s1, s2.p1)) {
+                    overlapPoints.add(s2.p1);
+                }
+                if (onSegment(s1, s2.p2)) {
+                    overlapPoints.add(s2.p2);
+                }
+                if (onSegment(s2, s1.p1)) {
+                    overlapPoints.add(s1.p1);
+                }
+                if (onSegment(s2, s1.p2)) {
+                    overlapPoints.add(s1.p2);
+                }
+
+                // Remove duplicates and return the first point
+                if (!overlapPoints.isEmpty()) {
+                    // Find the point that's not an endpoint of both segments
+                    for (Point2D.Double pt : overlapPoints) {
+                        boolean isS1Endpoint = pointsEqual(pt, s1.p1) || pointsEqual(pt, s1.p2);
+                        boolean isS2Endpoint = pointsEqual(pt, s2.p1) || pointsEqual(pt, s2.p2);
+
+                        // If it's an endpoint of both, it's a touching point
+                        if (isS1Endpoint && isS2Endpoint) {
+                            return pt;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    // Return the first overlap point
+                    return overlapPoints.getFirst();
+                }
+            }
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        double t = ((x1 - x3) * (y3 - y4) - (y1 - y3) * (x3 - x4)) / denom;
+        double u = -((x1 - x2) * (y1 - y3) - (y1 - y2) * (x1 - x3)) / denom;
+
+        if (t >= -EPS && t <= 1 + EPS && u >= -EPS && u <= 1 + EPS) {
+            double px = x1 + t * (x2 - x1);
+            double py = y1 + t * (y2 - y1);
+            return new Point2D.Double(px, py);
+        }
+
+        return null;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean areCollinear(Segment s1, Segment s2) {
+        double cross1 = crossProduct(s1.p1, s1.p2, s2.p1);
+        double cross2 = crossProduct(s1.p1, s1.p2, s2.p2);
+        return Math.abs(cross1) < EPS && Math.abs(cross2) < EPS;
+    }
+
+    private static double crossProduct(Point2D.Double a, Point2D.Double b, Point2D.Double c) {
+        return (b.x - a.x) * (c.y - a.y) - (b.y - a.y) * (c.x - a.x);
+    }
+
+    private static boolean onSegment(Segment s, Point2D.Double p) {
+        return p.x >= Math.min(s.p1.x, s.p2.x) - EPS && p.x <= Math.max(s.p1.x, s.p2.x) + EPS && p.y >= Math.min(s.p1.y, s.p2.y) - EPS && p.y <= Math.max(s.p1.y, s.p2.y) + EPS && Math.abs(crossProduct(s.p1, s.p2, p)) < EPS;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean pointsEqual(Point2D.Double p1, Point2D.Double p2) {
+        return Math.abs(p1.x - p2.x) < EPS && Math.abs(p1.y - p2.y) < EPS;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLine.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLine.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..51d9930c0250
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLine.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.awt.Point;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code BresenhamLine} class implements the Bresenham's line algorithm,
+ * which is an efficient way to determine the points of a straight line
+ * between two given points in a 2D space.
+ *
+ * <p>This algorithm uses integer arithmetic to calculate the points,
+ * making it suitable for rasterization in computer graphics.</p>
+ *
+ * For more information, please visit {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bresenham%27s_line_algorithm}
+ */
+public final class BresenhamLine {
+
+    private BresenhamLine() {
+        // Private constructor to prevent instantiation.
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the list of points that form a straight line between two endpoints.
+     *
+     * @param x0 the x-coordinate of the starting point
+     * @param y0 the y-coordinate of the starting point
+     * @param x1 the x-coordinate of the ending point
+     * @param y1 the y-coordinate of the ending point
+     * @return a {@code List<Point>} containing all points on the line
+     */
+    public static List<Point> findLine(int x0, int y0, int x1, int y1) {
+        List<Point> line = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Calculate differences and steps for each axis
+        int dx = Math.abs(x1 - x0); // Change in x
+        int dy = Math.abs(y1 - y0); // Change in y
+        int sx = (x0 < x1) ? 1 : -1; // Step in x direction
+        int sy = (y0 < y1) ? 1 : -1; // Step in y direction
+        int err = dx - dy; // Initial error term
+
+        // Loop until we reach the endpoint
+        while (true) {
+            line.add(new Point(x0, y0)); // Add current point to the line
+
+            // Check if we've reached the endpoint
+            if (x0 == x1 && y0 == y1) {
+                break; // Exit loop if endpoint is reached
+            }
+
+            // Calculate error term doubled for decision making
+            final int e2 = err * 2;
+
+            // Adjust x coordinate if necessary
+            if (e2 > -dy) {
+                err -= dy; // Update error term
+                x0 += sx; // Move to next point in x direction
+            }
+
+            // Adjust y coordinate if necessary
+            if (e2 < dx) {
+                err += dx; // Update error term
+                y0 += sy; // Move to next point in y direction
+            }
+        }
+
+        return line; // Return the list of points forming the line
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHull.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHull.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d44d20c68807
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHull.java
@@ -0,0 +1,207 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.TreeSet;
+
+/**
+ * A class providing algorithms to compute the convex hull of a set of points
+ * using brute-force and recursive methods.
+ *
+ * Convex hull: The smallest convex polygon that contains all the given points.
+ *
+ * Algorithms provided:
+ * 1. Brute-Force Method
+ * 2. Recursive (Divide-and-Conquer) Method
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class ConvexHull {
+    private ConvexHull() {
+    }
+
+    private static boolean checkPointOrientation(Point i, Point j, Point k) {
+        int detK = Point.orientation(i, j, k);
+        if (detK > 0) {
+            return true; // pointsLeftOfIJ
+        } else if (detK < 0) {
+            return false; // pointsRightOfIJ
+        } else {
+            return k.compareTo(i) >= 0 && k.compareTo(j) <= 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    public static List<Point> convexHullBruteForce(List<Point> points) {
+        Set<Point> convexSet = new TreeSet<>(Comparator.naturalOrder());
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < points.size() - 1; i++) {
+            for (int j = i + 1; j < points.size(); j++) {
+                boolean allPointsOnOneSide = true;
+                boolean leftSide = checkPointOrientation(points.get(i), points.get(j), points.get((i + 1) % points.size()));
+
+                for (int k = 0; k < points.size(); k++) {
+                    if (k != i && k != j && checkPointOrientation(points.get(i), points.get(j), points.get(k)) != leftSide) {
+                        allPointsOnOneSide = false;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                if (allPointsOnOneSide) {
+                    convexSet.add(points.get(i));
+                    convexSet.add(points.get(j));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return new ArrayList<>(convexSet);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the convex hull using a recursive divide-and-conquer approach.
+     * Returns points in counter-clockwise order starting from the bottom-most, left-most point.
+     *
+     * @param points the input points
+     * @return the convex hull points in counter-clockwise order
+     */
+    public static List<Point> convexHullRecursive(List<Point> points) {
+        if (points.size() < 3) {
+            List<Point> result = new ArrayList<>(points);
+            Collections.sort(result);
+            return result;
+        }
+
+        Collections.sort(points);
+        Set<Point> convexSet = new HashSet<>();
+        Point leftMostPoint = points.getFirst();
+        Point rightMostPoint = points.getLast();
+
+        convexSet.add(leftMostPoint);
+        convexSet.add(rightMostPoint);
+
+        List<Point> upperHull = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Point> lowerHull = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (int i = 1; i < points.size() - 1; i++) {
+            int det = Point.orientation(leftMostPoint, rightMostPoint, points.get(i));
+            if (det > 0) {
+                upperHull.add(points.get(i));
+            } else if (det < 0) {
+                lowerHull.add(points.get(i));
+            }
+        }
+
+        constructHull(upperHull, leftMostPoint, rightMostPoint, convexSet);
+        constructHull(lowerHull, rightMostPoint, leftMostPoint, convexSet);
+
+        // Convert to list and sort in counter-clockwise order
+        return sortCounterClockwise(new ArrayList<>(convexSet));
+    }
+
+    private static void constructHull(Collection<Point> points, Point left, Point right, Set<Point> convexSet) {
+        if (!points.isEmpty()) {
+            Point extremePoint = null;
+            int extremePointDistance = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
+            List<Point> candidatePoints = new ArrayList<>();
+
+            for (Point p : points) {
+                int det = Point.orientation(left, right, p);
+                if (det > 0) {
+                    candidatePoints.add(p);
+                    if (det > extremePointDistance) {
+                        extremePointDistance = det;
+                        extremePoint = p;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            if (extremePoint != null) {
+                constructHull(candidatePoints, left, extremePoint, convexSet);
+                convexSet.add(extremePoint);
+                constructHull(candidatePoints, extremePoint, right, convexSet);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts convex hull points in counter-clockwise order starting from
+     * the bottom-most, left-most point.
+     *
+     * @param hullPoints the unsorted convex hull points
+     * @return the points sorted in counter-clockwise order
+     */
+    private static List<Point> sortCounterClockwise(List<Point> hullPoints) {
+        if (hullPoints.size() <= 2) {
+            Collections.sort(hullPoints);
+            return hullPoints;
+        }
+
+        // Find the bottom-most, left-most point (pivot)
+        Point pivot = hullPoints.getFirst();
+        for (Point p : hullPoints) {
+            if (p.y() < pivot.y() || (p.y() == pivot.y() && p.x() < pivot.x())) {
+                pivot = p;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Sort other points by polar angle with respect to pivot
+        final Point finalPivot = pivot;
+        List<Point> sorted = new ArrayList<>(hullPoints);
+        sorted.remove(finalPivot);
+
+        sorted.sort((p1, p2) -> {
+            int crossProduct = Point.orientation(finalPivot, p1, p2);
+
+            if (crossProduct == 0) {
+                // Collinear points: sort by distance from pivot (closer first for convex hull)
+                long dist1 = distanceSquared(finalPivot, p1);
+                long dist2 = distanceSquared(finalPivot, p2);
+                return Long.compare(dist1, dist2);
+            }
+
+            // Positive cross product means p2 is counter-clockwise from p1
+            // We want counter-clockwise order, so if p2 is CCW from p1, p1 should come first
+            return -crossProduct;
+        });
+
+        // Build result with pivot first, filtering out intermediate collinear points
+        List<Point> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        result.add(finalPivot);
+
+        if (!sorted.isEmpty()) {
+            // This loop iterates through the points sorted by angle.
+            // For points that are collinear with the pivot, we only want the one that is farthest away.
+            // The sort places closer points first.
+            for (int i = 0; i < sorted.size() - 1; i++) {
+                // Check the orientation of the pivot, the current point, and the next point.
+                int orientation = Point.orientation(finalPivot, sorted.get(i), sorted.get(i + 1));
+
+                // If the orientation is not 0, it means the next point (i+1) is at a new angle.
+                // Therefore, the current point (i) must be the farthest point at its angle. We keep it.
+                if (orientation != 0) {
+                    result.add(sorted.get(i));
+                }
+                // If the orientation is 0, the points are collinear. We discard the current point (i)
+                // because it is closer to the pivot than the next point (i+1).
+            }
+            // Always add the very last point from the sorted list. It is either the only point
+            // at its angle, or it's the farthest among a set of collinear points.
+            result.add(sorted.getLast());
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the squared distance between two points to avoid floating point operations.
+     */
+    private static long distanceSquared(Point p1, Point p2) {
+        long dx = (long) p1.x() - p2.x();
+        long dy = (long) p1.y() - p2.y();
+        return dx * dx + dy * dy;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALine.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALine.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cb24951f398a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALine.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.awt.Point;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code DDALine} class implements the Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA)
+ * line drawing algorithm. It computes points along a line between two given
+ * endpoints using floating-point arithmetic.
+ *
+ * The algorithm is straightforward but less efficient compared to
+ * Bresenham’s line algorithm, since it relies on floating-point operations.
+ *
+ * For more information, please visit {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_differential_analyzer_(graphics_algorithm)}
+ */
+public final class DDALine {
+
+    private DDALine() {
+        // Prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the list of points forming a line between two endpoints using DDA.
+     *
+     * @param x0 the x-coordinate of the starting point
+     * @param y0 the y-coordinate of the starting point
+     * @param x1 the x-coordinate of the ending point
+     * @param y1 the y-coordinate of the ending point
+     * @return an unmodifiable {@code List<Point>} containing all points on the line
+     */
+    public static List<Point> findLine(int x0, int y0, int x1, int y1) {
+        int dx = x1 - x0;
+        int dy = y1 - y0;
+
+        int steps = Math.max(Math.abs(dx), Math.abs(dy)); // number of steps
+
+        double xIncrement = dx / (double) steps;
+        double yIncrement = dy / (double) steps;
+
+        double x = x0;
+        double y = y0;
+
+        List<Point> line = new ArrayList<>(steps + 1);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i <= steps; i++) {
+            line.add(new Point((int) Math.round(x), (int) Math.round(y)));
+            x += xIncrement;
+            y += yIncrement;
+        }
+
+        return line;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScan.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScan.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1a373cf315a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScan.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * A Java program that computes the convex hull using the Graham Scan algorithm.
+ * The time complexity is O(n) in the best case and O(n log(n)) in the worst case.
+ * The space complexity is O(n).
+ * This algorithm is applicable only to integral coordinates.
+ *
+ * References:
+ * https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/C-Plus-Plus/blob/master/geometry/graham_scan_algorithm.cpp
+ * https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/C-Plus-Plus/blob/master/geometry/graham_scan_functions.hpp
+ * https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/99hull/GrahamScan.java.html
+ */
+public class GrahamScan {
+
+    private final Stack<Point> hull = new Stack<>();
+
+    public GrahamScan(Point[] points) {
+        // Pre-process points: sort by y-coordinate, then by polar order with respect to the first point
+        Arrays.sort(points);
+        Arrays.sort(points, 1, points.length, points[0].polarOrder());
+
+        hull.push(points[0]);
+
+        // Find the first point not equal to points[0] (firstNonEqualIndex)
+        // and the first point not collinear firstNonCollinearIndex with the previous points
+        int firstNonEqualIndex;
+        for (firstNonEqualIndex = 1; firstNonEqualIndex < points.length; firstNonEqualIndex++) {
+            if (!points[0].equals(points[firstNonEqualIndex])) {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (firstNonEqualIndex == points.length) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        int firstNonCollinearIndex;
+        for (firstNonCollinearIndex = firstNonEqualIndex + 1; firstNonCollinearIndex < points.length; firstNonCollinearIndex++) {
+            if (Point.orientation(points[0], points[firstNonEqualIndex], points[firstNonCollinearIndex]) != 0) {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        hull.push(points[firstNonCollinearIndex - 1]);
+
+        // Process the remaining points and update the hull
+        for (int i = firstNonCollinearIndex; i < points.length; i++) {
+            Point top = hull.pop();
+            while (Point.orientation(hull.peek(), top, points[i]) <= 0) {
+                top = hull.pop();
+            }
+            hull.push(top);
+            hull.push(points[i]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @return An iterable collection of points representing the convex hull.
+     */
+    public Iterable<Point> hull() {
+        return new ArrayList<>(hull);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Haversine.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Haversine.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fa1799e9f076
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Haversine.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+/**
+ * This Class implements the Haversine formula to calculate the distance between two points on a sphere (like Earth) from their latitudes and longitudes.
+ *
+ * The Haversine formula is used in navigation and mapping to find the great-circle distance,
+ * which is the shortest distance between two points along the surface of a sphere. It is often
+ * used to calculate the "as the crow flies" distance between two geographical locations.
+ *
+ * The formula is reliable for all distances, including small ones, and avoids issues with
+ * numerical instability that can affect other methods.
+ *
+ * @see "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haversine_formula" - Wikipedia
+ */
+public final class Haversine {
+
+    // Average radius of Earth in kilometers
+    private static final double EARTH_RADIUS_KM = 6371.0;
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private Haversine() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the great-circle distance between two points on the earth
+     * (specified in decimal degrees).
+     *
+     * @param lat1 Latitude of the first point in decimal degrees.
+     * @param lon1 Longitude of the first point in decimal degrees.
+     * @param lat2 Latitude of the second point in decimal degrees.
+     * @param lon2 Longitude of the second point in decimal degrees.
+     * @return The distance between the two points in kilometers.
+     */
+    public static double haversine(double lat1, double lon1, double lat2, double lon2) {
+        // Convert latitude and longitude from degrees to radians
+        double dLat = Math.toRadians(lat2 - lat1);
+        double dLon = Math.toRadians(lon2 - lon1);
+
+        double lat1Rad = Math.toRadians(lat1);
+        double lat2Rad = Math.toRadians(lat2);
+
+        // Apply the Haversine formula
+        double a = Math.pow(Math.sin(dLat / 2), 2) + Math.pow(Math.sin(dLon / 2), 2) * Math.cos(lat1Rad) * Math.cos(lat2Rad);
+        double c = 2 * Math.atan2(Math.sqrt(a), Math.sqrt(1 - a));
+
+        return EARTH_RADIUS_KM * c;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointCircle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointCircle.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..803e8bb42b53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointCircle.java
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Class to represent the Midpoint Circle Algorithm.
+ * This algorithm calculates points on the circumference of a circle
+ * using integer arithmetic for efficient computation.
+ */
+public final class MidpointCircle {
+
+    private MidpointCircle() {
+        // Private Constructor to prevent instantiation.
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates points on the circumference of a circle using the midpoint circle algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param centerX The x-coordinate of the circle's center.
+     * @param centerY The y-coordinate of the circle's center.
+     * @param radius  The radius of the circle.
+     * @return A list of points on the circle, each represented as an int[] with 2 elements [x, y].
+     */
+    public static List<int[]> generateCirclePoints(int centerX, int centerY, int radius) {
+        List<int[]> points = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Special case for radius 0, only the center point should be added.
+        if (radius == 0) {
+            points.add(new int[] {centerX, centerY});
+            return points;
+        }
+
+        // Start at (radius, 0)
+        int x = radius;
+        int y = 0;
+
+        // Decision parameter
+        int p = 1 - radius;
+
+        // Add the initial points in all octants
+        addSymmetricPoints(points, centerX, centerY, x, y);
+
+        // Iterate while x > y
+        while (x > y) {
+            y++;
+
+            if (p <= 0) {
+                // Midpoint is inside or on the circle
+                p = p + 2 * y + 1;
+            } else {
+                // Midpoint is outside the circle
+                x--;
+                p = p + 2 * y - 2 * x + 1;
+            }
+
+            // Add points for this (x, y)
+            addSymmetricPoints(points, centerX, centerY, x, y);
+        }
+
+        return points;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds the symmetric points in all octants of the circle based on the current x and y values.
+     *
+     * @param points  The list to which symmetric points will be added.
+     * @param centerX The x-coordinate of the circle's center.
+     * @param centerY The y-coordinate of the circle's center.
+     * @param x       The current x-coordinate on the circumference.
+     * @param y       The current y-coordinate on the circumference.
+     */
+    private static void addSymmetricPoints(Collection<int[]> points, int centerX, int centerY, int x, int y) {
+        // Octant symmetry points
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX + x, centerY + y});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX - x, centerY + y});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX + x, centerY - y});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX - x, centerY - y});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX + y, centerY + x});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX - y, centerY + x});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX + y, centerY - x});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX - y, centerY - x});
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointEllipse.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointEllipse.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fbd53c679960
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointEllipse.java
@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The MidpointEllipse class implements the Midpoint Ellipse Drawing Algorithm.
+ * This algorithm efficiently computes the points on an ellipse by dividing it into two regions
+ * and using decision parameters to determine the next point to plot.
+ */
+public final class MidpointEllipse {
+
+    private MidpointEllipse() {
+        // Private constructor to prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Draws an ellipse using the Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param centerX the x-coordinate of the center of the ellipse
+     * @param centerY the y-coordinate of the center of the ellipse
+     * @param a the length of the semi-major axis (horizontal radius)
+     * @param b the length of the semi-minor axis (vertical radius)
+     * @return a list of points (represented as int arrays) that form the ellipse
+     */
+    public static List<int[]> drawEllipse(int centerX, int centerY, int a, int b) {
+        List<int[]> points = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Handle degenerate cases with early returns
+        if (a == 0 && b == 0) {
+            points.add(new int[] {centerX, centerY}); // Only the center point
+            return points;
+        }
+
+        if (a == 0) {
+            // Semi-major axis is zero, create a vertical line
+            for (int y = centerY - b; y <= centerY + b; y++) {
+                points.add(new int[] {centerX, y});
+            }
+            return points; // Early return
+        }
+
+        if (b == 0) {
+            // Semi-minor axis is zero, create a horizontal line
+            for (int x = centerX - a; x <= centerX + a; x++) {
+                points.add(new int[] {x, centerY});
+            }
+            return points; // Early return
+        }
+
+        // Normal case: Non-degenerate ellipse
+        computeEllipsePoints(points, centerX, centerY, a, b);
+
+        return points; // Return all calculated points of the ellipse
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes points of a non-degenerate ellipse using the Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param points    the list to which points will be added
+     * @param centerX  the x-coordinate of the center of the ellipse
+     * @param centerY  the y-coordinate of the center of the ellipse
+     * @param a        the length of the semi-major axis (horizontal radius)
+     * @param b        the length of the semi-minor axis (vertical radius)
+     */
+    private static void computeEllipsePoints(Collection<int[]> points, int centerX, int centerY, int a, int b) {
+        int x = 0; // Initial x-coordinate
+        int y = b; // Initial y-coordinate
+
+        // Region 1: Initial decision parameter
+        double d1 = (b * b) - (a * a * b) + (0.25 * a * a); // Decision variable for region 1
+        double dx = 2.0 * b * b * x; // Change in x
+        double dy = 2.0 * a * a * y; // Change in y
+
+        // Region 1: When the slope is less than 1
+        while (dx < dy) {
+            addEllipsePoints(points, centerX, centerY, x, y);
+
+            // Update decision parameter and variables
+            if (d1 < 0) {
+                x++;
+                dx += (2 * b * b); // Update x change
+                d1 += dx + (b * b); // Update decision parameter
+            } else {
+                x++;
+                y--;
+                dx += (2 * b * b); // Update x change
+                dy -= (2 * a * a); // Update y change
+                d1 += dx - dy + (b * b); // Update decision parameter
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Region 2: Initial decision parameter for the second region
+        double d2 = b * b * (x + 0.5) * (x + 0.5) + a * a * (y - 1) * (y - 1) - a * a * b * b;
+
+        // Region 2: When the slope is greater than or equal to 1
+        while (y >= 0) {
+            addEllipsePoints(points, centerX, centerY, x, y);
+
+            // Update decision parameter and variables
+            if (d2 > 0) {
+                y--;
+                dy -= (2 * a * a); // Update y change
+                d2 += (a * a) - dy; // Update decision parameter
+            } else {
+                y--;
+                x++;
+                dx += (2 * b * b); // Update x change
+                dy -= (2 * a * a); // Update y change
+                d2 += dx - dy + (a * a); // Update decision parameter
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds points for all four quadrants of the ellipse based on symmetry.
+     *
+     * @param points    the list to which points will be added
+     * @param centerX  the x-coordinate of the center of the ellipse
+     * @param centerY  the y-coordinate of the center of the ellipse
+     * @param x        the x-coordinate relative to the center
+     * @param y        the y-coordinate relative to the center
+     */
+    private static void addEllipsePoints(Collection<int[]> points, int centerX, int centerY, int x, int y) {
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX + x, centerY + y});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX - x, centerY + y});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX + x, centerY - y});
+        points.add(new int[] {centerX - x, centerY - y});
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Point.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Point.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..564edb4ba7b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Point.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.util.Comparator;
+
+public record Point(int x, int y) implements Comparable<Point> {
+
+    @Override
+    public int compareTo(Point other) {
+        int cmpY = Integer.compare(this.y, other.y);
+        return cmpY != 0 ? cmpY : Integer.compare(this.x, other.x);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return String.format("(%d, %d)", x, y);
+    }
+
+    public Comparator<Point> polarOrder() {
+        return new PolarOrder();
+    }
+
+    public static int orientation(Point a, Point b, Point c) {
+        return Integer.compare((b.x - a.x) * (c.y - a.y) - (b.y - a.y) * (c.x - a.x), 0);
+    }
+
+    private final class PolarOrder implements Comparator<Point> {
+        @Override
+        public int compare(Point p1, Point p2) {
+            int dx1 = p1.x - x;
+            int dy1 = p1.y - y;
+            int dx2 = p2.x - x;
+            int dy2 = p2.y - y;
+
+            if (dy1 >= 0 && dy2 < 0) {
+                return -1; // p1 above p2
+            } else if (dy2 >= 0 && dy1 < 0) {
+                return 1; // p1 below p2
+            } else if (dy1 == 0 && dy2 == 0) { // Collinear and horizontal
+                return Integer.compare(dx2, dx1);
+            } else {
+                return -orientation(Point.this, p1, p2); // Compare orientation
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLine.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLine.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3539daaf6e5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLine.java
@@ -0,0 +1,235 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.awt.Point;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code WusLine} class implements Xiaolin Wu's line drawing algorithm,
+ * which produces anti-aliased lines by varying pixel brightness
+ * according to the line's proximity to pixel centers.
+ *
+ * This implementation returns the pixel coordinates along with
+ * their associated intensity values (in range [0.0, 1.0]), allowing
+ * rendering systems to blend accordingly.
+ *
+ * The algorithm works by:
+ * - Computing a line's intersection with pixel boundaries
+ * - Assigning intensity values based on distance from pixel centers
+ * - Drawing pairs of pixels perpendicular to the line's direction
+ *
+ * Reference: Xiaolin Wu, "An Efficient Antialiasing Technique",
+ * Computer Graphics (SIGGRAPH '91 Proceedings).
+ *
+ */
+public final class WusLine {
+
+    private WusLine() {
+        // Utility class; prevent instantiation.
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a pixel and its intensity for anti-aliased rendering.
+     *
+     * The intensity value determines how bright the pixel should be drawn,
+     * with 1.0 being fully opaque and 0.0 being fully transparent.
+     */
+    public static class Pixel {
+        /** The pixel's coordinate on the screen. */
+        public final Point point;
+
+        /** The pixel's intensity value, clamped to the range [0.0, 1.0]. */
+        public final double intensity;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a new Pixel with the given coordinates and intensity.
+         *
+         * @param x the x-coordinate of the pixel
+         * @param y the y-coordinate of the pixel
+         * @param intensity the brightness/opacity of the pixel, will be clamped to [0.0, 1.0]
+         */
+        public Pixel(int x, int y, double intensity) {
+            this.point = new Point(x, y);
+            this.intensity = Math.clamp(intensity, 0.0, 1.0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Internal class to hold processed endpoint data.
+     */
+    private static class EndpointData {
+        final int xPixel;
+        final int yPixel;
+        final double yEnd;
+        final double xGap;
+
+        EndpointData(int xPixel, int yPixel, double yEnd, double xGap) {
+            this.xPixel = xPixel;
+            this.yPixel = yPixel;
+            this.yEnd = yEnd;
+            this.xGap = xGap;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Draws an anti-aliased line using Wu's algorithm.
+     *
+     * The algorithm produces smooth lines by drawing pairs of pixels at each
+     * x-coordinate (or y-coordinate for steep lines), with intensities based on
+     * the line's distance from pixel centers.
+     *
+     * @param x0 the x-coordinate of the line's start point
+     * @param y0 the y-coordinate of the line's start point
+     * @param x1 the x-coordinate of the line's end point
+     * @param y1 the y-coordinate of the line's end point
+     * @return a list of {@link Pixel} objects representing the anti-aliased line,
+     *         ordered from start to end
+     */
+    public static List<Pixel> drawLine(int x0, int y0, int x1, int y1) {
+        List<Pixel> pixels = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Determine if the line is steep (more vertical than horizontal)
+        boolean steep = Math.abs(y1 - y0) > Math.abs(x1 - x0);
+
+        if (steep) {
+            // For steep lines, swap x and y coordinates to iterate along y-axis
+            int temp = x0;
+            x0 = y0;
+            y0 = temp;
+
+            temp = x1;
+            x1 = y1;
+            y1 = temp;
+        }
+
+        if (x0 > x1) {
+            // Ensure we always draw from left to right
+            int temp = x0;
+            x0 = x1;
+            x1 = temp;
+
+            temp = y0;
+            y0 = y1;
+            y1 = temp;
+        }
+
+        // Calculate the line's slope
+        double deltaX = x1 - (double) x0;
+        double deltaY = y1 - (double) y0;
+        double gradient = (deltaX == 0) ? 1.0 : deltaY / deltaX;
+
+        // Process the first endpoint
+        EndpointData firstEndpoint = processEndpoint(x0, y0, gradient, true);
+        addEndpointPixels(pixels, firstEndpoint, steep);
+
+        // Process the second endpoint
+        EndpointData secondEndpoint = processEndpoint(x1, y1, gradient, false);
+        addEndpointPixels(pixels, secondEndpoint, steep);
+
+        // Draw the main line between endpoints
+        drawMainLine(pixels, firstEndpoint, secondEndpoint, gradient, steep);
+
+        return pixels;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Processes a line endpoint to determine its pixel coordinates and intensities.
+     *
+     * @param x the x-coordinate of the endpoint
+     * @param y the y-coordinate of the endpoint
+     * @param gradient the slope of the line
+     * @param isStart true if this is the start endpoint, false if it's the end
+     * @return an {@link EndpointData} object containing processed endpoint information
+     */
+    private static EndpointData processEndpoint(double x, double y, double gradient, boolean isStart) {
+        double xEnd = round(x);
+        double yEnd = y + gradient * (xEnd - x);
+        double xGap = isStart ? rfpart(x + 0.5) : fpart(x + 0.5);
+
+        int xPixel = (int) xEnd;
+        int yPixel = (int) Math.floor(yEnd);
+
+        return new EndpointData(xPixel, yPixel, yEnd, xGap);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds the two endpoint pixels (one above, one below the line) to the pixel list.
+     *
+     * @param pixels the list to add pixels to
+     * @param endpoint the endpoint data containing coordinates and gaps
+     * @param steep true if the line is steep (coordinates should be swapped)
+     */
+    private static void addEndpointPixels(List<Pixel> pixels, EndpointData endpoint, boolean steep) {
+        double fractionalY = fpart(endpoint.yEnd);
+        double complementFractionalY = rfpart(endpoint.yEnd);
+
+        if (steep) {
+            pixels.add(new Pixel(endpoint.yPixel, endpoint.xPixel, complementFractionalY * endpoint.xGap));
+            pixels.add(new Pixel(endpoint.yPixel + 1, endpoint.xPixel, fractionalY * endpoint.xGap));
+        } else {
+            pixels.add(new Pixel(endpoint.xPixel, endpoint.yPixel, complementFractionalY * endpoint.xGap));
+            pixels.add(new Pixel(endpoint.xPixel, endpoint.yPixel + 1, fractionalY * endpoint.xGap));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Draws the main portion of the line between the two endpoints.
+     *
+     * @param pixels the list to add pixels to
+     * @param firstEndpoint the processed start endpoint
+     * @param secondEndpoint the processed end endpoint
+     * @param gradient the slope of the line
+     * @param steep true if the line is steep (coordinates should be swapped)
+     */
+    private static void drawMainLine(List<Pixel> pixels, EndpointData firstEndpoint, EndpointData secondEndpoint, double gradient, boolean steep) {
+        // Start y-intersection after the first endpoint
+        double intersectionY = firstEndpoint.yEnd + gradient;
+
+        // Iterate through x-coordinates between the endpoints
+        for (int x = firstEndpoint.xPixel + 1; x < secondEndpoint.xPixel; x++) {
+            int yFloor = (int) Math.floor(intersectionY);
+            double fractionalPart = fpart(intersectionY);
+            double complementFractionalPart = rfpart(intersectionY);
+
+            if (steep) {
+                pixels.add(new Pixel(yFloor, x, complementFractionalPart));
+                pixels.add(new Pixel(yFloor + 1, x, fractionalPart));
+            } else {
+                pixels.add(new Pixel(x, yFloor, complementFractionalPart));
+                pixels.add(new Pixel(x, yFloor + 1, fractionalPart));
+            }
+
+            intersectionY += gradient;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the fractional part of a number.
+     *
+     * @param x the input number
+     * @return the fractional part (always in range [0.0, 1.0))
+     */
+    private static double fpart(double x) {
+        return x - Math.floor(x);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the reverse fractional part of a number (1 - fractional part).
+     *
+     * @param x the input number
+     * @return 1.0 minus the fractional part (always in range (0.0, 1.0])
+     */
+    private static double rfpart(double x) {
+        return 1.0 - fpart(x);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Rounds a number to the nearest integer.
+     *
+     * @param x the input number
+     * @return the nearest integer value as a double
+     */
+    private static double round(double x) {
+        return Math.floor(x + 0.5);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerbosch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerbosch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0510d9bcf494
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerbosch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the Bron–Kerbosch algorithm with pivoting for enumerating all maximal cliques
+ * in an undirected graph.
+ *
+ * <p>The input graph is represented as an adjacency list where {@code adjacency.get(u)} returns the
+ * set of vertices adjacent to {@code u}. The algorithm runs in time proportional to the number of
+ * maximal cliques produced and is widely used for clique enumeration problems.</p>
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bron%E2%80%93Kerbosch_algorithm">Wikipedia: Bron–Kerbosch algorithm</a>
+ */
+public final class BronKerbosch {
+
+    private BronKerbosch() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds all maximal cliques of the provided graph.
+     *
+     * @param adjacency adjacency list where {@code adjacency.size()} equals the number of vertices
+     * @return a list containing every maximal clique, each represented as a {@link Set} of vertices
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the adjacency list is {@code null}, contains {@code null}
+     *         entries, or references invalid vertices
+     */
+    public static List<Set<Integer>> findMaximalCliques(List<Set<Integer>> adjacency) {
+        if (adjacency == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Adjacency list must not be null");
+        }
+
+        int n = adjacency.size();
+        List<Set<Integer>> graph = new ArrayList<>(n);
+        for (int u = 0; u < n; u++) {
+            Set<Integer> neighbors = adjacency.get(u);
+            if (neighbors == null) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Adjacency list must not contain null sets");
+            }
+            Set<Integer> copy = new HashSet<>();
+            for (int v : neighbors) {
+                if (v < 0 || v >= n) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Neighbor index out of bounds: " + v);
+                }
+                if (v != u) {
+                    copy.add(v);
+                }
+            }
+            graph.add(copy);
+        }
+
+        Set<Integer> r = new HashSet<>();
+        Set<Integer> p = new HashSet<>();
+        Set<Integer> x = new HashSet<>();
+        for (int v = 0; v < n; v++) {
+            p.add(v);
+        }
+
+        List<Set<Integer>> cliques = new ArrayList<>();
+        bronKerboschPivot(r, p, x, graph, cliques);
+        return cliques;
+    }
+
+    private static void bronKerboschPivot(Set<Integer> r, Set<Integer> p, Set<Integer> x, List<Set<Integer>> graph, List<Set<Integer>> cliques) {
+        if (p.isEmpty() && x.isEmpty()) {
+            cliques.add(new HashSet<>(r));
+            return;
+        }
+
+        int pivot = choosePivot(p, x, graph);
+        Set<Integer> candidates = new HashSet<>(p);
+        if (pivot != -1) {
+            candidates.removeAll(graph.get(pivot));
+        }
+
+        for (Integer v : candidates) {
+            r.add(v);
+            Set<Integer> newP = intersection(p, graph.get(v));
+            Set<Integer> newX = intersection(x, graph.get(v));
+            bronKerboschPivot(r, newP, newX, graph, cliques);
+            r.remove(v);
+            p.remove(v);
+            x.add(v);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static int choosePivot(Set<Integer> p, Set<Integer> x, List<Set<Integer>> graph) {
+        int pivot = -1;
+        int maxDegree = -1;
+        Set<Integer> union = new HashSet<>(p);
+        union.addAll(x);
+        for (Integer v : union) {
+            int degree = graph.get(v).size();
+            if (degree > maxDegree) {
+                maxDegree = degree;
+                pivot = v;
+            }
+        }
+        return pivot;
+    }
+
+    private static Set<Integer> intersection(Set<Integer> base, Set<Integer> neighbors) {
+        Set<Integer> result = new HashSet<>();
+        for (Integer v : base) {
+            if (neighbors.contains(v)) {
+                result.add(v);
+            }
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPath.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPath.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f397989911d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPath.java
@@ -0,0 +1,123 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements a solution for the Constrained Shortest Path Problem (CSPP).
+ * also known as Shortest Path Problem with Resource Constraints (SPPRC).
+ * The goal is to find the shortest path between two nodes while ensuring that
+ * the resource constraint is not exceeded.
+ *
+ * @author  <a href="https://github.com/DenizAltunkapan">Deniz Altunkapan</a>
+ */
+public class ConstrainedShortestPath {
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a graph using an adjacency list.
+     * This graph is designed for the Constrained Shortest Path Problem (CSPP).
+     */
+    public static class Graph {
+
+        private List<List<Edge>> adjacencyList;
+
+        public Graph(int numNodes) {
+            adjacencyList = new ArrayList<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < numNodes; i++) {
+                adjacencyList.add(new ArrayList<>());
+            }
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Adds an edge to the graph.
+         * @param from the starting node
+         * @param to the ending node
+         * @param cost the cost of the edge
+         * @param resource the resource required to traverse the edge
+         */
+        public void addEdge(int from, int to, int cost, int resource) {
+            adjacencyList.get(from).add(new Edge(from, to, cost, resource));
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Gets the edges that are adjacent to a given node.
+         * @param node the node to get the edges for
+         * @return the list of edges adjacent to the node
+         */
+        public List<Edge> getEdges(int node) {
+            return adjacencyList.get(node);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Gets the number of nodes in the graph.
+         * @return the number of nodes
+         */
+        public int getNumNodes() {
+            return adjacencyList.size();
+        }
+
+        public record Edge(int from, int to, int cost, int resource) {
+        }
+    }
+
+    private Graph graph;
+    private int maxResource;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a CSPSolver with the given graph and maximum resource constraint.
+     *
+     * @param graph       the graph representing the problem
+     * @param maxResource the maximum allowable resource
+     */
+    public ConstrainedShortestPath(Graph graph, int maxResource) {
+        this.graph = graph;
+        this.maxResource = maxResource;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the CSP to find the shortest path from the start node to the target node
+     * without exceeding the resource constraint.
+     *
+     * @param start  the starting node
+     * @param target the target node
+     * @return the minimum cost to reach the target node within the resource constraint,
+     *         or -1 if no valid path exists
+     */
+    public int solve(int start, int target) {
+        int numNodes = graph.getNumNodes();
+        int[][] dp = new int[maxResource + 1][numNodes];
+
+        // Initialize dp table with maximum values
+        for (int i = 0; i <= maxResource; i++) {
+            Arrays.fill(dp[i], Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+        }
+        dp[0][start] = 0;
+
+        // Dynamic Programming: Iterate over resources and nodes
+        for (int r = 0; r <= maxResource; r++) {
+            for (int u = 0; u < numNodes; u++) {
+                if (dp[r][u] == Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                for (Graph.Edge edge : graph.getEdges(u)) {
+                    int v = edge.to();
+                    int cost = edge.cost();
+                    int resource = edge.resource();
+
+                    if (r + resource <= maxResource) {
+                        dp[r + resource][v] = Math.min(dp[r + resource][v], dp[r][u] + cost);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Find the minimum cost to reach the target node
+        int minCost = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+        for (int r = 0; r <= maxResource; r++) {
+            minCost = Math.min(minCost, dp[r][target]);
+        }
+
+        return minCost == Integer.MAX_VALUE ? -1 : minCost;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Dinic.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Dinic.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c45bd62ddfbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Dinic.java
@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * Dinic's algorithm for computing maximum flow in a directed graph.
+ *
+ * <p>Time complexity: O(E * V^2) in the worst case, but typically faster in practice
+ * and near O(E * sqrt(V)) for unit networks.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>The graph is represented using a capacity matrix where capacity[u][v] is the
+ * capacity of the directed edge u -> v. Capacities must be non-negative.
+ * The algorithm builds level graphs using BFS and finds blocking flows using DFS
+ * with current-edge optimization.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation mirrors the API and validation style of
+ * {@link EdmondsKarp#maxFlow(int[][], int, int)} for consistency.</p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinic%27s_algorithm">Wikipedia: Dinic's algorithm</a>
+ */
+public final class Dinic {
+    private Dinic() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the maximum flow from source to sink using Dinic's algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param capacity square capacity matrix (n x n); entries must be >= 0
+     * @param source source vertex index in [0, n)
+     * @param sink sink vertex index in [0, n)
+     * @return the maximum flow value
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input matrix is null/non-square/has negatives or
+     *     indices invalid
+     */
+    public static int maxFlow(int[][] capacity, int source, int sink) {
+        if (capacity == null || capacity.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must not be null or empty");
+        }
+        final int n = capacity.length;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (capacity[i] == null || capacity[i].length != n) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must be square");
+            }
+            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                if (capacity[i][j] < 0) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacities must be non-negative");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if (source < 0 || sink < 0 || source >= n || sink >= n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Source and sink must be valid vertex indices");
+        }
+        if (source == sink) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        // residual capacities
+        int[][] residual = new int[n][n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            residual[i] = Arrays.copyOf(capacity[i], n);
+        }
+
+        int[] level = new int[n];
+        int flow = 0;
+        while (bfsBuildLevelGraph(residual, source, sink, level)) {
+            int[] next = new int[n]; // current-edge optimization
+            int pushed;
+            do {
+                pushed = dfsBlocking(residual, level, next, source, sink, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+                flow += pushed;
+            } while (pushed > 0);
+        }
+        return flow;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean bfsBuildLevelGraph(int[][] residual, int source, int sink, int[] level) {
+        Arrays.fill(level, -1);
+        level[source] = 0;
+        Queue<Integer> q = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        q.add(source);
+        while (!q.isEmpty()) {
+            int u = q.poll();
+            for (int v = 0; v < residual.length; v++) {
+                if (residual[u][v] > 0 && level[v] == -1) {
+                    level[v] = level[u] + 1;
+                    if (v == sink) {
+                        return true;
+                    }
+                    q.add(v);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return level[sink] != -1;
+    }
+
+    private static int dfsBlocking(int[][] residual, int[] level, int[] next, int u, int sink, int f) {
+        if (u == sink) {
+            return f;
+        }
+        final int n = residual.length;
+        for (int v = next[u]; v < n; v++, next[u] = v) {
+            if (residual[u][v] <= 0) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if (level[v] != level[u] + 1) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            int pushed = dfsBlocking(residual, level, next, v, sink, Math.min(f, residual[u][v]));
+            if (pushed > 0) {
+                residual[u][v] -= pushed;
+                residual[v][u] += pushed;
+                return pushed;
+            }
+        }
+        return 0;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Edmonds.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Edmonds.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4ddb8f9ff544
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Edmonds.java
@@ -0,0 +1,201 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * An implementation of Edmonds's algorithm (also known as the Chu–Liu/Edmonds algorithm)
+ * for finding a Minimum Spanning Arborescence (MSA).
+ *
+ * <p>An MSA is a directed graph equivalent of a Minimum Spanning Tree. It is a tree rooted
+ * at a specific vertex 'r' that reaches all other vertices, such that the sum of the
+ * weights of its edges is minimized.
+ *
+ * <p>The algorithm works recursively:
+ * <ol>
+ * <li>For each vertex other than the root, select the incoming edge with the minimum weight.</li>
+ * <li>If the selected edges form a spanning arborescence, it is the MSA.</li>
+ * <li>If cycles are formed, contract each cycle into a new "supernode".</li>
+ * <li>Modify the weights of edges entering the new supernode.</li>
+ * <li>Recursively call the algorithm on the contracted graph.</li>
+ * <li>The final cost is the sum of the initial edge selections and the result of the recursive call.</li>
+ * </ol>
+ *
+ * <p>Time Complexity: O(E * V) where E is the number of edges and V is the number of vertices.
+ *
+ * <p>References:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonds%27_algorithm">Wikipedia: Edmonds's algorithm</a></li>
+ * </ul>
+ */
+public final class Edmonds {
+
+    private Edmonds() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a directed weighted edge in the graph.
+     */
+    public static class Edge {
+        final int from;
+        final int to;
+        final long weight;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a directed edge.
+         *
+         * @param from source vertex
+         * @param to destination vertex
+         * @param weight edge weight
+         */
+        public Edge(int from, int to, long weight) {
+            this.from = from;
+            this.to = to;
+            this.weight = weight;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the total weight of the Minimum Spanning Arborescence of a directed,
+     * weighted graph from a given root.
+     *
+     * @param numVertices the number of vertices, labeled {@code 0..numVertices-1}
+     * @param edges list of directed edges in the graph
+     * @param root the root vertex
+     * @return the total weight of the MSA. Returns -1 if not all vertices are reachable
+     *         from the root or if a valid arborescence cannot be formed.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code numVertices <= 0} or {@code root} is out of range.
+     */
+    public static long findMinimumSpanningArborescence(int numVertices, List<Edge> edges, int root) {
+        if (root < 0 || root >= numVertices) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid number of vertices or root");
+        }
+        if (numVertices == 1) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        return findMSARecursive(numVertices, edges, root);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursive helper method for finding MSA.
+     */
+    private static long findMSARecursive(int n, List<Edge> edges, int root) {
+        long[] minWeightEdge = new long[n];
+        int[] predecessor = new int[n];
+        Arrays.fill(minWeightEdge, Long.MAX_VALUE);
+        Arrays.fill(predecessor, -1);
+
+        for (Edge edge : edges) {
+            if (edge.to != root && edge.weight < minWeightEdge[edge.to]) {
+                minWeightEdge[edge.to] = edge.weight;
+                predecessor[edge.to] = edge.from;
+            }
+        }
+        // Check if all non-root nodes are reachable
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (i != root && minWeightEdge[i] == Long.MAX_VALUE) {
+                return -1; // No spanning arborescence exists
+            }
+        }
+        int[] cycleId = new int[n];
+        Arrays.fill(cycleId, -1);
+        boolean[] visited = new boolean[n];
+        int cycleCount = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (visited[i]) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            List<Integer> path = new ArrayList<>();
+            int curr = i;
+
+            // Follow predecessor chain
+            while (curr != -1 && !visited[curr]) {
+                visited[curr] = true;
+                path.add(curr);
+                curr = predecessor[curr];
+            }
+
+            // If we hit a visited node, check if it forms a cycle
+            if (curr != -1) {
+                boolean inCycle = false;
+                for (int node : path) {
+                    if (node == curr) {
+                        inCycle = true;
+                    }
+                    if (inCycle) {
+                        cycleId[node] = cycleCount;
+                    }
+                }
+                if (inCycle) {
+                    cycleCount++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if (cycleCount == 0) {
+            long totalWeight = 0;
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                if (i != root) {
+                    totalWeight += minWeightEdge[i];
+                }
+            }
+            return totalWeight;
+        }
+        long cycleWeightSum = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (cycleId[i] >= 0) {
+                cycleWeightSum += minWeightEdge[i];
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Map old nodes to new nodes (cycles become supernodes)
+        int[] newNodeMap = new int[n];
+        int[] cycleToNewNode = new int[cycleCount];
+        int newN = 0;
+
+        // Assign new node IDs to cycles first
+        for (int i = 0; i < cycleCount; i++) {
+            cycleToNewNode[i] = newN++;
+        }
+
+        // Assign new node IDs to non-cycle nodes
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (cycleId[i] == -1) {
+                newNodeMap[i] = newN++;
+            } else {
+                newNodeMap[i] = cycleToNewNode[cycleId[i]];
+            }
+        }
+
+        int newRoot = newNodeMap[root];
+
+        // Build contracted graph
+        List<Edge> newEdges = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (Edge edge : edges) {
+            int uCycleId = cycleId[edge.from];
+            int vCycleId = cycleId[edge.to];
+
+            // Skip edges internal to a cycle
+            if (uCycleId >= 0 && uCycleId == vCycleId) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            int newU = newNodeMap[edge.from];
+            int newV = newNodeMap[edge.to];
+
+            long newWeight = edge.weight;
+            // Adjust weight for edges entering a cycle
+            if (vCycleId >= 0) {
+                newWeight -= minWeightEdge[edge.to];
+            }
+
+            if (newU != newV) {
+                newEdges.add(new Edge(newU, newV, newWeight));
+            }
+        }
+        return cycleWeightSum + findMSARecursive(newN, newEdges, newRoot);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarp.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarp.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..59e7b09cb49c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarp.java
@@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the Edmonds–Karp algorithm for computing the maximum flow of a directed graph.
+ * <p>
+ * The algorithm runs in O(V * E^2) time and is a specific implementation of the Ford–Fulkerson
+ * method where the augmenting paths are found using breadth-first search (BFS) to ensure the
+ * shortest augmenting paths (in terms of the number of edges) are used.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>The graph is represented with a capacity matrix where {@code capacity[u][v]} denotes the
+ * capacity of the edge from {@code u} to {@code v}. Negative capacities are not allowed.</p>
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonds%E2%80%93Karp_algorithm">Wikipedia: EdmondsKarp algorithm</a>
+ */
+public final class EdmondsKarp {
+
+    private EdmondsKarp() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the maximum flow from {@code source} to {@code sink} in the provided capacity matrix.
+     *
+     * @param capacity the capacity matrix representing the directed graph; must be square and non-null
+     * @param source the source vertex index
+     * @param sink the sink vertex index
+     * @return the value of the maximum flow between {@code source} and {@code sink}
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the matrix is {@code null}, not square, contains negative
+     *         capacities, or if {@code source} / {@code sink} indices are invalid
+     */
+    public static int maxFlow(int[][] capacity, int source, int sink) {
+        if (capacity == null || capacity.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must not be null or empty");
+        }
+
+        final int n = capacity.length;
+        for (int row = 0; row < n; row++) {
+            if (capacity[row] == null || capacity[row].length != n) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must be square");
+            }
+            for (int col = 0; col < n; col++) {
+                if (capacity[row][col] < 0) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacities must be non-negative");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (source < 0 || source >= n || sink < 0 || sink >= n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Source and sink must be valid vertex indices");
+        }
+        if (source == sink) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        final int[][] residual = new int[n][n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            residual[i] = Arrays.copyOf(capacity[i], n);
+        }
+
+        final int[] parent = new int[n];
+        int maxFlow = 0;
+
+        while (bfs(residual, source, sink, parent)) {
+            int pathFlow = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+            for (int v = sink; v != source; v = parent[v]) {
+                int u = parent[v];
+                pathFlow = Math.min(pathFlow, residual[u][v]);
+            }
+
+            for (int v = sink; v != source; v = parent[v]) {
+                int u = parent[v];
+                residual[u][v] -= pathFlow;
+                residual[v][u] += pathFlow;
+            }
+
+            maxFlow += pathFlow;
+        }
+
+        return maxFlow;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean bfs(int[][] residual, int source, int sink, int[] parent) {
+        Arrays.fill(parent, -1);
+        parent[source] = source;
+
+        Queue<Integer> queue = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        queue.add(source);
+
+        while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
+            int u = queue.poll();
+            for (int v = 0; v < residual.length; v++) {
+                if (residual[u][v] > 0 && parent[v] == -1) {
+                    parent[v] = u;
+                    if (v == sink) {
+                        return true;
+                    }
+                    queue.add(v);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPath.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPath.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..82da5c8163e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPath.java
@@ -0,0 +1,303 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of Hierholzer's Algorithm for finding an Eulerian Path or Circuit
+ * in a directed graph.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * An <b>Eulerian Circuit</b> is a path that starts and ends at the same vertex
+ * and visits every edge exactly once.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * An <b>Eulerian Path</b> visits every edge exactly once but may start and end
+ * at different vertices.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * <b>Algorithm Summary:</b><br>
+ * 1. Compute indegree and outdegree for all vertices.<br>
+ * 2. Check if the graph satisfies Eulerian path or circuit conditions.<br>
+ * 3. Verify that all vertices with non-zero degree are weakly connected (undirected connectivity).<br>
+ * 4. Use Hierholzer’s algorithm to build the path by exploring unused edges iteratively.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * <b>Time Complexity:</b> O(E + V).<br>
+ * <b>Space Complexity:</b> O(V + E).
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulerian_path#Hierholzer's_algorithm">Wikipedia: Hierholzer algorithm</a>
+ */
+public class HierholzerEulerianPath {
+
+    /**
+     * Simple directed graph represented by adjacency lists.
+     */
+    public static class Graph {
+        private final List<List<Integer>> adjacencyList;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a graph with a given number of vertices.
+         *
+         * @param numNodes number of vertices
+         */
+        public Graph(int numNodes) {
+            adjacencyList = new ArrayList<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < numNodes; i++) {
+                adjacencyList.add(new ArrayList<>());
+            }
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Adds a directed edge from vertex {@code from} to vertex {@code to}.
+         *
+         * @param from source vertex
+         * @param to   destination vertex
+         */
+        public void addEdge(int from, int to) {
+            adjacencyList.get(from).add(to);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Returns a list of outgoing edges from the given vertex.
+         *
+         * @param node vertex index
+         * @return list of destination vertices
+         */
+        public List<Integer> getEdges(int node) {
+            return adjacencyList.get(node);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Returns the number of vertices in the graph.
+         *
+         * @return number of vertices
+         */
+        public int getNumNodes() {
+            return adjacencyList.size();
+        }
+    }
+
+    private final Graph graph;
+
+    /**
+     * Creates a Hierholzer solver for the given graph.
+     *
+     * @param graph directed graph
+     */
+    public HierholzerEulerianPath(Graph graph) {
+        this.graph = graph;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds an Eulerian Path or Circuit using Hierholzer’s Algorithm.
+     *
+     * @return list of vertices representing the Eulerian Path/Circuit,
+     *         or an empty list if none exists
+     */
+    public List<Integer> findEulerianPath() {
+        int n = graph.getNumNodes();
+
+        // empty graph -> no path
+        if (n == 0) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+
+        int[] inDegree = new int[n];
+        int[] outDegree = new int[n];
+        int edgeCount = computeDegrees(inDegree, outDegree);
+
+        // no edges -> single vertex response requested by tests: [0]
+        if (edgeCount == 0) {
+            return Collections.singletonList(0);
+        }
+
+        int startNode = determineStartNode(inDegree, outDegree);
+        if (startNode == -1) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+
+        if (!allNonZeroDegreeVerticesWeaklyConnected(startNode, n, outDegree, inDegree)) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+
+        List<Integer> path = buildHierholzerPath(startNode, n);
+        if (path.size() != edgeCount + 1) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+
+        return rotateEulerianCircuitIfNeeded(path, outDegree, inDegree);
+    }
+
+    private int computeDegrees(int[] inDegree, int[] outDegree) {
+        int edgeCount = 0;
+        for (int u = 0; u < graph.getNumNodes(); u++) {
+            for (int v : graph.getEdges(u)) {
+                outDegree[u]++;
+                inDegree[v]++;
+                edgeCount++;
+            }
+        }
+        return edgeCount;
+    }
+
+    private int determineStartNode(int[] inDegree, int[] outDegree) {
+        int n = graph.getNumNodes();
+        int startNode = -1;
+        int startCount = 0;
+        int endCount = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            int diff = outDegree[i] - inDegree[i];
+            if (diff == 1) {
+                startNode = i;
+                startCount++;
+            } else if (diff == -1) {
+                endCount++;
+            } else if (Math.abs(diff) > 1) {
+                return -1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (!((startCount == 1 && endCount == 1) || (startCount == 0 && endCount == 0))) {
+            return -1;
+        }
+
+        if (startNode == -1) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                if (outDegree[i] > 0) {
+                    startNode = i;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return startNode;
+    }
+
+    private List<Integer> buildHierholzerPath(int startNode, int n) {
+        List<Deque<Integer>> tempAdj = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            tempAdj.add(new ArrayDeque<>(graph.getEdges(i)));
+        }
+
+        Deque<Integer> stack = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        List<Integer> path = new ArrayList<>();
+        stack.push(startNode);
+
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            int u = stack.peek();
+            if (!tempAdj.get(u).isEmpty()) {
+                stack.push(tempAdj.get(u).pollFirst());
+            } else {
+                path.add(stack.pop());
+            }
+        }
+
+        Collections.reverse(path);
+        return path;
+    }
+
+    private List<Integer> rotateEulerianCircuitIfNeeded(List<Integer> path, int[] outDegree, int[] inDegree) {
+        int startCount = 0;
+        int endCount = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < outDegree.length; i++) {
+            int diff = outDegree[i] - inDegree[i];
+            if (diff == 1) {
+                startCount++;
+            } else if (diff == -1) {
+                endCount++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (startCount == 0 && endCount == 0 && !path.isEmpty()) {
+            int preferredStart = -1;
+            for (int i = 0; i < outDegree.length; i++) {
+                if (outDegree[i] > 0) {
+                    preferredStart = i;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+
+            if (preferredStart != -1 && path.get(0) != preferredStart) {
+                int idx = 0;
+                for (Integer node : path) { // replaced indexed loop
+                    if (node == preferredStart) {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    idx++;
+                }
+
+                if (idx > 0) {
+                    List<Integer> rotated = new ArrayList<>();
+                    int currentIndex = 0;
+                    for (Integer node : path) { // replaced indexed loop
+                        if (currentIndex >= idx) {
+                            rotated.add(node);
+                        }
+                        currentIndex++;
+                    }
+                    currentIndex = 0;
+                    for (Integer node : path) { // replaced indexed loop
+                        if (currentIndex < idx) {
+                            rotated.add(node);
+                        }
+                        currentIndex++;
+                    }
+                    path = rotated;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return path;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks weak connectivity (undirected) among vertices that have non-zero degree.
+     *
+     * @param startNode node to start DFS from (must be a vertex with non-zero degree)
+     * @param n number of vertices
+     * @param outDegree out-degree array
+     * @param inDegree in-degree array
+     * @return true if all vertices having non-zero degree belong to a single weak component
+     */
+    private boolean allNonZeroDegreeVerticesWeaklyConnected(int startNode, int n, int[] outDegree, int[] inDegree) {
+        boolean[] visited = new boolean[n];
+        Deque<Integer> stack = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        stack.push(startNode);
+        visited[startNode] = true;
+
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            int u = stack.pop();
+            for (int v : graph.getEdges(u)) {
+                if (!visited[v]) {
+                    visited[v] = true;
+                    stack.push(v);
+                }
+            }
+            for (int x = 0; x < n; x++) {
+                if (!visited[x]) {
+                    for (int y : graph.getEdges(x)) {
+                        if (y == u) {
+                            visited[x] = true;
+                            stack.push(x);
+                            break;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (outDegree[i] + inDegree[i] > 0 && !visited[i]) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarp.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarp.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..76f7f3eaa3a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarp.java
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * Hopcroft–Karp algorithm for maximum bipartite matching.
+ *
+ * Left part: vertices [0,nLeft-1], Right part: [0,nRight-1].
+ * Adjacency list: for each left vertex u, list right vertices v it connects to.
+ *
+ * Time complexity: O(E * sqrt(V)).
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopcroft%E2%80%93Karp_algorithm">
+ *      Wikipedia: Hopcroft–Karp algorithm</a>
+ * @author ptzecher
+ */
+public class HopcroftKarp {
+
+    private final int nLeft;
+    private final List<List<Integer>> adj;
+
+    private final int[] pairU;
+    private final int[] pairV;
+    private final int[] dist;
+
+    public HopcroftKarp(int nLeft, int nRight, List<List<Integer>> adj) {
+        this.nLeft = nLeft;
+        this.adj = adj;
+
+        this.pairU = new int[nLeft];
+        this.pairV = new int[nRight];
+        this.dist = new int[nLeft];
+
+        Arrays.fill(pairU, -1);
+        Arrays.fill(pairV, -1);
+    }
+
+    /** Returns the size of the maximum matching. */
+    public int maxMatching() {
+        int matching = 0;
+        while (bfs()) {
+            for (int u = 0; u < nLeft; u++) {
+                if (pairU[u] == -1 && dfs(u)) {
+                    matching++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return matching;
+    }
+
+    // BFS to build layers
+    private boolean bfs() {
+        Queue<Integer> queue = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        Arrays.fill(dist, -1);
+
+        for (int u = 0; u < nLeft; u++) {
+            if (pairU[u] == -1) {
+                dist[u] = 0;
+                queue.add(u);
+            }
+        }
+
+        boolean foundAugPath = false;
+        while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
+            int u = queue.poll();
+            for (int v : adj.get(u)) {
+                int matchedLeft = pairV[v];
+                if (matchedLeft == -1) {
+                    foundAugPath = true;
+                } else if (dist[matchedLeft] == -1) {
+                    dist[matchedLeft] = dist[u] + 1;
+                    queue.add(matchedLeft);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return foundAugPath;
+    }
+
+    // DFS to find augmenting paths within the BFS layering
+    private boolean dfs(int u) {
+        for (int v : adj.get(u)) {
+            int matchedLeft = pairV[v];
+            if (matchedLeft == -1 || (dist[matchedLeft] == dist[u] + 1 && dfs(matchedLeft))) {
+                pairU[u] = v;
+                pairV[v] = u;
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        dist[u] = -1;
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    public int[] getLeftMatches() {
+        return pairU.clone();
+    }
+
+    public int[] getRightMatches() {
+        return pairV.clone();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HungarianAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HungarianAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..84f5671c4f9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HungarianAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * Hungarian algorithm (a.k.a. Kuhn–Munkres) for the Assignment Problem.
+ *
+ * <p>Given an n x m cost matrix (n tasks, m workers), finds a minimum-cost
+ * one-to-one assignment. If the matrix is rectangular, the algorithm pads to a
+ * square internally. Costs must be finite non-negative integers.
+ *
+ * <p>Time complexity: O(n^3) with n = max(rows, cols).
+ *
+ * <p>API returns the assignment as an array where {@code assignment[i]} is the
+ * column chosen for row i (or -1 if unassigned when rows != cols), and a total
+ * minimal cost.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_algorithm">Wikipedia: Hungarian algorithm</a>
+ */
+public final class HungarianAlgorithm {
+
+    private HungarianAlgorithm() {
+    }
+
+    /** Result holder for the Hungarian algorithm. */
+    public static final class Result {
+        public final int[] assignment; // assignment[row] = col or -1
+        public final int minCost;
+
+        public Result(int[] assignment, int minCost) {
+            this.assignment = assignment;
+            this.minCost = minCost;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the assignment problem for a non-negative cost matrix.
+     *
+     * @param cost an r x c matrix of non-negative costs
+     * @return Result with row-to-column assignment and minimal total cost
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException for null/empty or negative costs
+     */
+    public static Result solve(int[][] cost) {
+        validate(cost);
+        int rows = cost.length;
+        int cols = cost[0].length;
+        int n = Math.max(rows, cols);
+
+        // Build square matrix with padding 0 for missing cells
+        int[][] a = new int[n][n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (i < rows) {
+                for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                    a[i][j] = (j < cols) ? cost[i][j] : 0;
+                }
+            } else {
+                Arrays.fill(a[i], 0);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Potentials and matching arrays
+        int[] u = new int[n + 1];
+        int[] v = new int[n + 1];
+        int[] p = new int[n + 1];
+        int[] way = new int[n + 1];
+
+        for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
+            p[0] = i;
+            int j0 = 0;
+            int[] minv = new int[n + 1];
+            boolean[] used = new boolean[n + 1];
+            Arrays.fill(minv, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+            Arrays.fill(used, false);
+            do {
+                used[j0] = true;
+                int i0 = p[j0];
+                int delta = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+                int j1 = 0;
+                for (int j = 1; j <= n; j++) {
+                    if (!used[j]) {
+                        int cur = a[i0 - 1][j - 1] - u[i0] - v[j];
+                        if (cur < minv[j]) {
+                            minv[j] = cur;
+                            way[j] = j0;
+                        }
+                        if (minv[j] < delta) {
+                            delta = minv[j];
+                            j1 = j;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                for (int j = 0; j <= n; j++) {
+                    if (used[j]) {
+                        u[p[j]] += delta;
+                        v[j] -= delta;
+                    } else {
+                        minv[j] -= delta;
+                    }
+                }
+                j0 = j1;
+            } while (p[j0] != 0);
+            do {
+                int j1 = way[j0];
+                p[j0] = p[j1];
+                j0 = j1;
+            } while (j0 != 0);
+        }
+
+        int[] matchColForRow = new int[n];
+        Arrays.fill(matchColForRow, -1);
+        for (int j = 1; j <= n; j++) {
+            if (p[j] != 0) {
+                matchColForRow[p[j] - 1] = j - 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Build assignment for original rows only, ignore padded rows
+        int[] assignment = new int[rows];
+        Arrays.fill(assignment, -1);
+        int total = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < rows; i++) {
+            int j = matchColForRow[i];
+            if (j >= 0 && j < cols) {
+                assignment[i] = j;
+                total += cost[i][j];
+            }
+        }
+        return new Result(assignment, total);
+    }
+
+    private static void validate(int[][] cost) {
+        if (cost == null || cost.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cost matrix must not be null or empty");
+        }
+        int c = cost[0].length;
+        if (c == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cost matrix must have at least 1 column");
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < cost.length; i++) {
+            if (cost[i] == null || cost[i].length != c) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cost matrix must be rectangular with equal row lengths");
+            }
+            for (int j = 0; j < c; j++) {
+                if (cost[i][j] < 0) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Costs must be non-negative");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PredecessorConstrainedDfs.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PredecessorConstrainedDfs.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2cf4ed23c44f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PredecessorConstrainedDfs.java
@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * DFS that visits a successor only when all its predecessors are already visited,
+ * emitting VISIT and SKIP events.
+ * <p>
+ *     This class includes a DFS variant that visits a successor only when all of its
+ *     predecessors have already been visited
+ * </p>
+ * <p>Related reading:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_sorting">Topological sorting</a></li>
+ *   <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth-first_search">Depth-first search</a></li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ */
+
+public final class PredecessorConstrainedDfs {
+
+    private PredecessorConstrainedDfs() {
+        // utility class
+    }
+
+    /** An event emitted by the traversal: either a VISIT with an order, or a SKIP with a note. */
+    public record TraversalEvent<T>(T node,
+        Integer order, // non-null for visit, null for skip
+        String note // non-null for skip, null for visit
+    ) {
+        public TraversalEvent {
+            Objects.requireNonNull(node);
+            // order and note can be null based on event type
+        }
+
+        /** A visit event with an increasing order (0,1,2,...) */
+        public static <T> TraversalEvent<T> visit(T node, int order) {
+            return new TraversalEvent<>(node, order, null);
+        }
+
+        /** A skip event with an explanatory note (e.g., not all parents visited yet). */
+        public static <T> TraversalEvent<T> skip(T node, String note) {
+            return new TraversalEvent<>(node, null, Objects.requireNonNull(note));
+        }
+
+        public boolean isVisit() {
+            return order != null;
+        }
+
+        public boolean isSkip() {
+            return order == null;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public String toString() {
+            return isVisit() ? "VISIT(" + node + ", order=" + order + ")" : "SKIP(" + node + ", " + note + ")";
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * DFS (recursive) that records the order of first visit starting at {@code start},
+     * but only recurses to a child when <b>all</b> its predecessors have been visited.
+     * If a child is encountered early (some parent unvisited), a SKIP event is recorded.
+     *
+     * <p>Equivalent idea to the Python pseudo in the user's description (with successors and predecessors),
+     * but implemented in Java and returning a sequence of {@link TraversalEvent}s.</p>
+     *
+     * @param successors adjacency list: for each node, its outgoing neighbors
+     * @param start start node
+     * @return immutable list of traversal events (VISITs with monotonically increasing order and SKIPs with messages)
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code successors} is null
+     */
+    public static <T> List<TraversalEvent<T>> dfsRecursiveOrder(Map<T, List<T>> successors, T start) {
+        if (successors == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("successors must not be null");
+        }
+        // derive predecessors once
+        Map<T, List<T>> predecessors = derivePredecessors(successors);
+        return dfsRecursiveOrder(successors, predecessors, start);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Same as {@link #dfsRecursiveOrder(Map, Object)} but with an explicit predecessors map.
+     */
+    public static <T> List<TraversalEvent<T>> dfsRecursiveOrder(Map<T, List<T>> successors, Map<T, List<T>> predecessors, T start) {
+
+        if (successors == null || predecessors == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("successors and predecessors must not be null");
+        }
+        if (start == null) {
+            return List.of();
+        }
+        if (!successors.containsKey(start) && !appearsAnywhere(successors, start)) {
+            return List.of(); // start not present in graph
+        }
+
+        List<TraversalEvent<T>> events = new ArrayList<>();
+        Set<T> visited = new HashSet<>();
+        int[] order = {0};
+        dfs(start, successors, predecessors, visited, order, events);
+        return Collections.unmodifiableList(events);
+    }
+
+    private static <T> void dfs(T currentNode, Map<T, List<T>> successors, Map<T, List<T>> predecessors, Set<T> visited, int[] order, List<TraversalEvent<T>> result) {
+
+        if (!visited.add(currentNode)) {
+            return; // already visited
+        }
+        result.add(TraversalEvent.visit(currentNode, order[0]++)); // record visit and increment
+
+        for (T childNode : successors.getOrDefault(currentNode, List.of())) {
+            if (visited.contains(childNode)) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if (allParentsVisited(childNode, visited, predecessors)) {
+                dfs(childNode, successors, predecessors, visited, order, result);
+            } else {
+                result.add(TraversalEvent.skip(childNode, "⛔ Skipping " + childNode + ": not all parents are visited yet."));
+                // do not mark visited; it may be visited later from another parent
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static <T> boolean allParentsVisited(T node, Set<T> visited, Map<T, List<T>> predecessors) {
+        for (T parent : predecessors.getOrDefault(node, List.of())) {
+            if (!visited.contains(parent)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    private static <T> boolean appearsAnywhere(Map<T, List<T>> successors, T node) {
+        if (successors.containsKey(node)) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        for (List<T> neighbours : successors.values()) {
+            if (neighbours != null && neighbours.contains(node)) {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    private static <T> Map<T, List<T>> derivePredecessors(Map<T, List<T>> successors) {
+        Map<T, List<T>> predecessors = new HashMap<>();
+        // ensure keys exist for all nodes appearing anywhere
+        for (Map.Entry<T, List<T>> entry : successors.entrySet()) {
+            predecessors.computeIfAbsent(entry.getKey(), key -> new ArrayList<>());
+            for (T childNode : entry.getValue()) {
+                predecessors.computeIfAbsent(childNode, key -> new ArrayList<>()).add(entry.getKey());
+            }
+        }
+        return predecessors;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PushRelabel.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PushRelabel.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1bfb5ceacce0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PushRelabel.java
@@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * Push–Relabel (Relabel-to-Front variant simplified to array scanning) for maximum flow.
+ *
+ * <p>Input graph is a capacity matrix where {@code capacity[u][v]} is the capacity of the edge
+ * {@code u -> v}. Capacities must be non-negative. Vertices are indexed in {@code [0, n)}.
+ *
+ * <p>Time complexity: O(V^3) in the worst case for the array-based variant; typically fast in
+ * practice. This implementation uses a residual network over an adjacency-matrix representation.
+ *
+ * <p>The API mirrors {@link EdmondsKarp#maxFlow(int[][], int, int)} and {@link Dinic#maxFlow(int[][], int, int)}.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Push%E2%80%93relabel_maximum_flow_algorithm">Wikipedia: Push–Relabel maximum flow algorithm</a>
+ */
+public final class PushRelabel {
+
+    private PushRelabel() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the maximum flow from {@code source} to {@code sink} using Push–Relabel.
+     *
+     * @param capacity square capacity matrix (n x n); entries must be >= 0
+     * @param source source vertex index in [0, n)
+     * @param sink sink vertex index in [0, n)
+     * @return the maximum flow value
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if inputs are invalid
+     */
+    public static int maxFlow(int[][] capacity, int source, int sink) {
+        validate(capacity, source, sink);
+        final int n = capacity.length;
+        if (source == sink) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        int[][] residual = new int[n][n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            residual[i] = Arrays.copyOf(capacity[i], n);
+        }
+
+        int[] height = new int[n];
+        int[] excess = new int[n];
+        int[] nextNeighbor = new int[n];
+
+        // Preflow initialization
+        height[source] = n;
+        for (int v = 0; v < n; v++) {
+            int cap = residual[source][v];
+            if (cap > 0) {
+                residual[source][v] -= cap;
+                residual[v][source] += cap;
+                excess[v] += cap;
+                excess[source] -= cap;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Active queue contains vertices (except source/sink) with positive excess
+        Queue<Integer> active = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        for (int v = 0; v < n; v++) {
+            if (v != source && v != sink && excess[v] > 0) {
+                active.add(v);
+            }
+        }
+
+        State state = new State(residual, height, excess, nextNeighbor, source, sink, active);
+
+        while (!active.isEmpty()) {
+            int u = active.poll();
+            discharge(u, state);
+            if (excess[u] > 0) {
+                // still active after discharge; push to back
+                active.add(u);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Total flow equals excess at sink
+        return excess[sink];
+    }
+
+    private static void discharge(int u, State s) {
+        final int n = s.residual.length;
+        while (s.excess[u] > 0) {
+            if (s.nextNeighbor[u] >= n) {
+                relabel(u, s.residual, s.height);
+                s.nextNeighbor[u] = 0;
+                continue;
+            }
+            int v = s.nextNeighbor[u];
+            if (s.residual[u][v] > 0 && s.height[u] == s.height[v] + 1) {
+                int delta = Math.min(s.excess[u], s.residual[u][v]);
+                s.residual[u][v] -= delta;
+                s.residual[v][u] += delta;
+                s.excess[u] -= delta;
+                int prevExcessV = s.excess[v];
+                s.excess[v] += delta;
+                if (v != s.source && v != s.sink && prevExcessV == 0) {
+                    s.active.add(v);
+                }
+            } else {
+                s.nextNeighbor[u]++;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static final class State {
+        final int[][] residual;
+        final int[] height;
+        final int[] excess;
+        final int[] nextNeighbor;
+        final int source;
+        final int sink;
+        final Queue<Integer> active;
+
+        State(int[][] residual, int[] height, int[] excess, int[] nextNeighbor, int source, int sink, Queue<Integer> active) {
+            this.residual = residual;
+            this.height = height;
+            this.excess = excess;
+            this.nextNeighbor = nextNeighbor;
+            this.source = source;
+            this.sink = sink;
+            this.active = active;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static void relabel(int u, int[][] residual, int[] height) {
+        final int n = residual.length;
+        int minHeight = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+        for (int v = 0; v < n; v++) {
+            if (residual[u][v] > 0) {
+                minHeight = Math.min(minHeight, height[v]);
+            }
+        }
+        if (minHeight < Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
+            height[u] = minHeight + 1;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static void validate(int[][] capacity, int source, int sink) {
+        if (capacity == null || capacity.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must not be null or empty");
+        }
+        int n = capacity.length;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (capacity[i] == null || capacity[i].length != n) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must be square");
+            }
+            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                if (capacity[i][j] < 0) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacities must be non-negative");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if (source < 0 || sink < 0 || source >= n || sink >= n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Source and sink must be valid vertex indices");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ba75b2f4b1b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized.java
@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Finds the strongly connected components in a directed graph.
+ *
+ * @param adjList The adjacency list representation of the graph.
+ * @param n The number of nodes in the graph.
+ * @return The number of strongly connected components.
+ */
+public class StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized {
+
+    public void btrack(HashMap<Integer, List<Integer>> adjList, int[] visited, Stack<Integer> dfsCallsNodes, int currentNode) {
+        visited[currentNode] = 1;
+        List<Integer> neighbors = adjList.get(currentNode);
+        // Check for null before iterating
+        if (neighbors != null) {
+            for (int neighbor : neighbors) {
+                if (visited[neighbor] == -1) {
+                    btrack(adjList, visited, dfsCallsNodes, neighbor);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        dfsCallsNodes.add(currentNode);
+    }
+
+    public void btrack2(HashMap<Integer, List<Integer>> adjRevList, int[] visited, int currentNode, List<Integer> newScc) {
+        visited[currentNode] = 1;
+        newScc.add(currentNode);
+        List<Integer> neighbors = adjRevList.get(currentNode);
+        // Check for null before iterating
+        if (neighbors != null) {
+            for (int neighbor : neighbors) {
+                if (visited[neighbor] == -1) {
+                    btrack2(adjRevList, visited, neighbor, newScc);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    public int getOutput(HashMap<Integer, List<Integer>> adjList, int n) {
+        int[] visited = new int[n];
+        Arrays.fill(visited, -1);
+        Stack<Integer> dfsCallsNodes = new Stack<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (visited[i] == -1) {
+                btrack(adjList, visited, dfsCallsNodes, i);
+            }
+        }
+
+        HashMap<Integer, List<Integer>> adjRevList = new HashMap<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            adjRevList.put(i, new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            List<Integer> neighbors = adjList.get(i);
+            // Check for null before iterating
+            if (neighbors != null) {
+                for (int neighbor : neighbors) {
+                    adjRevList.get(neighbor).add(i);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Arrays.fill(visited, -1);
+        int stronglyConnectedComponents = 0;
+
+        while (!dfsCallsNodes.isEmpty()) {
+            int node = dfsCallsNodes.pop();
+            if (visited[node] == -1) {
+                List<Integer> newScc = new ArrayList<>();
+                btrack2(adjRevList, visited, node, newScc);
+                stronglyConnectedComponents++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return stronglyConnectedComponents;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TravelingSalesman.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TravelingSalesman.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..14bf89f57cf3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TravelingSalesman.java
@@ -0,0 +1,155 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides solutions to the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) using both brute-force and dynamic programming approaches.
+ * For more information, see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travelling_salesman_problem">Wikipedia</a>.
+ * @author  <a href="https://github.com/DenizAltunkapan">Deniz Altunkapan</a>
+ */
+
+public final class TravelingSalesman {
+
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation
+    private TravelingSalesman() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) using brute-force approach.
+     * This method generates all possible permutations of cities, calculates the total distance for each route, and returns the shortest distance found.
+     *
+     * @param distanceMatrix A square matrix where element [i][j] represents the distance from city i to city j.
+     * @return The shortest possible route distance visiting all cities exactly once and returning to the starting city.
+     */
+    public static int bruteForce(int[][] distanceMatrix) {
+        if (distanceMatrix.length <= 1) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        List<Integer> cities = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 1; i < distanceMatrix.length; i++) {
+            cities.add(i);
+        }
+
+        List<List<Integer>> permutations = generatePermutations(cities);
+        int minDistance = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+
+        for (List<Integer> permutation : permutations) {
+            List<Integer> route = new ArrayList<>();
+            route.add(0);
+            route.addAll(permutation);
+            int currentDistance = calculateDistance(distanceMatrix, route);
+            if (currentDistance < minDistance) {
+                minDistance = currentDistance;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return minDistance;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the total distance of a given route.
+     *
+     * @param distanceMatrix A square matrix where element [i][j] represents the
+     *                       distance from city i to city j.
+     * @param route          A list representing the order in which the cities are visited.
+     * @return The total distance of the route, or Integer.MAX_VALUE if the route is invalid.
+     */
+    public static int calculateDistance(int[][] distanceMatrix, List<Integer> route) {
+        int distance = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < route.size() - 1; i++) {
+            int d = distanceMatrix[route.get(i)][route.get(i + 1)];
+            if (d == Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
+                return Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+            }
+            distance += d;
+        }
+        int returnDist = distanceMatrix[route.get(route.size() - 1)][route.get(0)];
+        return (returnDist == Integer.MAX_VALUE) ? Integer.MAX_VALUE : distance + returnDist;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates all permutations of a given list of cities.
+     *
+     * @param cities A list of cities to permute.
+     * @return A list of all possible permutations.
+     */
+    private static List<List<Integer>> generatePermutations(List<Integer> cities) {
+        List<List<Integer>> permutations = new ArrayList<>();
+        permute(cities, 0, permutations);
+        return permutations;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively generates permutations using backtracking.
+     *
+     * @param arr     The list of cities.
+     * @param k       The current index in the permutation process.
+     * @param output  The list to store generated permutations.
+     */
+    private static void permute(List<Integer> arr, int k, List<List<Integer>> output) {
+        if (k == arr.size()) {
+            output.add(new ArrayList<>(arr));
+            return;
+        }
+        for (int i = k; i < arr.size(); i++) {
+            Collections.swap(arr, i, k);
+            permute(arr, k + 1, output);
+            Collections.swap(arr, i, k);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) using dynamic programming with the Held-Karp algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param distanceMatrix A square matrix where element [i][j] represents the distance from city i to city j.
+     * @return The shortest possible route distance visiting all cities exactly once and returning to the starting city.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input matrix is not square.
+     */
+    public static int dynamicProgramming(int[][] distanceMatrix) {
+        if (distanceMatrix.length == 0) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        int n = distanceMatrix.length;
+
+        for (int[] row : distanceMatrix) {
+            if (row.length != n) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Matrix must be square");
+            }
+        }
+
+        int[][] dp = new int[n][1 << n];
+        for (int[] row : dp) {
+            Arrays.fill(row, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+        }
+        dp[0][1] = 0;
+
+        for (int mask = 1; mask < (1 << n); mask++) {
+            for (int u = 0; u < n; u++) {
+                if ((mask & (1 << u)) == 0 || dp[u][mask] == Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                for (int v = 0; v < n; v++) {
+                    if ((mask & (1 << v)) != 0 || distanceMatrix[u][v] == Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    int newMask = mask | (1 << v);
+                    dp[v][newMask] = Math.min(dp[v][newMask], dp[u][mask] + distanceMatrix[u][v]);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        int minDistance = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+        int fullMask = (1 << n) - 1;
+        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+            if (dp[i][fullMask] != Integer.MAX_VALUE && distanceMatrix[i][0] != Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
+                minDistance = Math.min(minDistance, dp[i][fullMask] + distanceMatrix[i][0]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return minDistance == Integer.MAX_VALUE ? 0 : minDistance;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPaths.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPaths.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dfc8386de6ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPaths.java
@@ -0,0 +1,263 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * Yen's algorithm for finding K loopless shortest paths in a directed graph with non-negative edge weights.
+ *
+ * <p>Input is an adjacency matrix of edge weights. A value of -1 indicates no edge.
+ * All existing edge weights must be non-negative. Zero-weight edges are allowed.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>References:
+ * - Wikipedia: Yen's algorithm (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yen%27s_algorithm)
+ * - Dijkstra's algorithm for the base shortest path computation.</p>
+ */
+public final class YensKShortestPaths {
+
+    private YensKShortestPaths() {
+    }
+
+    private static final int NO_EDGE = -1;
+    private static final long INF_COST = Long.MAX_VALUE / 4;
+
+    /**
+     * Compute up to k loopless shortest paths from src to dst using Yen's algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param weights adjacency matrix; weights[u][v] = -1 means no edge; otherwise non-negative edge weight
+     * @param src source vertex index
+     * @param dst destination vertex index
+     * @param k maximum number of paths to return (k >= 1)
+     * @return list of paths, each path is a list of vertex indices in order from src to dst
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException on invalid inputs (null, non-square, negatives on existing edges, bad indices, k < 1)
+     */
+    public static List<List<Integer>> kShortestPaths(int[][] weights, int src, int dst, int k) {
+        validate(weights, src, dst, k);
+        final int n = weights.length;
+        // Make a defensive copy to avoid mutating caller's matrix
+        int[][] weightsCopy = new int[n][n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            weightsCopy[i] = Arrays.copyOf(weights[i], n);
+        }
+
+        List<Path> shortestPaths = new ArrayList<>();
+        PriorityQueue<Path> candidates = new PriorityQueue<>(); // min-heap by cost then lexicographic nodes
+        Set<String> seen = new HashSet<>(); // deduplicate candidate paths by node sequence key
+
+        Path first = dijkstra(weightsCopy, src, dst, new boolean[n]);
+        if (first == null) {
+            return List.of();
+        }
+        shortestPaths.add(first);
+
+        for (int kIdx = 1; kIdx < k; kIdx++) {
+            Path lastPath = shortestPaths.get(kIdx - 1);
+            List<Integer> lastNodes = lastPath.nodes;
+            for (int i = 0; i < lastNodes.size() - 1; i++) {
+                int spurNode = lastNodes.get(i);
+                List<Integer> rootPath = lastNodes.subList(0, i + 1);
+
+                // Build modified graph: remove edges that would recreate same root + next edge as any A path
+                int[][] modifiedWeights = cloneMatrix(weightsCopy);
+
+                for (Path p : shortestPaths) {
+                    if (startsWith(p.nodes, rootPath) && p.nodes.size() > i + 1) {
+                        int u = p.nodes.get(i);
+                        int v = p.nodes.get(i + 1);
+                        modifiedWeights[u][v] = NO_EDGE; // remove edge
+                    }
+                }
+                // Prevent revisiting nodes in rootPath (loopless constraint), except spurNode itself
+                boolean[] blocked = new boolean[n];
+                for (int j = 0; j < rootPath.size() - 1; j++) {
+                    blocked[rootPath.get(j)] = true;
+                }
+
+                Path spurPath = dijkstra(modifiedWeights, spurNode, dst, blocked);
+                if (spurPath != null) {
+                    // concatenate rootPath (excluding spurNode at end) + spurPath
+                    List<Integer> totalNodes = new ArrayList<>(rootPath);
+                    // spurPath.nodes starts with spurNode; avoid duplication
+                    for (int idx = 1; idx < spurPath.nodes.size(); idx++) {
+                        totalNodes.add(spurPath.nodes.get(idx));
+                    }
+                    long rootCost = pathCost(weightsCopy, rootPath);
+                    long totalCost = rootCost + spurPath.cost; // spurPath.cost covers from spurNode to dst
+                    Path candidate = new Path(totalNodes, totalCost);
+                    String key = candidate.key();
+                    if (seen.add(key)) {
+                        candidates.add(candidate);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if (candidates.isEmpty()) {
+                break;
+            }
+            shortestPaths.add(candidates.poll());
+        }
+
+        // Map to list of node indices for output
+        List<List<Integer>> result = new ArrayList<>(shortestPaths.size());
+        for (Path p : shortestPaths) {
+            result.add(new ArrayList<>(p.nodes));
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    private static void validate(int[][] weights, int src, int dst, int k) {
+        if (weights == null || weights.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Weights matrix must not be null or empty");
+        }
+        int n = weights.length;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (weights[i] == null || weights[i].length != n) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Weights matrix must be square");
+            }
+            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                int val = weights[i][j];
+                if (val < NO_EDGE) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Weights must be -1 (no edge) or >= 0");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if (src < 0 || dst < 0 || src >= n || dst >= n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid src/dst indices");
+        }
+        if (k < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("k must be >= 1");
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static boolean startsWith(List<Integer> list, List<Integer> prefix) {
+        if (prefix.size() > list.size()) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < prefix.size(); i++) {
+            if (!Objects.equals(list.get(i), prefix.get(i))) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    private static int[][] cloneMatrix(int[][] a) {
+        int n = a.length;
+        int[][] b = new int[n][n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            b[i] = Arrays.copyOf(a[i], n);
+        }
+        return b;
+    }
+
+    private static long pathCost(int[][] weights, List<Integer> nodes) {
+        long cost = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i + 1 < nodes.size(); i++) {
+            int u = nodes.get(i);
+            int v = nodes.get(i + 1);
+            int edgeCost = weights[u][v];
+            if (edgeCost < 0) {
+                return INF_COST; // invalid
+            }
+            cost += edgeCost;
+        }
+        return cost;
+    }
+
+    private static Path dijkstra(int[][] weights, int src, int dst, boolean[] blocked) {
+        int n = weights.length;
+        final long inf = INF_COST;
+        long[] dist = new long[n];
+        int[] parent = new int[n];
+        Arrays.fill(dist, inf);
+        Arrays.fill(parent, -1);
+        PriorityQueue<Node> queue = new PriorityQueue<>();
+        if (blocked[src]) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        dist[src] = 0;
+        queue.add(new Node(src, 0));
+        while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
+            Node current = queue.poll();
+            if (current.dist != dist[current.u]) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if (current.u == dst) {
+                break;
+            }
+            for (int v = 0; v < n; v++) {
+                int edgeWeight = weights[current.u][v];
+                if (edgeWeight >= 0 && !blocked[v]) {
+                    long newDist = current.dist + edgeWeight;
+                    if (newDist < dist[v]) {
+                        dist[v] = newDist;
+                        parent[v] = current.u;
+                        queue.add(new Node(v, newDist));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if (dist[dst] >= inf) {
+            // If src==dst and not blocked, the path is trivial with cost 0
+            if (src == dst) {
+                List<Integer> nodes = new ArrayList<>();
+                nodes.add(src);
+                return new Path(nodes, 0);
+            }
+            return null;
+        }
+        // Reconstruct path
+        List<Integer> nodes = new ArrayList<>();
+        int cur = dst;
+        while (cur != -1) {
+            nodes.add(0, cur);
+            cur = parent[cur];
+        }
+        return new Path(nodes, dist[dst]);
+    }
+
+    private static final class Node implements Comparable<Node> {
+        final int u;
+        final long dist;
+        Node(int u, long dist) {
+            this.u = u;
+            this.dist = dist;
+        }
+        public int compareTo(Node o) {
+            return Long.compare(this.dist, o.dist);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static final class Path implements Comparable<Path> {
+        final List<Integer> nodes;
+        final long cost;
+        Path(List<Integer> nodes, long cost) {
+            this.nodes = nodes;
+            this.cost = cost;
+        }
+        String key() {
+            return nodes.toString();
+        }
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Path o) {
+            int costCmp = Long.compare(this.cost, o.cost);
+            if (costCmp != 0) {
+                return costCmp;
+            }
+            // tie-break lexicographically on nodes
+            int minLength = Math.min(this.nodes.size(), o.nodes.size());
+            for (int i = 0; i < minLength; i++) {
+                int aNode = this.nodes.get(i);
+                int bNode = o.nodes.get(i);
+                if (aNode != bNode) {
+                    return Integer.compare(aNode, bNode);
+                }
+            }
+            return Integer.compare(this.nodes.size(), o.nodes.size());
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfs.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfs.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..53181a654215
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfs.java
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * 0-1 BFS for shortest paths on graphs with edges weighted 0 or 1.
+ *
+ * <p>Time Complexity: O(V + E). Space Complexity: O(V).
+ *
+ * <p>References:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>https://cp-algorithms.com/graph/01_bfs.html</li>
+ * </ul>
+ */
+public final class ZeroOneBfs {
+
+    private ZeroOneBfs() {
+        // Utility class; do not instantiate.
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes shortest distances from {@code src} in a graph whose edges have weight 0 or 1.
+     *
+     * @param n the number of vertices, labeled {@code 0..n-1}
+     * @param adj adjacency list; for each vertex u, {@code adj.get(u)} is a list of pairs
+     *            {@code (v, w)} where {@code v} is a neighbor and {@code w} is 0 or 1
+     * @param src the source vertex
+     * @return an array of distances; {@code Integer.MAX_VALUE} denotes unreachable
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code n < 0}, {@code src} is out of range,
+     *                                  or any edge has weight other than 0 or 1
+     */
+    public static int[] shortestPaths(int n, List<List<int[]>> adj, int src) {
+        if (n < 0 || src < 0 || src >= n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid n or src");
+        }
+        int[] dist = new int[n];
+        Arrays.fill(dist, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+        Deque<Integer> dq = new ArrayDeque<>();
+
+        dist[src] = 0;
+        dq.addFirst(src);
+
+        while (!dq.isEmpty()) {
+            int u = dq.pollFirst();
+            List<int[]> edges = adj.get(u);
+            if (edges == null) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            for (int[] e : edges) {
+                if (e == null || e.length < 2) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                int v = e[0];
+                int w = e[1];
+                if (v < 0 || v >= n) {
+                    continue; // ignore bad edges
+                }
+                if (w != 0 && w != 1) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Edge weight must be 0 or 1");
+                }
+                int nd = dist[u] + w;
+                if (nd < dist[v]) {
+                    dist[v] = nd;
+                    if (w == 0) {
+                        dq.addFirst(v);
+                    } else {
+                        dq.addLast(v);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return dist;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelection.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelection.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..54ba4eb650a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelection.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+
+// Problem Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_selection_problem
+
+public final class ActivitySelection {
+
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation of the utility class
+    private ActivitySelection() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function to perform activity selection using a greedy approach.
+     *
+     * The goal is to select the maximum number of activities that don't overlap
+     * with each other, based on their start and end times. Activities are chosen
+     * such that no two selected activities overlap.
+     *
+     * @param startTimes Array containing the start times of the activities.
+     * @param endTimes   Array containing the end times of the activities.
+     * @return A list of indices representing the selected activities that can be
+     *         performed without overlap.
+     */
+    public static ArrayList<Integer> activitySelection(int[] startTimes, int[] endTimes) {
+        int n = startTimes.length;
+
+        // Create a 2D array to store activity indices along with their start and end
+        // times.
+        // Each row represents an activity in the format: [activity index, start time,
+        // end time].
+        int[][] activities = new int[n][3];
+
+        // Populate the 2D array with the activity index, start time, and end time.
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            activities[i][0] = i; // Assign the activity index
+            activities[i][1] = startTimes[i]; // Assign the start time of the activity
+            activities[i][2] = endTimes[i]; // Assign the end time of the activity
+        }
+
+        // Sort activities based on their end times in ascending order.
+        // This ensures that we always try to finish earlier activities first.
+        Arrays.sort(activities, Comparator.comparingDouble(activity -> activity[2]));
+        int lastEndTime; // Variable to store the end time of the last selected activity
+        // List to store the indices of selected activities
+        ArrayList<Integer> selectedActivities = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Select the first activity (as it has the earliest end time after sorting)
+        selectedActivities.add(activities[0][0]); // Add the first activity index to the result
+        lastEndTime = activities[0][2]; // Keep track of the end time of the last selected activity
+
+        // Iterate over the sorted activities to select the maximum number of compatible
+        // activities.
+        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+            // If the start time of the current activity is greater than or equal to the
+            // end time of the last selected activity, it means there's no overlap.
+            if (activities[i][1] >= lastEndTime) {
+                selectedActivities.add(activities[i][0]); // Select this activity
+                lastEndTime = activities[i][2]; // Update the end time of the last selected activity
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Return the list of selected activity indices.
+        return selectedActivities;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BandwidthAllocation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BandwidthAllocation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..602cdcd5ad40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BandwidthAllocation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * Class to solve the Bandwidth Allocation Problem.
+ * The goal is to maximize the value gained by allocating bandwidth to users.
+ * Example:
+ * Bandwidth = 10
+ * Users = [3, 5, 7]
+ * Values = [10, 20, 30]
+ * The maximum value achievable is 40 by allocating 3 units to user 0 and 7 units to user 2.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class BandwidthAllocation {
+    private BandwidthAllocation() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Allocates bandwidth to maximize value.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Calculate the ratio of value/demand for each user.
+     * 2. Sort the users in descending order of the ratio.
+     * 3. Allocate bandwidth to users in order of the sorted list.
+     * 4. If the bandwidth is not enough to allocate the full demand of a user, allocate a fraction of the demand.
+     * 5. Return the maximum value achievable.
+     *
+     * @param bandwidth total available bandwidth to allocate
+     * @param users     array of user demands
+     * @param values    array of values associated with each user's demand
+     * @return the maximum value achievable
+     */
+    public static int maxValue(int bandwidth, int[] users, int[] values) {
+        int n = users.length;
+        double[][] ratio = new double[n][2]; // {index, ratio}
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            ratio[i][0] = i;
+            ratio[i][1] = (double) values[i] / users[i];
+        }
+
+        Arrays.sort(ratio, (a, b) -> Double.compare(b[1], a[1]));
+
+        int maxValue = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            int index = (int) ratio[i][0];
+            if (bandwidth >= users[index]) {
+                maxValue += values[index];
+                bandwidth -= users[index];
+            } else {
+                maxValue += (int) (ratio[i][1] * bandwidth);
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        return maxValue;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAddition.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAddition.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..074c76b9f33f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAddition.java
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+
+/**
+ * BinaryAddition class to perform binary addition of two binary strings.
+ */
+public class BinaryAddition {
+    /**
+     * Computes the sum of two binary characters and a carry.
+     * @param a First binary character ('0' or '1').
+     * @param b Second binary character ('0' or '1').
+     * @param carry The carry from the previous operation ('0' or '1').
+     * @return The sum as a binary character ('0' or '1').
+     */
+    public char sum(char a, char b, char carry) {
+        int count = 0;
+        if (a == '1') {
+            count++;
+        }
+        if (b == '1') {
+            count++;
+        }
+        if (carry == '1') {
+            count++;
+        }
+        return count % 2 == 0 ? '0' : '1';
+    }
+    /**
+     * Computes the carry for the next higher bit from two binary characters and a carry.
+     * @param a First binary character ('0' or '1').
+     * @param b Second binary character ('0' or '1').
+     * @param carry The carry from the previous operation ('0' or '1').
+     * @return The carry for the next bit ('0' or '1').
+     */
+    public char carry(char a, char b, char carry) {
+        int count = 0;
+        if (a == '1') {
+            count++;
+        }
+        if (b == '1') {
+            count++;
+        }
+        if (carry == '1') {
+            count++;
+        }
+        return count >= 2 ? '1' : '0';
+    }
+    /**
+     * Adds two binary strings and returns their sum as a binary string.
+     * @param a First binary string.
+     * @param b Second binary string.
+     * @return Binary string representing the sum of the two binary inputs.
+     */
+    public String addBinary(String a, String b) {
+        // Padding the shorter string with leading zeros
+        int maxLength = Math.max(a.length(), b.length());
+        a = String.join("", Collections.nCopies(maxLength - a.length(), "0")) + a;
+        b = String.join("", Collections.nCopies(maxLength - b.length(), "0")) + b;
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
+        char carry = '0';
+        // Iterating over the binary strings from the least significant to the most significant bit
+        for (int i = maxLength - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            char sum = sum(a.charAt(i), b.charAt(i), carry);
+            carry = carry(a.charAt(i), b.charAt(i), carry);
+            result.append(sum);
+        }
+        // If there's a remaining carry, append it
+        if (carry == '1') {
+            result.append('1');
+        }
+        // Reverse the result as we constructed it from the least significant bit
+        return result.reverse().toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/CoinChange.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/CoinChange.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8054581d21d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/CoinChange.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+
+// Problem Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change-making_problem
+
+public final class CoinChange {
+    private CoinChange() {
+    }
+    // Function to solve the coin change problem
+    public static ArrayList<Integer> coinChangeProblem(int amount) {
+        // Define an array of coin denominations in descending order
+        Integer[] coins = {1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 2000};
+
+        // Sort the coin denominations in descending order
+        Arrays.sort(coins, Comparator.reverseOrder());
+
+        ArrayList<Integer> ans = new ArrayList<>(); // List to store selected coins
+
+        // Iterate through the coin denominations
+        for (int i = 0; i < coins.length; i++) {
+            // Check if the current coin denomination can be used to reduce the remaining amount
+            if (coins[i] <= amount) {
+                // Repeatedly subtract the coin denomination from the remaining amount
+                while (coins[i] <= amount) {
+                    ans.add(coins[i]); // Add the coin to the list of selected coins
+                    amount -= coins[i]; // Update the remaining amount
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return ans;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/DigitSeparation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/DigitSeparation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bee5f98cd2ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/DigitSeparation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides methods to separate the digits of a large positive number into a list.
+ */
+public class DigitSeparation {
+    public DigitSeparation() {
+    }
+    /**
+     * Separates the digits of a large positive number into a list in reverse order.
+     * @param largeNumber The large number to separate digits from.
+     * @return A list of digits in reverse order.
+     */
+    public List<Long> digitSeparationReverseOrder(long largeNumber) {
+        List<Long> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        if (largeNumber != 0) {
+            while (largeNumber != 0) {
+                result.add(Math.abs(largeNumber % 10));
+                largeNumber = largeNumber / 10;
+            }
+        } else {
+            result.add(0L);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+    /**
+     * Separates the digits of a large positive number into a list in forward order.
+     * @param largeNumber The large number to separate digits from.
+     * @return A list of digits in forward order.
+     */
+    public List<Long> digitSeparationForwardOrder(long largeNumber) {
+        List<Long> result = this.digitSeparationReverseOrder(largeNumber);
+        Collections.reverse(result);
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/EgyptianFraction.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/EgyptianFraction.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..35cbfe876b05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/EgyptianFraction.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Class to represent a fraction as a sum of unique unit fractions.
+ * Example:
+ * 2/3 = 1/2 + 1/6
+ * 3/10 = 1/4 + 1/20
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class EgyptianFraction {
+    private EgyptianFraction() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the Egyptian Fraction representation of a given fraction.
+     *
+     * @param numerator   the numerator of the fraction
+     * @param denominator the denominator of the fraction
+     * @return List of unit fractions represented as strings "1/x"
+     */
+    public static List<String> getEgyptianFraction(int numerator, int denominator) {
+        List<String> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        while (numerator != 0) {
+            int x = (int) Math.ceil((double) denominator / numerator);
+            result.add("1/" + x);
+            numerator = numerator * x - denominator;
+            denominator = denominator * x;
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsack.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9535a7c6190e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsack.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+
+/**
+ * The FractionalKnapsack class provides a method to solve the fractional knapsack problem
+ * using a greedy algorithm approach. It allows for selecting fractions of items to maximize
+ * the total value in a knapsack with a given weight capacity.
+ *
+ * The problem consists of a set of items, each with a weight and a value, and a knapsack
+ * that can carry a maximum weight. The goal is to maximize the value of items in the knapsack,
+ * allowing for the inclusion of fractions of items.
+ *
+ * Problem Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_knapsack_problem
+ */
+public final class FractionalKnapsack {
+    private FractionalKnapsack() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the maximum value that can be accommodated in a knapsack of a given capacity.
+     *
+     * @param weight an array of integers representing the weights of the items
+     * @param value an array of integers representing the values of the items
+     * @param capacity an integer representing the maximum weight capacity of the knapsack
+     * @return the maximum value that can be obtained by including the items in the knapsack
+     */
+    public static int fractionalKnapsack(int[] weight, int[] value, int capacity) {
+        double[][] ratio = new double[weight.length][2];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < weight.length; i++) {
+            ratio[i][0] = i;
+            ratio[i][1] = value[i] / (double) weight[i];
+        }
+
+        Arrays.sort(ratio, Comparator.comparingDouble(o -> o[1]));
+
+        int finalValue = 0;
+        double current = capacity;
+
+        for (int i = ratio.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            int index = (int) ratio[i][0];
+            if (current >= weight[index]) {
+                finalValue += value[index];
+                current -= weight[index];
+            } else {
+                finalValue += (int) (ratio[i][1] * current);
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        return finalValue;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapley.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapley.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a4a0366375eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapley.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the Gale-Shapley Algorithm for Stable Matching.
+ * Problem link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_marriage_problem
+ */
+public final class GaleShapley {
+
+    private GaleShapley() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function to find stable matches between men and women.
+     *
+     * @param womenPrefs A map containing women's preferences where each key is a woman and the value is an array of men in order of preference.
+     * @param menPrefs   A map containing men's preferences where each key is a man and the value is an array of women in order of preference.
+     * @return A map containing stable matches where the key is a woman and the value is her matched man.
+     */
+    public static Map<String, String> stableMatch(Map<String, LinkedList<String>> womenPrefs, Map<String, LinkedList<String>> menPrefs) {
+        // Initialize all men as free
+        Map<String, String> engagements = new HashMap<>();
+        LinkedList<String> freeMen = new LinkedList<>(menPrefs.keySet());
+
+        // While there are free men
+        while (!freeMen.isEmpty()) {
+            String man = freeMen.poll(); // Get the first free man
+            LinkedList<String> manPref = menPrefs.get(man); // Get the preferences of the man
+
+            // Check if manPref is null or empty
+            if (manPref == null || manPref.isEmpty()) {
+                continue; // Skip if no preferences
+            }
+
+            // Propose to the first woman in the man's preference list
+            String woman = manPref.poll();
+            String fiance = engagements.get(woman);
+
+            // If the woman is not engaged, engage her with the current man
+            if (fiance == null) {
+                engagements.put(woman, man);
+            } else {
+                // If the woman prefers the current man over her current fiance
+                LinkedList<String> womanPrefList = womenPrefs.get(woman);
+
+                // Check if womanPrefList is null
+                if (womanPrefList == null) {
+                    continue; // Skip if no preferences for the woman
+                }
+
+                if (womanPrefList.indexOf(man) < womanPrefList.indexOf(fiance)) {
+                    engagements.put(woman, man);
+                    freeMen.add(fiance); // Previous fiance becomes free
+                } else {
+                    // Woman rejects the new proposal, the man remains free
+                    freeMen.add(man);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return engagements; // Return the stable matches
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencing.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencing.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ceb664a31e8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencing.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+// Problem Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job-shop_scheduling
+
+public final class JobSequencing {
+    private JobSequencing() {
+    }
+
+    // Define a Job class that implements Comparable for sorting by profit in descending order
+    static class Job implements Comparable<Job> {
+        char id;
+        int deadline;
+        int profit;
+
+        // Compare jobs by profit in descending order
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Job otherJob) {
+            return otherJob.profit - this.profit;
+        }
+
+        Job(char id, int deadline, int profit) {
+            this.id = id;
+            this.deadline = deadline;
+            this.profit = profit;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Function to print the job sequence
+    public static String findJobSequence(ArrayList<Job> jobs, int size) {
+        Boolean[] slots = new Boolean[size];
+        Arrays.fill(slots, Boolean.FALSE);
+
+        int[] result = new int[size];
+
+        // Iterate through jobs to find the optimal job sequence
+        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+            for (int j = jobs.get(i).deadline - 1; j >= 0; j--) {
+                if (!slots[j]) {
+                    result[j] = i;
+                    slots[j] = Boolean.TRUE;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Create a StringBuilder to build the job sequence string
+        StringBuilder jobSequenceBuilder = new StringBuilder();
+        jobSequenceBuilder.append("Job Sequence: ");
+        for (int i = 0; i < jobs.size(); i++) {
+            if (slots[i]) {
+                jobSequenceBuilder.append(jobs.get(result[i]).id).append(" -> ");
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Remove the trailing " -> " from the job sequence
+        if (jobSequenceBuilder.length() >= 4) {
+            jobSequenceBuilder.setLength(jobSequenceBuilder.length() - 4);
+        }
+
+        // Return the job sequence as a string
+        return jobSequenceBuilder.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/KCenters.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/KCenters.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..152b36053345
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/KCenters.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * Given a set of points and a number k.
+ * The goal is to minimize the maximum distance between any point and its nearest center.
+ * Each point is assigned to the nearest center.
+ * The distance between two points is the Euclidean distance.
+ * The problem is NP-hard.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class KCenters {
+    private KCenters() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the maximum distance to the nearest center given k centers.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Initialize an array {@code selected} of size n and an array {@code maxDist} of size n.
+     * 2. Set the first node as selected and update the maxDist array.
+     * 3. For each center, find the farthest node from the selected centers.
+     * 4. Update the maxDist array.
+     * 5. Return the maximum distance to the nearest center.
+     *
+     * @param distances matrix representing distances between nodes
+     * @param k         the number of centers
+     * @return the maximum distance to the nearest center
+     */
+    public static int findKCenters(int[][] distances, int k) {
+        int n = distances.length;
+        boolean[] selected = new boolean[n];
+        int[] maxDist = new int[n];
+
+        Arrays.fill(maxDist, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+
+        selected[0] = true;
+        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+            maxDist[i] = Math.min(maxDist[i], distances[0][i]);
+        }
+
+        for (int centers = 1; centers < k; centers++) {
+            int farthest = -1;
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                if (!selected[i] && (farthest == -1 || maxDist[i] > maxDist[farthest])) {
+                    farthest = i;
+                }
+            }
+            selected[farthest] = true;
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                maxDist[i] = Math.min(maxDist[i], distances[farthest][i]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        int result = 0;
+        for (int dist : maxDist) {
+            result = Math.max(result, dist);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervals.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervals.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..07bd0b73326f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervals.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Problem Statement:
+ * Given an array of intervals where intervals[i] = [starti, endi].
+ *
+ * Merge all overlapping intervals and return an array of the non-overlapping
+ * intervals
+ * that cover all the intervals in the input.
+ */
+public final class MergeIntervals {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private MergeIntervals() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges overlapping intervals from the given array of intervals.
+     *
+     * The method sorts the intervals by their start time, then iterates through the
+     * sorted intervals
+     * and merges overlapping intervals. If an interval overlaps with the last
+     * merged interval,
+     * it updates the end time of the last merged interval. Otherwise, it adds the
+     * interval as a new entry.
+     *
+     * @param intervals A 2D array representing intervals where each element is an
+     *                  interval [starti, endi].
+     * @return A 2D array of merged intervals where no intervals overlap.
+     *
+     *         Example:
+     *         Input: {{1, 3}, {2, 6}, {8, 10}, {15, 18}}
+     *         Output: {{1, 6}, {8, 10}, {15, 18}}
+     */
+    public static int[][] merge(int[][] intervals) {
+        // Sort the intervals by their start time (ascending order)
+        Arrays.sort(intervals, (a, b) -> Integer.compare(a[0], b[0]));
+
+        // List to store merged intervals
+        List<int[]> merged = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (int[] interval : intervals) { // Each interval
+            // If the merged list is empty or the current interval does not overlap with
+            // the last merged interval, add it to the merged list.
+            if (merged.isEmpty() || interval[0] > merged.get(merged.size() - 1)[1]) {
+                merged.add(interval);
+            } else {
+                // If there is an overlap, merge the intervals by updating the end time
+                // of the last merged interval to the maximum end time between the two
+                // intervals.
+                merged.get(merged.size() - 1)[1] = Math.max(merged.get(merged.size() - 1)[1], interval[1]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Convert the list of merged intervals back to a 2D array and return it
+        return merged.toArray(new int[merged.size()][]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLateness.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLateness.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c7f219ef3eab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLateness.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+public final class MinimizingLateness {
+    private MinimizingLateness() {
+    }
+
+    public static class Job {
+        String jobName;
+        int startTime = 0;
+        int lateness = 0;
+        int processingTime;
+        int deadline;
+
+        public Job(String jobName, int processingTime, int deadline) {
+            this.jobName = jobName;
+            this.processingTime = processingTime;
+            this.deadline = deadline;
+        }
+
+        public static Job of(String jobName, int processingTime, int deadline) {
+            return new Job(jobName, processingTime, deadline);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public String toString() {
+            return String.format("%s, startTime: %d, endTime: %d, lateness: %d", jobName, startTime, processingTime + startTime, lateness);
+        }
+    }
+
+    static void calculateLateness(Job... jobs) {
+
+        // sort the jobs based on their deadline
+        Arrays.sort(jobs, (a, b) -> a.deadline - b.deadline);
+
+        int startTime = 0;
+
+        for (Job job : jobs) {
+            job.startTime = startTime;
+            startTime += job.processingTime;
+            job.lateness = Math.max(0, startTime - job.deadline); // if the job finishes before deadline the lateness is 0
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimumWaitingTime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimumWaitingTime.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2341bcdee9f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimumWaitingTime.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * The MinimumWaitingTime class provides a method to calculate the minimum
+ * waiting time for a list of queries using a greedy algorithm.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class MinimumWaitingTime {
+    private MinimumWaitingTime() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the minimum waiting time for a list of queries.
+     * The function sorts the queries in non-decreasing order and then calculates
+     * the waiting time for each query based on its position in the sorted list.
+     *
+     * @param queries an array of integers representing the query times in picoseconds
+     * @return the minimum waiting time in picoseconds
+     */
+    public static int minimumWaitingTime(int[] queries) {
+        int n = queries.length;
+        if (n <= 1) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        Arrays.sort(queries);
+
+        int totalWaitingTime = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            totalWaitingTime += queries[i] * (n - i - 1);
+        }
+        return totalWaitingTime;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/OptimalFileMerging.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/OptimalFileMerging.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7a1f2edf8180
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/OptimalFileMerging.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * Class to solve the Optimal File Merging Problem.
+ * The goal is to minimize the cost of merging files, where the cost of merging two files is the sum of their sizes.
+ * The cost of merging all files is the sum of the costs of merging each pair of files.
+ * Example:
+ * files = [4, 3, 2, 6]
+ * The minimum cost to merge all files is 29.
+ * Steps:
+ * 1. Merge files 2 and 3 (cost = 2 + 3 = 5). New files = [4, 5, 6]
+ * 2. Merge files 4 and 5 (cost = 4 + 5 = 9). New files = [6, 9]
+ * 3. Merge files 6 and 9 (cost = 6 + 9 = 15). New files = [15]
+ * Total cost = 5 + 9 + 15 = 29
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class OptimalFileMerging {
+    private OptimalFileMerging() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the minimum cost to merge all files.
+     * Steps:
+     * 1. Add all files to a min heap.
+     * 2. Remove the two smallest files from the heap, merge them, and add the result back to the heap.
+     * 3. Repeat step 2 until there is only one file left in the heap.
+     * 4. The total cost is the sum of all the costs of merging the files.
+     *
+     * @param files array of file sizes
+     * @return the minimum cost to merge the files
+     */
+    public static int minMergeCost(int[] files) {
+        PriorityQueue<Integer> minHeap = new PriorityQueue<>();
+        for (int file : files) {
+            minHeap.add(file);
+        }
+
+        int totalCost = 0;
+        while (minHeap.size() > 1) {
+            int first = minHeap.poll();
+            int second = minHeap.poll();
+            int cost = first + second;
+            totalCost += cost;
+
+            minHeap.add(cost);
+        }
+        return totalCost;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/StockProfitCalculator.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/StockProfitCalculator.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..01950d902b4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/StockProfitCalculator.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+/**
+ * The StockProfitCalculator class provides a method to calculate the maximum profit
+ * that can be made from a single buy and sell of one share of stock.
+ * The approach uses a greedy algorithm to efficiently determine the maximum profit.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class StockProfitCalculator {
+    private StockProfitCalculator() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the maximum profit from a list of stock prices.
+     *
+     * @param prices an array of integers representing the stock prices on different days
+     * @return the maximum profit that can be achieved from a single buy and sell
+     * transaction, or 0 if no profit can be made
+     */
+    public static int maxProfit(int[] prices) {
+        if (prices == null || prices.length == 0) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        int minPrice = prices[0];
+        int maxProfit = 0;
+        for (int price : prices) {
+            minPrice = Math.min(price, minPrice);
+            maxProfit = Math.max(price - minPrice, maxProfit);
+        }
+        return maxProfit;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/io/BufferedReader.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/io/BufferedReader.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..66673fe281ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/io/BufferedReader.java
@@ -0,0 +1,197 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.io;
+
+import java.io.ByteArrayInputStream;
+import java.io.IOException;
+import java.io.InputStream;
+
+/**
+ * Mimics the actions of the Original buffered reader
+ * implements other actions, such as peek(n) to lookahead,
+ * block() to read a chunk of size {BUFFER SIZE}
+ * <p>
+ * Author: Kumaraswamy B.G (Xoma Dev)
+ */
+public class BufferedReader {
+
+    private static final int DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE = 5;
+
+    /**
+     * The maximum number of bytes the buffer can hold.
+     * Value is changed when encountered Eof to not
+     * cause overflow read of 0 bytes
+     */
+
+    private int bufferSize;
+    private final byte[] buffer;
+
+    /**
+     * posRead -> indicates the next byte to read
+     */
+    private int posRead = 0;
+    private int bufferPos = 0;
+
+    private boolean foundEof = false;
+
+    private InputStream input;
+
+    public BufferedReader(byte[] input) throws IOException {
+        this(new ByteArrayInputStream(input));
+    }
+
+    public BufferedReader(InputStream input) throws IOException {
+        this(input, DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE);
+    }
+
+    public BufferedReader(InputStream input, int bufferSize) throws IOException {
+        this.input = input;
+        if (input.available() == -1) {
+            throw new IOException("Empty or already closed stream provided");
+        }
+
+        this.bufferSize = bufferSize;
+        buffer = new byte[bufferSize];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Reads a single byte from the stream
+     */
+    public int read() throws IOException {
+        if (needsRefill()) {
+            if (foundEof) {
+                return -1;
+            }
+            // the buffer is empty, or the buffer has
+            // been completely read and needs to be refilled
+            refill();
+        }
+        return buffer[posRead++] & 0xff; // read and un-sign it
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Number of bytes not yet been read
+     */
+
+    public int available() throws IOException {
+        int available = input.available();
+        if (needsRefill()) {
+            // since the block is already empty,
+            // we have no responsibility yet
+            return available;
+        }
+        return bufferPos - posRead + available;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the next character
+     */
+
+    public int peek() throws IOException {
+        return peek(1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Peeks and returns a value located at next {n}
+     */
+
+    public int peek(int n) throws IOException {
+        int available = available();
+        if (n >= available) {
+            throw new IOException("Out of range, available %d, but trying with %d".formatted(available, n));
+        }
+        pushRefreshData();
+
+        if (n >= bufferSize) {
+            throw new IllegalAccessError("Cannot peek %s, maximum upto %s (Buffer Limit)".formatted(n, bufferSize));
+        }
+        return buffer[n];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the already read bytes from the buffer
+     * in-order to make space for new bytes to be filled up.
+     * <p>
+     * This may also do the job to read first time data (the whole buffer is empty)
+     */
+
+    private void pushRefreshData() throws IOException {
+        for (int i = posRead, j = 0; i < bufferSize; i++, j++) {
+            buffer[j] = buffer[i];
+        }
+
+        bufferPos -= posRead;
+        posRead = 0;
+
+        // fill out the spaces that we've
+        // emptied
+        justRefill();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Reads one complete block of size {bufferSize}
+     * if found eof, the total length of an array will
+     * be that of what's available
+     *
+     * @return a completed block
+     */
+    public byte[] readBlock() throws IOException {
+        pushRefreshData();
+
+        byte[] cloned = new byte[bufferSize];
+        // arraycopy() function is better than clone()
+        if (bufferPos >= 0) {
+            System.arraycopy(buffer, 0, cloned, 0,
+                // important to note that, bufferSize does not stay constant
+                // once the class is defined. See justRefill() function
+                bufferSize);
+        }
+        // we assume that already a chunk
+        // has been read
+        refill();
+        return cloned;
+    }
+
+    private boolean needsRefill() {
+        return bufferPos == 0 || posRead == bufferSize;
+    }
+
+    private void refill() throws IOException {
+        posRead = 0;
+        bufferPos = 0;
+        justRefill();
+    }
+
+    private void justRefill() throws IOException {
+        assertStreamOpen();
+
+        // try to fill in the maximum we can until
+        // we reach EOF
+        while (bufferPos < bufferSize) {
+            int read = input.read();
+            if (read == -1) {
+                // reached end-of-file, no more data left
+                // to be read
+                foundEof = true;
+                // rewrite the BUFFER_SIZE, to know that we've reached
+                // EOF when requested refill
+                bufferSize = bufferPos;
+            }
+            buffer[bufferPos++] = (byte) read;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private void assertStreamOpen() {
+        if (input == null) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Input Stream already closed!");
+        }
+    }
+
+    public void close() throws IOException {
+        if (input != null) {
+            try {
+                input.close();
+            } finally {
+                input = null;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherland.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherland.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6e8611b86332
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherland.java
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.lineclipping;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils.Line;
+import com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils.Point;
+
+/**
+ * @author shikarisohan
+ * @since 10/4/24
+ * Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm
+ *
+ * This algorithm is used to clip a line segment to a rectangular window.
+ * It assigns a region code to each endpoint of the line segment, and
+ * then efficiently determines whether the line segment is fully inside,
+ * fully outside, or partially inside the window.
+ *
+ * Reference:
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohen%E2%80%93Sutherland_algorithm
+ *
+ * Clipping window boundaries are defined as (xMin, yMin) and (xMax, yMax).
+ * The algorithm computes the clipped line segment if it's partially or
+ * fully inside the clipping window.
+ */
+public class CohenSutherland {
+
+    // Region codes for the 9 regions
+    private static final int INSIDE = 0; // 0000
+    private static final int LEFT = 1; // 0001
+    private static final int RIGHT = 2; // 0010
+    private static final int BOTTOM = 4; // 0100
+    private static final int TOP = 8; // 1000
+
+    // Define the clipping window
+    double xMin;
+    double yMin;
+    double xMax;
+    double yMax;
+
+    public CohenSutherland(double xMin, double yMin, double xMax, double yMax) {
+        this.xMin = xMin;
+        this.yMin = yMin;
+        this.xMax = xMax;
+        this.yMax = yMax;
+    }
+
+    // Compute the region code for a point (x, y)
+    private int computeCode(double x, double y) {
+        int code = INSIDE;
+
+        if (x < xMin) // to the left of rectangle
+        {
+            code |= LEFT;
+        } else if (x > xMax) // to the right of rectangle
+        {
+            code |= RIGHT;
+        }
+        if (y < yMin) // below the rectangle
+        {
+            code |= BOTTOM;
+        } else if (y > yMax) // above the rectangle
+        {
+            code |= TOP;
+        }
+
+        return code;
+    }
+
+    // Cohen-Sutherland algorithm to return the clipped line
+    public Line cohenSutherlandClip(Line line) {
+        double x1 = line.start.x;
+        double y1 = line.start.y;
+        double x2 = line.end.x;
+        double y2 = line.end.y;
+
+        int code1 = computeCode(x1, y1);
+        int code2 = computeCode(x2, y2);
+        boolean accept = false;
+
+        while (true) {
+            if ((code1 == 0) && (code2 == 0)) {
+                // Both points are inside the rectangle
+                accept = true;
+                break;
+            } else if ((code1 & code2) != 0) {
+                // Both points are outside the rectangle in the same region
+                break;
+            } else {
+                // Some segment of the line is inside the rectangle
+                double x = 0;
+                double y = 0;
+
+                // Pick an endpoint that is outside the rectangle
+                int codeOut = (code1 != 0) ? code1 : code2;
+
+                // Find the intersection point using the line equation
+                if ((codeOut & TOP) != 0) {
+                    // Point is above the rectangle
+                    x = x1 + (x2 - x1) * (yMax - y1) / (y2 - y1);
+                    y = yMax;
+                } else if ((codeOut & BOTTOM) != 0) {
+                    // Point is below the rectangle
+                    x = x1 + (x2 - x1) * (yMin - y1) / (y2 - y1);
+                    y = yMin;
+                } else if ((codeOut & RIGHT) != 0) {
+                    // Point is to the right of the rectangle
+                    y = y1 + (y2 - y1) * (xMax - x1) / (x2 - x1);
+                    x = xMax;
+                } else if ((codeOut & LEFT) != 0) {
+                    // Point is to the left of the rectangle
+                    y = y1 + (y2 - y1) * (xMin - x1) / (x2 - x1);
+                    x = xMin;
+                }
+
+                // Replace the point outside the rectangle with the intersection point
+                if (codeOut == code1) {
+                    x1 = x;
+                    y1 = y;
+                    code1 = computeCode(x1, y1);
+                } else {
+                    x2 = x;
+                    y2 = y;
+                    code2 = computeCode(x2, y2);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (accept) {
+            return new Line(new Point(x1, y1), new Point(x2, y2));
+        } else {
+
+            return null; // The line is fully rejected
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarsky.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarsky.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..723e2bb2fbf9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarsky.java
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.lineclipping;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils.Line;
+import com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils.Point;
+
+/**
+ * @author shikarisohan
+ * @since 10/5/24
+ *
+ *  * The Liang-Barsky line clipping algorithm is an efficient algorithm for
+ *  * line clipping against a rectangular window. It is based on the parametric
+ *  * equation of a line and checks the intersections of the line with the
+ *  * window boundaries. This algorithm calculates the intersection points,
+ *  * if any, and returns the clipped line that lies inside the window.
+ *  *
+ *  * Reference:
+ *  * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang%E2%80%93Barsky_algorithm
+ *
+ * Clipping window boundaries are defined as (xMin, yMin) and (xMax, yMax).
+ * The algorithm computes the clipped line segment if it's partially or
+ * fully inside the clipping window.
+ */
+public class LiangBarsky {
+
+    // Define the clipping window
+    double xMin;
+    double xMax;
+    double yMin;
+    double yMax;
+
+    public LiangBarsky(double xMin, double yMin, double xMax, double yMax) {
+        this.xMin = xMin;
+        this.yMin = yMin;
+        this.xMax = xMax;
+        this.yMax = yMax;
+    }
+
+    // Liang-Barsky algorithm to return the clipped line
+    public Line liangBarskyClip(Line line) {
+        double dx = line.end.x - line.start.x;
+        double dy = line.end.y - line.start.y;
+
+        double[] p = {-dx, dx, -dy, dy};
+        double[] q = {line.start.x - xMin, xMax - line.start.x, line.start.y - yMin, yMax - line.start.y};
+
+        double[] resultT = clipLine(p, q);
+
+        if (resultT == null) {
+            return null; // Line is outside the clipping window
+        }
+
+        return calculateClippedLine(line, resultT[0], resultT[1], dx, dy);
+    }
+
+    // clip the line by adjusting t0 and t1 for each edge
+    private double[] clipLine(double[] p, double[] q) {
+        double t0 = 0.0;
+        double t1 = 1.0;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
+            double t = q[i] / p[i];
+            if (p[i] == 0 && q[i] < 0) {
+                return null; // Line is outside the boundary
+            } else if (p[i] < 0) {
+                if (t > t1) {
+                    return null;
+                } // Line is outside
+                if (t > t0) {
+                    t0 = t;
+                } // Update t0
+            } else if (p[i] > 0) {
+                if (t < t0) {
+                    return null;
+                } // Line is outside
+                if (t < t1) {
+                    t1 = t;
+                } // Update t1
+            }
+        }
+
+        return new double[] {t0, t1}; // Return valid t0 and t1
+    }
+
+    // calculate the clipped line based on t0 and t1
+    private Line calculateClippedLine(Line line, double t0, double t1, double dx, double dy) {
+        double clippedX1 = line.start.x + t0 * dx;
+        double clippedY1 = line.start.y + t0 * dy;
+        double clippedX2 = line.start.x + t1 * dx;
+        double clippedY2 = line.start.y + t1 * dy;
+
+        return new Line(new Point(clippedX1, clippedY1), new Point(clippedX2, clippedY2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/utils/Line.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/utils/Line.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..56cd52e3cdce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/utils/Line.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/**
+ * @author moksedursohan
+ * @since 10/4/24
+ */
+public class Line {
+
+    public Point start;
+    public Point end;
+
+    public Line() {
+    }
+
+    public Line(Point start, Point end) {
+        this.start = start;
+        this.end = end;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+        if (this == o) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (!(o instanceof Line line)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        return Objects.equals(start, line.start) && Objects.equals(end, line.end);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+        return Objects.hash(start, end);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return "Line from " + start + " to " + end;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/utils/Point.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/utils/Point.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7ef58c783903
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/utils/Point.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/**
+ * @author moksedursohan
+ * @since 10/4/24
+ */
+public class Point {
+
+    public double x;
+    public double y;
+
+    public Point() {
+    }
+
+    public Point(double x, double y) {
+        this.x = x;
+        this.y = y;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+        if (this == o) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (!(o instanceof Point point)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        return Double.compare(x, point.x) == 0 && Double.compare(y, point.y) == 0;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+        return Objects.hash(x, y);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return "(" + x + ", " + y + ")";
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFraction.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFraction.java
index ca70ba0e0291..a85ef09079c9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFraction.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFraction.java
@@ -1,100 +1,80 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-public class ADTFraction {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // TODO code application logic here
-
-        ADTFraction f1 = new ADTFraction(3, 5);
-        f1.display();
-        ADTFraction f2 = new ADTFraction(7, 8);
-        f2.display();
-        ADTFraction f3 = f1.plus(f2);
-        f3.display();
-        ADTFraction f4 = f1.times(f2);
-        f4.display();
-        ADTFraction f5 = f1.times(4);
-        f5.display();
-
-    }
-
-    private int n; //numerator
-    private int d; //denomenator
-
-    public ADTFraction() {
-        this.n = 0;
-        this.d = 1;
-    }
-
-    public ADTFraction(int a, int b) {//parameter constructor
-
-        if (b != 0) {
-            this.n = a;
-            this.d = b;
-        } else {
-            this.n = 0;
-            this.d = 1;
-            System.out.println("denomerator cannot be 0,default values assinged");
-        }
-    }
-
-    public void set(int a, int b) {//set numerator and denomenator
-
-        if (b != 0) {
-            this.n = a;
-            this.d = b;
-        } else {
-            this.n = 0;
-            this.d = 1;
-            System.out.println("denomerator cannot be 0,default values assinged");
+public record ADTFraction(int numerator, int denominator) {
+    /**
+     * Initializes a newly created {@code ADTFraction} object so that it represents
+     * a fraction with the {@code numerator} and {@code denominator} provided as arguments.
+     *
+     * @param numerator   The fraction numerator
+     * @param denominator The fraction denominator
+     */
+    public ADTFraction {
+        if (denominator == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Denominator cannot be 0");
         }
-
     }
 
-    //add two fractions
-    public ADTFraction plus(ADTFraction x) {
-
-        int num, den;
-        num = this.d * x.n + this.n * x.d;
-        den = this.d * x.d;
-        ADTFraction f = new ADTFraction(num, den);
-        return f;
-
+    /**
+     * Add two fractions.
+     *
+     * @param fraction the {@code ADTFraction} to add
+     * @return A new {@code ADTFraction} containing the result of the operation
+     */
+    public ADTFraction plus(ADTFraction fraction) {
+        var numerator = this.denominator * fraction.numerator + this.numerator * fraction.denominator;
+        var denominator = this.denominator * fraction.denominator;
+        return new ADTFraction(numerator, denominator);
     }
 
-    public ADTFraction times(int a) {//multiply fraction by a number
-
-        int num, den;
-        num = this.n * a;
-        den = this.d;
-        ADTFraction f1 = new ADTFraction(num, den);
-        return f1;
-
+    /**
+     * Multiply fraction by a number.
+     *
+     * @param number the number to multiply
+     * @return A new {@code ADTFraction} containing the result of the operation
+     */
+    public ADTFraction times(int number) {
+        return times(new ADTFraction(number, 1));
     }
 
-    public ADTFraction times(ADTFraction x) {//multiply two fractions
-
-        int num, dem;
-        num = this.n * x.n;
-        dem = this.d * x.d;
-        ADTFraction f3 = new ADTFraction(num, dem);
-        return f3;
-
+    /**
+     * Multiply two fractions.
+     *
+     * @param fraction the {@code ADTFraction} to multiply
+     * @return A new {@code ADTFraction} containing the result of the operation
+     */
+    public ADTFraction times(ADTFraction fraction) {
+        var numerator = this.numerator * fraction.numerator;
+        var denominator = this.denominator * fraction.denominator;
+        return new ADTFraction(numerator, denominator);
     }
 
-    //reciprocal of a fraction
+    /**
+     * Generates the reciprocal of the fraction.
+     *
+     * @return A new {@code ADTFraction} with the {@code numerator} and {@code denominator} switched
+     */
     public ADTFraction reciprocal() {
-        ADTFraction f1 = new ADTFraction(this.d, this.n);
-        return f1;
+        return new ADTFraction(this.denominator, this.numerator);
     }
 
-    //numerical value of a fraction
+    /**
+     * Calculates the result of the fraction.
+     *
+     * @return The numerical result of the division between {@code numerator} and {@code
+     *     denominator}
+     */
     public float value() {
-        return (float) this.n / this.d;
+        return (float) this.numerator / this.denominator;
     }
 
-    //display the fraction in the format n/d
-    public void display() {
-        System.out.println(this.n + "/" + this.d);
+    /**
+     * Returns a string representation of this {@code ADTFraction} in the format
+     * {@code numerator}/{@code denominator}.
+     *
+     * @return A string representation of this {@code ADTFraction}
+     */
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return String.format("%d/%d", this.numerator, this.denominator);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMax.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMax.java
index b67b5991ce0a..c32a408b6609 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMax.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMax.java
@@ -1,36 +1,26 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Arrays;
-
-/**
- * description:
- *
- * <p>
- * absMax([0, 5, 1, 11]) = 11, absMax([3 , -10, -2]) = -10
- */
-public class AbsoluteMax {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] testnums = {-2, 0, 16};
-        assert absMax(testnums) == 16;
-
-        int[] numbers = {3, -10, -2};
-        System.out.println("absMax(" + Arrays.toString(numbers) + ") = " + absMax(numbers));
+public final class AbsoluteMax {
+    private AbsoluteMax() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * get the value, return the absolute max value
+     * Finds the absolute maximum value among the given numbers.
      *
-     * @param numbers contains elements
-     * @return the absolute max value
+     * @param numbers The numbers to compare.
+     * @return The absolute maximum value.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the input array is empty or null.
      */
-    public static int absMax(int[] numbers) {
-        int absMaxValue = numbers[0];
-        for (int i = 1, length = numbers.length; i < length; ++i) {
-            if (Math.abs(numbers[i]) > Math.abs(absMaxValue)) {
-                absMaxValue = numbers[i];
+    public static int getMaxValue(int... numbers) {
+        if (numbers == null || numbers.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Numbers array cannot be empty or null");
+        }
+        int absMax = numbers[0];
+        for (int i = 1; i < numbers.length; i++) {
+            if (Math.abs(numbers[i]) > Math.abs(absMax) || (Math.abs(numbers[i]) == Math.abs(absMax) && numbers[i] > absMax)) {
+                absMax = numbers[i];
             }
         }
-        return absMaxValue;
+        return absMax;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMin.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMin.java
index bdb8eb1a9740..1b9575a330dd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMin.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMin.java
@@ -2,35 +2,25 @@
 
 import java.util.Arrays;
 
-/**
- * description:
- *
- * <p>
- * absMin([0, 5, 1, 11]) = 0, absMin([3 , -10, -2]) = -2
- */
-public class AbsoluteMin {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] testnums = {4, 0, 16};
-        assert absMin(testnums) == 0;
-
-        int[] numbers = {3, -10, -2};
-        System.out.println("absMin(" + Arrays.toString(numbers) + ") = " + absMin(numbers));
+public final class AbsoluteMin {
+    private AbsoluteMin() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * get the value, returns the absolute min value min
+     * Compares the numbers given as arguments to get the absolute min value.
      *
-     * @param numbers contains elements
-     * @return the absolute min value
+     * @param numbers The numbers to compare
+     * @return The absolute min value
      */
-    public static int absMin(int[] numbers) {
-        int absMinValue = numbers[0];
-        for (int i = 1, length = numbers.length; i < length; ++i) {
-            if (Math.abs(numbers[i]) < Math.abs(absMinValue)) {
-                absMinValue = numbers[i];
-            }
+    public static int getMinValue(int... numbers) {
+        if (numbers.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Numbers array cannot be empty");
         }
-        return absMinValue;
+
+        var absMinWrapper = new Object() { int value = numbers[0]; };
+
+        Arrays.stream(numbers).skip(1).filter(number -> Math.abs(number) <= Math.abs(absMinWrapper.value)).forEach(number -> absMinWrapper.value = Math.min(absMinWrapper.value, number));
+
+        return absMinWrapper.value;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValue.java
index dfd00f862900..b9279d5a244a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValue.java
@@ -1,26 +1,16 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Random;
-
-public class AbsoluteValue {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random random = new Random();
-
-        /* test 1000 random numbers */
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 1000; ++i) {
-            int randomNumber = random.nextInt();
-            assert absVal(randomNumber) == Math.abs(randomNumber);
-        }
+public final class AbsoluteValue {
+    private AbsoluteValue() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * If value is less than zero, make value positive.
+     * Returns the absolute value of a number.
      *
-     * @param value a number
-     * @return the absolute value of a number
+     * @param number The number to be transformed
+     * @return The absolute value of the {@code number}
      */
-    public static int absVal(int value) {
-        return value < 0 ? -value : value;
+    public static int getAbsValue(int number) {
+        return number < 0 ? -number : number;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java
index 329bcf2f9984..996843b56826 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+
 /**
  * In number theory, the aliquot sum s(n) of a positive integer n is the sum of
  * all proper divisors of n, that is, all divisors of n other than n itself. For
@@ -7,28 +9,55 @@
  * are not equal to 15) are 1, 3 and 5, so the aliquot sum of 15 is 9 i.e. (1 +
  * 3 + 5). Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliquot_sum
  */
-public class AliquotSum {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert aliquotSum(1) == 0;
-        assert aliquotSum(6) == 6;
-        assert aliquotSum(15) == 9;
-        assert aliquotSum(19) == 1;
+public final class AliquotSum {
+    private AliquotSum() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Finds the aliquot sum of an integer number
+     * Finds the aliquot sum of an integer number.
      *
      * @param number a positive integer
      * @return aliquot sum of given {@code number}
      */
-    public static int aliquotSum(int number) {
-        int sum = 0;
-        for (int i = 1, limit = number / 2; i <= limit; ++i) {
-            if (number % i == 0) {
-                sum += i;
+    public static int getAliquotValue(int number) {
+        var sumWrapper = new Object() { int value = 0; };
+
+        IntStream.iterate(1, i -> ++i).limit(number / 2).filter(i -> number % i == 0).forEach(i -> sumWrapper.value += i);
+
+        return sumWrapper.value;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function to calculate the aliquot sum of an integer number
+     *
+     * @param n a positive integer
+     * @return aliquot sum of given {@code number}
+     */
+    public static int getAliquotSum(int n) {
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            return -1;
+        }
+        int sum = 1;
+        double root = Math.sqrt(n);
+        /*
+         * We can get the factors after the root by dividing number by its factors
+         * before the root.
+         * Ex- Factors of 100 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 and 100.
+         * Root of 100 is 10. So factors before 10 are 1, 2, 4 and 5.
+         * Now by dividing 100 by each factor before 10 we get:
+         * 100/1 = 100, 100/2 = 50, 100/4 = 25 and 100/5 = 20
+         * So we get 100, 50, 25 and 20 which are factors of 100 after 10
+         */
+        for (int i = 2; i <= root; i++) {
+            if (n % i == 0) {
+                sum += i + n / i;
             }
         }
+        // if n is a perfect square then its root was added twice in above loop, so subtracting root
+        // from sum
+        if (root == (int) root) {
+            sum -= (int) root;
+        }
         return sum;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java
index 2cc13f3e1e44..b30831bfdc58 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java
@@ -1,93 +1,71 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
+import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
+
 /**
- * Amicable numbers are two different numbers so related that the sum of the
- * proper divisors of each is equal to the other number. (A proper divisor of a
- * number is a positive factor of that number other than the number itself. For
- * example, the proper divisors of 6 are 1, 2, and 3.) A pair of amicable
- * numbers constitutes an aliquot sequence of period 2. It is unknown if there
- * are infinitely many pairs of amicable numbers. *
+ * Amicable numbers are two different natural numbers that the sum of the
+ * proper divisors of each is equal to the other number.
+ * (A proper divisor of a number is a positive factor of that number other than the number itself.
+ * For example, the proper divisors of 6 are 1, 2, and 3.)
+ * A pair of amicable numbers constitutes an aliquot sequence of period 2.
+ * It is unknown if there are infinitely many pairs of amicable numbers.
  *
  * <p>
- * link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amicable_numbers *
- *
+ * link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amicable_numbers
  * <p>
- * Simple Example : (220,284) 220 is divisible by {1,2,4,5,10,11,20,22,44,55,110
- * } <- Sum = 284
- * 284 is divisible by -> 1,2,4,71,142 and the Sum of that is. Yes right you
- * probably expected it 220
+ * Simple Example: (220, 284)
+ * 220 is divisible by {1,2,4,5,10,11,20,22,44,55,110} <-SUM = 284
+ * 284 is divisible by {1,2,4,71,142} <-SUM = 220.
  */
-public class AmicableNumber {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        AmicableNumber.findAllInRange(1, 3000);
-        /* Res -> Int Range of 1 till 3000there are 3Amicable_numbers These are  1: = ( 220,284)	2: = ( 1184,1210)
-    3: = ( 2620,2924) So it worked	*/
-
+public final class AmicableNumber {
+    private AmicableNumber() {
     }
-
     /**
-     * @param startValue
-     * @param stopValue
-     * @return
+     * Finds all the amicable numbers in a given range.
+     *
+     * @param from range start value
+     * @param to   range end value (inclusive)
+     * @return list with amicable numbers found in given range.
      */
-    static void findAllInRange(int startValue, int stopValue) {
+    public static Set<Pair<Integer, Integer>> findAllInRange(int from, int to) {
+        if (from <= 0 || to <= 0 || to < from) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Given range of values is invalid!");
+        }
 
-        /* the 2 for loops are to avoid to double check tuple. For example (200,100) and (100,200) is the same calculation
-     * also to avoid is to check the number with it self. a number with itself is always a AmicableNumber
-     * */
-        StringBuilder res = new StringBuilder();
-        int countofRes = 0;
+        Set<Pair<Integer, Integer>> result = new LinkedHashSet<>();
 
-        for (int i = startValue; i < stopValue; i++) {
-            for (int j = i + 1; j <= stopValue; j++) {
+        for (int i = from; i < to; i++) {
+            for (int j = i + 1; j <= to; j++) {
                 if (isAmicableNumber(i, j)) {
-                    countofRes++;
-                    res.append("" + countofRes + ": = ( " + i + "," + j + ")" + "\t");
+                    result.add(Pair.of(i, j));
                 }
             }
         }
-        res.insert(
-                0,
-                "Int Range of "
-                + startValue
-                + " till "
-                + stopValue
-                + " there are "
-                + countofRes
-                + " Amicable_numbers.These are \n ");
-        System.out.println(res.toString());
+        return result;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Check if {@code numberOne and numberTwo } are AmicableNumbers or not
-     *
-     * @param numberOne numberTwo
-     * @return {@code true} if {@code numberOne numberTwo} isAmicableNumbers
-     * otherwise false
+     * Checks whether 2 numbers are AmicableNumbers or not.
      */
-    static boolean isAmicableNumber(int numberOne, int numberTwo) {
-
-        return ((recursiveCalcOfDividerSum(numberOne, numberOne) == numberTwo
-                && numberOne == recursiveCalcOfDividerSum(numberTwo, numberTwo)));
+    public static boolean isAmicableNumber(int a, int b) {
+        if (a <= 0 || b <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input numbers must be natural!");
+        }
+        return sumOfDividers(a, a) == b && sumOfDividers(b, b) == a;
     }
 
     /**
-     * calculated in recursive calls the Sum of all the Dividers beside it self
-     *
-     * @param number div = the next to test dividely by using the modulo
-     * operator
-     * @return sum of all the dividers
+     * Recursively calculates the sum of all dividers for a given number excluding the divider itself.
      */
-    static int recursiveCalcOfDividerSum(int number, int div) {
-
-        if (div == 1) {
+    private static int sumOfDividers(int number, int divisor) {
+        if (divisor == 1) {
             return 0;
-        } else if (number % --div == 0) {
-            return recursiveCalcOfDividerSum(number, div) + div;
+        } else if (number % --divisor == 0) {
+            return sumOfDividers(number, divisor) + divisor;
         } else {
-            return recursiveCalcOfDividerSum(number, div);
+            return sumOfDividers(number, divisor);
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java
index 31375f400402..7a06fd5e5fa0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java
@@ -3,47 +3,24 @@
 /**
  * Find the area of various geometric shapes
  */
-public class Area {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        /* test cube */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaCube(1), 6.0) == 0;
-
-        /* test sphere */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaSphere(5), 314.1592653589793) == 0;
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaSphere(1), 12.566370614359172) == 0;
-
-        /* test rectangle */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaRectangle(10, 20), 200.0) == 0;
-
-        /* test square */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaSquare(10), 100.0) == 0;
-
-        /* test triangle */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaTriangle(10, 10), 50.0) == 0;
-
-        /* test parallelogram */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaParallelogram(10, 20), 200.0) == 0;
-
-        /* test trapezium */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaTrapezium(10, 20, 30), 450.0) == 0;
-
-        /* test circle */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaCircle(20), 1256.6370614359173) == 0;
-
-        /* test cylinder */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaCylinder(1, 2), 18.84955592153876) == 0;
+public final class Area {
+    private Area() {
+    }
 
-        /* test hemisphere */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaHemisphere(5), 235.61944901923448) == 0;
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaHemisphere(1), 9.42477796076938) == 0;
+    /**
+     * String of IllegalArgumentException for radius
+     */
+    private static final String POSITIVE_RADIUS = "Must be a positive radius";
 
-        /* test cone */
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaCone(6, 8), 301.59289474462014) == 0;
-        assert Double.compare(surfaceAreaCone(10, 24), 1130.9733552923256) == 0;
+    /**
+     * String of IllegalArgumentException for height
+     */
+    private static final String POSITIVE_HEIGHT = "Must be a positive height";
 
-    }
+    /**
+     * String of IllegalArgumentException for base
+     */
+    private static final String POSITIVE_BASE = "Must be a positive base";
 
     /**
      * Calculate the surface area of a cube.
@@ -51,7 +28,10 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @param sideLength side length of cube
      * @return surface area of given cube
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaCube(double sideLength) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaCube(final double sideLength) {
+        if (sideLength <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Must be a positive sideLength");
+        }
         return 6 * sideLength * sideLength;
     }
 
@@ -61,83 +41,125 @@ private static double surfaceAreaCube(double sideLength) {
      * @param radius radius of sphere
      * @return surface area of given sphere
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaSphere(double radius) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaSphere(final double radius) {
+        if (radius <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_RADIUS);
+        }
         return 4 * Math.PI * radius * radius;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate the area of a rectangle
+     * Calculate the area of a rectangle.
      *
-     * @param length length of rectangle
-     * @param width width of rectangle
+     * @param length length of a rectangle
+     * @param width  width of a rectangle
      * @return area of given rectangle
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaRectangle(double length, double width) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaRectangle(final double length, final double width) {
+        if (length <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Must be a positive length");
+        }
+        if (width <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Must be a positive width");
+        }
         return length * width;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate surface area of a cylinder
+     * Calculate surface area of a cylinder.
      *
      * @param radius radius of the floor
      * @param height height of the cylinder.
      * @return volume of given cylinder
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaCylinder(double radius, double height) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaCylinder(final double radius, final double height) {
+        if (radius <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_RADIUS);
+        }
+        if (height <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_RADIUS);
+        }
         return 2 * (Math.PI * radius * radius + Math.PI * radius * height);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate the area of a square
+     * Calculate the area of a square.
      *
      * @param sideLength side length of square
      * @return area of given square
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaSquare(double sideLength) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaSquare(final double sideLength) {
+        if (sideLength <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Must be a positive sideLength");
+        }
         return sideLength * sideLength;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate the area of a triangle
+     * Calculate the area of a triangle.
      *
-     * @param base base of triangle
+     * @param base   base of triangle
      * @param height height of triangle
      * @return area of given triangle
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaTriangle(double base, double height) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaTriangle(final double base, final double height) {
+        if (base <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_BASE);
+        }
+        if (height <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_HEIGHT);
+        }
         return base * height / 2;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate the area of a parallelogram
+     * Calculate the area of a parallelogram.
      *
-     * @param base base of parallelogram
-     * @param height height of parallelogram
+     * @param base   base of a parallelogram
+     * @param height height of a parallelogram
      * @return area of given parallelogram
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaParallelogram(double base, double height) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaParallelogram(final double base, final double height) {
+        if (base <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_BASE);
+        }
+        if (height <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_HEIGHT);
+        }
         return base * height;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate the area of a trapezium
+     * Calculate the area of a trapezium.
      *
-     * @param base1 upper base of trapezium
-     * @param base2 bottom base of trapezium
+     * @param base1  upper base of trapezium
+     * @param base2  bottom base of trapezium
      * @param height height of trapezium
      * @return area of given trapezium
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaTrapezium(double base1, double base2, double height) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaTrapezium(final double base1, final double base2, final double height) {
+        if (base1 <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_BASE + 1);
+        }
+        if (base2 <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_BASE + 2);
+        }
+        if (height <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_HEIGHT);
+        }
         return (base1 + base2) * height / 2;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate the area of a circle
+     * Calculate the area of a circle.
      *
      * @param radius radius of circle
      * @return area of given circle
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaCircle(double radius) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaCircle(final double radius) {
+        if (radius <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_RADIUS);
+        }
         return Math.PI * radius * radius;
     }
 
@@ -147,7 +169,10 @@ private static double surfaceAreaCircle(double radius) {
      * @param radius radius of hemisphere
      * @return surface area of given hemisphere
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaHemisphere(double radius) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaHemisphere(final double radius) {
+        if (radius <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_RADIUS);
+        }
         return 3 * Math.PI * radius * radius;
     }
 
@@ -158,7 +183,13 @@ private static double surfaceAreaHemisphere(double radius) {
      * @param height of cone.
      * @return surface area of given cone.
      */
-    private static double surfaceAreaCone(double radius, double height) {
-        return Math.PI * radius * (radius + Math.pow((height * height + radius * radius), 0.5));
+    public static double surfaceAreaCone(final double radius, final double height) {
+        if (radius <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_RADIUS);
+        }
+        if (height <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_HEIGHT);
+        }
+        return Math.PI * radius * (radius + Math.pow(height * height + radius * radius, 0.5));
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java
index df65ba750b01..9a7a014ec99f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java
@@ -1,46 +1,39 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 /**
- * An Armstrong number is equal to the sum of the cubes of its digits. For
- * example, 370 is an Armstrong number because 3*3*3 + 7*7*7 + 0*0*0 = 370. An
- * Armstrong number is often called Narcissistic number.
+ * This class checks whether a given number is an Armstrong number or not.
+ * An Armstrong number is a number that is equal to the sum of its own digits,
+ * each raised to the power of the number of digits.
+ *
+ * For example, 370 is an Armstrong number because 3^3 + 7^3 + 0^3 = 370.
+ * 1634 is an Armstrong number because 1^4 + 6^4 + 3^4 + 4^4 = 1634.
+ * An Armstrong number is often called a Narcissistic number.
+ *
+ * @author satyabarghav
+ * @modifier rahul katteda - (13/01/2025) - [updated the logic for getting total number of digits]
  */
 public class Armstrong {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert (isArmStrong(0));
-        assert (isArmStrong(1));
-        assert (isArmStrong(153));
-        assert (isArmStrong(1634));
-        assert (isArmStrong(371));
-        assert (!isArmStrong(200));
-    }
-
     /**
-     * Checks whether a given number is an armstrong number or not.
+     * Checks whether a given number is an Armstrong number or not.
      *
-     * @param number number to check
-     * @return {@code true} if given number is armstrong number, {@code false}
-     * otherwise
+     * @param number the number to check
+     * @return {@code true} if the given number is an Armstrong number, {@code false} otherwise
      */
-    private static boolean isArmStrong(int number) {
-        int sum = 0;
-        int temp = number;
-        int numberOfDigits = 0;
-        while (temp != 0) {
-            numberOfDigits++;
-            temp /= 10;
+    public boolean isArmstrong(int number) {
+        if (number < 0) {
+            return false; // Negative numbers cannot be Armstrong numbers
         }
-        temp = number;
-        /* copy number again */
-        while (number > 0) {
-            int remainder = number % 10;
-            int power = 1;
-            for (int i = 1; i <= numberOfDigits; power *= remainder, ++i)
-        ;
-            sum = sum + power;
-            number /= 10;
+        long sum = 0;
+        int totalDigits = (int) Math.log10(number) + 1; // get the length of the number (number of digits)
+        long originalNumber = number;
+
+        while (originalNumber > 0) {
+            long digit = originalNumber % 10;
+            sum += (long) Math.pow(digit, totalDigits); // The digit raised to the power of total number of digits and added to the sum.
+            originalNumber /= 10;
         }
-        return sum == temp;
+
+        return sum == number;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutoCorrelation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutoCorrelation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..344a1271e11c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutoCorrelation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * Class for linear auto-correlation of a discrete signal
+ *
+ * @author Athina-Frederiki Swinkels
+ * @version 2.0
+ */
+
+public final class AutoCorrelation {
+    private AutoCorrelation() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Discrete linear auto-correlation function.
+     * Input and output signals have starting index 0.
+     *
+     * @param x The discrete signal
+     * @return The result of the auto-correlation of signals x. The result is also a signal.
+     */
+    public static double[] autoCorrelation(double[] x) {
+
+        /*
+        To find the auto-correlation of a discrete signal x, we perform cross-correlation between x signal and itself.
+        Here's an example:
+        x=[1,2,1,1]
+        y=[1,2,1,1]
+
+        i=0:      [1,2,1,1]
+            [1,2,1,1]               result[0]=1*1=1
+
+        i=1:       [1,2,1,1]
+               [1,2,1,1]            result[1]=1*1+2*1=3
+
+        i=2:       [1,2,1,1]
+                 [1,2,1,1]          result[2]=1*2+2*1+1*1=5
+
+        i=3:       [1,2,1,1]
+                   [1,2,1,1]        result[3]=1*1+2*2+1*1+1*1=7
+
+        i=4:       [1,2,1,1]
+                     [1,2,1,1]      result[4]=2*1+1*2+1*1=5
+
+        i=5:       [1,2,1,1]
+                       [1,2,1,1]    result[5]=1*1+1*2=3
+
+        i=1:       [1,2,1,1]
+                         [1,2,1,1]  result[6]=1*1=1
+
+        result=[1,3,5,7,5,3,1]
+
+
+         */
+
+        return CrossCorrelation.crossCorrelation(x, x);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumber.java
index 2444a3628b41..31f81da63f03 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumber.java
@@ -1,56 +1,67 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
+import java.math.BigInteger;
 /**
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphic_number">Automorphic Number</a>
  * A number is said to be an Automorphic, if it is present in the last digit(s)
  * of its square. Example- Let the number be 25, its square is 625. Since,
  * 25(The input number) is present in the last two digits of its square(625), it
  * is an Automorphic Number.
  */
-import java.io.*;
+public final class AutomorphicNumber {
+    private AutomorphicNumber() {
+    }
 
-public class AutomorphicNumber {
+    /**
+     * A function to check if a number is Automorphic number or not
+     *
+     * @param n The number to be checked
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code a} is Automorphic number, otherwise
+     *         {@code false}
+     */
+    public static boolean isAutomorphic(long n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        long square = n * n; // Calculating square of the number
+        long t = n;
+        long numberOfdigits = 0;
+        while (t > 0) {
+            numberOfdigits++; // Calculating number of digits in n
+            t /= 10;
+        }
+        long lastDigits = square % (long) Math.pow(10, numberOfdigits); // Extracting last Digits of square
+        return n == lastDigits;
+    }
 
-    //returns True if the number is a Automorphic number and False if it is not an Automorphic number
-    public static boolean isAutomorphic(int n) {
-        int m, c, r, p, k;
-        c = 0;
-        /**
-         * m = Temporary variable to store a copy of the number entered by the
-         * user. n = The number entered by the user c = Count the digits of the
-         * number entered by user. p = To calculate the square of the number. k
-         * = Support variable to count the digits of the number
-         */
-        double s;
-        m = n;
-        p = m * m; //Calculating square of the number
-        do {
-            k = n / 10;
-            c = c + 1; //Counting the digits of the number entered by user.
-            n = k;
-        } while (n != 0);
-        s = Math.pow(10, c);
-        r = p % (int) s;
-        if (m == r) //Checking if the original number entered is present at the end of the square
-        {
-            return true;
-        } else {
+    /**
+     * A function to check if a number is Automorphic number or not by using String functions
+     *
+     * @param n The number to be checked
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code a} is Automorphic number, otherwise
+     *         {@code false}
+     */
+    public static boolean isAutomorphic2(long n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
             return false;
         }
+        long square = n * n; // Calculating square of the number
+        return String.valueOf(square).endsWith(String.valueOf(n));
     }
 
     /**
-     * Method to check if number is Automorphic Number or Not 1) Input - Enter a
-     * Number: 25 Output - It is an Automorphic Number. 2) Input - Enter a
-     * Number: 7 Output - It is not an Automorphic Number.
+     * A function to check if a number is Automorphic number or not by using BigInteger
+     *
+     * @param s The number in String to be checked
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code a} is Automorphic number, otherwise
+     *         {@code false}
      */
-    public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException {
-        BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
-        System.out.println("Enter a Number: ");
-        int n = Integer.parseInt(br.readLine());
-        if (isAutomorphic(n)) {
-            System.out.println("It is an Automorphic Number.");
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("It is not an Automorphic Number.");
+    public static boolean isAutomorphic3(String s) {
+        BigInteger n = new BigInteger(s);
+        if (n.signum() == -1) {
+            return false; // if number is negative, return false
         }
+        BigInteger square = n.multiply(n); // Calculating square of the number
+        return String.valueOf(square).endsWith(String.valueOf(n));
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Average.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Average.java
index 3413f09aa29d..a550a7f6504d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Average.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Average.java
@@ -1,27 +1,28 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 /**
- * Calculate average of a list of numbers
+ * A utility class for computing the average of numeric arrays.
+ * This class provides static methods to calculate the average of arrays
+ * of both {@code double} and {@code int} values.
  */
-public class Average {
+public final class Average {
 
-    private static final double SMALL_VALUE = 0.00001f;
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert Math.abs(average(new double[]{3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21}) - 12) < SMALL_VALUE;
-        assert Math.abs(average(new double[]{5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35}) - 20) < SMALL_VALUE;
-        assert Math.abs(average(new double[]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}) - 4.5) < SMALL_VALUE;
-        int[] array = {2, 4, 10};
-        assert average(array) == 5;
+    // Prevent instantiation of this utility class
+    private Average() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("This is a utility class and cannot be instantiated.");
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate average of a list of numbers
+     * Computes the average of a {@code double} array.
      *
-     * @param numbers array to store numbers
-     * @return mean of given numbers
+     * @param numbers an array of {@code double} values
+     * @return the average of the given numbers
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input array is {@code null} or empty
      */
     public static double average(double[] numbers) {
+        if (numbers == null || numbers.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Numbers array cannot be empty or null");
+        }
         double sum = 0;
         for (double number : numbers) {
             sum += number;
@@ -30,17 +31,20 @@ public static double average(double[] numbers) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * find average value of int array
+     * Computes the average of an {@code int} array.
      *
-     * @param array the array contains element and the sum does not excess long
-     * value limit
-     * @return average value
+     * @param numbers an array of {@code int} values
+     * @return the average of the given numbers
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input array is {@code null} or empty
      */
-    public static int average(int[] array) {
+    public static long average(int[] numbers) {
+        if (numbers == null || numbers.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Numbers array cannot be empty or null");
+        }
         long sum = 0;
-        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; ++i) {
-            sum += array[i];
+        for (int number : numbers) {
+            sum += number;
         }
-        return (int) (sum / array.length);
+        return sum / numbers.length;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPow.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPow.java
index 64b4e34fdee5..1550376782b1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPow.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPow.java
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-public class BinaryPow {
+public final class BinaryPow {
+    private BinaryPow() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Calculate a^p using binary exponentiation
@@ -21,29 +23,4 @@ public static int binPow(int a, int p) {
         }
         return res;
     }
-
-    /**
-     * Function for testing binary exponentiation
-     *
-     * @param a the base
-     * @param p the exponent
-     */
-    public static void test(int a, int p) {
-        int res = binPow(a, p);
-        assert res == (int) Math.pow(a, p) : "Incorrect Implementation";
-        System.out.println(a + "^" + p + ": " + res);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Main Function to call tests
-     *
-     * @param args System Line Arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // prints 2^15: 32768
-        test(2, 15);
-
-        // prints 3^9: 19683
-        test(3, 9);
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficient.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficient.java
index e6a08cd6553b..faec049b08a7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficient.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficient.java
@@ -5,42 +5,36 @@
  * Binomial Cofficients: A binomial cofficient C(n,k) gives number ways
  * in which k objects can be chosen from n objects.
  * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_coefficient
- * 
+ *
  * Author: Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
- * 
+ *
  * */
 
-public class BinomialCoefficient {
-	
-	/**
+public final class BinomialCoefficient {
+    private BinomialCoefficient() {
+    }
+
+    /**
      * This method returns the number of ways in which k objects can be chosen from n objects
      *
-     * @param total_objects Total number of objects
-     * @param no_of_objects Number of objects to be chosen from total_objects
-     * @return number of ways in which no_of_objects objects can be chosen from total_objects objects
+     * @param totalObjects    Total number of objects
+     * @param numberOfObjects Number of objects to be chosen from total_objects
+     * @return number of ways in which no_of_objects objects can be chosen from total_objects
+     *     objects
      */
-	
-	static int binomialCoefficient(int total_objects, int no_of_objects) {
-		
-		//Base Case
-		if(no_of_objects > total_objects) {
-			return 0;
-		}
-		
-		//Base Case
-		if(no_of_objects == 0 || no_of_objects == total_objects) {
-			return 1;
-		}
-		
-		//Recursive Call
-		return binomialCoefficient(total_objects - 1, no_of_objects - 1)
-				+ binomialCoefficient(total_objects - 1, no_of_objects);
-	}
-	
-	public static void main(String[] args) {
-		System.out.println(binomialCoefficient(20,2));
-		
-		//Output: 190
-	}
 
+    public static int binomialCoefficient(int totalObjects, int numberOfObjects) {
+        // Base Case
+        if (numberOfObjects > totalObjects) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        // Base Case
+        if (numberOfObjects == 0 || numberOfObjects == totalObjects) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+
+        // Recursive Call
+        return (binomialCoefficient(totalObjects - 1, numberOfObjects - 1) + binomialCoefficient(totalObjects - 1, numberOfObjects));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CatalanNumbers.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CatalanNumbers.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..387756bdfa0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CatalanNumbers.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * Calculate Catalan Numbers
+ */
+public final class CatalanNumbers {
+    private CatalanNumbers() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the nth Catalan number using a recursive formula.
+     *
+     * @param n the index of the Catalan number to compute
+     * @return the nth Catalan number
+     */
+    public static long catalan(final int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Index must be non-negative");
+        }
+        return factorial(2 * n) / (factorial(n + 1) * factorial(n));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the factorial of a number.
+     *
+     * @param n the number to compute the factorial for
+     * @return the factorial of n
+     */
+    private static long factorial(final int n) {
+        if (n == 0 || n == 1) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+        long result = 1;
+        for (int i = 2; i <= n; i++) {
+            result *= i;
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Ceil.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Ceil.java
index 2263f9e6dc04..28804eb1c569 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Ceil.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Ceil.java
@@ -1,31 +1,34 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Random;
+/**
+ * Utility class to compute the ceiling of a given number.
+ */
+public final class Ceil {
 
-public class Ceil {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random random = new Random();
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 1000; ++i) {
-            double randomNumber = random.nextDouble();
-            assert ceil(randomNumber) == Math.ceil(randomNumber);
-        }
+    private Ceil() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns the smallest (closest to negative infinity)
+     * Returns the smallest double value that is greater than or equal to the input.
+     * Equivalent to mathematical ⌈x⌉ (ceiling function).
      *
-     * @param number the number
-     * @return the smallest (closest to negative infinity) of given
-     * {@code number}
+     * @param number the number to ceil
+     * @return the smallest double greater than or equal to {@code number}
      */
     public static double ceil(double number) {
-        if (number - (int) number == 0) {
+        if (Double.isNaN(number) || Double.isInfinite(number) || number == 0.0 || number < Integer.MIN_VALUE || number > Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
             return number;
-        } else if (number - (int) number > 0) {
-            return (int) (number + 1);
+        }
+
+        if (number < 0.0 && number > -1.0) {
+            return -0.0;
+        }
+
+        long intPart = (long) number;
+        if (number > 0 && number != intPart) {
+            return intPart + 1.0;
         } else {
-            return (int) number;
+            return intPart;
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChineseRemainderTheorem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChineseRemainderTheorem.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c26e67cffb59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChineseRemainderTheorem.java
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * @brief Implementation of the Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) algorithm
+ * @details
+ * The Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) is used to solve systems of
+ * simultaneous congruences. Given several pairwise coprime moduli
+ * and corresponding remainders, the algorithm finds the smallest
+ * positive solution.
+ */
+public final class ChineseRemainderTheorem {
+    private ChineseRemainderTheorem() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Solves the Chinese Remainder Theorem problem.
+     * @param remainders The list of remainders.
+     * @param moduli The list of pairwise coprime moduli.
+     * @return The smallest positive solution that satisfies all the given congruences.
+     */
+    public static int solveCRT(List<Integer> remainders, List<Integer> moduli) {
+        int product = 1;
+        int result = 0;
+
+        // Calculate the product of all moduli
+        for (int mod : moduli) {
+            product *= mod;
+        }
+
+        // Apply the formula for each congruence
+        for (int i = 0; i < moduli.size(); i++) {
+            int partialProduct = product / moduli.get(i);
+            int inverse = modInverse(partialProduct, moduli.get(i));
+            result += remainders.get(i) * partialProduct * inverse;
+        }
+
+        // Adjust result to be the smallest positive solution
+        result = result % product;
+        if (result < 0) {
+            result += product;
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Computes the modular inverse of a number with respect to a modulus using
+     * the Extended Euclidean Algorithm.
+     * @param a The number for which to find the inverse.
+     * @param m The modulus.
+     * @return The modular inverse of a modulo m.
+     */
+    private static int modInverse(int a, int m) {
+        int m0 = m;
+        int x0 = 0;
+        int x1 = 1;
+
+        if (m == 1) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        while (a > 1) {
+            int q = a / m;
+            int t = m;
+
+            // m is remainder now, process same as Euclid's algorithm
+            m = a % m;
+            a = t;
+            t = x0;
+
+            x0 = x1 - q * x0;
+            x1 = t;
+        }
+
+        // Make x1 positive
+        if (x1 < 0) {
+            x1 += m0;
+        }
+
+        return x1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java
index 9b35ead01303..87fc5af57b8d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
 
 /**
  * Class for circular convolution of two discrete signals using the convolution
@@ -9,7 +10,9 @@
  * @author Ioannis Karavitsis
  * @version 1.0
  */
-public class CircularConvolutionFFT {
+public final class CircularConvolutionFFT {
+    private CircularConvolutionFFT() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * This method pads the signal with zeros until it reaches the new size.
@@ -17,7 +20,7 @@ public class CircularConvolutionFFT {
      * @param x The signal to be padded.
      * @param newSize The new size of the signal.
      */
-    private static void padding(ArrayList<FFT.Complex> x, int newSize) {
+    private static void padding(Collection<FFT.Complex> x, int newSize) {
         if (x.size() < newSize) {
             int diff = newSize - x.size();
             for (int i = 0; i < diff; i++) {
@@ -38,15 +41,13 @@ private static void padding(ArrayList<FFT.Complex> x, int newSize) {
      * @param b The other signal.
      * @return The convolved signal.
      */
-    public static ArrayList<FFT.Complex> fftCircularConvolution(
-            ArrayList<FFT.Complex> a, ArrayList<FFT.Complex> b) {
-        int convolvedSize
-                = Math.max(
-                        a.size(), b.size()); // The two signals must have the same size equal to the bigger one
+    public static ArrayList<FFT.Complex> fftCircularConvolution(ArrayList<FFT.Complex> a, ArrayList<FFT.Complex> b) {
+        int convolvedSize = Math.max(a.size(), b.size()); // The two signals must have the same size equal to the bigger one
         padding(a, convolvedSize); // Zero padding the smaller signal
         padding(b, convolvedSize);
 
-        /* Find the FFTs of both signal. Here we use the Bluestein algorithm because we want the FFT to have the same length with the signal and not bigger */
+        /* Find the FFTs of both signal. Here we use the Bluestein algorithm because we want the FFT
+         * to have the same length with the signal and not bigger */
         FFTBluestein.fftBluestein(a, false);
         FFTBluestein.fftBluestein(b, false);
         ArrayList<FFT.Complex> convolved = new ArrayList<>();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CollatzConjecture.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CollatzConjecture.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..980dc89b716e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CollatzConjecture.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collatz_conjecture">...</a>
+ */
+public class CollatzConjecture {
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the next number of the sequence.
+     *
+     * @param n current number of the sequence
+     * @return next number of the sequence
+     */
+    public int nextNumber(final int n) {
+        if (n % 2 == 0) {
+            return n / 2;
+        }
+        return 3 * n + 1;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the Collatz sequence of any natural number.
+     *
+     * @param firstNumber starting number of the sequence
+     * @return sequence of the Collatz Conjecture
+     */
+    public List<Integer> collatzConjecture(int firstNumber) {
+        if (firstNumber < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Must be a natural number");
+        }
+        ArrayList<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        result.add(firstNumber);
+        while (firstNumber != 1) {
+            result.add(nextNumber(firstNumber));
+            firstNumber = nextNumber(firstNumber);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java
index eee9b9fc81c3..2b4a78613190 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java
@@ -3,23 +3,8 @@
 /**
  * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination">Combination</a>
  */
-public class Combinations {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert combinations(1, 1) == 1;
-        assert combinations(10, 5) == 252;
-        assert combinations(6, 3) == 20;
-        assert combinations(20, 5) == 15504;
-
-        // Since, 200 is a big number its factorial will go beyond limits of long even when 200C5 can be saved in a long
-        // variable. So below will fail
-        // assert combinations(200, 5) == 2535650040l;
-        assert combinationsOptimized(100, 0) == 1;
-        assert combinationsOptimized(1, 1) == 1;
-        assert combinationsOptimized(10, 5) == 252;
-        assert combinationsOptimized(6, 3) == 20;
-        assert combinationsOptimized(20, 5) == 15504;
-        assert combinationsOptimized(200, 5) == 2535650040l;
+public final class Combinations {
+    private Combinations() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -69,8 +54,7 @@ public static long combinationsOptimized(int n, int k) {
         // nC0 is always 1
         long solution = 1;
         for (int i = 0; i < k; i++) {
-            long next = (n - i) * solution / (i + 1);
-            solution = next;
+            solution = (n - i) * solution / (i + 1);
         }
         return solution;
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Convolution.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Convolution.java
index 8a89d31ad3c5..a86ecabce933 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Convolution.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Convolution.java
@@ -6,38 +6,38 @@
  * @author Ioannis Karavitsis
  * @version 1.0
  */
-public class Convolution {
+public final class Convolution {
+    private Convolution() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Discrete linear convolution function. Both input signals and the output
      * signal must start from 0. If you have a signal that has values before 0
      * then shift it to start from 0.
      *
-     * @param A The first discrete signal
-     * @param B The second discrete signal
+     * @param a The first discrete signal
+     * @param b The second discrete signal
      * @return The convolved signal
      */
-    public static double[] convolution(double[] A, double[] B) {
-        double[] convolved = new double[A.length + B.length - 1];
+    public static double[] convolution(double[] a, double[] b) {
+        double[] convolved = new double[a.length + b.length - 1];
 
         /*
-    The discrete convolution of two signals A and B is defined as:
-
-          A.length
-    C[i] = Σ (A[k]*B[i-k])
-          k=0
-
-    It's obvious that:  0 <= k <= A.length , 0 <= i <= A.length + B.length - 2  and  0 <= i-k <= B.length - 1
-    From the last inequality we get that:  i - B.length + 1 <= k <= i and thus we get the conditions below.
+         * Discrete convolution formula:
+         * C[i] = Σ A[k] * B[i - k]
+         * where k ranges over valid indices so that both A[k] and B[i-k] are in bounds.
          */
+
         for (int i = 0; i < convolved.length; i++) {
-            convolved[i] = 0;
-            int k = Math.max(i - B.length + 1, 0);
+            double sum = 0;
+            int kStart = Math.max(0, i - b.length + 1);
+            int kEnd = Math.min(i, a.length - 1);
 
-            while (k < i + 1 && k < A.length) {
-                convolved[i] += A[k] * B[i - k];
-                k++;
+            for (int k = kStart; k <= kEnd; k++) {
+                sum += a[k] * b[i - k];
             }
+
+            convolved[i] = sum;
         }
 
         return convolved;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java
index d7c94b7a1764..ed1ba1bbefc3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
 
 /**
  * Class for linear convolution of two discrete signals using the convolution
@@ -9,7 +10,9 @@
  * @author Ioannis Karavitsis
  * @version 1.0
  */
-public class ConvolutionFFT {
+public final class ConvolutionFFT {
+    private ConvolutionFFT() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * This method pads the signal with zeros until it reaches the new size.
@@ -17,7 +20,7 @@ public class ConvolutionFFT {
      * @param x The signal to be padded.
      * @param newSize The new size of the signal.
      */
-    private static void padding(ArrayList<FFT.Complex> x, int newSize) {
+    private static void padding(Collection<FFT.Complex> x, int newSize) {
         if (x.size() < newSize) {
             int diff = newSize - x.size();
             for (int i = 0; i < diff; i++) {
@@ -42,13 +45,13 @@ private static void padding(ArrayList<FFT.Complex> x, int newSize) {
      * @param b The other signal.
      * @return The convolved signal.
      */
-    public static ArrayList<FFT.Complex> convolutionFFT(
-            ArrayList<FFT.Complex> a, ArrayList<FFT.Complex> b) {
+    public static ArrayList<FFT.Complex> convolutionFFT(ArrayList<FFT.Complex> a, ArrayList<FFT.Complex> b) {
         int convolvedSize = a.size() + b.size() - 1; // The size of the convolved signal
         padding(a, convolvedSize); // Zero padding both signals
         padding(b, convolvedSize);
 
-        /* Find the FFTs of both signals (Note that the size of the FFTs will be bigger than the convolvedSize because of the extra zero padding in FFT algorithm) */
+        /* Find the FFTs of both signals (Note that the size of the FFTs will be bigger than the
+         * convolvedSize because of the extra zero padding in FFT algorithm) */
         FFT.fft(a, false);
         FFT.fft(b, false);
         ArrayList<FFT.Complex> convolved = new ArrayList<>();
@@ -57,9 +60,8 @@ public static ArrayList<FFT.Complex> convolutionFFT(
             convolved.add(a.get(i).multiply(b.get(i))); // FFT(a)*FFT(b)
         }
         FFT.fft(convolved, true); // IFFT
-        convolved
-                .subList(convolvedSize, convolved.size())
-                .clear(); // Remove the remaining zeros after the convolvedSize. These extra zeros came from
+        convolved.subList(convolvedSize, convolved.size()).clear(); // Remove the remaining zeros after the convolvedSize. These extra zeros came
+                                                                    // from
         // paddingPowerOfTwo() method inside the fft() method.
 
         return convolved;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CrossCorrelation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CrossCorrelation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..eeb4d6d1717a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CrossCorrelation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * Class for linear cross-correlation of two discrete signals
+ *
+ * @author Athina-Frederiki Swinkels
+ * @version 1.0
+ */
+
+public final class CrossCorrelation {
+    private CrossCorrelation() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Discrete linear cross-correlation function.
+     * Input and output signals have starting index 0.
+     *
+     * @param x The first discrete signal
+     * @param y The second discrete signal
+     * @return The result of the cross-correlation of signals x,y. The result is also a signal.
+     */
+    public static double[] crossCorrelation(double[] x, double[] y) {
+        // The result signal's length is the sum of the input signals' lengths minus 1
+        double[] result = new double[x.length + y.length - 1];
+        int n = result.length;
+
+        /*
+        To find the cross-correlation between 2 discrete signals x & y, we start by "placing" the second signal
+        y under the first signal x, shifted to the left so that the last value of y meets the first value of x
+        and for every new position (i++) of the result signal, we shift y signal one position to the right, until
+        the first y-value meets the last x-value. The result-value for each position is the sum of all x*y meeting
+        values.
+        Here's an example:
+        x=[1,2,1,1]
+        y=[1,1,2,1]
+
+        i=0:      [1,2,1,1]
+            [1,1,2,1]               result[0]=1*1=1
+
+        i=1:       [1,2,1,1]
+               [1,1,2,1]            result[1]=1*2+2*1=4
+
+        i=2:       [1,2,1,1]
+                 [1,1,2,1]          result[2]=1*1+2*2+1*1=6
+
+        i=3:       [1,2,1,1]
+                   [1,1,2,1]        result[3]=1*1+2*1+1*2+1*1=6
+
+        i=4:       [1,2,1,1]
+                     [1,1,2,1]      result[4]=2*1+1*1+1*2=5
+
+        i=5:       [1,2,1,1]
+                       [1,1,2,1]    result[5]=1*1+1*1=2
+
+        i=1:       [1,2,1,1]
+                         [1,1,2,1]  result[6]=1*1=1
+
+        result=[1,4,6,6,5,2,1]
+
+
+
+
+        To find the result[i] value for each i:0->n-1, the positions of x-signal in which the 2 signals meet
+        are calculated: kMin<=k<=kMax.
+        The variable 'yStart' indicates the starting index of y in each sum calculation.
+        The variable 'count' increases the index of y-signal by 1, to move to the next value.
+         */
+        int yStart = y.length;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            result[i] = 0;
+
+            int kMin = Math.max(i - (y.length - 1), 0);
+            int kMax = Math.min(i, x.length - 1);
+
+            if (i < y.length) {
+                yStart--;
+            }
+
+            int count = 0;
+            for (int k = kMin; k <= kMax; k++) {
+                result[i] += x[k] * y[yStart + count];
+                count++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // The calculated cross-correlation of x & y signals is returned here.
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java
index fc695876b1ea..b652d4903da8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java
@@ -1,21 +1,29 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.*;
-
-/* 
-* @author Ojasva Jain
-* Determinant of Matrix Wikipedia link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinant
+/*
+ * @author Ojasva Jain
+ * Determinant of a Matrix Wikipedia link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinant
  */
-public class DeterminantOfMatrix {
+public final class DeterminantOfMatrix {
+    private DeterminantOfMatrix() {
+    }
 
-    // Determinant calculator
-    //@return determinant of the input matrix
-    static int determinant(int a[][], int n) {
-        int det = 0, sign = 1, p = 0, q = 0;
+    /**
+     * Calculates the determinant of a given matrix.
+     *
+     * @param a the input matrix
+     * @param n the size of the matrix
+     * @return the determinant of the matrix
+     */
+    static int determinant(int[][] a, int n) {
+        int det = 0;
+        int sign = 1;
+        int p = 0;
+        int q = 0;
         if (n == 1) {
             det = a[0][0];
         } else {
-            int b[][] = new int[n - 1][n - 1];
+            int[][] b = new int[n - 1][n - 1];
             for (int x = 0; x < n; x++) {
                 p = 0;
                 q = 0;
@@ -36,20 +44,4 @@ static int determinant(int a[][], int n) {
         }
         return det;
     }
-
-    //Driver Method
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
-        //Input Matrix
-        System.out.println("Enter matrix size (Square matrix only)");
-        int n = in.nextInt();
-        System.out.println("Enter matrix");
-        int a[][] = new int[n][n];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-                a[i][j] = in.nextInt();
-            }
-        }
-        System.out.println(determinant(a, n));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java
index e973d55b4c21..e8f5305c7569 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java
@@ -1,7 +1,8 @@
-/** Author : Suraj Kumar Modi
- * https://github.com/skmodi649
- */
-/** You are given a number n. You need to find the digital root of n.
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/skmodi649">Suraj Kumar Modi</a>
+ * You are given a number n. You need to find the digital root of n.
  * DigitalRoot of a number is the recursive sum of its digits until we get a single digit number.
  *
  * Test Case 1:
@@ -18,8 +19,7 @@
  * which is not a single digit number, hence
  * sum of digit of 45 is 9 which is a single
  * digit number.
- */
-/** Algorithm :
+ * Algorithm :
  * Step 1 : Define a method digitalRoot(int n)
  * Step 2 : Define another method single(int n)
  * Step 3 : digitalRoot(int n) method takes output of single(int n) as input
@@ -32,43 +32,34 @@
  * return n;
  * else
  * return (n%10) + (n/10)
- * Step 5 : In main method simply take n as input and then call digitalRoot(int n) function and print the result
+ * Step 5 : In main method simply take n as input and then call digitalRoot(int n) function and
+ * print the result
  */
-package com.thealgorithms.maths;
-
-import java.util.*;
-
-class DigitalRoot {
+final class DigitalRoot {
+    private DigitalRoot() {
+    }
 
     public static int digitalRoot(int n) {
-        if (single(n) <= 9) // If n is already single digit than simply call single method and return the value
-        {
+        if (single(n) <= 9) { // If n is already single digit than simply call single method and
+                              // return the value
             return single(n);
         } else {
             return digitalRoot(single(n));
         }
     }
 
-    // This function is used for finding the sum of digits of number
+    /**
+     * Time Complexity: O((Number of Digits)^2) Auxiliary Space Complexity:
+     * O(Number of Digits) Constraints: 1 <= n <= 10^7
+     */
+
+    // This function is used for finding the sum of the digits of number
     public static int single(int n) {
-        if (n <= 9) // if n becomes less than 10 than return n
-        {
+        if (n <= 9) { // if n becomes less than 10 than return n
             return n;
         } else {
-            return (n % 10) + single(n / 10);                     // n % 10 for extracting digits one by one
+            return (n % 10) + single(n / 10); // n % 10 for extracting digits one by one
         }
-    }                                                             // n / 10 is the number obtainded after removing the digit one by one  
-    // Sum of digits is stored in the Stack memory and then finally returned
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter the number : ");
-        int n = sc.nextInt();                                     // Taking a number as input from the user
-        System.out.println("Digital Root : " + digitalRoot(n));     // Printing the value returned by digitalRoot() method
-    }
+    } // n / 10 is the number obtained after removing the digit one by one
+    // The Sum of digits is stored in the Stack memory and then finally returned
 }
-
-/**
- * Time Complexity : O((Number of Digits)^2) Auxiliary Space Complexity :
- * O(Number of Digits) Constraints : 1 <= n <= 10^7
- */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormula.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormula.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f7e2c7629551
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormula.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+public final class DistanceFormula {
+    private DistanceFormula() {
+    }
+
+    public static double euclideanDistance(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2) {
+        double dX = Math.pow(x2 - x1, 2);
+        double dY = Math.pow(y2 - x1, 2);
+        return Math.sqrt(dX + dY);
+    }
+
+    public static double manhattanDistance(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2) {
+        return Math.abs(x1 - x2) + Math.abs(y1 - y2);
+    }
+
+    public static int hammingDistance(int[] b1, int[] b2) {
+        int d = 0;
+
+        if (b1.length != b2.length) {
+            return -1; // error, both arrays must have the same length
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < b1.length; i++) {
+            d += Math.abs(b1[i] - b2[i]);
+        }
+
+        return d;
+    }
+
+    public static double minkowskiDistance(double[] p1, double[] p2, int p) {
+        double d = 0;
+        double distance = 0.0;
+
+        if (p1.length != p2.length) {
+            return -1; // error, both arrays must have the same length
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < p1.length; i++) {
+            distance += Math.abs(Math.pow(p1[i] - p2[i], p));
+        }
+
+        distance = Math.pow(distance, (double) 1 / p);
+        d = distance;
+        return d;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumber.java
index bb3b7608810a..37f28e188663 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumber.java
@@ -1,59 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
 /**
  * A number is said to be Dudeney if the sum of the digits, is the cube root of the entered number.
  * Example- Let the number be 512, its sum of digits is 5+1+2=8. The cube root of 512 is also 8.
  *          Since, the sum of the digits is equal to the cube root of the entered number;
  *          it is a Dudeney Number.
  */
-package com.thealgorithms.maths;
-
-import java.io.*;
-
-public class DudeneyNumber {
+public final class DudeneyNumber {
+    private DudeneyNumber() {
+    }
 
-    //returns True if the number is a Dudeney number and False if it is not a Dudeney number.
-    public static boolean isDudeney(int n) {
+    // returns True if the number is a Dudeney number and False if it is not a Dudeney number.
+    public static boolean isDudeney(final int n) {
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must me positive.");
+        }
         // Calculating Cube Root
-        int cube_root = (int) (Math.round((Math.pow(n, 1.0 / 3.0))));
+        final int cubeRoot = (int) Math.round(Math.pow(n, 1.0 / 3.0));
         // If the number is not a perfect cube the method returns false.
-        if (cube_root * cube_root * cube_root != n) {
+        if (cubeRoot * cubeRoot * cubeRoot != n) {
             return false;
         }
-        int sum_of_digits = 0;// Stores the sums of the digit of the entered number
-        int temp = n;//A temporary variable to store the entered number
-        // Loop to calculate sum of the digits.
-        while (temp > 0) {
-
-            // Extracting Last digit of the number
-            int rem = temp % 10;
-
-            // Calculating sum of digits.
-            sum_of_digits += rem;
 
-            // Removing the last digit
-            temp /= 10;
-        }
-
-        //If the cube root of the number is not equal to the sum of its digits we return false.  
-        if (cube_root != sum_of_digits) {
-            return false;
-        }
-
-        return true;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Method to check if number is Dudeney Number or Not 1) Input - Enter a
-     * Number: 512 Output - It is a Dudeney Number. 2) Input - Enter a Number:
-     * 125 Output - It is not a Dudeney Number.
-     */
-    public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException {
-        BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
-        System.out.println("Enter a Number: ");
-        int n = Integer.parseInt(br.readLine());
-        if (isDudeney(n)) {
-            System.out.println("It is a Dudeney Number.");
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("It is not a Dudeney Number.");
-        }
+        // If the cube root of the number is not equal to the sum of its digits, we return false.
+        return cubeRoot == SumOfDigits.sumOfDigits(n);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java
index c4b154bb2808..3663b6c534aa 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java
@@ -15,7 +15,9 @@
  * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_method ) (see also:
  * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/euler-method-solving-differential-equation/ )
  */
-public class EulerMethod {
+public final class EulerMethod {
+    private EulerMethod() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Illustrates how the algorithm is used in 3 examples and prints the
@@ -26,24 +28,21 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> exampleEquation1 = (x, y) -> x;
         ArrayList<double[]> points1 = eulerFull(0, 4, 0.1, 0, exampleEquation1);
         assert points1.get(points1.size() - 1)[1] == 7.800000000000003;
-        points1.forEach(
-                point -> System.out.println(String.format("x: %1$f; y: %2$f", point[0], point[1])));
+        points1.forEach(point -> System.out.printf("x: %1$f; y: %2$f%n", point[0], point[1]));
 
         // example from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_method
         System.out.println("\n\nexample 2:");
         BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> exampleEquation2 = (x, y) -> y;
         ArrayList<double[]> points2 = eulerFull(0, 4, 0.1, 1, exampleEquation2);
         assert points2.get(points2.size() - 1)[1] == 45.25925556817596;
-        points2.forEach(
-                point -> System.out.println(String.format("x: %1$f; y: %2$f", point[0], point[1])));
+        points2.forEach(point -> System.out.printf("x: %1$f; y: %2$f%n", point[0], point[1]));
 
         // example from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/euler-method-solving-differential-equation/
         System.out.println("\n\nexample 3:");
         BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> exampleEquation3 = (x, y) -> x + y + x * y;
         ArrayList<double[]> points3 = eulerFull(0, 0.1, 0.025, 1, exampleEquation3);
         assert points3.get(points3.size() - 1)[1] == 1.1116729841674804;
-        points3.forEach(
-                point -> System.out.println(String.format("x: %1$f; y: %2$f", point[0], point[1])));
+        points3.forEach(point -> System.out.printf("x: %1$f; y: %2$f%n", point[0], point[1]));
     }
 
     /**
@@ -56,16 +55,11 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @param differentialEquation The differential equation to be solved.
      * @return The next y-value.
      */
-    public static double eulerStep(
-            double xCurrent,
-            double stepSize,
-            double yCurrent,
-            BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> differentialEquation) {
+    public static double eulerStep(double xCurrent, double stepSize, double yCurrent, BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> differentialEquation) {
         if (stepSize <= 0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("stepSize should be greater than zero");
         }
-        double yNext = yCurrent + stepSize * differentialEquation.apply(xCurrent, yCurrent);
-        return yNext;
+        return yCurrent + stepSize * differentialEquation.apply(xCurrent, yCurrent);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -80,12 +74,7 @@ public static double eulerStep(
      * @return The points constituting the solution of the differential
      * equation.
      */
-    public static ArrayList<double[]> eulerFull(
-            double xStart,
-            double xEnd,
-            double stepSize,
-            double yStart,
-            BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> differentialEquation) {
+    public static ArrayList<double[]> eulerFull(double xStart, double xEnd, double stepSize, double yStart, BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> differentialEquation) {
         if (xStart >= xEnd) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("xEnd should be greater than xStart");
         }
@@ -100,7 +89,7 @@ public static ArrayList<double[]> eulerFull(
         double xCurrent = xStart;
 
         while (xCurrent < xEnd) {
-            // Euler method for next step
+            // Euler's method for next step
             yCurrent = eulerStep(xCurrent, stepSize, yCurrent, differentialEquation);
             xCurrent += stepSize;
             double[] point = {xCurrent, yCurrent};
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprime.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9a03f4e21d17
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprime.java
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code EulerPseudoprime} class implements the Euler primality test.
+ *
+ * It is based on Euler’s criterion:
+ * For an odd prime number {@code n} and any integer {@code a} coprime to {@code n}:
+ *   a^((n-1)/2) ≡ (a/n) (mod n)
+ * where (a/n) is the Jacobi symbol.
+ *
+ * This algorithm is a stronger probabilistic test than Fermat’s test.
+ * It may still incorrectly identify a composite as “probably prime” (Euler pseudoprime),
+ * but such cases are rare.
+ */
+public final class EulerPseudoprime {
+
+    private EulerPseudoprime() {
+        // Private constructor to prevent instantiation.
+    }
+
+    private static final Random RANDOM = new Random(1);
+
+    /**
+     * Performs the Euler primality test for a given number.
+     *
+     * @param n     number to test (must be > 2 and odd)
+     * @param trials number of random bases to test
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code n} passes all Euler tests (probably prime),
+     *         {@code false} if composite.
+     */
+    public static boolean isProbablePrime(BigInteger n, int trials) {
+        if (n.compareTo(BigInteger.TWO) < 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        if (n.equals(BigInteger.TWO) || n.equals(BigInteger.valueOf(3))) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (n.mod(BigInteger.TWO).equals(BigInteger.ZERO)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < trials; i++) {
+            BigInteger a = uniformRandom(BigInteger.TWO, n.subtract(BigInteger.TWO));
+            BigInteger jacobi = BigInteger.valueOf(jacobiSymbol(a, n));
+            if (jacobi.equals(BigInteger.ZERO)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            BigInteger exp = n.subtract(BigInteger.ONE).divide(BigInteger.TWO);
+            BigInteger modExp = a.modPow(exp, n);
+
+            // Euler's criterion: a^((n-1)/2) ≡ (a/n) (mod n)
+            if (!modExp.equals(jacobi.mod(n))) {
+                return false; // definitely composite
+            }
+        }
+        return true; // probably prime
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the Jacobi symbol (a/n).
+     * Assumes n is positive and odd.
+     */
+    public static int jacobiSymbol(BigInteger a, BigInteger n) {
+        if (n.signum() <= 0 || n.mod(BigInteger.TWO).equals(BigInteger.ZERO)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("n must be positive and odd.");
+        }
+
+        int result = 1;
+        a = a.mod(n);
+
+        while (a.compareTo(BigInteger.ZERO) != 0) {
+            while (a.mod(BigInteger.TWO).equals(BigInteger.ZERO)) {
+                a = a.divide(BigInteger.TWO);
+                BigInteger nMod8 = n.mod(BigInteger.valueOf(8));
+                if (nMod8.equals(BigInteger.valueOf(3)) || nMod8.equals(BigInteger.valueOf(5))) {
+                    result = -result;
+                }
+            }
+
+            BigInteger temp = a;
+            a = n;
+            n = temp;
+
+            if (a.mod(BigInteger.valueOf(4)).equals(BigInteger.valueOf(3)) && n.mod(BigInteger.valueOf(4)).equals(BigInteger.valueOf(3))) {
+                result = -result;
+            }
+
+            a = a.mod(n);
+        }
+
+        return n.equals(BigInteger.ONE) ? result : 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates a random BigInteger between {@code min} and {@code max}, inclusive.
+     */
+    private static BigInteger uniformRandom(BigInteger min, BigInteger max) {
+        BigInteger result;
+        do {
+            result = new BigInteger(max.bitLength(), RANDOM);
+        } while (result.compareTo(min) < 0 || result.compareTo(max) > 0);
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulersFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulersFunction.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3a6bc8756681
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulersFunction.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for computing
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_totient_function">Euler's totient function</a>.
+ */
+public final class EulersFunction {
+    private EulersFunction() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Validates that the input is a positive integer.
+     *
+     * @param n the input number to validate
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code n} is non-positive
+     */
+    private static void checkInput(int n) {
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("n must be positive.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the value of Euler's totient function for a given input.
+     * This function has a time complexity of O(sqrt(n)).
+     *
+     * @param n the input number
+     * @return the value of Euler's totient function for the given input
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code n} is non-positive
+     */
+    public static int getEuler(int n) {
+        checkInput(n);
+        int result = n;
+        for (int i = 2; i * i <= n; i++) {
+            if (n % i == 0) {
+                while (n % i == 0) {
+                    n /= i;
+                }
+                result -= result / i;
+            }
+        }
+        if (n > 1) {
+            result -= result / n;
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java
index 56bb89de7543..91754bd1a80b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.Collections;
 
 /**
@@ -10,7 +11,9 @@
  * @author Ioannis Karavitsis
  * @version 1.0
  */
-public class FFT {
+public final class FFT {
+    private FFT() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * This class represents a complex number and has methods for basic
@@ -22,12 +25,13 @@ public class FFT {
      */
     static class Complex {
 
-        private double real, img;
+        private double real;
+        private double img;
 
         /**
          * Default Constructor. Creates the complex number 0.
          */
-        public Complex() {
+        Complex() {
             real = 0;
             img = 0;
         }
@@ -38,7 +42,7 @@ public Complex() {
          * @param r The real part of the number.
          * @param i The imaginary part of the number.
          */
-        public Complex(double r, double i) {
+        Complex(double r, double i) {
             real = r;
             img = i;
         }
@@ -142,8 +146,10 @@ public double abs() {
          */
         public Complex divide(Complex z) {
             Complex temp = new Complex();
-            temp.real = (this.real * z.real + this.img * z.img) / (z.abs() * z.abs());
-            temp.img = (this.img * z.real - this.real * z.img) / (z.abs() * z.abs());
+            double d = z.abs() * z.abs();
+            d = (double) Math.round(d * 1000000000d) / 1000000000d;
+            temp.real = (this.real * z.real + this.img * z.img) / (d);
+            temp.img = (this.img * z.real - this.real * z.img) / (d);
             return temp;
         }
 
@@ -159,6 +165,14 @@ public Complex divide(double n) {
             temp.img = this.img / n;
             return temp;
         }
+
+        public double real() {
+            return real;
+        }
+
+        public double imaginary() {
+            return img;
+        }
     }
 
     /**
@@ -173,38 +187,24 @@ public Complex divide(double n) {
      * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/iterative-fast-fourier-transformation-polynomial-multiplication/
      * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooley%E2%80%93Tukey_FFT_algorithm
      * https://cp-algorithms.com/algebra/fft.html
-     *
-     * @param x The discrete signal which is then converted to the FFT or the
+     *  @param x The discrete signal which is then converted to the FFT or the
      * IFFT of signal x.
      * @param inverse True if you want to find the inverse FFT.
+     * @return
      */
-    public static void fft(ArrayList<Complex> x, boolean inverse) {
+    public static ArrayList<Complex> fft(ArrayList<Complex> x, boolean inverse) {
         /* Pad the signal with zeros if necessary */
         paddingPowerOfTwo(x);
-        int N = x.size();
-
-        /* Find the log2(N) */
-        int log2N = 0;
-        while ((1 << log2N) < N) {
-            log2N++;
-        }
-
-        /* Swap the values of the signal with bit-reversal method */
-        int reverse;
-        for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
-            reverse = reverseBits(i, log2N);
-            if (i < reverse) {
-                Collections.swap(x, i, reverse);
-            }
-        }
-
+        int n = x.size();
+        int log2n = findLog2(n);
+        x = fftBitReversal(n, log2n, x);
         int direction = inverse ? -1 : 1;
 
         /* Main loop of the algorithm */
-        for (int len = 2; len <= N; len *= 2) {
+        for (int len = 2; len <= n; len *= 2) {
             double angle = -2 * Math.PI / len * direction;
             Complex wlen = new Complex(Math.cos(angle), Math.sin(angle));
-            for (int i = 0; i < N; i += len) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i += len) {
                 Complex w = new Complex(1, 0);
                 for (int j = 0; j < len / 2; j++) {
                     Complex u = x.get(i + j);
@@ -215,14 +215,40 @@ public static void fft(ArrayList<Complex> x, boolean inverse) {
                 }
             }
         }
+        x = inverseFFT(n, inverse, x);
+        return x;
+    }
+
+    /* Find the log2(n) */
+    public static int findLog2(int n) {
+        int log2n = 0;
+        while ((1 << log2n) < n) {
+            log2n++;
+        }
+        return log2n;
+    }
+
+    /* Swap the values of the signal with bit-reversal method */
+    public static ArrayList<Complex> fftBitReversal(int n, int log2n, ArrayList<Complex> x) {
+        int reverse;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            reverse = reverseBits(i, log2n);
+            if (i < reverse) {
+                Collections.swap(x, i, reverse);
+            }
+        }
+        return x;
+    }
 
-        /* Divide by N if we want the inverse FFT */
+    /* Divide by n if we want the inverse FFT */
+    public static ArrayList<Complex> inverseFFT(int n, boolean inverse, ArrayList<Complex> x) {
         if (inverse) {
             for (int i = 0; i < x.size(); i++) {
                 Complex z = x.get(i);
-                x.set(i, z.divide(N));
+                x.set(i, z.divide(n));
             }
         }
+        return x;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -230,7 +256,7 @@ public static void fft(ArrayList<Complex> x, boolean inverse) {
      * FFT algorithm.
      *
      * <p>
-     * E.g. num = 13 = 00001101 in binary log2N = 8 Then reversed = 176 =
+     * E.g. num = 13 = 00001101 in binary log2n = 8 Then reversed = 176 =
      * 10110000 in binary
      *
      * <p>
@@ -238,14 +264,14 @@ public static void fft(ArrayList<Complex> x, boolean inverse) {
      * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/write-an-efficient-c-program-to-reverse-bits-of-a-number/
      *
      * @param num The integer you want to reverse its bits.
-     * @param log2N The number of bits you want to reverse.
+     * @param log2n The number of bits you want to reverse.
      * @return The reversed number
      */
-    private static int reverseBits(int num, int log2N) {
+    private static int reverseBits(int num, int log2n) {
         int reversed = 0;
-        for (int i = 0; i < log2N; i++) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < log2n; i++) {
             if ((num & (1 << i)) != 0) {
-                reversed |= 1 << (log2N - 1 - i);
+                reversed |= 1 << (log2n - 1 - i);
             }
         }
         return reversed;
@@ -257,7 +283,7 @@ private static int reverseBits(int num, int log2N) {
      *
      * @param x The ArrayList to be padded.
      */
-    private static void paddingPowerOfTwo(ArrayList<Complex> x) {
+    private static void paddingPowerOfTwo(Collection<Complex> x) {
         int n = 1;
         int oldSize = x.size();
         while (n < oldSize) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java
index b15143094997..7a03c20cc642 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
 
 /**
  * Class for calculating the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) of a discrete signal
@@ -9,7 +10,9 @@
  * @author Ioannis Karavitsis
  * @version 1.0
  */
-public class FFTBluestein {
+public final class FFTBluestein {
+    private FFTBluestein() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Bluestein's FFT Algorithm.
@@ -23,44 +26,45 @@ public class FFTBluestein {
      * IFFT of signal x.
      * @param inverse True if you want to find the inverse FFT.
      */
-    public static void fftBluestein(ArrayList<FFT.Complex> x, boolean inverse) {
-        int N = x.size();
-        int bnSize = 2 * N - 1;
+    public static void fftBluestein(List<FFT.Complex> x, boolean inverse) {
+        int n = x.size();
+        int bnSize = 2 * n - 1;
         int direction = inverse ? -1 : 1;
         ArrayList<FFT.Complex> an = new ArrayList<>();
         ArrayList<FFT.Complex> bn = new ArrayList<>();
 
-        /* Initialization of the b(n) sequence (see Wikipedia's article above for the symbols used)*/
+        /* Initialization of the b(n) sequence (see Wikipedia's article above for the symbols
+         * used)*/
         for (int i = 0; i < bnSize; i++) {
             bn.add(new FFT.Complex());
         }
 
-        for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
-            double angle = (i - N + 1) * (i - N + 1) * Math.PI / N * direction;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            double angle = (i - n + 1) * (i - n + 1) * Math.PI / n * direction;
             bn.set(i, new FFT.Complex(Math.cos(angle), Math.sin(angle)));
             bn.set(bnSize - i - 1, new FFT.Complex(Math.cos(angle), Math.sin(angle)));
         }
 
         /* Initialization of the a(n) sequence */
-        for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
-            double angle = -i * i * Math.PI / N * direction;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            double angle = -i * i * Math.PI / n * direction;
             an.add(x.get(i).multiply(new FFT.Complex(Math.cos(angle), Math.sin(angle))));
         }
 
         ArrayList<FFT.Complex> convolution = ConvolutionFFT.convolutionFFT(an, bn);
 
         /* The final multiplication of the convolution with the b*(k) factor  */
-        for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
-            double angle = -1 * i * i * Math.PI / N * direction;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            double angle = -1 * i * i * Math.PI / n * direction;
             FFT.Complex bk = new FFT.Complex(Math.cos(angle), Math.sin(angle));
-            x.set(i, bk.multiply(convolution.get(i + N - 1)));
+            x.set(i, bk.multiply(convolution.get(i + n - 1)));
         }
 
-        /* Divide by N if we want the inverse FFT */
+        /* Divide by n if we want the inverse FFT */
         if (inverse) {
-            for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
                 FFT.Complex z = x.get(i);
-                x.set(i, z.divide(N));
+                x.set(i, z.divide(n));
             }
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Factorial.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Factorial.java
index 6ba6d4159721..511cc1f84f05 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Factorial.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Factorial.java
@@ -1,13 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-public class Factorial {
-
-    /* Driver Code */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert factorial(0) == 1;
-        assert factorial(1) == 1;
-        assert factorial(5) == 120;
-        assert factorial(10) == 3628800;
+public final class Factorial {
+    private Factorial() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -18,11 +12,12 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      */
     public static long factorial(int n) {
         if (n < 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("number is negative");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input number cannot be negative");
         }
         long factorial = 1;
-        for (int i = 1; i <= n; factorial *= i, ++i)
-      ;
+        for (int i = 1; i <= n; ++i) {
+            factorial *= i;
+        }
         return factorial;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursion.java
index 85e03c4dd1a4..d9bafd1e39e9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursion.java
@@ -1,16 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-public class FactorialRecursion {
-
-    /* Driver Code */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert factorial(0) == 1;
-        assert factorial(1) == 1;
-        assert factorial(2) == 2;
-        assert factorial(3) == 6;
-        assert factorial(5) == 120;
+public final class FactorialRecursion {
+    private FactorialRecursion() {
     }
-
     /**
      * Recursive FactorialRecursion Method
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..27f49e27ff30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to perform fast exponentiation (exponentiation by squaring),
+ * which calculates (base^exp) % mod efficiently.
+ *
+ * <p>The algorithm works by repeatedly squaring the base and reducing the exponent
+ * by half at each step. It exploits the fact that:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>If exp is even, (base^exp) = (base^(exp/2))^2</li>
+ *   <li>If exp is odd, (base^exp) = base * (base^(exp-1))</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * The result is computed modulo `mod` at each step to avoid overflow and keep the result within bounds.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p><strong>Time complexity:</strong> O(log(exp)) — much faster than naive exponentiation (O(exp)).</p>
+ *
+ * For more information, please visit {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation_by_squaring}
+ */
+public final class FastExponentiation {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to hide the implicit public one.
+     */
+    private FastExponentiation() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs fast exponentiation to calculate (base^exp) % mod using the method
+     * of exponentiation by squaring.
+     *
+     * <p>This method efficiently computes the result by squaring the base and halving
+     * the exponent at each step. It multiplies the base to the result when the exponent is odd.
+     *
+     * @param base the base number to be raised to the power of exp
+     * @param exp the exponent to which the base is raised
+     * @param mod the modulus to ensure the result does not overflow
+     * @return (base^exp) % mod
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the modulus is less than or equal to 0
+     * @throws ArithmeticException if the exponent is negative (not supported in this implementation)
+     */
+    public static long fastExponentiation(long base, long exp, long mod) {
+        if (mod <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Modulus must be positive.");
+        }
+
+        if (exp < 0) {
+            throw new ArithmeticException("Negative exponent is not supported.");
+        }
+
+        long result = 1;
+        base = base % mod; // Take the modulus of the base to handle large base values
+
+        // Fast exponentiation by squaring algorithm
+        while (exp > 0) {
+            // If exp is odd, multiply the base to the result
+            if ((exp & 1) == 1) { // exp & 1 checks if exp is odd
+                result = result * base % mod;
+            }
+            // Square the base and halve the exponent
+            base = base * base % mod; // base^2 % mod to avoid overflow
+            exp >>= 1; // Right shift exp to divide it by 2
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrt.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrt.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..01a52b913d30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrt.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/siddhant2002">Siddhant Swarup Mallick</a>
+ * Program description - To find out the inverse square root of the given number
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_inverse_square_root">Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class FastInverseSqrt {
+    private FastInverseSqrt() {
+    }
+    /**
+     * Returns the inverse square root of the given number upto 6 - 8 decimal places.
+     * calculates the inverse square root of the given number and returns true if calculated answer
+     * matches with given answer else returns false
+     *
+     * OUTPUT :
+     * Input - number = 4522
+     * Output: it calculates the inverse squareroot of a number and returns true with it matches the
+     * given answer else returns false. 1st approach Time Complexity : O(1) Auxiliary Space Complexity :
+     * O(1) Input - number = 4522 Output: it calculates the inverse squareroot of a number and returns
+     * true with it matches the given answer else returns false. 2nd approach Time Complexity : O(1)
+     * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
+     */
+    public static boolean inverseSqrt(float number) {
+        float x = number;
+        float xhalf = 0.5f * x;
+        int i = Float.floatToIntBits(x);
+        i = 0x5f3759df - (i >> 1);
+        x = Float.intBitsToFloat(i);
+        x = x * (1.5f - xhalf * x * x);
+        return x == ((float) 1 / (float) Math.sqrt(number));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the inverse square root of the given number upto 14 - 16 decimal places.
+     * calculates the inverse square root of the given number and returns true if calculated answer
+     * matches with given answer else returns false
+     */
+    public static boolean inverseSqrt(double number) {
+        double x = number;
+        double xhalf = 0.5d * x;
+        long i = Double.doubleToLongBits(x);
+        i = 0x5fe6ec85e7de30daL - (i >> 1);
+        x = Double.longBitsToDouble(i);
+        for (int it = 0; it < 4; it++) {
+            x = x * (1.5d - xhalf * x * x);
+        }
+        x *= number;
+        return x == 1 / Math.sqrt(number);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreams.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreams.java
index f3b031b6d9f5..84390860ccc4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreams.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreams.java
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 
 import java.math.BigDecimal;
 import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
 import java.util.stream.Stream;
 
@@ -10,105 +9,26 @@
  * @author: caos321
  * @date: 14 October 2021 (Thursday)
  */
-public class FibonacciJavaStreams {
+public final class FibonacciJavaStreams {
+    private FibonacciJavaStreams() {
+    }
 
     public static Optional<BigDecimal> calculate(final BigDecimal index) {
         if (index == null || index.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) < 0) {
-            return Optional.empty();
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input index cannot be null or negative!");
         }
 
         if (index.compareTo(BigDecimal.ONE) < 0) {
             return Optional.of(BigDecimal.ZERO);
         }
 
-        if (index.compareTo(new BigDecimal(2)) < 0) {
+        if (index.compareTo(BigDecimal.TWO) < 0) {
             return Optional.of(BigDecimal.ONE);
         }
 
-        final List<BigDecimal> results = Stream.iterate(
-                index,
-                x -> x.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) > 0,
-                x -> x.subtract(BigDecimal.ONE)
-        )
-                .reduce(
-                        List.of(),
-                        (list, current)
-                        -> list.isEmpty() || list.size() < 2
-                        ? List.of(BigDecimal.ZERO, BigDecimal.ONE)
-                        : List.of(list.get(1), list.get(0).add(list.get(1))),
-                        (list1, list2) -> list1
-                );
-
-        return results.isEmpty()
-                ? Optional.empty()
-                : Optional.of(results.get(results.size() - 1));
-    }
+        final List<BigDecimal> results = Stream.iterate(index, x -> x.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) > 0, x -> x.subtract(BigDecimal.ONE))
+                                             .reduce(List.of(), (list, current) -> list.isEmpty() || list.size() < 2 ? List.of(BigDecimal.ZERO, BigDecimal.ONE) : List.of(list.get(1), list.get(0).add(list.get(1))), (list1, list2) -> list1);
 
-    public static void assertThat(final Object actual, final Object expected) {
-        if (!Objects.equals(actual, expected)) {
-            throw new AssertionError(String.format("expected=%s but was actual=%s", expected, actual));
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(final String[] args) {
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(-1));
-            assertThat(result.isEmpty(), true);
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(BigDecimal.ZERO);
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, BigDecimal.ZERO));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(BigDecimal.ONE);
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, BigDecimal.ONE));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(2));
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, BigDecimal.ONE));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(3));
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, new BigDecimal(2)));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(10));
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, new BigDecimal(55)));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(20));
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, new BigDecimal(6765)));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(30));
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, new BigDecimal(832040)));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(40));
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, new BigDecimal(102334155)));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(50));
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, new BigDecimal(12586269025L)));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(100));
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, new BigDecimal("354224848179261915075")));
-        }
-        {
-            final Optional<BigDecimal> result = calculate(new BigDecimal(200));
-            assertThat(result.isPresent(), true);
-            result.ifPresent(value -> assertThat(value, new BigDecimal("280571172992510140037611932413038677189525")));
-        }
+        return results.isEmpty() ? Optional.empty() : Optional.of(results.get(results.size() - 1));
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciLoop.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciLoop.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..de23a4305c3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciLoop.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides methods for calculating Fibonacci numbers using BigInteger for large values of 'n'.
+ */
+public final class FibonacciLoop {
+
+    private FibonacciLoop() {
+        // Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the nth Fibonacci number.
+     *
+     * @param n The index of the Fibonacci number to calculate.
+     * @return The nth Fibonacci number as a BigInteger.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input 'n' is a negative integer.
+     */
+    public static BigInteger compute(final int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input 'n' must be a non-negative integer.");
+        }
+
+        if (n <= 1) {
+            return BigInteger.valueOf(n);
+        }
+
+        BigInteger prev = BigInteger.ZERO;
+        BigInteger current = BigInteger.ONE;
+
+        for (int i = 2; i <= n; i++) {
+            BigInteger next = prev.add(current);
+            prev = current;
+            current = next;
+        }
+
+        return current;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumber.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 41027edfb76c..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumber.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,40 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.maths;
-
-/**
- * Fibonacci: 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 ...
- */
-public class FibonacciNumber {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert isFibonacciNumber(1);
-        assert isFibonacciNumber(2);
-        assert isFibonacciNumber(21);
-        assert !isFibonacciNumber(9);
-        assert !isFibonacciNumber(10);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Check if a number is perfect square number
-     *
-     * @param number the number to be checked
-     * @return <tt>true</tt> if {@code number} is perfect square, otherwise
-     * <tt>false</tt>
-     */
-    public static boolean isPerfectSquare(int number) {
-        int sqrt = (int) Math.sqrt(number);
-        return sqrt * sqrt == number;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Check if a number is fibonacci number This is true if and only if at
-     * least one of 5x^2+4 or 5x^2-4 is a perfect square
-     *
-     * @param number the number
-     * @return <tt>true</tt> if {@code number} is fibonacci number, otherwise
-     * <tt>false</tt>
-     * @link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number#Identification
-     */
-    public static boolean isFibonacciNumber(int number) {
-        return isPerfectSquare(5 * number * number + 4) || isPerfectSquare(5 * number * number - 4);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheck.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..781275d3130d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheck.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * Fibonacci: 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 ...
+ * This code checks Fibonacci Numbers up to 45th number.
+ * Other checks fail because of 'long'-type overflow.
+ */
+public final class FibonacciNumberCheck {
+    private FibonacciNumberCheck() {
+    }
+    /**
+     * Check if a number is perfect square number
+     *
+     * @param number the number to be checked
+     * @return <tt>true</tt> if {@code number} is a perfect square, otherwise
+     *         <tt>false</tt>
+     */
+    public static boolean isPerfectSquare(long number) {
+        long sqrt = (long) Math.sqrt(number);
+        return sqrt * sqrt == number;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Check if a number is a Fibonacci number. This is true if and only if at
+     * least one of 5x^2+4 or 5x^2-4 is a perfect square
+     *
+     * @param number the number
+     * @return <tt>true</tt> if {@code number} is a Fibonacci number, otherwise
+     *         <tt>false</tt>
+     * @link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number#Identification
+     */
+    public static boolean isFibonacciNumber(long number) {
+        long value1 = 5 * number * number + 4;
+        long value2 = 5 * number * number - 4;
+        return isPerfectSquare(value1) || isPerfectSquare(value2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberGoldenRation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberGoldenRation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4df37a40f541
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberGoldenRation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides methods for calculating Fibonacci numbers using Binet's formula.
+ * Binet's formula is based on the golden ratio and allows computing Fibonacci numbers efficiently.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_sequence#Binet's_formula">Binet's formula on Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class FibonacciNumberGoldenRation {
+    private FibonacciNumberGoldenRation() {
+        // Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compute the limit for 'n' that fits in a long data type.
+     * Reducing the limit to 70 due to potential floating-point arithmetic errors
+     * that may result in incorrect results for larger inputs.
+     */
+    public static final int MAX_ARG = 70;
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the nth Fibonacci number using Binet's formula.
+     *
+     * @param n The index of the Fibonacci number to calculate.
+     * @return The nth Fibonacci number as a long.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input 'n' is negative or exceeds the range of a long data type.
+     */
+    public static long compute(int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input 'n' must be a non-negative integer.");
+        }
+
+        if (n > MAX_ARG) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input 'n' is too big to give accurate result.");
+        }
+
+        if (n <= 1) {
+            return n;
+        }
+
+        // Calculate the nth Fibonacci number using the golden ratio formula
+        final double sqrt5 = Math.sqrt(5);
+        final double phi = (1 + sqrt5) / 2;
+        final double psi = (1 - sqrt5) / 2;
+        final double result = (Math.pow(phi, n) - Math.pow(psi, n)) / sqrt5;
+
+        // Round to the nearest integer and return as a long
+        return Math.round(result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindKthNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindKthNumber.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..138d4b952be9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindKthNumber.java
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * Use a quicksort-based approach to identify the k-th largest or k-th max element within the provided array.
+ */
+public final class FindKthNumber {
+    private FindKthNumber() {
+    }
+
+    private static final Random RANDOM = new Random();
+
+    public static int findKthMax(int[] array, int k) {
+        if (k <= 0 || k > array.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("k must be between 1 and the size of the array");
+        }
+
+        // Convert k-th largest to index for QuickSelect
+        return quickSelect(array, 0, array.length - 1, array.length - k);
+    }
+
+    private static int quickSelect(int[] array, int left, int right, int kSmallest) {
+        if (left == right) {
+            return array[left];
+        }
+
+        // Randomly select a pivot index
+        int pivotIndex = left + RANDOM.nextInt(right - left + 1);
+        pivotIndex = partition(array, left, right, pivotIndex);
+
+        if (kSmallest == pivotIndex) {
+            return array[kSmallest];
+        } else if (kSmallest < pivotIndex) {
+            return quickSelect(array, left, pivotIndex - 1, kSmallest);
+        } else {
+            return quickSelect(array, pivotIndex + 1, right, kSmallest);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static int partition(int[] array, int left, int right, int pivotIndex) {
+        int pivotValue = array[pivotIndex];
+        // Move pivot to end
+        swap(array, pivotIndex, right);
+        int storeIndex = left;
+
+        // Move all smaller elements to the left
+        for (int i = left; i < right; i++) {
+            if (array[i] < pivotValue) {
+                swap(array, storeIndex, i);
+                storeIndex++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Move pivot to its final place
+        swap(array, storeIndex, right);
+        return storeIndex;
+    }
+
+    private static void swap(int[] array, int i, int j) {
+        int temp = array[i];
+        array[i] = array[j];
+        array[j] = temp;
+    }
+
+    public static int findKthMaxUsingHeap(int[] array, int k) {
+        if (k <= 0 || k > array.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("k must be between 1 and the size of the array");
+        }
+        PriorityQueue<Integer> maxHeap = new PriorityQueue<>(Collections.reverseOrder()); // using max-heap to store numbers.
+        for (int num : array) {
+            maxHeap.add(num);
+        }
+        while (k > 1) {
+            maxHeap.poll(); // removing max number from heap
+            k--;
+        }
+        return maxHeap.peek();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMax.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMax.java
index a7be8690952b..0ff2bdd191ac 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMax.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMax.java
@@ -1,37 +1,23 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
-
-public class FindMax {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random random = new Random();
-
-        /* random size */
-        int size = random.nextInt(100) + 1;
-        int[] array = new int[size];
-
-        /* init array with random numbers */
-        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-            array[i] = random.nextInt() % 100;
-        }
-
-        assert Arrays.stream(array).max().getAsInt() == findMax(array);
+public final class FindMax {
+    private FindMax() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * find max of array
+     * @brief finds the maximum value stored in the input array
      *
-     * @param array the array contains element
-     * @return max value of given array
+     * @param array the input array
+     * @exception IllegalArgumentException input array is empty
+     * @return the maximum value stored in the input array
      */
-    public static int findMax(int[] array) {
+    public static int findMax(final int[] array) {
+        int n = array.length;
+        if (n == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array must be non-empty.");
+        }
         int max = array[0];
-        for (int i = 1; i < array.length; ++i) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
             if (array[i] > max) {
                 max = array[i];
             }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursion.java
index c38da196f46e..950a0ebe0085 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursion.java
@@ -1,35 +1,21 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
+public final class FindMaxRecursion {
 
-public class FindMaxRecursion {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random rand = new Random();
-
-        /* rand size */
-        int size = rand.nextInt(100) + 1;
-        int[] array = new int[size];
-
-        /* init array with rand numbers */
-        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-            array[i] = rand.nextInt() % 100;
-        }
-
-        assert max(array, array.length) == Arrays.stream(array).max().getAsInt();
-        assert max(array, 0, array.length - 1) == Arrays.stream(array).max().getAsInt();
+    private FindMaxRecursion() {
     }
-
     /**
-     * Get max of array using divide and conquer algorithm
+     * Get max of an array using divide and conquer algorithm
      *
      * @param array contains elements
      * @param low the index of the first element
      * @param high the index of the last element
      * @return max of {@code array}
      */
-    public static int max(int[] array, int low, int high) {
+    public static int max(final int[] array, final int low, final int high) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array must be non-empty.");
+        }
         if (low == high) {
             return array[low]; // or array[high]
         }
@@ -43,13 +29,12 @@ public static int max(int[] array, int low, int high) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Get max of array using recursion algorithm
+     * Get max of an array using recursion algorithm
      *
      * @param array contains elements
-     * @param len length of given array
      * @return max value of {@code array}
      */
-    public static int max(int[] array, int len) {
-        return len == 1 ? array[0] : Math.max(max(array, len - 1), array[len - 1]);
+    public static int max(final int[] array) {
+        return max(array, 0, array.length - 1);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMin.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMin.java
index e3be09e34644..76fa2e815ee0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMin.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMin.java
@@ -1,37 +1,22 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
-
-public class FindMin {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random random = new Random();
-
-        /* random size */
-        int size = random.nextInt(100) + 1;
-        int[] array = new int[size];
-
-        /* init array with random numbers */
-        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-            array[i] = random.nextInt() % 100;
-        }
-
-        assert Arrays.stream(array).min().getAsInt() == findMin(array);
+public final class FindMin {
+    private FindMin() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Find the minimum number of an array of numbers.
+     * @brief finds the minimum value stored in the input array
      *
-     * @param array the array contains element
-     * @return min value
+     * @param array the input array
+     * @exception IllegalArgumentException input array is empty
+     * @return the mimum value stored in the input array
      */
-    public static int findMin(int[] array) {
+    public static int findMin(final int[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array must be non-empty.");
+        }
         int min = array[0];
-        for (int i = 1; i < array.length; ++i) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < array.length; i++) {
             if (array[i] < min) {
                 min = array[i];
             }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursion.java
index 66400d23db3f..a2cf1b36d6cb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursion.java
@@ -1,38 +1,23 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
+public final class FindMinRecursion {
 
-public class FindMinRecursion {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random rand = new Random();
-
-        /* rand size */
-        int size = rand.nextInt(100) + 1;
-        int[] array = new int[size];
-
-        /* init array with rand numbers */
-        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-            array[i] = rand.nextInt() % 100;
-        }
-
-        assert min(array, 0, array.length - 1) == Arrays.stream(array).min().getAsInt();
-        assert min(array, array.length) == Arrays.stream(array).min().getAsInt();
+    private FindMinRecursion() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Get min of array using divide and conquer algorithm
+     * Get min of an array using divide and conquer algorithm
      *
      * @param array contains elements
      * @param low the index of the first element
      * @param high the index of the last element
      * @return min of {@code array}
      */
-    public static int min(int[] array, int low, int high) {
+
+    public static int min(final int[] array, final int low, final int high) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("array must be non-empty.");
+        }
         if (low == high) {
             return array[low]; // or array[high]
         }
@@ -46,13 +31,12 @@ public static int min(int[] array, int low, int high) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Get min of array using recursion algorithm
+     * Get min of an array using recursion algorithm
      *
      * @param array contains elements
-     * @param len length of given array
      * @return min value of {@code array}
      */
-    public static int min(int[] array, int len) {
-        return len == 1 ? array[0] : Math.min(min(array, len - 1), array[len - 1]);
+    public static int min(final int[] array) {
+        return min(array, 0, array.length - 1);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Floor.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Floor.java
index bd4df6fcb852..271fc42d0d17 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Floor.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Floor.java
@@ -1,15 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Random;
+public final class Floor {
 
-public class Floor {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random random = new Random();
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 1000; ++i) {
-            double randomNumber = random.nextDouble();
-            assert floor(randomNumber) == Math.floor(randomNumber);
-        }
+    private Floor() {
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FrizzyNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FrizzyNumber.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ff2b00c26ce2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FrizzyNumber.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/siddhant2002">Siddhant Swarup Mallick</a>
+ * Program description - To find the FrizzyNumber
+ */
+public final class FrizzyNumber {
+    private FrizzyNumber() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the n-th number that is a sum of powers
+     * of the given base.
+     * Example: base = 3 and n = 4
+     * Ascending order of sums of powers of 3 =
+     * 3^0 = 1, 3^1 = 3, 3^1 + 3^0 = 4, 3^2 + 3^0 = 9
+     * Ans = 9
+     *
+     * @param base The base whose n-th sum of powers is required
+     * @param n    Index from ascending order of sum of powers of base
+     * @return n-th sum of powers of base
+     */
+    public static double getNthFrizzy(int base, int n) {
+        double final1 = 0.0;
+        int i = 0;
+        do {
+            final1 += Math.pow(base, i++) * (n % 2);
+        } while ((n /= 2) > 0);
+        return final1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java
index 14c104b509c3..df27516367b2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java
@@ -1,15 +1,31 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 /**
- * This is Euclid's algorithm which is used to find the greatest common
- * denominator Overide function name gcd
+ *  This class provides methods to compute the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of two or more integers.
  *
+ * The Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of two or more integers is the largest positive integer that divides each of the integers without leaving a remainder.
+ *
+ * The GCD can be computed using the Euclidean algorithm, which is based on the principle that the GCD of two numbers also divides their difference.
+ *
+ * For more information, refer to the
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_common_divisor">Greatest Common Divisor</a> Wikipedia page.
+ *
+ * <b>Example usage:</b>
+ * <pre>
+ * int result1 = GCD.gcd(48, 18);
+ * System.out.println("GCD of 48 and 18: " + result1); // Output: 6
+ *
+ * int result2 = GCD.gcd(48, 18, 30);
+ * System.out.println("GCD of 48, 18, and 30: " + result2); // Output: 6
+ * </pre>
  * @author Oskar Enmalm 3/10/17
  */
-public class GCD {
+public final class GCD {
+    private GCD() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * get greatest common divisor
+     * get the greatest common divisor
      *
      * @param num1 the first number
      * @param num2 the second number
@@ -33,26 +49,17 @@ public static int gcd(int num1, int num2) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * get greatest common divisor in array
+     * @brief computes gcd of an array of numbers
      *
-     * @param number contains number
-     * @return gcd
+     * @param numbers the input array
+     * @return gcd of all of the numbers in the input array
      */
-    public static int gcd(int[] number) {
-        int result = number[0];
-        for (int i = 1; i < number.length; i++) // call gcd function (input two value)
-        {
-            result = gcd(result, number[i]);
+    public static int gcd(int... numbers) {
+        int result = 0;
+        for (final var number : numbers) {
+            result = gcd(result, number);
         }
 
         return result;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] myIntArray = {4, 16, 32};
-
-        // call gcd function (input array)
-        System.out.println(gcd(myIntArray)); // => 4
-        System.out.printf("gcd(40,24)=%d gcd(24,40)=%d%n", gcd(40, 24), gcd(24, 40)); // => 8
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java
index df9a002be0f9..e95ce97c8a04 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java
@@ -3,7 +3,9 @@
 /**
  * @author https://github.com/shellhub/
  */
-public class GCDRecursion {
+public final class GCDRecursion {
+    private GCDRecursion() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         System.out.println(gcd(20, 15));
@@ -22,7 +24,6 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @return gcd
      */
     public static int gcd(int a, int b) {
-
         if (a < 0 || b < 0) {
             throw new ArithmeticException();
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java
index 29ea4f6178e7..1e02579757cc 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java
@@ -1,72 +1,70 @@
-/**
- * \file
- * \brief [Gaussian elimination
- * method](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination)
- * @author [Sachwin Kohli](https://github.com/Sachwin-Kohli)
- */
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
 
-/**
- * Main function
- */
-public class Gaussian {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int mat_size, i, j, step;
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
+public final class Gaussian {
+    private Gaussian() {
+    }
 
-        System.out.println("Matrix Size : ");
-        mat_size = sc.nextInt();
+    public static ArrayList<Double> gaussian(int matSize, List<Double> matrix) {
+        int i;
+        int j = 0;
 
-        double[][] mat = new double[mat_size + 1][mat_size + 1];
-        double[][] x = new double[mat_size][mat_size + 1];
+        double[][] mat = new double[matSize + 1][matSize + 1];
+        double[][] x = new double[matSize][matSize + 1];
 
-        System.out.println("Enter value of the matrix");
-        System.out.println(' ');
-        for (i = 0; i < mat_size; i++) {
-            for (j = 0; j <= mat_size; j++) {
-                mat[i][j] = sc.nextInt();
+        // Values from arraylist to matrix
+        for (i = 0; i < matSize; i++) {
+            for (j = 0; j <= matSize; j++) {
+                mat[i][j] = matrix.get(i);
             }
         }
 
-        // perform Gaussian elimination
-        for (step = 0; step < mat_size - 1; step++) {
-            for (i = step; i < mat_size - 1; i++) {
+        mat = gaussianElimination(matSize, i, mat);
+        return valueOfGaussian(matSize, x, mat);
+    }
+
+    // Perform Gaussian elimination
+    public static double[][] gaussianElimination(int matSize, int i, double[][] mat) {
+        int step = 0;
+        for (step = 0; step < matSize - 1; step++) {
+            for (i = step; i < matSize - 1; i++) {
                 double a = (mat[i + 1][step] / mat[step][step]);
 
-                for (j = step; j <= mat_size; j++) {
+                for (int j = step; j <= matSize; j++) {
                     mat[i + 1][j] = mat[i + 1][j] - (a * mat[step][j]);
                 }
             }
         }
+        return mat;
+    }
+
+    // calculate the x_1, x_2, ... values of the gaussian and save it in an arraylist.
+    public static ArrayList<Double> valueOfGaussian(int matSize, double[][] x, double[][] mat) {
+        ArrayList<Double> answerArray = new ArrayList<Double>();
+        int i;
+        int j;
 
-        System.out.println("Matrix using Gaussian Elimination method: ");
-        System.out.println(" ");
-        for (i = 0; i < mat_size; i++) {
-            for (j = 0; j <= mat_size; j++) {
+        for (i = 0; i < matSize; i++) {
+            for (j = 0; j <= matSize; j++) {
                 x[i][j] = mat[i][j];
-                System.out.print(mat[i][j] + " ");
             }
-            System.out.println();
         }
-        System.out.println("Value of the Gaussian Elimination method: ");
-        System.out.println(" ");
 
-        for (i = mat_size - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+        for (i = matSize - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
             double sum = 0;
-            for (j = mat_size - 1; j > i; j--) {
+            for (j = matSize - 1; j > i; j--) {
                 x[i][j] = x[j][j] * x[i][j];
                 sum = x[i][j] + sum;
             }
             if (x[i][i] == 0) {
                 x[i][i] = 0;
             } else {
-                x[i][i] = (x[i][mat_size] - sum) / (x[i][i]);
+                x[i][i] = (x[i][matSize] - sum) / (x[i][i]);
             }
-            System.out.print("x" + i + "=" + x[i][i]);
-            System.out.println(" ");
+            answerArray.add(x[i][j]);
         }
+        return answerArray;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java
index 04e07d14432e..e13efe5a77e0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java
@@ -1,29 +1,48 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-/*
- * Algorithm explanation: https://technotip.com/6774/c-program-to-find-generic-root-of-a-number/#:~:text=Generic%20Root%3A%20of%20a%20number,get%20a%20single%2Ddigit%20output.&text=For%20Example%3A%20If%20user%20input,%2B%204%20%2B%205%20%3D%2015.
+/**
+ * Calculates the generic root (repeated digital sum) of a non-negative integer.
+ * <p>
+ * For example, the generic root of 12345 is calculated as:
+ * 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15,
+ * then 1 + 5 = 6, so the generic root is 6.
+ * <p>
+ * Reference:
+ * https://technotip.com/6774/c-program-to-find-generic-root-of-a-number/
  */
-public class GenericRoot {
+public final class GenericRoot {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int number1 = 1234;
-        int number2 = 12345;
-        int result1 = genericRoot(number1);
-        int result2 = genericRoot(number2);
-        System.out.println("Generic root of " + number1 + " is: " + result1);
-        System.out.println("Generic root of " + number2 + " is: " + result2);
+    private static final int BASE = 10;
+
+    private GenericRoot() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the sum of the digits of a non-negative integer in base 10.
+     *
+     * @param n non-negative integer
+     * @return sum of digits of {@code n}
+     */
+    private static int sumOfDigits(final int n) {
+        assert n >= 0;
+        if (n < BASE) {
+            return n;
+        }
+        return (n % BASE) + sumOfDigits(n / BASE);
     }
 
-    private static int genericRoot(int n) {
-        int root = 0;
-        while (n > 0 || root > 9) {
-            if (n == 0) {
-                n = root;
-                root = 0;
-            }
-            root += n % 10;
-            n /= 10;
+    /**
+     * Computes the generic root (repeated digital sum) of an integer.
+     * For negative inputs, the absolute value is used.
+     *
+     * @param n integer input
+     * @return generic root of {@code n}
+     */
+    public static int genericRoot(final int n) {
+        int number = Math.abs(n);
+        if (number < BASE) {
+            return number;
         }
-        return root;
+        return genericRoot(sumOfDigits(number));
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GermainPrimeAndSafePrime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GermainPrimeAndSafePrime.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..180bbdfe9ac3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GermainPrimeAndSafePrime.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.PrimeCheck;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class to check whether a number is a Germain prime or a Safe prime.
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides methods to:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Check if a number is a Germain prime</li>
+ *   <li>Check if a number is a Safe prime</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>Definitions:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>A Germain prime is a prime number p such that 2p + 1 is also prime.</li>
+ *   <li>A Safe prime is a prime number p such that (p - 1) / 2 is also prime.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>This class is final and cannot be instantiated.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_and_Sophie_Germain_primes">Wikipedia: Safe and Sophie Germain primes</a>
+ */
+public final class GermainPrimeAndSafePrime {
+
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation
+    private GermainPrimeAndSafePrime() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a number is a Germain prime.
+     *
+     * <p>A Germain prime is a prime number p such that 2p + 1 is also prime.
+     *
+     * @param number the number to check; must be a positive integer
+     * @return {@code true} if the number is a Germain prime, {@code false} otherwise
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input number is less than 1
+     */
+    public static boolean isGermainPrime(int number) {
+        if (number < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input value must be a positive integer. Input value: " + number);
+        }
+        // A number is a Germain prime if it is prime and 2 * number + 1 is also prime
+        return PrimeCheck.isPrime(number) && PrimeCheck.isPrime(2 * number + 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a number is a Safe prime.
+     *
+     * <p>A Safe prime is a prime number p such that (p - 1) / 2 is also prime.
+     *
+     * @param number the number to check; must be a positive integer
+     * @return {@code true} if the number is a Safe prime, {@code false} otherwise
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input number is less than 1
+     */
+    public static boolean isSafePrime(int number) {
+        if (number < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input value must be a positive integer. Input value: " + number);
+        }
+        // A number is a Safe prime if it is prime, (number - 1) is even, and (number - 1) / 2 is prime
+        return ((number - 1) % 2 == 0) && PrimeCheck.isPrime(number) && PrimeCheck.isPrime((number - 1) / 2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjecture.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjecture.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4e962722ba88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjecture.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.PrimeCheck.isPrime;
+
+/**
+ * This is a representation of the unsolved problem of Goldbach's Projection, according to which every
+ * even natural number greater than 2 can be written as the sum of 2 prime numbers
+ * More info: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldbach%27s_conjecture
+ * @author Vasilis Sarantidis (https://github.com/BILLSARAN)
+ */
+
+public final class GoldbachConjecture {
+    private GoldbachConjecture() {
+    }
+    public record Result(int number1, int number2) {
+    }
+
+    public static Result getPrimeSum(int number) {
+        if (number <= 2 || number % 2 != 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number must be even and greater than 2.");
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i <= number / 2; i++) {
+            if (isPrime(i) && isPrime(number - i)) {
+                return new Result(i, number - i);
+            }
+        }
+        throw new IllegalStateException("No valid prime sum found."); // Should not occur
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumber.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bfe746953b33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumber.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * A Happy Number is defined as a number which eventually reaches 1 when replaced
+ * by the sum of the squares of each digit.
+ * If it falls into a cycle that does not include 1, then it is not a happy number.
+
+ * Example:
+ * 19 → 1² + 9² = 82
+ * 82 → 8² + 2² = 68
+ * 68 → 6² + 8² = 100
+ * 100 → 1² + 0² + 0² = 1 → Happy Number!
+ */
+public final class HappyNumber {
+
+    private HappyNumber() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks whether the given number is a Happy Number.
+     * Uses Floyd’s Cycle Detection algorithm (tortoise and hare method)
+     * to detect loops efficiently.
+     *
+     * @param n The number to check
+     * @return true if n is a Happy Number, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isHappy(int n) {
+        int slow = n;
+        int fast = n;
+
+        do {
+            slow = sumOfSquares(slow); // move 1 step
+            fast = sumOfSquares(sumOfSquares(fast)); // move 2 steps
+        } while (slow != fast);
+
+        return slow == 1; // If cycle ends in 1 → Happy number
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the sum of squares of the digits of a number.
+     *
+     * Example:
+     * num = 82 → 8² + 2² = 64 + 4 = 68
+     *
+     * @param num The number to calculate sum of squares of digits
+     * @return The sum of squares of the digits
+     */
+    private static int sumOfSquares(int num) {
+        int sum = 0;
+        while (num > 0) {
+            int digit = num % 10;
+            sum += digit * digit;
+            num /= 10;
+        }
+        return sum;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumber.java
index 153e369fb22b..abe21cb045ae 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumber.java
@@ -1,57 +1,80 @@
-// Wikipedia for Harshad Number : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harshad_number
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class HarshadNumber {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter a number : ");
-        long a = sc.nextLong();
-
-        checkHarshadNumber(a);
+/**
+ * A Harshad number (or Niven number) in a given number base is an integer that
+ * is divisible by the sum of its digits.
+ * For example, 18 is a Harshad number because 18 is divisible by (1 + 8) = 9.
+ * The name "Harshad" comes from the Sanskrit words "harṣa" (joy) and "da"
+ * (give), meaning "joy-giver".
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/Hardvan">Hardvan</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harshad_number">Harshad Number -
+ *      Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class HarshadNumber {
+    private HarshadNumber() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * A function to check if a number is Harshad number or not
+     * Checks if a number is a Harshad number.
+     * A Harshad number is a positive integer that is divisible by the sum of its
+     * digits.
      *
-     * @param a The number which should be checked
+     * @param n the number to be checked (must be positive)
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code n} is a Harshad number, otherwise
+     *         {@code false}
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code n} is less than or equal to 0
      */
-    public static void checkHarshadNumber(long a) {
-
-        long b = a;
-        int sum = 0;
+    public static boolean isHarshad(long n) {
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must be a positive integer. Received: " + n);
+        }
 
-        // this is just for showing the explanation else it's of no use you can ommit it
-        int[] each = new int[Long.toString(a).length()];
+        long temp = n;
+        long sumOfDigits = 0;
+        while (temp > 0) {
+            sumOfDigits += temp % 10;
+            temp /= 10;
+        }
 
-        int c = 0;
+        return n % sumOfDigits == 0;
+    }
 
-        while (b > 0) {
-            sum += b % 10;
-            each[c] = (int) (b % 10);
-            b /= 10;
-            c++;
+    /**
+     * Checks if a number represented as a string is a Harshad number.
+     * A Harshad number is a positive integer that is divisible by the sum of its
+     * digits.
+     *
+     * @param s the string representation of the number to be checked
+     * @return {@code true} if the number is a Harshad number, otherwise
+     *         {@code false}
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code s} is null, empty, or represents a
+     *                                  non-positive integer
+     * @throws NumberFormatException    if {@code s} cannot be parsed as a long
+     */
+    public static boolean isHarshad(String s) {
+        if (s == null || s.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input string cannot be null or empty");
         }
 
-        if (a % sum == 0) {
-            System.out.println(a + " is a Harshad Number");
+        final long n;
+        try {
+            n = Long.parseLong(s);
+        } catch (NumberFormatException e) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input string must be a valid integer: " + s, e);
+        }
 
-            // For you better explanation how is that a Harshad Number
-            System.out.println("\nExplaination :");
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must be a positive integer. Received: " + n);
+        }
 
-            for (int i = each.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-                System.out.print(each[i] + " ");
-                if (i != 0) {
-                    System.out.print("+ ");
-                }
+        int sumOfDigits = 0;
+        for (char ch : s.toCharArray()) {
+            if (Character.isDigit(ch)) {
+                sumOfDigits += ch - '0';
             }
-
-            System.out.println("= " + sum);
-            System.out.println(sum + " × " + (a / sum) + " = " + a);
-        } else {
-            System.out.println(a + " is not a Harshad Number");
         }
+
+        return n % sumOfDigits == 0;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HeronsFormula.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HeronsFormula.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..10438e2888b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HeronsFormula.java
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * Heron's Formula implementation for calculating the area of a triangle given
+ * its three side lengths.
+ * <p>
+ * Heron's Formula states that the area of a triangle whose sides have lengths
+ * a, b, and c is:
+ * Area = √(s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c))
+ * where s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle: s = (a + b + c) / 2
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron%27s_formula">Heron's
+ *      Formula - Wikipedia</a>
+ * @author satyabarghav
+ */
+public final class HeronsFormula {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private HeronsFormula() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if all three side lengths are positive.
+     *
+     * @param a the length of the first side
+     * @param b the length of the second side
+     * @param c the length of the third side
+     * @return true if all sides are positive, false otherwise
+     */
+    private static boolean areAllSidesPositive(final double a, final double b, final double c) {
+        return a > 0 && b > 0 && c > 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the given side lengths satisfy the triangle inequality theorem.
+     * <p>
+     * The triangle inequality theorem states that the sum of any two sides
+     * of a triangle must be greater than the third side.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param a the length of the first side
+     * @param b the length of the second side
+     * @param c the length of the third side
+     * @return true if the sides can form a valid triangle, false otherwise
+     */
+    private static boolean canFormTriangle(final double a, final double b, final double c) {
+        return a + b > c && b + c > a && c + a > b;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the area of a triangle using Heron's Formula.
+     * <p>
+     * Given three side lengths a, b, and c, the area is computed as:
+     * Area = √(s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c))
+     * where s is the semi-perimeter: s = (a + b + c) / 2
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param a the length of the first side (must be positive)
+     * @param b the length of the second side (must be positive)
+     * @param c the length of the third side (must be positive)
+     * @return the area of the triangle
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if any side length is non-positive or if the
+     *                                  sides cannot form a valid triangle
+     */
+    public static double herons(final double a, final double b, final double c) {
+        if (!areAllSidesPositive(a, b, c)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("All side lengths must be positive");
+        }
+        if (!canFormTriangle(a, b, c)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Triangle cannot be formed with the given side lengths (violates triangle inequality)");
+        }
+        final double s = (a + b + c) / 2.0;
+        return Math.sqrt((s) * (s - a) * (s - b) * (s - c));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblem.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..98d839011a7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblem.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * There are n friends that are playing a game. The friends are sitting in a circle and are
+ * numbered from 1 to n in clockwise order. More formally, moving clockwise from the ith friend
+ * brings you to the (i+1)th friend for 1 <= i < n, and moving clockwise from the nth friend brings
+ * you to the 1st friend.
+
+   The rules of the game are as follows:
+
+        1.Start at the 1st friend.
+        2.Count the next k friends in the clockwise direction including the friend you started at.
+   The counting wraps around the circle and may count some friends more than once. 3.The last friend
+   you counted leaves the circle and loses the game. 4.If there is still more than one friend in the
+   circle, go back to step 2 starting from the friend immediately clockwise of the friend who just
+   lost and repeat. 5.Else, the last friend in the circle wins the game.
+
+        @author Kunal
+    */
+public final class JosephusProblem {
+    private JosephusProblem() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find the Winner of the Circular Game.
+     *
+     * @param number of friends, n, and an integer k
+     * @return return the winner of the game
+     */
+
+    public static int findTheWinner(int n, int k) {
+        return winner(n, k) + 1;
+    }
+
+    public static int winner(int n, int k) {
+        if (n == 1) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        return (winner(n - 1, k) + k) % n;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JugglerSequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JugglerSequence.java
index bb2c4bdc871c..702310a1f295 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JugglerSequence.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JugglerSequence.java
@@ -4,14 +4,17 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 /*
- * Java program for printing juggler sequence 
+ * Java program for printing juggler sequence
  * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juggler_sequence
- * 
+ *
  * Author: Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
- * 
+ *
  * */
 
-public class JugglerSequence {
+public final class JugglerSequence {
+    private JugglerSequence() {
+    }
+
     /**
      * This method prints juggler sequence starting with the number in the parameter
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java
index d03854b8dc94..99842e2f4f5e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java
@@ -1,40 +1,117 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
-import java.util.*;
-
-public class KaprekarNumbers {
-
-	/* This program demonstrates if a given number is Kaprekar Number or not.
-	Kaprekar Number: A Kaprekar number is an n-digit number which its square can be split into two parts where the right part has n
-	digits and sum of these parts is equal to the original number. */
-
-	// Provides a list of kaprekarNumber in a range
-	public static ArrayList<Long> kaprekarNumberInRange(long start, long end) throws Exception {
-		long n = end-start;
-		if (n <0) throw new Exception("Invalid range");
-		ArrayList<Long> list = new ArrayList<>();
-
-		for (long i = start; i <= end; i++) {
-			if (isKaprekarNumber(i)) list.add(i);
-		}
-
-		return list;
-	}
-
-	// Checks whether a given number is Kaprekar Number or not
-	public static boolean isKaprekarNumber(long number) {
-		long numberSquared = number * number;
-		if(Long.toString(number).length() == Long.toString(numberSquared).length()){
-			return (number == numberSquared);
-		}
-		else{
-			long leftDigits1 = 0, leftDigits2;
-			if(Long.toString(numberSquared).contains("0")){
-				leftDigits1 = Long.parseLong(Long.toString(numberSquared).substring(0, Long.toString(numberSquared).indexOf("0")));
-			}
-			leftDigits2 = Long.parseLong(Long.toString(numberSquared).substring(0, (Long.toString(numberSquared).length() - Long.toString(number).length())));
-			long rightDigits = Long.parseLong(Long.toString(numberSquared).substring(Long.toString(numberSquared).length() - Long.toString(number).length()));
-			return (number == (leftDigits1 + rightDigits)) || (number == (leftDigits2 + rightDigits));
-		}		
-	}
 
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for identifying and working with Kaprekar Numbers.
+ * <p>
+ * A Kaprekar number is a positive integer with the following property:
+ * If you square it, then split the resulting number into two parts (right part
+ * has same number of
+ * digits as the original number, left part has the remaining digits), and
+ * finally add the two
+ * parts together, you get the original number.
+ * <p>
+ * For example:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>9: 9² = 81 → 8 + 1 = 9 (Kaprekar number)</li>
+ * <li>45: 45² = 2025 → 20 + 25 = 45 (Kaprekar number)</li>
+ * <li>297: 297² = 88209 → 88 + 209 = 297 (Kaprekar number)</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * <p>
+ * Note: The right part can have leading zeros, but must not be all zeros.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaprekar_number">Kaprekar Number
+ *      - Wikipedia</a>
+ * @author TheAlgorithms (https://github.com/TheAlgorithms)
+ */
+public final class KaprekarNumbers {
+    private KaprekarNumbers() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds all Kaprekar numbers within a given range (inclusive).
+     *
+     * @param start the starting number of the range (inclusive)
+     * @param end   the ending number of the range (inclusive)
+     * @return a list of all Kaprekar numbers in the specified range
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if start is greater than end or if start is
+     *                                  negative
+     */
+    public static List<Long> kaprekarNumberInRange(long start, long end) {
+        if (start > end) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Start must be less than or equal to end. Given start: " + start + ", end: " + end);
+        }
+        if (start < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Start must be non-negative. Given start: " + start);
+        }
+
+        ArrayList<Long> list = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (long i = start; i <= end; i++) {
+            if (isKaprekarNumber(i)) {
+                list.add(i);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return list;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks whether a given number is a Kaprekar number.
+     * <p>
+     * The algorithm works as follows:
+     * <ol>
+     * <li>Square the number</li>
+     * <li>Split the squared number into two parts: left and right</li>
+     * <li>The right part has the same number of digits as the original number</li>
+     * <li>Add the left and right parts</li>
+     * <li>If the sum equals the original number, it's a Kaprekar number</li>
+     * </ol>
+     * <p>
+     * Special handling is required for numbers whose squares contain zeros.
+     *
+     * @param num the number to check
+     * @return true if the number is a Kaprekar number, false otherwise
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if num is negative
+     */
+    public static boolean isKaprekarNumber(long num) {
+        if (num < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number must be non-negative. Given: " + num);
+        }
+
+        if (num == 0 || num == 1) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        String number = Long.toString(num);
+        BigInteger originalNumber = BigInteger.valueOf(num);
+        BigInteger numberSquared = originalNumber.multiply(originalNumber);
+        String squaredStr = numberSquared.toString();
+
+        // Special case: if the squared number has the same length as the original
+        if (number.length() == squaredStr.length()) {
+            return number.equals(squaredStr);
+        }
+
+        // Calculate the split position
+        int splitPos = squaredStr.length() - number.length();
+
+        // Split the squared number into left and right parts
+        String leftPart = squaredStr.substring(0, splitPos);
+        String rightPart = squaredStr.substring(splitPos);
+
+        // Parse the parts as BigInteger (handles empty left part as zero)
+        BigInteger leftNum = leftPart.isEmpty() ? BigInteger.ZERO : new BigInteger(leftPart);
+        BigInteger rightNum = new BigInteger(rightPart);
+
+        // Check if right part is all zeros (invalid for Kaprekar numbers except 1)
+        if (rightNum.equals(BigInteger.ZERO)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Check if the sum equals the original number
+        return leftNum.add(rightNum).equals(originalNumber);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaratsubaMultiplication.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaratsubaMultiplication.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..298fcb7e85f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaratsubaMultiplication.java
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides an implementation of the Karatsuba multiplication algorithm.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Karatsuba multiplication is a divide-and-conquer algorithm for multiplying two large
+ * numbers. It is faster than the classical multiplication algorithm and reduces the
+ * time complexity to O(n^1.585) by breaking the multiplication of two n-digit numbers
+ * into three multiplications of n/2-digit numbers.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The main idea of the Karatsuba algorithm is based on the following observation:
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <pre>
+ * Let x and y be two numbers:
+ * x = a * 10^m + b
+ * y = c * 10^m + d
+ *
+ * Then, the product of x and y can be expressed as:
+ * x * y = (a * c) * 10^(2*m) + ((a * d) + (b * c)) * 10^m + (b * d)
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * The Karatsuba algorithm calculates this more efficiently by reducing the number of
+ * multiplications from four to three by using the identity:
+ *
+ * <pre>
+ * (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The recursion continues until the numbers are small enough to multiply directly using
+ * the traditional method.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class KaratsubaMultiplication {
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to hide the implicit public constructor
+     */
+    private KaratsubaMultiplication() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Multiplies two large numbers using the Karatsuba algorithm.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * This method recursively splits the numbers into smaller parts until they are
+     * small enough to be multiplied directly using the traditional method.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param x The first large number to be multiplied (BigInteger).
+     * @param y The second large number to be multiplied (BigInteger).
+     * @return The product of the two numbers (BigInteger).
+     */
+    public static BigInteger karatsuba(BigInteger x, BigInteger y) {
+        // Base case: when numbers are small enough, use direct multiplication
+        // If the number is 4 bits or smaller, switch to the classical method
+        if (x.bitLength() <= 4 || y.bitLength() <= 4) {
+            return x.multiply(y);
+        }
+
+        // Find the maximum bit length of the two numbers
+        int n = Math.max(x.bitLength(), y.bitLength());
+
+        // Split the numbers in the middle
+        int m = n / 2;
+
+        // High and low parts of the first number x (x = a * 10^m + b)
+        BigInteger high1 = x.shiftRight(m); // a = x / 2^m (higher part)
+        BigInteger low1 = x.subtract(high1.shiftLeft(m)); // b = x - a * 2^m (lower part)
+
+        // High and low parts of the second number y (y = c * 10^m + d)
+        BigInteger high2 = y.shiftRight(m); // c = y / 2^m (higher part)
+        BigInteger low2 = y.subtract(high2.shiftLeft(m)); // d = y - c * 2^m (lower part)
+
+        // Recursively calculate three products
+        BigInteger z0 = karatsuba(low1, low2); // z0 = b * d (low1 * low2)
+        BigInteger z1 = karatsuba(low1.add(high1), low2.add(high2)); // z1 = (a + b) * (c + d)
+        BigInteger z2 = karatsuba(high1, high2); // z2 = a * c (high1 * high2)
+
+        // Combine the results using Karatsuba's formula
+        // z0 + ((z1 - z2 - z0) << m) + (z2 << 2m)
+        return z2
+            .shiftLeft(2 * m) // z2 * 10^(2*m)
+            .add(z1.subtract(z2).subtract(z0).shiftLeft(m)) // (z1 - z2 - z0) * 10^m
+            .add(z0); // z0
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumber.java
index ddad3db38d5c..eb7f800d378f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumber.java
@@ -1,52 +1,101 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Scanner;
 
-class KeithNumber {
+/**
+ * A Keith number is an n-digit positive integer where the sequence formed by
+ * starting with its digits and repeatedly adding the previous n terms,
+ * eventually reaches the number itself.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * For example:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>14 is a Keith number: 1, 4, 5, 9, 14</li>
+ * <li>19 is a Keith number: 1, 9, 10, 19</li>
+ * <li>28 is a Keith number: 2, 8, 10, 18, 28</li>
+ * <li>197 is a Keith number: 1, 9, 7, 17, 33, 57, 107, 197</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_number">Keith Number -
+ *      Wikipedia</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://mathworld.wolfram.com/KeithNumber.html">Keith Number -
+ *      MathWorld</a>
+ */
+public final class KeithNumber {
+    private KeithNumber() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a given number is a Keith number.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * The algorithm works as follows:
+     * <ol>
+     * <li>Extract all digits of the number and store them in a list</li>
+     * <li>Generate subsequent terms by summing the last n digits</li>
+     * <li>Continue until a term equals or exceeds the original number</li>
+     * <li>If a term equals the number, it is a Keith number</li>
+     * </ol>
+     *
+     * @param number the number to check (must be positive)
+     * @return {@code true} if the number is a Keith number, {@code false} otherwise
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the number is not positive
+     */
+    public static boolean isKeith(int number) {
+        if (number <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number must be positive");
+        }
+
+        // Extract digits and store them in the list
+        ArrayList<Integer> terms = new ArrayList<>();
+        int temp = number;
+        int digitCount = 0;
 
-    //user-defined function that checks if the given number is Keith or not  
-    static boolean isKeith(int x) {
-        //List stores all the digits of the X  
-        ArrayList<Integer> terms = new ArrayList<Integer>();
-        //n denotes the number of digits   
-        int temp = x, n = 0;
-        //executes until the condition becomes false  
         while (temp > 0) {
-            //determines the last digit of the number and add it to the List      
             terms.add(temp % 10);
-            //removes the last digit  
             temp = temp / 10;
-            //increments the number of digits (n) by 1  
-            n++;
+            digitCount++;
         }
-        //reverse the List  
+
+        // Reverse the list to get digits in correct order
         Collections.reverse(terms);
-        int next_term = 0, i = n;
-        //finds next term for the series  
-        //loop executes until the condition returns true  
-        while (next_term < x) {
-            next_term = 0;
-            //next term is the sum of previous n terms (it depends on number of digits the number has)  
-            for (int j = 1; j <= n; j++) {
-                next_term = next_term + terms.get(i - j);
+
+        // Generate subsequent terms in the sequence
+        int nextTerm = 0;
+        int currentIndex = digitCount;
+
+        while (nextTerm < number) {
+            nextTerm = 0;
+            // Sum the last 'digitCount' terms
+            for (int j = 1; j <= digitCount; j++) {
+                nextTerm = nextTerm + terms.get(currentIndex - j);
             }
-            terms.add(next_term);
-            i++;
+            terms.add(nextTerm);
+            currentIndex++;
         }
-        //when the control comes out of the while loop, there will be two conditions:  
-        //either next_term will be equal to x or greater than x  
-        //if equal, the given number is Keith, else not  
-        return (next_term == x);
+
+        // Check if the generated term equals the original number
+        return (nextTerm == number);
     }
 
-    //driver code  
+    /**
+     * Main method for demonstrating Keith number detection.
+     * Reads a number from standard input and checks if it is a Keith number.
+     *
+     * @param args command line arguments (not used)
+     */
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n = in.nextInt();
-        if (isKeith(n)) {
-            System.out.println("Yes, the given number is a Keith number.");
+        Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
+        System.out.print("Enter a positive integer: ");
+        int number = scanner.nextInt();
+
+        if (isKeith(number)) {
+            System.out.println("Yes, " + number + " is a Keith number.");
         } else {
-            System.out.println("No, the given number is not a Keith number.");
+            System.out.println("No, " + number + " is not a Keith number.");
         }
+        scanner.close();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumber.java
index 10052acda684..a00ef7e3b15d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumber.java
@@ -1,56 +1,71 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-/* This is a program to check if a number is a Krishnamurthy number or not.
-A number is a Krishnamurthy number if the sum of the factorials of the digits of the number is equal to the number itself.
-For example, 1, 2 and 145 are Krishnamurthy numbers.
-Krishnamurthy number is also referred to as a Strong number.
+/**
+ * Utility class for checking if a number is a Krishnamurthy number.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * A Krishnamurthy number (also known as a Strong number or Factorion) is a
+ * number
+ * whose sum of the factorials of its digits is equal to the number itself.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * For example, 145 is a Krishnamurthy number because 1! + 4! + 5! = 1 + 24 +
+ * 120 = 145.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The only Krishnamurthy numbers in base 10 are: 1, 2, 145, and 40585.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * <b>Example usage:</b>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <pre>
+ * boolean isKrishnamurthy = KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(145);
+ * System.out.println(isKrishnamurthy); // Output: true
+ *
+ * isKrishnamurthy = KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(123);
+ * System.out.println(isKrishnamurthy); // Output: false
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factorion">Factorion
+ *      (Wikipedia)</a>
  */
-import java.io.*;
+public final class KrishnamurthyNumber {
 
-public class KrishnamurthyNumber {
-    //returns True if the number is a Krishnamurthy number and False if it is not.
+    // Pre-computed factorials for digits 0-9 to improve performance
+    private static final int[] FACTORIALS = {1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880};
 
-    public static boolean isKMurthy(int n) {
-        //initialising the variable s that will store the sum of the factorials of the digits to 0
-        int s = 0;
-        //storing the number n in a temporary variable tmp
-        int tmp = n;
+    private KrishnamurthyNumber() {
+    }
 
-        //Krishnamurthy numbers are positive
+    /**
+     * Checks if a number is a Krishnamurthy number.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * A number is a Krishnamurthy number if the sum of the factorials of its digits
+     * equals the number itself.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param n the number to check
+     * @return true if the number is a Krishnamurthy number, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isKrishnamurthy(int n) {
         if (n <= 0) {
             return false;
-        } //checking if the number is a Krishnamurthy number
-        else {
-            while (n != 0) {
-                //initialising the variable fact that will store the factorials of the digits
-                int fact = 1;
-                //computing factorial of each digit
-                for (int i = 1; i <= n % 10; i++) {
-                    fact = fact * i;
-                }
-                //computing the sum of the factorials
-                s = s + fact;
-                //discarding the digit for which factorial has been calculated
-                n = n / 10;
-            }
-
-            //evaluating if sum of the factorials of the digits equals the number itself
-            if (tmp == s) {
-                return true;
-            } else {
-                return false;
-            }
         }
-    }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException {
-        BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
-        System.out.println("Enter a number to check if it is a Krishnamurthy number: ");
-        int n = Integer.parseInt(br.readLine());
-        if (isKMurthy(n)) {
-            System.out.println(n + " is a Krishnamurthy number.");
-        } else {
-            System.out.println(n + " is NOT a Krishnamurthy number.");
+        int original = n;
+        int sum = 0;
+
+        while (n != 0) {
+            int digit = n % 10;
+            sum = sum + FACTORIALS[digit];
+            n = n / 10;
         }
+
+        return sum == original;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultiple.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultiple.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9ec11e9b3220
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultiple.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * Is a common mathematics concept to find the smallest value number
+ * that can be divide using either number without having the remainder.
+ * https://maticschool.blogspot.com/2013/11/find-least-common-multiple-lcm.html
+ * @author LauKinHoong
+ */
+public final class LeastCommonMultiple {
+    private LeastCommonMultiple() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the least common multiple of two numbers.
+     *
+     * @param num1 The first number.
+     * @param num2 The second number.
+     * @return The least common multiple of num1 and num2.
+     */
+    public static int lcm(int num1, int num2) {
+        int high;
+        int num3;
+        int cmv = 0;
+
+        if (num1 > num2) {
+            high = num1;
+            num3 = num1;
+        } else {
+            high = num2;
+            num3 = num2;
+        }
+
+        while (num1 != 0) {
+            if (high % num1 == 0 && high % num2 == 0) {
+                cmv = high;
+                break;
+            }
+            high += num3;
+        }
+        return cmv;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumber.java
index 8e05d248cc33..9ac3691a6285 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumber.java
@@ -1,21 +1,79 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-public class LeonardoNumber {
+/**
+ * Utility class for calculating Leonardo Numbers.
+ * <p>
+ * Leonardo numbers are a sequence of numbers defined by the recurrence:
+ * L(n) = L(n-1) + L(n-2) + 1, with L(0) = 1 and L(1) = 1
+ * <p>
+ * The sequence begins: 1, 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 25, 41, 67, 109, 177, ...
+ * <p>
+ * This class provides both a recursive implementation and an optimized
+ * iterative
+ * implementation for calculating Leonardo numbers.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_number">Leonardo Number
+ *      - Wikipedia</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://oeis.org/A001595">OEIS A001595</a>
+ */
+public final class LeonardoNumber {
+    private LeonardoNumber() {
+    }
 
+    /**
+     * Calculates the nth Leonardo Number using recursion.
+     * <p>
+     * Time Complexity: O(2^n) - exponential due to repeated calculations
+     * Space Complexity: O(n) - due to recursion stack
+     * <p>
+     * Note: This method is not recommended for large values of n due to exponential
+     * time complexity.
+     * Consider using {@link #leonardoNumberIterative(int)} for better performance.
+     *
+     * @param n the index of the Leonardo Number to calculate (must be non-negative)
+     * @return the nth Leonardo Number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is negative
+     */
     public static int leonardoNumber(int n) {
         if (n < 0) {
-            return 0;
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must be non-negative. Received: " + n);
         }
         if (n == 0 || n == 1) {
             return 1;
         }
-        return (leonardoNumber(n - 1) + leonardoNumber(n - 2) + 1);
+        return leonardoNumber(n - 1) + leonardoNumber(n - 2) + 1;
     }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        for (int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
-            System.out.print(leonardoNumber(i) + " ");
+    /**
+     * Calculates the nth Leonardo Number using an iterative approach.
+     * <p>
+     * This method provides better performance than the recursive version for large
+     * values of n.
+     * <p>
+     * Time Complexity: O(n)
+     * Space Complexity: O(1)
+     *
+     * @param n the index of the Leonardo Number to calculate (must be non-negative)
+     * @return the nth Leonardo Number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is negative
+     */
+    public static int leonardoNumberIterative(int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must be non-negative. Received: " + n);
+        }
+        if (n == 0 || n == 1) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+
+        int previous = 1;
+        int current = 1;
+
+        for (int i = 2; i <= n; i++) {
+            int next = current + previous + 1;
+            previous = current;
+            current = next;
         }
 
+        return current;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.java
index 19771f62169f..a95e7053e210 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.java
@@ -2,18 +2,77 @@
 
 import java.util.Objects;
 
+/**
+ * A solver for linear Diophantine equations of the form ax + by = c.
+ * <p>
+ * A linear Diophantine equation is an equation in which only integer solutions
+ * are allowed.
+ * This solver uses the Extended Euclidean Algorithm to find integer solutions
+ * (x, y)
+ * for equations of the form ax + by = c, where a, b, and c are integers.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * The equation has solutions if and only if gcd(a, b) divides c.
+ * If solutions exist, this solver finds one particular solution.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation">Diophantine
+ *      Equation</a>
+ * @see <a href=
+ *      "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Euclidean_algorithm">Extended
+ *      Euclidean Algorithm</a>
+ */
 public final class LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver {
+    private LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver() {
+    }
 
+    /**
+     * Demonstrates the solver with a sample equation: 3x + 4y = 7.
+     *
+     * @param args command line arguments (not used)
+     */
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         // 3x + 4y = 7
         final var toSolve = new Equation(3, 4, 7);
         System.out.println(findAnySolution(toSolve));
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Finds any integer solution to the linear Diophantine equation ax + by = c.
+     * <p>
+     * The method returns one of three types of solutions:
+     * <ul>
+     * <li>A specific solution (x, y) if solutions exist</li>
+     * <li>{@link Solution#NO_SOLUTION} if no integer solutions exist</li>
+     * <li>{@link Solution#INFINITE_SOLUTIONS} if the equation is 0x + 0y = 0</li>
+     * </ul>
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param equation the linear Diophantine equation to solve
+     * @return a Solution object containing the result
+     * @throws NullPointerException if equation is null
+     */
     public static Solution findAnySolution(final Equation equation) {
         if (equation.a() == 0 && equation.b() == 0 && equation.c() == 0) {
             return Solution.INFINITE_SOLUTIONS;
         }
+        if (equation.a() == 0 && equation.b() == 0) {
+            return Solution.NO_SOLUTION;
+        }
+        if (equation.a() == 0) {
+            if (equation.c() % equation.b() == 0) {
+                return new Solution(0, equation.c() / equation.b());
+            } else {
+                return Solution.NO_SOLUTION;
+            }
+        }
+        if (equation.b() == 0) {
+            if (equation.c() % equation.a() == 0) {
+                return new Solution(equation.c() / equation.a(), 0);
+            } else {
+                return Solution.NO_SOLUTION;
+            }
+        }
         final var stub = new GcdSolutionWrapper(0, new Solution(0, 0));
         final var gcdSolution = gcd(equation.a(), equation.b(), stub);
         if (equation.c() % gcdSolution.getGcd() != 0) {
@@ -27,43 +86,100 @@ public static Solution findAnySolution(final Equation equation) {
         return toReturn;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Computes the GCD of two integers using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm.
+     * <p>
+     * This method also finds coefficients x and y such that ax + by = gcd(a, b).
+     * The coefficients are stored in the 'previous' wrapper object.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param a        the first integer
+     * @param b        the second integer
+     * @param previous a wrapper to store the solution coefficients
+     * @return a GcdSolutionWrapper containing the GCD and coefficients
+     */
     private static GcdSolutionWrapper gcd(final int a, final int b, final GcdSolutionWrapper previous) {
         if (b == 0) {
             return new GcdSolutionWrapper(a, new Solution(1, 0));
         }
         // stub wrapper becomes the `previous` of the next recursive call
         final var stubWrapper = new GcdSolutionWrapper(0, new Solution(0, 0));
-        final var next = /* recursive call */ gcd(b, a % b, stubWrapper);
+        final var next = gcd(b, a % b, stubWrapper);
         previous.getSolution().setX(next.getSolution().getY());
         previous.getSolution().setY(next.getSolution().getX() - (a / b) * (next.getSolution().getY()));
         previous.setGcd(next.getGcd());
         return new GcdSolutionWrapper(next.getGcd(), previous.getSolution());
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Represents a solution (x, y) to a linear Diophantine equation.
+     * <p>
+     * Special instances:
+     * <ul>
+     * <li>{@link #NO_SOLUTION} - indicates no integer solutions exist</li>
+     * <li>{@link #INFINITE_SOLUTIONS} - indicates infinitely many solutions
+     * exist</li>
+     * </ul>
+     * </p>
+     */
     public static final class Solution {
 
+        /**
+         * Singleton instance representing the case where no solution exists.
+         */
         public static final Solution NO_SOLUTION = new Solution(Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+
+        /**
+         * Singleton instance representing the case where infinite solutions exist.
+         */
         public static final Solution INFINITE_SOLUTIONS = new Solution(Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MIN_VALUE);
+
         private int x;
         private int y;
 
+        /**
+         * Constructs a solution with the given x and y values.
+         *
+         * @param x the x coordinate of the solution
+         * @param y the y coordinate of the solution
+         */
         public Solution(int x, int y) {
             this.x = x;
             this.y = y;
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Gets the x value of this solution.
+         *
+         * @return the x value
+         */
         public int getX() {
             return x;
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Gets the y value of this solution.
+         *
+         * @return the y value
+         */
         public int getY() {
             return y;
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Sets the x value of this solution.
+         *
+         * @param x the new x value
+         */
         public void setX(int x) {
             this.x = x;
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Sets the y value of this solution.
+         *
+         * @param y the new y value
+         */
         public void setY(int y) {
             this.y = y;
         }
@@ -77,8 +193,7 @@ public boolean equals(Object obj) {
                 return false;
             }
             var that = (Solution) obj;
-            return this.x == that.x
-                    && this.y == that.y;
+            return this.x == that.x && this.y == that.y;
         }
 
         @Override
@@ -89,21 +204,40 @@ public int hashCode() {
         @Override
         public String toString() {
             return "Solution["
-                    + "x=" + x + ", "
-                    + "y=" + y + ']';
+                + "x=" + x + ", "
+                + "y=" + y + ']';
         }
-
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Represents a linear Diophantine equation of the form ax + by = c.
+     *
+     * @param a the coefficient of x
+     * @param b the coefficient of y
+     * @param c the constant term
+     */
     public record Equation(int a, int b, int c) {
-
     }
 
+    /**
+     * A wrapper class that holds both the GCD and the solution coefficients
+     * from the Extended Euclidean Algorithm.
+     * <p>
+     * This class is used internally to pass results between recursive calls
+     * of the GCD computation.
+     * </p>
+     */
     public static final class GcdSolutionWrapper {
 
         private int gcd;
         private Solution solution;
 
+        /**
+         * Constructs a GcdSolutionWrapper with the given GCD and solution.
+         *
+         * @param gcd      the greatest common divisor
+         * @param solution the solution coefficients
+         */
         public GcdSolutionWrapper(int gcd, Solution solution) {
             this.gcd = gcd;
             this.solution = solution;
@@ -118,22 +252,41 @@ public boolean equals(Object obj) {
                 return false;
             }
             var that = (GcdSolutionWrapper) obj;
-            return this.gcd == that.gcd
-                    && Objects.equals(this.solution, that.solution);
+            return (this.gcd == that.gcd && Objects.equals(this.solution, that.solution));
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Gets the GCD value.
+         *
+         * @return the GCD
+         */
         public int getGcd() {
             return gcd;
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Sets the GCD value.
+         *
+         * @param gcd the new GCD value
+         */
         public void setGcd(int gcd) {
             this.gcd = gcd;
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Gets the solution coefficients.
+         *
+         * @return the solution
+         */
         public Solution getSolution() {
             return solution;
         }
 
+        /**
+         * Sets the solution coefficients.
+         *
+         * @param solution the new solution
+         */
         public void setSolution(Solution solution) {
             this.solution = solution;
         }
@@ -145,10 +298,9 @@ public int hashCode() {
 
         @Override
         public String toString() {
-            return "GcdSolutionWrapper["
-                    + "gcd=" + gcd + ", "
-                    + "solution=" + solution + ']';
+            return ("GcdSolutionWrapper["
+                + "gcd=" + gcd + ", "
+                + "solution=" + solution + ']');
         }
-
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivision.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivision.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..45e97b1c14c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivision.java
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+//        Given two integers dividend and divisor, divide two integers without using multiplication,
+//        division, and mod operator.
+//
+//        The integer division should truncate toward zero, which means losing its fractional part.
+//        For example, 8.345 would be truncated to 8, and -2.7335 would be truncated to -2. My
+//        method used Long Division, here is the source
+//        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_division"
+
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+public final class LongDivision {
+    private LongDivision() {
+    }
+    public static int divide(int dividend, int divisor) {
+        long newDividend1 = dividend;
+        long newDivisor1 = divisor;
+
+        if (divisor == 0) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        if (dividend < 0) {
+            newDividend1 = newDividend1 * -1;
+        }
+        if (divisor < 0) {
+            newDivisor1 = newDivisor1 * -1;
+        }
+
+        if (dividend == 0 || newDividend1 < newDivisor1) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder answer = new StringBuilder();
+
+        String dividendString = "" + newDividend1;
+        int lastIndex = 0;
+
+        String remainder = "";
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < dividendString.length(); i++) {
+            String partV1 = remainder + "" + dividendString.substring(lastIndex, i + 1);
+            long part1 = Long.parseLong(partV1);
+            if (part1 > newDivisor1) {
+                int quotient = 0;
+                while (part1 >= newDivisor1) {
+                    part1 = part1 - newDivisor1;
+                    quotient++;
+                }
+                answer.append(quotient);
+            } else if (part1 == newDivisor1) {
+                int quotient = 0;
+                while (part1 >= newDivisor1) {
+                    part1 = part1 - newDivisor1;
+                    quotient++;
+                }
+                answer.append(quotient);
+            } else if (part1 == 0) {
+                answer.append(0);
+            } else if (part1 < newDivisor1) {
+                answer.append(0);
+            }
+            if (!(part1 == 0)) {
+                remainder = String.valueOf(part1);
+            } else {
+                remainder = "";
+            }
+
+            lastIndex++;
+        }
+
+        if ((dividend < 0 && divisor > 0) || (dividend > 0 && divisor < 0)) {
+            try {
+                return Integer.parseInt(answer.toString()) * (-1);
+            } catch (NumberFormatException e) {
+                return -2147483648;
+            }
+        }
+        try {
+            return Integer.parseInt(answer.toString());
+        } catch (NumberFormatException e) {
+            return 2147483647;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeries.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeries.java
index 1ac9e55717c4..90a35f0d6259 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeries.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeries.java
@@ -1,46 +1,69 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 /**
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_number
+ * Utility class for calculating Lucas numbers.
+ * The Lucas sequence is similar to the Fibonacci sequence but starts with 2 and
+ * 1.
+ * The sequence follows: L(n) = L(n-1) + L(n-2)
+ * Starting values: L(1) = 2, L(2) = 1
+ * Sequence: 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123, ...
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_number">Lucas Number</a>
+ * @author TheAlgorithms Contributors
  */
-public class LucasSeries {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert lucasSeries(1) == 2 && lucasSeriesIteration(1) == 2;
-        assert lucasSeries(2) == 1 && lucasSeriesIteration(2) == 1;
-        assert lucasSeries(3) == 3 && lucasSeriesIteration(3) == 3;
-        assert lucasSeries(4) == 4 && lucasSeriesIteration(4) == 4;
-        assert lucasSeries(5) == 7 && lucasSeriesIteration(5) == 7;
-        assert lucasSeries(6) == 11 && lucasSeriesIteration(6) == 11;
-        assert lucasSeries(11) == 123 && lucasSeriesIteration(11) == 123;
+public final class LucasSeries {
+    private LucasSeries() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate nth number of lucas series(2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76,
-     * 123, ....) using recursion
+     * Calculate the nth Lucas number using recursion.
+     * Time Complexity: O(2^n) - exponential due to recursive calls
+     * Space Complexity: O(n) - recursion depth
      *
-     * @param n nth
-     * @return nth number of lucas series
+     * @param n the position in the Lucas sequence (1-indexed, must be positive)
+     * @return the nth Lucas number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is less than 1
      */
     public static int lucasSeries(int n) {
-        return n == 1 ? 2 : n == 2 ? 1 : lucasSeries(n - 1) + lucasSeries(n - 2);
+        if (n < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must be a positive integer. Provided: " + n);
+        }
+        if (n == 1) {
+            return 2;
+        }
+        if (n == 2) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+        return lucasSeries(n - 1) + lucasSeries(n - 2);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate nth number of lucas series(2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76,
-     * 123, ....) using iteration
+     * Calculate the nth Lucas number using iteration.
+     * Time Complexity: O(n) - single loop through n iterations
+     * Space Complexity: O(1) - constant space usage
      *
-     * @param n nth
-     * @return nth number of lucas series
+     * @param n the position in the Lucas sequence (1-indexed, must be positive)
+     * @return the nth Lucas number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is less than 1
      */
     public static int lucasSeriesIteration(int n) {
+        if (n < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must be a positive integer. Provided: " + n);
+        }
+        if (n == 1) {
+            return 2;
+        }
+        if (n == 2) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+
         int previous = 2;
         int current = 1;
-        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+        for (int i = 2; i < n; i++) {
             int next = previous + current;
             previous = current;
             current = next;
         }
-        return previous;
+        return current;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MagicSquare.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MagicSquare.java
index f1b187d7a6fb..de0afc148982 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MagicSquare.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MagicSquare.java
@@ -1,13 +1,15 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.Scanner;
 
-/*A magic square of order n is an arrangement of distinct n^2 integers,in a square, such that the n numbers in all
-rows, all columns, and both diagonals sum to the same constant. A magic square contains the integers from 1 to n^2.*/
-public class MagicSquare {
+/*A magic square of order n is an arrangement of distinct n^2 integers,in a square, such that the n
+numbers in all rows, all columns, and both diagonals sum to the same constant. A magic square
+contains the integers from 1 to n^2.*/
+public final class MagicSquare {
+    private MagicSquare() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-
         Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
         System.out.print("Input a number: ");
         int num = sc.nextInt();
@@ -16,35 +18,35 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
             System.exit(0);
         }
 
-        int[][] magic_square = new int[num][num];
+        int[][] magicSquare = new int[num][num];
 
-        int row_num = num / 2;
-        int col_num = num - 1;
-        magic_square[row_num][col_num] = 1;
+        int rowNum = num / 2;
+        int colNum = num - 1;
+        magicSquare[rowNum][colNum] = 1;
 
         for (int i = 2; i <= num * num; i++) {
-            if (magic_square[(row_num - 1 + num) % num][(col_num + 1) % num] == 0) {
-                row_num = (row_num - 1 + num) % num;
-                col_num = (col_num + 1) % num;
+            if (magicSquare[(rowNum - 1 + num) % num][(colNum + 1) % num] == 0) {
+                rowNum = (rowNum - 1 + num) % num;
+                colNum = (colNum + 1) % num;
             } else {
-                col_num = (col_num - 1 + num) % num;
+                colNum = (colNum - 1 + num) % num;
             }
-            magic_square[row_num][col_num] = i;
+            magicSquare[rowNum][colNum] = i;
         }
 
         // print the square
         for (int i = 0; i < num; i++) {
             for (int j = 0; j < num; j++) {
-                if (magic_square[i][j] < 10) {
+                if (magicSquare[i][j] < 10) {
                     System.out.print(" ");
                 }
-                if (magic_square[i][j] < 100) {
+                if (magicSquare[i][j] < 100) {
                     System.out.print(" ");
                 }
-                System.out.print(magic_square[i][j] + " ");
+                System.out.print(magicSquare[i][j] + " ");
             }
             System.out.println();
         }
-
+        sc.close();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilder.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1cf3d8b7fc9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,503 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.text.DecimalFormat;
+import java.util.Random;
+import java.util.function.BiFunction;
+import java.util.function.Function;
+
+/**
+ * Author: Sadiul Hakim : https://github.com/sadiul-hakim
+ * Profession: Backend Engineer
+ * Date: Oct 20, 2024
+ */
+public final class MathBuilder {
+    private final double result;
+
+    private MathBuilder(Builder builder) {
+        this.result = builder.number;
+    }
+
+    // Returns final result
+    public double get() {
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    // Return result in long
+    public long toLong() {
+        try {
+            if (Double.isNaN(result)) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Cannot convert NaN to long!");
+            }
+            if (result == Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY) {
+                return Long.MAX_VALUE;
+            }
+            if (result == Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY) {
+                return Long.MIN_VALUE;
+            }
+            if (result > Long.MAX_VALUE) {
+                return Long.MAX_VALUE;
+            }
+            if (result < Long.MIN_VALUE) {
+                return Long.MIN_VALUE;
+            }
+            return Math.round(result);
+        } catch (Exception ex) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    public static class Builder {
+        private double number;
+        private double sideNumber;
+        private boolean inParenthesis;
+        private double memory = 0;
+
+        public Builder() {
+            number = 0;
+        }
+
+        public Builder(double num) {
+            number = num;
+        }
+
+        public Builder add(double num) {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber += num;
+            } else {
+                number += num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Takes a number and a condition, only does the operation if condition is true.
+        public Builder addIf(double num, BiFunction<Double, Double, Boolean> condition) {
+            if (!condition.apply(number, num)) {
+                return this;
+            }
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber += num;
+            } else {
+                number += num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder minus(double num) {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber -= num;
+            } else {
+                number -= num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Takes a number and a condition, only does the operation if condition is true.
+        public Builder minusIf(double num, BiFunction<Double, Double, Boolean> condition) {
+            if (!condition.apply(number, num)) {
+                return this;
+            }
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber -= num;
+            } else {
+                number -= num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Generates a random number and sets to NUMBER
+        public Builder rand(long seed) {
+            if (number != 0) {
+                throw new RuntimeException("Number must be zero for random assignment!");
+            }
+            Random random = new Random();
+            number = random.nextDouble(seed);
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Takes PI value and sets to NUMBER
+        public Builder pi() {
+            if (number != 0) {
+                throw new RuntimeException("Number must be zero for PI assignment!");
+            }
+            number = Math.PI;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Takes E value and sets to NUMBER
+        public Builder e() {
+            if (number != 0) {
+                throw new RuntimeException("Number must be zero for E assignment!");
+            }
+            number = Math.E;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder randomInRange(double min, double max) {
+            if (number != 0) {
+                throw new RuntimeException("Number must be zero for random assignment!");
+            }
+            Random random = new Random();
+            number = min + (max - min) * random.nextDouble();
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder toDegrees() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.toDegrees(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.toDegrees(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder max(double num) {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.max(sideNumber, num);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.max(number, num);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder min(double num) {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.min(sideNumber, num);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.min(number, num);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder multiply(double num) {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber *= num;
+            } else {
+                number *= num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Takes a number and a condition, only does the operation if condition is true.
+        public Builder multiplyIf(double num, BiFunction<Double, Double, Boolean> condition) {
+            if (!condition.apply(number, num)) {
+                return this;
+            }
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber *= num;
+            } else {
+                number *= num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder divide(double num) {
+            if (num == 0) {
+                return this;
+            }
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber /= num;
+            } else {
+                number /= num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Takes a number and a condition, only does the operation if condition is true.
+        public Builder divideIf(double num, BiFunction<Double, Double, Boolean> condition) {
+            if (num == 0) {
+                return this;
+            }
+            if (!condition.apply(number, num)) {
+                return this;
+            }
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber /= num;
+            } else {
+                number /= num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder mod(double num) {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber %= num;
+            } else {
+                number %= num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Takes a number and a condition, only does the operation if condition is true.
+        public Builder modIf(double num, BiFunction<Double, Double, Boolean> condition) {
+            if (!condition.apply(number, num)) {
+                return this;
+            }
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber %= num;
+            } else {
+                number %= num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder pow(double num) {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.pow(sideNumber, num);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.pow(number, num);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder sqrt() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.sqrt(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.sqrt(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder round() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.round(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.round(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder floor() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.floor(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.floor(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder ceil() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.ceil(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.ceil(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder abs() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.abs(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.abs(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder cbrt() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.cbrt(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.cbrt(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder log() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.log(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.log(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder log10() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.log10(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.log10(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder sin() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.sin(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.sin(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder cos() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.cos(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.cos(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder tan() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.tan(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.tan(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder sinh() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.sinh(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.sinh(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder cosh() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.cosh(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.cosh(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder tanh() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.tanh(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.tanh(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder exp() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.exp(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.exp(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder toRadians() {
+            if (inParenthesis) {
+                sideNumber = Math.toRadians(sideNumber);
+            } else {
+                number = Math.toRadians(number);
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Remembers the NUMBER
+        public Builder remember() {
+            memory = number;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Recalls the NUMBER
+        public Builder recall(boolean cleanMemory) {
+            number = memory;
+            if (cleanMemory) {
+                memory = 0;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Recalls the NUMBER on condition
+        public Builder recallIf(Function<Double, Boolean> condition, boolean cleanMemory) {
+            if (!condition.apply(number)) {
+                return this;
+            }
+            number = memory;
+            if (cleanMemory) {
+                memory = 0;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Replaces NUMBER with given number
+        public Builder set(double num) {
+            if (number != 0) {
+                throw new RuntimeException("Number must be zero to set!");
+            }
+            number = num;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Replaces NUMBER with given number on condition
+        public Builder setIf(double num, BiFunction<Double, Double, Boolean> condition) {
+            if (number != 0) {
+                throw new RuntimeException("Number must be zero to set!");
+            }
+            if (condition.apply(number, num)) {
+                number = num;
+            }
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        // Prints current NUMBER
+        public Builder print() {
+            System.out.println("MathBuilder Result :: " + number);
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder openParenthesis(double num) {
+            sideNumber = num;
+            inParenthesis = true;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder closeParenthesisAndPlus() {
+            number += sideNumber;
+            inParenthesis = false;
+            sideNumber = 0;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder closeParenthesisAndMinus() {
+            number -= sideNumber;
+            inParenthesis = false;
+            sideNumber = 0;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder closeParenthesisAndMultiply() {
+            number *= sideNumber;
+            inParenthesis = false;
+            sideNumber = 0;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder closeParenthesisAndDivide() {
+            number /= sideNumber;
+            inParenthesis = false;
+            sideNumber = 0;
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder format(String format) {
+            DecimalFormat formater = new DecimalFormat(format);
+            String num = formater.format(number);
+            number = Double.parseDouble(num);
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public Builder format(int decimalPlace) {
+            String pattern = "."
+                + "#".repeat(decimalPlace);
+            DecimalFormat formater = new DecimalFormat(pattern);
+            String num = formater.format(number);
+            number = Double.parseDouble(num);
+            return this;
+        }
+
+        public MathBuilder build() {
+            return new MathBuilder(this);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MatrixUtil.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MatrixUtil.java
deleted file mode 100644
index dba86b7ae3de..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MatrixUtil.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,165 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.maths;
-
-import java.math.BigDecimal;
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Objects;
-import java.util.Optional;
-import java.util.function.BiFunction;
-import java.util.stream.IntStream;
-
-/**
- * @author: caos321
- * @date: 31 October 2021 (Sunday)
- */
-public class MatrixUtil {
-
-    public static boolean isValid(final BigDecimal[][] matrix) {
-        return matrix != null && matrix.length > 0 && matrix[0].length > 0;
-    }
-
-    public static boolean hasEqualSizes(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
-        return isValid(matrix1) && isValid(matrix2)
-                && matrix1.length == matrix2.length
-                && matrix1[0].length == matrix2[0].length;
-    }
-
-    public static boolean canMultiply(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
-        return isValid(matrix1) && isValid(matrix2)
-                && matrix1[0].length == matrix2.length;
-    }
-
-    public static Optional<BigDecimal[][]> operate(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1,
-            final BigDecimal[][] matrix2,
-            final BiFunction<BigDecimal, BigDecimal, BigDecimal> operation) {
-        if (!hasEqualSizes(matrix1, matrix2)) {
-            return Optional.empty();
-        }
-
-        final int rowSize = matrix1.length;
-        final int columnSize = matrix1[0].length;
-
-        final BigDecimal[][] result = new BigDecimal[rowSize][columnSize];
-
-        IntStream.range(0, rowSize).forEach(rowIndex
-                -> IntStream.range(0, columnSize).forEach(columnIndex -> {
-                    final BigDecimal value1 = matrix1[rowIndex][columnIndex];
-                    final BigDecimal value2 = matrix2[rowIndex][columnIndex];
-
-                    result[rowIndex][columnIndex] = operation.apply(value1, value2);
-                }));
-
-        return Optional.of(result);
-    }
-
-    public static Optional<BigDecimal[][]> add(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
-        return operate(matrix1, matrix2, BigDecimal::add);
-    }
-
-    public static Optional<BigDecimal[][]> subtract(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
-        return operate(matrix1, matrix2, BigDecimal::subtract);
-    }
-
-    public static Optional<BigDecimal[][]> multiply(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
-        if (!canMultiply(matrix1, matrix2)) {
-            return Optional.empty();
-        }
-
-        final int size = matrix1[0].length;
-
-        final int matrix1RowSize = matrix1.length;
-        final int matrix2ColumnSize = matrix2[0].length;
-
-        final BigDecimal[][] result = new BigDecimal[matrix1RowSize][matrix2ColumnSize];
-
-        IntStream.range(0, matrix1RowSize).forEach(rowIndex
-                -> IntStream.range(0, matrix2ColumnSize).forEach(columnIndex
-                        -> result[rowIndex][columnIndex] = IntStream.range(0, size).mapToObj(index -> {
-                    final BigDecimal value1 = matrix1[rowIndex][index];
-                    final BigDecimal value2 = matrix2[index][columnIndex];
-
-                    return value1.multiply(value2);
-                })
-                        .reduce(BigDecimal.ZERO, BigDecimal::add)
-                )
-        );
-
-        return Optional.of(result);
-    }
-
-    public static void assertThat(final BigDecimal[][] actual, final BigDecimal[][] expected) {
-        if (!Objects.deepEquals(actual, expected)) {
-            throw new AssertionError(String.format(
-                    "expected=%s but was actual=%s",
-                    Arrays.deepToString(expected),
-                    Arrays.deepToString(actual)
-            ));
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(final String[] args) {
-        {
-            final BigDecimal[][] matrix1 = {
-                {new BigDecimal(3), new BigDecimal(2)},
-                {new BigDecimal(0), new BigDecimal(1)},};
-
-            final BigDecimal[][] matrix2 = {
-                {new BigDecimal(1), new BigDecimal(3)},
-                {new BigDecimal(2), new BigDecimal(0)},};
-
-            final BigDecimal[][] actual = add(matrix1, matrix2)
-                    .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Could not compute matrix!"));
-
-            final BigDecimal[][] expected = {
-                {new BigDecimal(4), new BigDecimal(5)},
-                {new BigDecimal(2), new BigDecimal(1)}
-            };
-
-            assertThat(actual, expected);
-        }
-
-        {
-            final BigDecimal[][] matrix1 = {
-                {new BigDecimal(1), new BigDecimal(4)},
-                {new BigDecimal(5), new BigDecimal(6)},};
-
-            final BigDecimal[][] matrix2 = {
-                {new BigDecimal(2), new BigDecimal(0)},
-                {new BigDecimal(-2), new BigDecimal(-3)},};
-
-            final BigDecimal[][] actual = subtract(matrix1, matrix2)
-                    .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Could not compute matrix!"));
-
-            final BigDecimal[][] expected = {
-                {new BigDecimal(-1), new BigDecimal(4)},
-                {new BigDecimal(7), new BigDecimal(9)}
-            };
-
-            assertThat(actual, expected);
-        }
-
-        {
-            final BigDecimal[][] matrix1 = {
-                {new BigDecimal(1), new BigDecimal(2), new BigDecimal(3)},
-                {new BigDecimal(4), new BigDecimal(5), new BigDecimal(6)},
-                {new BigDecimal(7), new BigDecimal(8), new BigDecimal(9)}
-            };
-
-            final BigDecimal[][] matrix2 = {
-                {new BigDecimal(1), new BigDecimal(2)},
-                {new BigDecimal(3), new BigDecimal(4)},
-                {new BigDecimal(5), new BigDecimal(6)}
-            };
-
-            final BigDecimal[][] actual = multiply(matrix1, matrix2)
-                    .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Could not compute matrix!"));
-
-            final BigDecimal[][] expected = {
-                {new BigDecimal(22), new BigDecimal(28)},
-                {new BigDecimal(49), new BigDecimal(64)},
-                {new BigDecimal(76), new BigDecimal(100)}
-            };
-
-            assertThat(actual, expected);
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValue.java
index a4603533a2df..d88291060f51 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValue.java
@@ -1,24 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Random;
-
-public class MaxValue {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random rand = new Random();
-
-        /* test 100 times using rand numbers */
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 100; ++i) {
-            /* generate number from -50 to 49 */
-            int a = rand.nextInt(100) - 50;
-            int b = rand.nextInt(100) - 50;
-            assert max(a, b) == Math.max(a, b);
-        }
+public final class MaxValue {
+    private MaxValue() {
     }
-
     /**
      * Returns the greater of two {@code int} values. That is, the result is the
      * argument closer to the value of {@link Integer#MAX_VALUE}. If the
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Means.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Means.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5445a3caebc7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Means.java
@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.stream.StreamSupport;
+import org.apache.commons.collections4.IterableUtils;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for computing various types of statistical means.
+ * <p>
+ * This class provides static methods to calculate different types of means
+ * (averages)
+ * from a collection of numbers. All methods accept any {@link Iterable}
+ * collection of
+ * {@link Double} values and return the computed mean as a {@link Double}.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Supported means:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li><b>Arithmetic Mean</b>: The sum of all values divided by the count</li>
+ * <li><b>Geometric Mean</b>: The nth root of the product of n values</li>
+ * <li><b>Harmonic Mean</b>: The reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of
+ * reciprocals</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean">Mean (Wikipedia)</a>
+ * @author Punit Patel
+ */
+public final class Means {
+
+    private Means() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the arithmetic mean (average) of the given numbers.
+     * <p>
+     * The arithmetic mean is calculated as: (x₁ + x₂ + ... + xₙ) / n
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Example: For numbers [2, 4, 6], the arithmetic mean is (2+4+6)/3 = 4.0
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param numbers the input numbers (must not be empty)
+     * @return the arithmetic mean of the input numbers
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input is empty
+     * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean">Arithmetic
+     *      Mean</a>
+     */
+    public static Double arithmetic(final Iterable<Double> numbers) {
+        checkIfNotEmpty(numbers);
+        double sum = StreamSupport.stream(numbers.spliterator(), false).reduce(0d, (x, y) -> x + y);
+        int size = IterableUtils.size(numbers);
+        return sum / size;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the geometric mean of the given numbers.
+     * <p>
+     * The geometric mean is calculated as: ⁿ√(x₁ × x₂ × ... × xₙ)
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Example: For numbers [2, 8], the geometric mean is √(2×8) = √16 = 4.0
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Note: This method may produce unexpected results for negative numbers,
+     * as it computes the real-valued nth root which may not exist for negative
+     * products.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param numbers the input numbers (must not be empty)
+     * @return the geometric mean of the input numbers
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input is empty
+     * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_mean">Geometric
+     *      Mean</a>
+     */
+    public static Double geometric(final Iterable<Double> numbers) {
+        checkIfNotEmpty(numbers);
+        double product = StreamSupport.stream(numbers.spliterator(), false).reduce(1d, (x, y) -> x * y);
+        int size = IterableUtils.size(numbers);
+        return Math.pow(product, 1.0 / size);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the harmonic mean of the given numbers.
+     * <p>
+     * The harmonic mean is calculated as: n / (1/x₁ + 1/x₂ + ... + 1/xₙ)
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Example: For numbers [1, 2, 4], the harmonic mean is 3/(1/1 + 1/2 + 1/4) =
+     * 3/1.75 ≈ 1.714
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Note: This method will produce unexpected results if any input number is
+     * zero,
+     * as it involves computing reciprocals.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param numbers the input numbers (must not be empty)
+     * @return the harmonic mean of the input numbers
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input is empty
+     * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_mean">Harmonic Mean</a>
+     */
+    public static Double harmonic(final Iterable<Double> numbers) {
+        checkIfNotEmpty(numbers);
+        double sumOfReciprocals = StreamSupport.stream(numbers.spliterator(), false).reduce(0d, (x, y) -> x + 1d / y);
+        int size = IterableUtils.size(numbers);
+        return size / sumOfReciprocals;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Validates that the input iterable is not empty.
+     *
+     * @param numbers the input numbers to validate
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input is empty
+     */
+    private static void checkIfNotEmpty(final Iterable<Double> numbers) {
+        if (!numbers.iterator().hasNext()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Empty list given for Mean computation.");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Median.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Median.java
index 014fd07a870c..5e1a4bc3a8d9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Median.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Median.java
@@ -3,29 +3,47 @@
 import java.util.Arrays;
 
 /**
- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median
+ * Utility class for calculating the median of an array of integers.
+ * The median is the middle value in a sorted list of numbers. If the list has
+ * an even number
+ * of elements, the median is the average of the two middle values.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity: O(n log n) due to sorting
+ * <p>
+ * Space Complexity: O(1) if sorting is done in-place
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median">Median (Wikipedia)</a>
+ * @see <a href=
+ *      "https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/summarizing-quantitative-data/mean-median-basics/a/mean-median-and-mode-review">Mean,
+ *      Median, and Mode Review</a>
  */
-public class Median {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert median(new int[]{0}) == 0;
-        assert median(new int[]{1, 2}) == 1.5;
-        assert median(new int[]{4, 1, 3, 2}) == 2.5;
-        assert median(new int[]{1, 3, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9}) == 6;
-        assert median(new int[]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}) == 4.5;
+public final class Median {
+    private Median() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate average median
+     * Calculates the median of an array of integers.
+     * The array is sorted internally, so the original order is not preserved.
+     * For arrays with an odd number of elements, returns the middle element.
+     * For arrays with an even number of elements, returns the average of the two
+     * middle elements.
      *
-     * @param values number series
-     * @return median of given {@code values}
+     * @param values the array of integers to find the median of (can be unsorted)
+     * @return the median value as a double
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input array is empty or null
      */
     public static double median(int[] values) {
+        if (values == null || values.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Values array cannot be empty or null");
+        }
+
         Arrays.sort(values);
         int length = values.length;
-        return length % 2 == 0
-                ? (values[length / 2] + values[length / 2 - 1]) / 2.0
-                : values[length / 2];
+        if (length % 2 == 0) {
+            return (values[length / 2] + values[length / 2 - 1]) / 2.0;
+        } else {
+            return values[length / 2];
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValue.java
index badc6c7cfb69..88e28e8816c6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValue.java
@@ -1,24 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Random;
-
-public class MinValue {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random rand = new Random();
-
-        /* test 100 times using rand numbers */
-        for (int i = 1; i <= 100; ++i) {
-            /* generate number from -50 to 49 */
-            int a = rand.nextInt(100) - 50;
-            int b = rand.nextInt(100) - 50;
-            assert min(a, b) == Math.min(a, b);
-        }
+public final class MinValue {
+    private MinValue() {
     }
-
     /**
      * Returns the smaller of two {@code int} values. That is, the result the
      * argument closer to the value of {@link Integer#MIN_VALUE}. If the
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Mode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Mode.java
index ee06b83e53b9..657f8ece2a50 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Mode.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Mode.java
@@ -1,61 +1,51 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.HashMap;
-
-/*
- * Find the mode of an array of numbers
- *
- * The mode of an array of numbers is the most frequently occurring number in the array,
- * or the most frequently occurring numbers if there are multiple numbers with the same frequency
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class to calculate the mode(s) of an array of integers.
+ * <p>
+ * The mode of an array is the integer value(s) that occur most frequently.
+ * If multiple values have the same highest frequency, all such values are returned.
+ * </p>
  */
-public class Mode {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        /* Test array of integers */
-        assert (mode(new int[]{})) == null;
-        assert Arrays.equals(mode(new int[]{5}), new int[]{5});
-        assert Arrays.equals(mode(new int[]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}), new int[]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5});
-        assert Arrays.equals(mode(new int[]{7, 9, 9, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8}), new int[]{7});
-        assert Arrays.equals(mode(new int[]{7, 9, 9, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 9}), new int[]{7, 9});
+public final class Mode {
+    private Mode() {
     }
 
-    /*
-   * Find the mode of an array of integers
-   *
-   * @param numbers array of integers
-   * @return mode of the array
+    /**
+     * Computes the mode(s) of the specified array of integers.
+     * <p>
+     * If the input array is empty, this method returns {@code null}.
+     * If multiple numbers share the highest frequency, all are returned in the result array.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param numbers an array of integers to analyze
+     * @return an array containing the mode(s) of the input array, or {@code null} if the input is empty
      */
-    public static int[] mode(int[] numbers) {
-
+    public static int[] mode(final int[] numbers) {
         if (numbers.length == 0) {
             return null;
         }
 
-        HashMap<Integer, Integer> count = new HashMap<>();
+        Map<Integer, Integer> count = new HashMap<>();
 
         for (int num : numbers) {
-            if (count.containsKey(num)) {
-
-                count.put(num, count.get(num) + 1);
-
-            } else {
-
-                count.put(num, 1);
-            }
+            count.put(num, count.getOrDefault(num, 0) + 1);
         }
 
         int max = Collections.max(count.values());
-        ArrayList<Integer> modes = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Integer> modes = new ArrayList<>();
 
-        for (int num : count.keySet()) {
-            if (count.get(num) == max) {
-                modes.add(num);
+        for (final var entry : count.entrySet()) {
+            if (entry.getValue() == max) {
+                modes.add(entry.getKey());
             }
         }
-        return modes.stream().mapToInt(n -> n).toArray();
+        return modes.stream().mapToInt(Integer::intValue).toArray();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java
index e0e59ded7d2c..9c95ebde3740 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java
@@ -1,73 +1,61 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-/*
- * Find the 2 elements which are non repeating in an array
- * Reason to use bitwise operator: It makes our program faster as we are operating on bits and not on
- * actual numbers.  
+/**
+ * Find the 2 elements which are non-repeating in an array
+ * Reason to use bitwise operator: It makes our program faster as we are operating on bits and not
+ * on actual numbers.
+ *
+ * Explanation of the code:
+ * Let us assume we have an array [1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4]
+ * Property of XOR: num ^ num = 0.
+ * If we XOR all the elements of the array, we will be left with 3 ^ 4 as 1 ^ 1
+ * and 2 ^ 2 would give 0. Our task is to find num1 and num2 from the result of 3 ^ 4 = 7.
+ * We need to find the two's complement of 7 and find the rightmost set bit, i.e., (num & (-num)).
+ * Two's complement of 7 is 001, and hence res = 1. There can be 2 options when we Bitwise AND this res
+ * with all the elements in our array:
+ * 1. The result will be a non-zero number.
+ * 2. The result will be 0.
+ * In the first case, we will XOR our element with the first number (which is initially 0).
+ * In the second case, we will XOR our element with the second number (which is initially 0).
+ * This is how we will get non-repeating elements with the help of bitwise operators.
  */
-public class NonRepeatingElement {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int i, res = 0;
-        System.out.println("Enter the number of elements in the array");
-        int n = sc.nextInt();
-        if ((n & 1) == 1) {
-            //Not allowing odd number of elements as we are expecting 2 non repeating numbers
-            System.out.println("Array should contain even number of elements");
-            return;
-        }
-        int arr[] = new int[n];
+public final class NonRepeatingElement {
+    private NonRepeatingElement() {
+    }
 
-        System.out.println("Enter " + n + " elements in the array. NOTE: Only 2 elements should not repeat");
-        for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            arr[i] = sc.nextInt();
+    /**
+     * Finds the two non-repeating elements in the array.
+     *
+     * @param arr The input array containing exactly two non-repeating elements and all other elements repeating.
+     * @return An array containing the two non-repeating elements.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input array length is odd.
+     */
+    public static int[] findNonRepeatingElements(int[] arr) {
+        if (arr.length % 2 != 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array should contain an even number of elements");
         }
 
-        try {
-            sc.close();
-        } catch (Exception e) {
-            System.out.println("Unable to close scanner" + e);
-        }
+        int xorResult = 0;
 
-        //Find XOR of the 2 non repeating elements
-        for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            res ^= arr[i];
+        // Find XOR of all elements
+        for (int num : arr) {
+            xorResult ^= num;
         }
 
-        //Finding the rightmost set bit
-        res = res & (-res);
-        int num1 = 0, num2 = 0;
+        // Find the rightmost set bit
+        int rightmostSetBit = xorResult & (-xorResult);
+        int num1 = 0;
+        int num2 = 0;
 
-        for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            if ((res & arr[i]) > 0)//Case 1 explained below
-            {
-                num1 ^= arr[i];
+        // Divide the elements into two groups and XOR them
+        for (int num : arr) {
+            if ((num & rightmostSetBit) != 0) {
+                num1 ^= num;
             } else {
-                num2 ^= arr[i];//Case 2 explained below
+                num2 ^= num;
             }
         }
 
-        System.out.println("The two non repeating elements are " + num1 + " and " + num2);
-
+        return new int[] {num1, num2};
     }
-
-    /* 
-  Explanation of the code:
-  let us assume we have an array [1,2,1,2,3,4]
-  Property of XOR: num ^ num = 0. 
-  If we XOR all the elemnets of the array we will be left with 3 ^ 4 as 1 ^ 1 and 2 ^ 2 would give 0.
-  Our task is to find num1 and num2 from the result of 3 ^ 4 = 7.
-  We need to find two's complement of 7 and find the rightmost set bit. i.e. (num & (-num))
-  Two's complement of 7 is 001 and hence res = 1.
-  There can be 2 options when we Bitise AND this res with all the elements in our array
-  1. Result will come non zero number
-  2. Result will be 0.
-  In the first case we will XOR our element with the first number (which is initially 0)
-  In the second case we will XOR our element with the second number(which is initially 0)
-  This is how we will get non repeating elements with the help of bitwise operators. 
-     */
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java
index 4c040f570448..2da22c4c8696 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java
@@ -1,57 +1,80 @@
-// Ugly numbers are numbers whose only prime factors are 2, 3 or 5. The sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, … shows the first 11 ugly numbers.
-// By convention, 1 is included.
-// A program to find the nth Ugly number
-// Algorithm :
-// Initialize three-pointers two, three, and five pointing to zero.
-// Take 3 variables nm2, nm3, and nm5 to keep track of next multiple of 2,3 and 5.
-// Make an array of size n to store the ugly numbers with 1 at 0th index.
-// Initialize a variable next which stores the value of the last element in the array.
-// Run a loop n-1 times and perform steps 6,7 and 8.
-// Update the values of nm2, nm3, nm5 as ugly[two]*2, ugly[three]*3, ugly[5]*5 respectively.
-// Select the minimum value from nm2, nm3, and nm5 and increment the pointer related to it.
-// Store the minimum value in variable next and array.
-// Return next.
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
 
-class NthUglyNumber {
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.MutablePair;
 
-    /* Function to get the nth ugly number*/
-    public long getNthUglyNo(int n) {
-        long[] ugly = new long[n];
-        int two = 0, three = 0, five = 0;
-        long nm2 = 2, nm3 = 3, nm5 = 5;
-        long next = 1;
+/**
+ * @brief class computing the n-th ugly number (when they are sorted)
+ * @details the ugly numbers with base [2, 3, 5] are all numbers of the form 2^a*3^b^5^c,
+ *   where the exponents a, b, c are non-negative integers.
+ *   Some properties of ugly numbers:
+ *     - base [2, 3, 5] ugly numbers are the 5-smooth numbers, cf. https://oeis.org/A051037
+ *     - base [2, 3, 5, 7] ugly numbers are 7-smooth numbers, cf. https://oeis.org/A002473
+ *     - base [2] ugly numbers are the non-negative powers of 2,
+ *     - the base [2, 3, 5] ugly numbers are the same as base [5, 6, 2, 3, 5] ugly numbers
+ */
+public class NthUglyNumber {
+    private ArrayList<Long> uglyNumbers = new ArrayList<>(singletonList(1L));
+    private ArrayList<MutablePair<Integer, Integer>> positions = new ArrayList<>();
 
-        ugly[0] = 1;
+    /**
+     * @brief initialized the object allowing to compute ugly numbers with given base
+     * @param baseNumbers the given base of ugly numbers
+     * @exception IllegalArgumentException baseNumber is empty
+     */
+    NthUglyNumber(final int[] baseNumbers) {
+        if (baseNumbers.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("baseNumbers must be non-empty.");
+        }
 
-        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
-            next = Math.min(nm2, Math.min(nm3, nm5));
+        for (final var baseNumber : baseNumbers) {
+            this.positions.add(MutablePair.of(baseNumber, 0));
+        }
+    }
 
-            ugly[i] = next;
-            if (next == nm2) {
-                two = two + 1;
-                nm2 = ugly[two] * 2;
-            }
-            if (next == nm3) {
-                three = three + 1;
-                nm3 = ugly[three] * 3;
-            }
-            if (next == nm5) {
-                five = five + 1;
-                nm5 = ugly[five] * 5;
+    /**
+     * @param n the zero-based-index of the queried ugly number
+     * @exception IllegalArgumentException n is negative
+     * @return the n-th ugly number (starting from index 0)
+     */
+    public Long get(final int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("n must be non-negative.");
+        }
+
+        while (uglyNumbers.size() <= n) {
+            addUglyNumber();
+        }
+
+        return uglyNumbers.get(n);
+    }
+
+    private void addUglyNumber() {
+        uglyNumbers.add(computeMinimalCandidate());
+        updatePositions();
+    }
+
+    private void updatePositions() {
+        final var lastUglyNumber = uglyNumbers.get(uglyNumbers.size() - 1);
+        for (var entry : positions) {
+            if (computeCandidate(entry) == lastUglyNumber) {
+                entry.setValue(entry.getValue() + 1);
             }
         }
-        return next;
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter the value of n : ");
-        int n = sc.nextInt();
-        NthUglyNumber ob = new NthUglyNumber();
-        long ugly = ob.getNthUglyNo(n);
-        System.out.println("nth Ugly number is : " + ugly);
+    private long computeCandidate(final Map.Entry<Integer, Integer> entry) {
+        return entry.getKey() * uglyNumbers.get(entry.getValue());
+    }
+
+    private long computeMinimalCandidate() {
+        long res = Long.MAX_VALUE;
+        for (final var entry : positions) {
+            res = Math.min(res, computeCandidate(entry));
+        }
+        return res;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigits.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigits.java
index 77e5653f6a87..fc538196c7da 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigits.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigits.java
@@ -3,25 +3,16 @@
 /**
  * Find the number of digits in a number.
  */
-public class NumberOfDigits {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] numbers = {0, 12, 123, 1234, -12345, 123456, 1234567, 12345678, 123456789};
-        for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; ++i) {
-            assert numberOfDigits(numbers[i]) == i + 1;
-            assert numberOfDigitsFast(numbers[i]) == i + 1;
-            assert numberOfDigitsFaster(numbers[i]) == i + 1;
-            assert numberOfDigitsRecursion(numbers[i]) == i + 1;
-        }
+public final class NumberOfDigits {
+    private NumberOfDigits() {
     }
-
     /**
      * Find the number of digits in a number.
      *
      * @param number number to find
      * @return number of digits of given number
      */
-    private static int numberOfDigits(int number) {
+    public static int numberOfDigits(int number) {
         int digits = 0;
         do {
             digits++;
@@ -36,7 +27,7 @@ private static int numberOfDigits(int number) {
      * @param number number to find
      * @return number of digits of given number
      */
-    private static int numberOfDigitsFast(int number) {
+    public static int numberOfDigitsFast(int number) {
         return number == 0 ? 1 : (int) Math.floor(Math.log10(Math.abs(number)) + 1);
     }
 
@@ -46,7 +37,7 @@ private static int numberOfDigitsFast(int number) {
      * @param number number to find
      * @return number of digits of given number
      */
-    private static int numberOfDigitsFaster(int number) {
+    public static int numberOfDigitsFaster(int number) {
         return number < 0 ? (-number + "").length() : (number + "").length();
     }
 
@@ -56,7 +47,7 @@ private static int numberOfDigitsFaster(int number) {
      * @param number number to find
      * @return number of digits of given number
      */
-    private static int numberOfDigitsRecursion(int number) {
+    public static int numberOfDigitsRecursion(int number) {
         return number / 10 == 0 ? 1 : 1 + numberOfDigitsRecursion(number / 10);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberPersistence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberPersistence.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9cc6667dca02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberPersistence.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class for calculating the persistence of a number.
+ *
+ * <p>This class provides methods to calculate:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Multiplicative persistence: The number of steps required to reduce a number to a single digit by multiplying its digits.</li>
+ *   <li>Additive persistence: The number of steps required to reduce a number to a single digit by summing its digits.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>This class is final and cannot be instantiated.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_of_a_number">Wikipedia: Persistence of a number</a>
+ */
+public final class NumberPersistence {
+
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation
+    private NumberPersistence() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the multiplicative persistence of a given number.
+     *
+     * <p>Multiplicative persistence is the number of steps required to reduce a number to a single digit
+     * by multiplying its digits repeatedly.
+     *
+     * @param num the number to calculate persistence for; must be non-negative
+     * @return the multiplicative persistence of the number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input number is negative
+     */
+    public static int multiplicativePersistence(int num) {
+        if (num < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("multiplicativePersistence() does not accept negative values");
+        }
+
+        int steps = 0;
+        while (num >= 10) {
+            int product = 1;
+            int temp = num;
+            while (temp > 0) {
+                product *= temp % 10;
+                temp /= 10;
+            }
+            num = product;
+            steps++;
+        }
+        return steps;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the additive persistence of a given number.
+     *
+     * <p>Additive persistence is the number of steps required to reduce a number to a single digit
+     * by summing its digits repeatedly.
+     *
+     * @param num the number to calculate persistence for; must be non-negative
+     * @return the additive persistence of the number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input number is negative
+     */
+    public static int additivePersistence(int num) {
+        if (num < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("additivePersistence() does not accept negative values");
+        }
+
+        int steps = 0;
+        while (num >= 10) {
+            int sum = 0;
+            int temp = num;
+            while (temp > 0) {
+                sum += temp % 10;
+                temp /= 10;
+            }
+            num = sum;
+            steps++;
+        }
+        return steps;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumber.java
index 9796593e4069..a22d63897b37 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumber.java
@@ -1,14 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-public class PalindromeNumber {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        assert isPalindrome(12321);
-        assert !isPalindrome(1234);
-        assert isPalindrome(1);
+public final class PalindromeNumber {
+    private PalindromeNumber() {
     }
-
     /**
      * Check if {@code n} is palindrome number or not
      *
@@ -18,7 +12,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      */
     public static boolean isPalindrome(int number) {
         if (number < 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException(number + "");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input parameter must not be negative!");
         }
         int numberCopy = number;
         int reverseNumber = 0;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseInteger.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseInteger.java
index d0cf89b949b7..cdca9f815c4d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseInteger.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseInteger.java
@@ -1,12 +1,26 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-public class ParseInteger {
+public final class ParseInteger {
+    private ParseInteger() {
+    }
+
+    private static void checkInput(final String s) {
+        if (s == null) {
+            throw new NumberFormatException("Input parameter must not be null!");
+        }
+        if (s.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new NumberFormatException("Input parameter must not be empty!");
+        }
+    }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert parseInt("123") == Integer.parseInt("123");
-        assert parseInt("-123") == Integer.parseInt("-123");
-        assert parseInt("0123") == Integer.parseInt("0123");
-        assert parseInt("+123") == Integer.parseInt("+123");
+    private static void checkDigitAt(final String s, final int pos) {
+        if (!Character.isDigit(s.charAt(pos))) {
+            throw new NumberFormatException("Input parameter of incorrect format: " + s);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static int digitToInt(final char digit) {
+        return digit - '0';
     }
 
     /**
@@ -15,20 +29,17 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @param s the string
      * @return the integer value represented by the argument in decimal.
      * @throws NumberFormatException if the {@code string} does not contain a
-     * parsable integer.
+     *                               parsable integer.
      */
-    public static int parseInt(String s) {
-        if (s == null || s.length() == 0) {
-            throw new NumberFormatException("null");
-        }
-        boolean isNegative = s.charAt(0) == '-';
-        boolean isPositive = s.charAt(0) == '+';
+    public static int parseInt(final String s) {
+        checkInput(s);
+
+        final boolean isNegative = s.charAt(0) == '-';
+        final boolean isPositive = s.charAt(0) == '+';
         int number = 0;
-        for (int i = isNegative ? 1 : isPositive ? 1 : 0, length = s.length(); i < length; ++i) {
-            if (!Character.isDigit(s.charAt(i))) {
-                throw new NumberFormatException("s=" + s);
-            }
-            number = number * 10 + s.charAt(i) - '0';
+        for (int i = isNegative || isPositive ? 1 : 0, length = s.length(); i < length; ++i) {
+            checkDigitAt(s, i);
+            number = number * 10 + digitToInt(s.charAt(i));
         }
         return isNegative ? -number : number;
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java
index 62ee3bc9aa19..9a9d4450cb98 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java
@@ -1,20 +1,23 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-public class PascalTriangle {
+public final class PascalTriangle {
+    private PascalTriangle() {
+    }
+
     /**
-     *In mathematics, Pascal's triangle is a triangular array of the binomial coefficients that arises
-     * in probability theory, combinatorics, and algebra. In much of the Western world, it is named after
-     * the French mathematician Blaise Pascal, although other mathematicians studied it centuries before
-     * him in India, Persia, China, Germany, and Italy.
+     *In mathematics, Pascal's triangle is a triangular array of the binomial coefficients that
+     *arises in probability theory, combinatorics, and algebra. In much of the Western world, it is
+     *named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal, although other mathematicians studied it
+     *centuries before him in India, Persia, China, Germany, and Italy.
      *
-     * The rows of Pascal's triangle are conventionally enumerated starting with row n=0 at the top (the 0th row).
-     * The entries in each row are numbered from the left beginning with k=0 and are usually staggered relative
-     * to the numbers in the adjacent rows. The triangle may be constructed in the following manner:
-     * In row 0 (the topmost row), there is a unique nonzero entry 1. Each entry of each subsequent row is
-     * constructed by adding the number above and to the left with the number above and to the right, treating
-     * blank entries as 0. For example, the initial number in the first (or any other) row is 1 (the sum of 0 and 1),
-     * whereas the numbers 1 and 3 in the third row are added to produce the number 4 in the fourth row. *
+     * The rows of Pascal's triangle are conventionally enumerated starting with row n=0 at the top
+     *(the 0th row). The entries in each row are numbered from the left beginning with k=0 and are
+     *usually staggered relative to the numbers in the adjacent rows. The triangle may be
+     *constructed in the following manner: In row 0 (the topmost row), there is a unique nonzero
+     *entry 1. Each entry of each subsequent row is constructed by adding the number above and to
+     *the left with the number above and to the right, treating blank entries as 0. For example, the
+     *initial number in the first (or any other) row is 1 (the sum of 0 and 1), whereas the numbers
+     *1 and 3 in the third row are added to produce the number 4 in the fourth row. *
      *
      *<p>
      *     link:-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_triangle
@@ -33,33 +36,30 @@ public class PascalTriangle {
      *
      */
 
-        public static int[][] pascal(int n)
-    {
-        /**
+    public static int[][] pascal(int n) {
+        /*
          * @param arr  An auxiliary array to store generated pascal triangle values
          * @return
          */
         int[][] arr = new int[n][n];
-        /**
+        /*
          * @param line Iterate through every line and print integer(s) in it
          * @param i Represents the column number of the element we are currently on
          */
-        for (int line = 0; line < n; line++)
-        {
-            /**
+        for (int line = 0; line < n; line++) {
+            /*
              *  @Every line has number of integers equal to line number
              */
-            for (int i = 0; i <= line; i++)
-            {
+            for (int i = 0; i <= line; i++) {
                 // First and last values in every row are 1
-                if (line == i || i == 0)
+                if (line == i || i == 0) {
                     arr[line][i] = 1;
-                    // The rest elements are sum of values just above and left of above
-                else
-                    arr[line][i] = arr[line-1][i-1] + arr[line-1][i];
+                } else {
+                    arr[line][i] = arr[line - 1][i - 1] + arr[line - 1][i];
+                }
             }
         }
-        
+
         return arr;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java
index 820b17201882..4104c6238580 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java
@@ -3,15 +3,8 @@
 /**
  * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_(algebra)
  */
-public class PerfectCube {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert !isPerfectCube(-1);
-        assert isPerfectCube(0);
-        assert isPerfectCube(1);
-        assert !isPerfectCube(4);
-        assert isPerfectCube(8);
-        assert isPerfectCube(27);
+public final class PerfectCube {
+    private PerfectCube() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -22,7 +15,20 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * {@code false}
      */
     public static boolean isPerfectCube(int number) {
+        number = Math.abs(number); // converting negative number to positive number
         int a = (int) Math.pow(number, 1.0 / 3);
         return a * a * a == number;
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Check if a number is perfect cube or not by using Math.cbrt function
+     *
+     * @param number number to check
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code number} is perfect cube, otherwise
+     * {@code false}
+     */
+    public static boolean isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(int number) {
+        double cubeRoot = Math.cbrt(number);
+        return cubeRoot == (int) cubeRoot;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java
index cd57000b7db3..f299d08e5d27 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java
@@ -6,18 +6,10 @@
  * has divisors 1, 2 and 3 (excluding itself), and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6, so 6 is a
  * perfect number.
  *
- * <p>
  * link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_number
  */
-public class PerfectNumber {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert isPerfectNumber(6);
-        /* 1 + 2 + 3 == 6 */
-        assert !isPerfectNumber(8);
-        /* 1 + 2 + 4 != 8 */
-        assert isPerfectNumber(28);
-        /* 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 == 28 */
+public final class PerfectNumber {
+    private PerfectNumber() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -27,6 +19,9 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @return {@code true} if {@code number} is perfect number, otherwise false
      */
     public static boolean isPerfectNumber(int number) {
+        if (number <= 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
         int sum = 0;
         /* sum of its positive divisors */
         for (int i = 1; i < number; ++i) {
@@ -36,4 +31,41 @@ public static boolean isPerfectNumber(int number) {
         }
         return sum == number;
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Check if {@code n} is perfect number or not
+     *
+     * @param n the number
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code number} is perfect number, otherwise false
+     */
+    public static boolean isPerfectNumber2(int n) {
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        int sum = 1;
+        double root = Math.sqrt(n);
+
+        /*
+         * We can get the factors after the root by dividing number by its factors
+         * before the root.
+         * Ex- Factors of 100 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 and 100.
+         * Root of 100 is 10. So factors before 10 are 1, 2, 4 and 5.
+         * Now by dividing 100 by each factor before 10 we get:
+         * 100/1 = 100, 100/2 = 50, 100/4 = 25 and 100/5 = 20
+         * So we get 100, 50, 25 and 20 which are factors of 100 after 10
+         */
+        for (int i = 2; i <= root; i++) {
+            if (n % i == 0) {
+                sum += i + n / i;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // if n is a perfect square then its root was added twice in above loop, so subtracting root
+        // from sum
+        if (root == (int) root) {
+            sum -= (int) root;
+        }
+
+        return sum == n;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java
index 702e62943d88..e9318bd7d805 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java
@@ -3,14 +3,8 @@
 /**
  * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_square
  */
-public class PerfectSquare {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert !isPerfectSquare(-1);
-        assert !isPerfectSquare(3);
-        assert !isPerfectSquare(5);
-        assert isPerfectSquare(9);
-        assert isPerfectSquare(100);
+public final class PerfectSquare {
+    private PerfectSquare() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -20,8 +14,20 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @return <tt>true</tt> if {@code number} is perfect square, otherwise
      * <tt>false</tt>
      */
-    public static boolean isPerfectSquare(int number) {
-        int sqrt = (int) Math.sqrt(number);
+    public static boolean isPerfectSquare(final int number) {
+        final int sqrt = (int) Math.sqrt(number);
         return sqrt * sqrt == number;
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Check if a number is perfect square or not
+     *
+     * @param number number to be checked
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code number} is perfect square, otherwise
+     * {@code false}
+     */
+    public static boolean isPerfectSquareUsingPow(long number) {
+        long a = (long) Math.pow(number, 1.0 / 2);
+        return a * a == number;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Perimeter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Perimeter.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f8aa1876d388
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Perimeter.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+// Perimeter of different 2D geometrical shapes
+public final class Perimeter {
+    private Perimeter() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the Perimeter of regular polygon (equals sides)
+     * Examples of regular polygon are Equilateral Triangle, Square, Regular Pentagon, Regular
+     * Hexagon.
+     *
+     * @param n for number of sides.
+     * @param side for length of each side.
+     * @return Perimeter of given polygon
+     */
+    public static float perimeterRegularPolygon(int n, float side) {
+        return n * side;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the Perimeter of irregular polygon (unequals sides)
+     * Examples of irregular polygon are scalent triangle, irregular quadrilateral, irregular
+     * Pentagon, irregular Hexagon.
+     *
+     * @param side1 for length of side 1
+     * @param side2 for length of side 2
+     * @param side3 for length of side 3
+     * @param sides for length of remaining sides
+     * @return Perimeter of given trapezoid.
+     */
+    public static float perimeterIrregularPolygon(float side1, float side2, float side3, float... sides) {
+        float perimeter = side1 + side2 + side3;
+        for (float side : sides) {
+            perimeter += side;
+        }
+        return perimeter;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the Perimeter of rectangle
+     *
+     * @param length for length of rectangle
+     * @param breadth for breadth of rectangle
+     * @return Perimeter of given rectangle
+     */
+    public static float perimeterRectangle(float length, float breadth) {
+        return 2 * (length + breadth);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the Perimeter or Circumference of circle.
+     *
+     * @param r for radius of circle.
+     * @return circumference of given circle.
+     */
+    public static double perimeterCircle(float r) {
+        return 2 * Math.PI * r;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1be945d7ef24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation to calculate an estimate of the number π (Pi).
+ *
+ * We take a random point P with coordinates (x, y) such that 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.
+ * If x² + y² ≤ 1, then the point is inside the quarter disk of radius 1,
+ * else the point is outside. We know that the probability of the point being
+ * inside the quarter disk is equal to π/4.
+ *
+ *
+ * @author [Yash Rajput](https://github.com/the-yash-rajput)
+ */
+public final class PiApproximation {
+
+    private PiApproximation() {
+        throw new AssertionError("No instances.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Structure representing a point with coordinates (x, y)
+     * where 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.
+     */
+    static class Point {
+        double x;
+        double y;
+
+        Point(double x, double y) {
+            this.x = x;
+            this.y = y;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This function uses the points in a given list (drawn at random)
+     * to return an approximation of the number π.
+     *
+     * @param pts List of points where each point contains x and y coordinates
+     * @return An estimate of the number π
+     */
+    public static double approximatePi(List<Point> pts) {
+        double count = 0; // Points in circle
+
+        for (Point p : pts) {
+            if ((p.x * p.x) + (p.y * p.y) <= 1) {
+                count++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return 4.0 * count / pts.size();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates random points for testing the Pi approximation.
+     *
+     * @param numPoints Number of random points to generate
+     * @return List of random points
+     */
+    public static List<Point> generateRandomPoints(int numPoints) {
+        List<Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        Random rand = new Random();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < numPoints; i++) {
+            double x = rand.nextDouble(); // Random value between 0 and 1
+            double y = rand.nextDouble(); // Random value between 0 and 1
+            points.add(new Point(x, y));
+        }
+
+        return points;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiNilakantha.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiNilakantha.java
index 39dd51aed548..6d43f134c94c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiNilakantha.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiNilakantha.java
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-public class PiNilakantha {
+public final class PiNilakantha {
+    private PiNilakantha() {
+    }
 
     // Calculates Pi using Nilakantha's infinite series
     // Method 2 in the following link explains the algorithm
@@ -29,7 +31,6 @@ public static double calculatePi(int iterations) {
         int divCounter = 2;
 
         for (int i = 0; i < iterations; i++) {
-
             if (i % 2 == 0) {
                 pi = pi + 4.0 / (divCounter * (divCounter + 1) * (divCounter + 2));
             } else {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PollardRho.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PollardRho.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7fa913b21b7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PollardRho.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/*
+ * Java program for pollard rho algorithm
+ * The algorithm is used to factorize a number n = pq,
+ * where p is a non-trivial factor.
+ * Pollard's rho algorithm is an algorithm for integer factorization
+ * and it takes as its inputs n, the integer to be factored;
+ * and g(x), a polynomial in x computed modulo n.
+ * In the original algorithm, g(x) = ((x ^ 2) − 1) mod n,
+ * but nowadays it is more common to use g(x) = ((x ^ 2) + 1 ) mod n.
+ * The output is either a non-trivial factor of n, or failure.
+ * It performs the following steps:
+ *     x ← 2
+ *     y ← 2
+ *     d ← 1
+
+ *     while d = 1:
+ *         x ← g(x)
+ *         y ← g(g(y))
+ *         d ← gcd(|x - y|, n)
+
+ *     if d = n:
+ *         return failure
+ *     else:
+ *         return d
+
+ * Here x and y corresponds to xi and xj in the previous section.
+ * Note that this algorithm may fail to find a nontrivial factor even when n is composite.
+ * In that case, the method can be tried again, using a starting value other than 2 or a different
+ g(x)
+ *
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollard%27s_rho_algorithm
+ *
+ * Author: Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ *
+ * */
+public final class PollardRho {
+    private PollardRho() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns a polynomial in x computed modulo n
+     *
+     * @param base Integer base of the polynomial
+     * @param modulus Integer is value which is to be used to perform modulo operation over the
+     *     polynomial
+     * @return Integer (((base * base) - 1) % modulus)
+     */
+    static int g(int base, int modulus) {
+        return ((base * base) - 1) % modulus;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns a non-trivial factor of given integer number
+     *
+     * @param number Integer is a integer value whose non-trivial factor is to be found
+     * @return Integer non-trivial factor of number
+     * @throws RuntimeException object if GCD of given number cannot be found
+     */
+    static int pollardRho(int number) {
+        int x = 2;
+        int y = 2;
+        int d = 1;
+        while (d == 1) {
+            // tortoise move
+            x = g(x, number);
+
+            // hare move
+            y = g(g(y, number), number);
+
+            // check GCD of |x-y| and number
+            d = GCD.gcd(Math.abs(x - y), number);
+        }
+        if (d == number) {
+            throw new RuntimeException("GCD cannot be found.");
+        }
+        return d;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Pow.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Pow.java
index 1d8ff2931ee0..377b37ac4569 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Pow.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Pow.java
@@ -1,24 +1,32 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-// POWER (exponentials) Examples (a^b)
-public class Pow {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert pow(2, 0) == Math.pow(2, 0); // == 1
-        assert pow(0, 2) == Math.pow(0, 2); // == 0
-        assert pow(2, 10) == Math.pow(2, 10); // == 1024
-        assert pow(10, 2) == Math.pow(10, 2); // == 100
+/**
+ * A utility class for computing exponentiation (power) of integers.
+ * <p>
+ * This class provides a method to calculate the value of a base raised to a given exponent using a simple iterative approach.
+ * For example, given a base {@code a} and an exponent {@code b}, the class computes {@code a}<sup>{@code b}</sup>.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class Pow {
+    private Pow() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns the value of the first argument raised to the power of the second
-     * argument
+     * Computes the value of the base raised to the power of the exponent.
+     * <p>
+     * The method calculates {@code a}<sup>{@code b}</sup> by iteratively multiplying the base {@code a} with itself {@code b} times.
+     * If the exponent {@code b} is negative, an {@code IllegalArgumentException} is thrown.
+     * </p>
      *
-     * @param a the base.
-     * @param b the exponent.
-     * @return the value {@code a}<sup>{@code b}</sup>.
+     * @param a the base of the exponentiation. Must be a non-negative integer.
+     * @param b the exponent to which the base {@code a} is raised. Must be a non-negative integer.
+     * @return the result of {@code a}<sup>{@code b}</sup> as a {@code long}.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code b} is negative.
      */
     public static long pow(int a, int b) {
+        if (b < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Exponent must be non-negative.");
+        }
         long result = 1;
         for (int i = 1; i <= b; i++) {
             result *= a;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowRecursion.java
deleted file mode 100644
index e8241424c6bd..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowRecursion.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,23 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.maths;
-
-public class PowRecursion {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert Double.compare(pow(2, 0), Math.pow(2, 0)) == 0;
-        assert Double.compare(pow(0, 2), Math.pow(0, 2)) == 0;
-        assert Double.compare(pow(2, 10), Math.pow(2, 10)) == 0;
-        assert Double.compare(pow(10, 2), Math.pow(10, 2)) == 0;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Returns the value of the first argument raised to the power of the second
-     * argument
-     *
-     * @param a the base.
-     * @param b the exponent.
-     * @return the value {@code a}<sup>{@code b}</sup>.
-     */
-    public static long pow(int a, int b) {
-        return b == 0 ? 1 : a * pow(a, b - 1);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNot.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNot.java
index 88a6b63c9597..c1f8beffdb2e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNot.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNot.java
@@ -4,14 +4,8 @@
  * A utility to check if a given number is power of two or not. For example 8,16
  * etc.
  */
-public class PowerOfTwoOrNot {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert !checkIfPowerOfTwoOrNot(0);
-        assert checkIfPowerOfTwoOrNot(1);
-        assert checkIfPowerOfTwoOrNot(8);
-        assert checkIfPowerOfTwoOrNot(16);
-        assert checkIfPowerOfTwoOrNot(1024);
+public final class PowerOfTwoOrNot {
+    private PowerOfTwoOrNot() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -21,7 +15,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @return {@code true} if given number is power of two, otherwise
      * {@code false}
      */
-    public static boolean checkIfPowerOfTwoOrNot(int number) {
+    public static boolean checkIfPowerOfTwoOrNot(final int number) {
         return number != 0 && ((number & (number - 1)) == 0);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursion.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..93c8252ab929
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * calculate Power using Recursion
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+
+public final class PowerUsingRecursion {
+    private PowerUsingRecursion() {
+    }
+
+    public static double power(double base, int exponent) {
+        // Base case: anything raised to the power of 0 is 1
+        if (exponent == 0) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+
+        // Recursive case: base ^ exponent = base * base ^ (exponent - 1)
+        // Recurse with a smaller exponent and multiply with base
+        return base * power(base, exponent - 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/LiouvilleLambdaFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/LiouvilleLambdaFunction.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..73535b3aedae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/LiouvilleLambdaFunction.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime;
+
+/*
+ * Java program for liouville lambda function
+ * For any positive integer n, define λ(n) as the sum of the primitive nth roots of unity.
+ * It has values in {−1, 1} depending on the factorization of n into prime factors:
+ *   λ(n) = +1 if n is a positive integer with an even number of prime factors.
+ *   λ(n) = −1 if n is a positive integer with an odd number of prime factors.
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouville_function
+ *
+ * Author: Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ *
+ * */
+
+public final class LiouvilleLambdaFunction {
+    private LiouvilleLambdaFunction() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns λ(n) of given number n
+     *
+     * @param number Integer value which λ(n) is to be calculated
+     * @return  1 when number has even number of prime factors
+     *         -1 when number has odd number of prime factors
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException when number is negative
+     */
+    public static int liouvilleLambda(int number) {
+        if (number <= 0) {
+            // throw exception when number is less than or is zero
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number must be greater than zero.");
+        }
+
+        // return 1 if size of prime factor list is even, -1 otherwise
+        return PrimeFactorization.pfactors(number).size() % 2 == 0 ? 1 : -1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..debe3a214a32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.java
@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+
+public final class MillerRabinPrimalityCheck {
+    private MillerRabinPrimalityCheck() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Check whether the given number is prime or not
+     * MillerRabin algorithm is probabilistic. There is also an altered version which is deterministic.
+     * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Rabin_primality_test
+     * https://cp-algorithms.com/algebra/primality_tests.html
+     *
+     * @param n Whole number which is tested on primality
+     * @param k Number of iterations
+     *       If n is composite then running k iterations of the Miller–Rabin
+     *       test will declare n probably prime with a probability at most 4^(−k)
+     * @return true or false whether the given number is probably prime or not
+     */
+
+    public static boolean millerRabin(long n, int k) { // returns true if n is probably prime, else returns false.
+        if (n < 4) {
+            return n == 2 || n == 3;
+        }
+
+        int s = 0;
+        long d = n - 1;
+        while ((d & 1) == 0) {
+            d >>= 1;
+            s++;
+        }
+        Random rnd = new Random();
+        for (int i = 0; i < k; i++) {
+            long a = 2 + rnd.nextLong(n) % (n - 3);
+            if (checkComposite(n, a, d, s)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    public static boolean deterministicMillerRabin(long n) { // returns true if n is prime, else returns false.
+        if (n < 2) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        int r = 0;
+        long d = n - 1;
+        while ((d & 1) == 0) {
+            d >>= 1;
+            r++;
+        }
+
+        for (int a : new int[] {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37}) {
+            if (n == a) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (checkComposite(n, a, d, r)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Check if number n is composite (probabilistic)
+     *
+     * @param n Whole number which is tested for compositeness
+     * @param a Random number (prime base) to check if it holds certain equality
+     * @param d Number which holds this equation: 'n - 1 = 2^s * d'
+     * @param s Number of twos in (n - 1) factorization
+     *
+     * @return true or false whether the numbers hold the equation or not
+     *          the equations are described on the websites mentioned at the beginning of the class
+     */
+    private static boolean checkComposite(long n, long a, long d, int s) {
+        long x = powerModP(a, d, n);
+        if (x == 1 || x == n - 1) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        for (int r = 1; r < s; r++) {
+            x = powerModP(x, 2, n);
+            if (x == n - 1) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    private static long powerModP(long x, long y, long p) {
+        long res = 1; // Initialize result
+
+        x = x % p; // Update x if it is more than or equal to p
+
+        if (x == 0) {
+            return 0; // In case x is divisible by p;
+        }
+        while (y > 0) {
+            // If y is odd, multiply x with result
+            if ((y & 1) == 1) {
+                res = multiplyModP(res, x, p);
+            }
+
+            // y must be even now
+            y = y >> 1; // y = y/2
+            x = multiplyModP(x, x, p);
+        }
+        return res;
+    }
+
+    private static long multiplyModP(long a, long b, long p) {
+        long aHi = a >> 24;
+        long aLo = a & ((1 << 24) - 1);
+        long bHi = b >> 24;
+        long bLo = b & ((1 << 24) - 1);
+        long result = ((((aHi * bHi << 16) % p) << 16) % p) << 16;
+        result += ((aLo * bHi + aHi * bLo) << 24) + aLo * bLo;
+        return result % p;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MobiusFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MobiusFunction.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3d4e4eff0f03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MobiusFunction.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime;
+
+/*
+ * Java program for mobius function
+ * For any positive integer n, define μ(n) as the sum of the primitive nth roots of unity.
+ * It has values in {−1, 0, 1} depending on the factorization of n into prime factors:
+ *   μ(n) = +1 if n is a square-free positive integer with an even number of prime factors.
+ *   μ(n) = −1 if n is a square-free positive integer with an odd number of prime factors.
+ *   μ(n) = 0 if n has a squared prime factor.
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6bius_function
+ *
+ * Author: Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ *
+ * */
+public final class MobiusFunction {
+    private MobiusFunction() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns μ(n) of given number n
+     *
+     * @param number Integer value which μ(n) is to be calculated
+     * @return  1 when number is less than or equals 1
+     *            or number has even number of prime factors
+     *          0 when number has repeated prime factor
+     *         -1 when number has odd number of prime factors
+     */
+    public static int mobius(int number) {
+        if (number <= 0) {
+            // throw exception when number is less than or is zero
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number must be greater than zero.");
+        }
+
+        if (number == 1) {
+            // return 1 if number passed is less or is 1
+            return 1;
+        }
+
+        int primeFactorCount = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 1; i <= number; i++) {
+            // find prime factors of number
+            if (number % i == 0 && PrimeCheck.isPrime(i)) {
+                // check if number is divisible by square of prime factor
+                if (number % (i * i) == 0) {
+                    // if number is divisible by square of prime factor
+                    return 0;
+                }
+                /*increment primeFactorCount by 1
+                                if number is not divisible by square of found prime factor*/
+                primeFactorCount++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return (primeFactorCount % 2 == 0) ? 1 : -1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/PrimeCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/PrimeCheck.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..91c490f70aef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/PrimeCheck.java
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime;
+
+import java.util.Scanner;
+
+public final class PrimeCheck {
+    private PrimeCheck() {
+    }
+
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
+
+        System.out.print("Enter a number: ");
+        int n = scanner.nextInt();
+        if (isPrime(n)) {
+            System.out.println("algo1 verify that " + n + " is a prime number");
+        } else {
+            System.out.println("algo1 verify that " + n + " is not a prime number");
+        }
+
+        if (fermatPrimeChecking(n, 20)) {
+            System.out.println("algo2 verify that " + n + " is a prime number");
+        } else {
+            System.out.println("algo2 verify that " + n + " is not a prime number");
+        }
+        scanner.close();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * *
+     * Checks if a number is prime or not
+     *
+     * @param n the number
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code n} is prime
+     */
+    public static boolean isPrime(int n) {
+        if (n == 2) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (n < 2 || n % 2 == 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        for (int i = 3, limit = (int) Math.sqrt(n); i <= limit; i += 2) {
+            if (n % i == 0) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * *
+     * Checks if a number is prime or not
+     *
+     * @param n the number
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code n} is prime
+     */
+    public static boolean fermatPrimeChecking(int n, int iteration) {
+        long a;
+        int up = n - 2;
+        int down = 2;
+        for (int i = 0; i < iteration; i++) {
+            a = (long) Math.floor(Math.random() * (up - down + 1) + down);
+            if (modPow(a, n - 1, n) != 1) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * *
+     * @param a basis
+     * @param b exponent
+     * @param c modulo
+     * @return (a^b) mod c
+     */
+    private static long modPow(long a, long b, long c) {
+        long res = 1;
+        for (int i = 0; i < b; i++) {
+            res *= a;
+            res %= c;
+        }
+        return res % c;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/PrimeFactorization.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/PrimeFactorization.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e12002b3d8c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/PrimeFactorization.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime;
+
+/*
+ * Authors:
+ * (1) Aitor Fidalgo Sánchez (https://github.com/aitorfi)
+ * (2) Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ */
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+public final class PrimeFactorization {
+    private PrimeFactorization() {
+    }
+
+    public static List<Integer> pfactors(int n) {
+        List<Integer> primeFactors = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        if (n == 0) {
+            return primeFactors;
+        }
+
+        while (n % 2 == 0) {
+            primeFactors.add(2);
+            n /= 2;
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 3; i <= Math.sqrt(n); i += 2) {
+            while (n % i == 0) {
+                primeFactors.add(i);
+                n /= i;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (n > 2) {
+            primeFactors.add(n);
+        }
+        return primeFactors;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/SquareFreeInteger.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/SquareFreeInteger.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..15c0a8a691cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/SquareFreeInteger.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime;
+/*
+ * Java program for Square free integer
+ * This class has a function which checks
+ * if an integer has repeated prime factors
+ * and will return false if the number has repeated prime factors.
+ * true otherwise
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square-free_integer
+ *
+ * Author: Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ *
+ * */
+
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+
+public final class SquareFreeInteger {
+    private SquareFreeInteger() {
+    }
+    /**
+     * This method returns whether an integer is square free
+     *
+     * @param number Integer value which is to be checked
+     * @return false when number has repeated prime factors
+     *         true when number has non repeated prime factors
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException when number is negative or zero
+     */
+    public static boolean isSquareFreeInteger(int number) {
+
+        if (number <= 0) {
+            // throw exception when number is less than or is zero
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number must be greater than zero.");
+        }
+
+        // Store prime factors of number which is passed as argument
+        // in a list
+        List<Integer> primeFactorsList = PrimeFactorization.pfactors(number);
+
+        // Create set from list of prime factors of integer number
+        // if size of list and set is equal then the argument passed to this method is square free
+        // if size of list and set is not equal then the argument passed to this method is not
+        // square free
+        return primeFactorsList.size() == new HashSet<>(primeFactorsList).size();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PrimeCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PrimeCheck.java
deleted file mode 100644
index f2587f7026b2..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PrimeCheck.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,41 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.maths;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class PrimeCheck {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        System.out.print("Enter a number: ");
-        int n = scanner.nextInt();
-        if (isPrime(n)) {
-            System.out.println(n + " is a prime number");
-        } else {
-            System.out.println(n + " is not a prime number");
-        }
-        scanner.close();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * *
-     * Checks if a number is prime or not
-     *
-     * @param n the number
-     * @return {@code true} if {@code n} is prime
-     */
-    public static boolean isPrime(int n) {
-        if (n == 2) {
-            return true;
-        }
-        if (n < 2 || n % 2 == 0) {
-            return false;
-        }
-        for (int i = 3, limit = (int) Math.sqrt(n); i <= limit; i += 2) {
-            if (n % i == 0) {
-                return false;
-            }
-        }
-        return true;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PrimeFactorization.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PrimeFactorization.java
deleted file mode 100644
index ca6f12637c89..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PrimeFactorization.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,35 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.maths;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class PrimeFactorization {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        System.out.println("## all prime factors ##");
-        Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter a number: ");
-        int n = scanner.nextInt();
-        System.out.print(("printing factors of " + n + " : "));
-        pfactors(n);
-        scanner.close();
-    }
-
-    public static void pfactors(int n) {
-
-        while (n % 2 == 0) {
-            System.out.print(2 + " ");
-            n /= 2;
-        }
-
-        for (int i = 3; i <= Math.sqrt(n); i += 2) {
-            while (n % i == 0) {
-                System.out.print(i + " ");
-                n /= i;
-            }
-        }
-
-        if (n > 2) {
-            System.out.print(n);
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumber.java
index bfb295a615ca..c2ad2a8139c8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumber.java
@@ -5,34 +5,47 @@
  * Pronic Number: A number n is a pronic number if
  * it is equal to product of two consecutive numbers m and m+1.
  * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronic_number
- * 
+ *
  * Author: Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
- * 
+ *
  * */
 
-public class PronicNumber {
+public final class PronicNumber {
+    private PronicNumber() {
+    }
 
-	/**
+    /**
      * This method checks if the given number is pronic number or non-pronic number
      *
-     * @param input_number Integer value which is to be checked if is a pronic number or not 
+     * @param inputNumber Integer value which is to be checked if is a pronic number or not
      * @return true if input number is a pronic number, false otherwise
      */
-	static boolean isPronic(int input_number) {
-		
-		//Iterating from 0 to input_number
-		for(int i = 0; i <= input_number; i++) {
-			
-			//Checking if product of i and (i+1) is equals input_number
-			if(i * (i+1) == input_number && i != input_number) {
-				
-				//return true if product of i and (i+1) is equals input_number
-				return true;
-			}
-			
-		}
-		
-		//return false if product of i and (i+1) for all values from 0 to input_number is not equals input_number
-		return false;
-	}
+    static boolean isPronic(int inputNumber) {
+        if (inputNumber == 0) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        // Iterating from 0 to input_number
+        for (int i = 0; i <= inputNumber; i++) {
+            // Checking if product of i and (i+1) is equals input_number
+            if (i * (i + 1) == inputNumber && i != inputNumber) {
+                // return true if product of i and (i+1) is equals input_number
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // return false if product of i and (i+1) for all values from 0 to input_number is not
+        // equals input_number
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method checks if the given number is pronic number or non-pronic number using square root of number for finding divisors
+     *
+     * @param number Integer value which is to be checked if is a pronic number or not
+     * @return true if input number is a pronic number, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isPronicNumber(int number) {
+        int squareRoot = (int) Math.sqrt(number); // finding just smaller divisor of the number than its square root.
+        return squareRoot * (squareRoot + 1) == number;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java
index 68932c0b76bd..2780b113d904 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java
@@ -1,34 +1,43 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 /**
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_triple
+ * Utility class to check if three integers form a Pythagorean triple.
+ * A Pythagorean triple consists of three positive integers a, b, and c,
+ * such that a² + b² = c².
+ *
+ * Common examples:
+ * - (3, 4, 5)
+ * - (5, 12, 13)
+ *
+ * Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_triple
  */
-public class PythagoreanTriple {
+public final class PythagoreanTriple {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert isPythagTriple(3, 4, 5);
-        assert isPythagTriple(5, 12, 13);
-        assert isPythagTriple(6, 8, 10);
-        assert !isPythagTriple(10, 20, 30);
-        assert !isPythagTriple(6, 8, 100);
-        assert !isPythagTriple(-1, -1, 1);
+    private PythagoreanTriple() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Check if a,b,c are a Pythagorean Triple
+     * Checks whether three integers form a Pythagorean triple.
+     * The order of parameters does not matter.
      *
-     * @param a x/y component length of a right triangle
-     * @param b y/x component length of a right triangle
-     * @param c hypotenuse length of a right triangle
-     * @return boolean <tt>true</tt> if a, b, c satisfy the Pythagorean theorem,
-     * otherwise
-     * <tt>false</tt>
+     * @param a one side length
+     * @param b another side length
+     * @param c another side length
+     * @return {@code true} if (a, b, c) can form a Pythagorean triple, otherwise {@code false}
      */
     public static boolean isPythagTriple(int a, int b, int c) {
         if (a <= 0 || b <= 0 || c <= 0) {
             return false;
-        } else {
-            return (a * a) + (b * b) == (c * c);
         }
+
+        // Sort the sides so the largest is treated as hypotenuse
+        int[] sides = {a, b, c};
+        java.util.Arrays.sort(sides);
+
+        int x = sides[0];
+        int y = sides[1];
+        int hypotenuse = sides[2];
+
+        return x * x + y * y == hypotenuse * hypotenuse;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolver.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolver.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cd654c5dc023
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolver.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * This class represents a complex number which has real and imaginary part
+ */
+class ComplexNumber {
+    Double real;
+    Double imaginary;
+
+    ComplexNumber(double real, double imaginary) {
+        this.real = real;
+        this.imaginary = imaginary;
+    }
+
+    ComplexNumber(double real) {
+        this.real = real;
+        this.imaginary = null;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Quadratic Equation Formula is used to find
+ * the roots of a quadratic equation of the form ax^2 + bx + c = 0
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation">Quadratic Equation</a>
+ */
+public class QuadraticEquationSolver {
+    /**
+     * Function takes in the coefficients of the quadratic equation
+     *
+     * @param a is the coefficient of x^2
+     * @param b is the coefficient of x
+     * @param c is the constant
+     * @return roots of the equation which are ComplexNumber type
+     */
+    public ComplexNumber[] solveEquation(double a, double b, double c) {
+        double discriminant = b * b - 4 * a * c;
+
+        // if discriminant is positive, roots will be different
+        if (discriminant > 0) {
+            return new ComplexNumber[] {new ComplexNumber((-b + Math.sqrt(discriminant)) / (2 * a)), new ComplexNumber((-b - Math.sqrt(discriminant)) / (2 * a))};
+        }
+
+        // if discriminant is zero, roots will be same
+        if (discriminant == 0) {
+            return new ComplexNumber[] {new ComplexNumber((-b) / (2 * a))};
+        }
+
+        // if discriminant is negative, roots will have imaginary parts
+        if (discriminant < 0) {
+            double realPart = -b / (2 * a);
+            double imaginaryPart = Math.sqrt(-discriminant) / (2 * a);
+
+            return new ComplexNumber[] {new ComplexNumber(realPart, imaginaryPart), new ComplexNumber(realPart, -imaginaryPart)};
+        }
+
+        // return no roots
+        return new ComplexNumber[] {};
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumber.java
index 5b489d9a2cf4..667a0a43fc2c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumber.java
@@ -1,30 +1,29 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
-import java.lang.IllegalStateException;
-
-public class ReverseNumber {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int number;
-        int reverse = 0;
+/**
+ * @brief utility class reversing numbers
+ */
+public final class ReverseNumber {
+    private ReverseNumber() {
+    }
 
-        try (Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in)) {
-            System.out.println("Enter a number:");
-            number = sc.nextInt();
-        } catch (NoSuchElementException | IllegalStateException e) {
-            System.out.println("ERROR: Invalid input");
-            return;
+    /**
+     * @brief reverses the input number
+     * @param number the input number
+     * @exception IllegalArgumentException number is negative
+     * @return the number created by reversing the order of digits of the input number
+     */
+    public static int reverseNumber(int number) {
+        if (number < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("number must be nonnegative.");
         }
 
-        while (number != 0) {
-            int remainder = number % 10;
-
-            reverse = reverse * 10 + remainder;
-            number = number / 10;
+        int result = 0;
+        while (number > 0) {
+            result *= 10;
+            result += number % 10;
+            number /= 10;
         }
-
-        System.out.println("The reverse of the given number is: " + reverse);
+        return result;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/RomanNumeralUtil.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/RomanNumeralUtil.java
index dda07a5ae819..8f5d44dbe146 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/RomanNumeralUtil.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/RomanNumeralUtil.java
@@ -8,33 +8,66 @@
  * @author Sokratis Fotkatzikis
  * @version 1.0
  */
-public class RomanNumeralUtil {
+public final class RomanNumeralUtil {
+    private RomanNumeralUtil() {
+    }
 
     private static final int MIN_VALUE = 1;
     private static final int MAX_VALUE = 5999;
-    //1000-5999
-    private static final String[] RN_M = {"", "M", "MM", "MMM", "MMMM", "MMMMM"};
-    //100-900
-    private static final String[] RN_C = {"", "C", "CC", "CCC", "CD", "D", "DC", "DCC", "DCCC", "CM"};
-    //10-90
-    private static final String[] RN_X = {"", "X", "XX", "XXX", "XL", "L", "LX", "LXX", "LXXX", "XC"};
-    //1-9
-    private static final String[] RN_I = {"", "I", "II", "III", "IV", "V", "VI", "VII", "VIII", "IX"};
+    // 1000-5999
+    private static final String[] RN_M = {
+        "",
+        "M",
+        "MM",
+        "MMM",
+        "MMMM",
+        "MMMMM",
+    };
+    // 100-900
+    private static final String[] RN_C = {
+        "",
+        "C",
+        "CC",
+        "CCC",
+        "CD",
+        "D",
+        "DC",
+        "DCC",
+        "DCCC",
+        "CM",
+    };
+    // 10-90
+    private static final String[] RN_X = {
+        "",
+        "X",
+        "XX",
+        "XXX",
+        "XL",
+        "L",
+        "LX",
+        "LXX",
+        "LXXX",
+        "XC",
+    };
+    // 1-9
+    private static final String[] RN_I = {
+        "",
+        "I",
+        "II",
+        "III",
+        "IV",
+        "V",
+        "VI",
+        "VII",
+        "VIII",
+        "IX",
+    };
 
     public static String generate(int number) {
         if (number < MIN_VALUE || number > MAX_VALUE) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException(
-                    String.format(
-                            "The number must be in the range [%d, %d]",
-                            MIN_VALUE,
-                            MAX_VALUE
-                    )
-            );
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(String.format("The number must be in the range [%d, %d]", MIN_VALUE, MAX_VALUE));
         }
 
-        return RN_M[number / 1000]
-                + RN_C[number % 1000 / 100]
-                + RN_X[number % 100 / 10]
-                + RN_I[number % 10];
+        return (RN_M[number / 1000] + RN_C[number % 1000 / 100] + RN_X[number % 100 / 10] + RN_I[number % 10]);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMax.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMax.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e5a2d3b89085
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMax.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.function.BiPredicate;
+
+public final class SecondMinMax {
+
+    /**
+     * Utility class for finding second maximum or minimum based on BiPredicate
+     * @exception IllegalArgumentException => if input array is of length less than 2 also if all elements are same
+     * @return the second minimum / maximum value from the input array
+     * @author Bharath Sanjeevi ( https://github.com/BharathSanjeeviT )
+     */
+
+    private SecondMinMax() {
+    }
+
+    private static int secondBest(final int[] arr, final int initialVal, final BiPredicate<Integer, Integer> isBetter) {
+        checkInput(arr);
+        int best = initialVal;
+        int secBest = initialVal;
+        for (final int num : arr) {
+            if (isBetter.test(num, best)) {
+                secBest = best;
+                best = num;
+            } else if ((isBetter.test(num, secBest)) && (num != best)) {
+                secBest = num;
+            }
+        }
+        checkOutput(secBest, initialVal);
+        return secBest;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Finds the Second minimum / maximum value from the array
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @exception IllegalArgumentException => if input array is of length less than 2 also if all elements are same
+     * @return the second minimum / maximum value from the input array
+     * @author Bharath Sanjeevi ( https://github.com/BharathSanjeeviT )
+     */
+
+    public static int findSecondMin(final int[] arr) {
+        return secondBest(arr, Integer.MAX_VALUE, (a, b) -> a < b);
+    }
+
+    public static int findSecondMax(final int[] arr) {
+        return secondBest(arr, Integer.MIN_VALUE, (a, b) -> a > b);
+    }
+
+    private static void checkInput(final int[] arr) {
+        if (arr.length < 2) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array must have length of at least two");
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static void checkOutput(final int secNum, final int initialVal) {
+        if (secNum == initialVal) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array should have at least 2 distinct elements");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkin.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkin.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ee59d0784ec4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkin.java
@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the Sieve of Atkin, an optimized algorithm to generate
+ * all prime numbers up to a given limit.
+ *
+ * The Sieve of Atkin uses quadratic forms and modular arithmetic to identify
+ * prime candidates, then eliminates multiples of squares. It is more efficient
+ * than the Sieve of Eratosthenes for large limits.
+ */
+public final class SieveOfAtkin {
+
+    private SieveOfAtkin() {
+        // Utlity class; prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates a list of all prime numbers up to the specified limit
+     * using the Sieve of Atkin algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param limit the upper bound up to which primes are generated; must be zero or positive
+     * @return a list of prime numbers up to the limit; empty if the limit is less than 2
+     */
+    public static List<Integer> generatePrimes(int limit) {
+        if (limit < 1) {
+            return List.of();
+        }
+
+        boolean[] sieve = new boolean[limit + 1];
+        int sqrtLimit = (int) Math.sqrt(limit);
+
+        markQuadraticResidues(limit, sqrtLimit, sieve);
+        eliminateMultiplesOfSquares(limit, sqrtLimit, sieve);
+
+        List<Integer> primes = new ArrayList<>();
+        if (limit >= 2) {
+            primes.add(2);
+        }
+        if (limit >= 3) {
+            primes.add(3);
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 5; i <= limit; i++) {
+            if (sieve[i]) {
+                primes.add(i);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return primes;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Marks numbers in the sieve as prime candidates based on quadratic residues.
+     *
+     * This method iterates over all x and y up to sqrt(limit) and applies
+     * the three quadratic forms used in the Sieve of Atkin. Numbers satisfying
+     * the modulo conditions are toggled in the sieve array.
+     *
+     * @param limit the upper bound for primes
+     * @param sqrtLimit square root of the limit
+     * @param sieve boolean array representing potential primes
+     */
+    private static void markQuadraticResidues(int limit, int sqrtLimit, boolean[] sieve) {
+        for (int x = 1; x <= sqrtLimit; x++) {
+            for (int y = 1; y <= sqrtLimit; y++) {
+                applyQuadraticForm(4 * x * x + y * y, limit, sieve, 1, 5);
+                applyQuadraticForm(3 * x * x + y * y, limit, sieve, 7);
+                applyQuadraticForm(3 * x * x - y * y, limit, sieve, 11, x > y);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Toggles the sieve entry for a number if it satisfies one modulo condition.
+     *
+     * @param n the number to check
+     * @param limit upper bound of primes
+     * @param sieve boolean array representing potential primes
+     * @param modulo the modulo condition number to check
+     */
+    private static void applyQuadraticForm(int n, int limit, boolean[] sieve, int modulo) {
+        if (n <= limit && n % 12 == modulo) {
+            sieve[n] ^= true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Toggles the sieve entry for a number if it satisfies either of two modulo conditions.
+     *
+     * @param n the number to check
+     * @param limit upper bound of primes
+     * @param sieve boolean array representing potential primes
+     * @param modulo1 first modulo condition number to check
+     * @param modulo2 second modulo condition number to check
+     */
+    private static void applyQuadraticForm(int n, int limit, boolean[] sieve, int modulo1, int modulo2) {
+        if (n <= limit && (n % 12 == modulo1 || n % 12 == modulo2)) {
+            sieve[n] ^= true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Toggles the sieve entry for a number if it satisfies the modulo condition and an additional boolean condition.
+     *
+     * This version is used for the quadratic form 3*x*x - y*y, which requires x > y.
+     *
+     * @param n the number to check
+     * @param limit upper bound of primes
+     * @param sieve boolean array representing potential primes
+     * @param modulo the modulo condition number to check
+     * @param condition an additional boolean condition that must be true
+     */
+    private static void applyQuadraticForm(int n, int limit, boolean[] sieve, int modulo, boolean condition) {
+        if (condition && n <= limit && n % 12 == modulo) {
+            sieve[n] ^= true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Eliminates numbers that are multiples of squares from the sieve.
+     *
+     * All numbers that are multiples of i*i (where i is marked as prime) are
+     * marked non-prime to finalize the sieve. This ensures only actual primes remain.
+     *
+     * @param limit the upper bound for primes
+     * @param sqrtLimit square root of the limit
+     * @param sieve boolean array representing potential primes
+     */
+    private static void eliminateMultiplesOfSquares(int limit, int sqrtLimit, boolean[] sieve) {
+        for (int i = 5; i <= sqrtLimit; i++) {
+            if (!sieve[i]) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            int square = i * i;
+            for (int j = square; j <= limit; j += square) {
+                sieve[j] = false;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenes.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenes.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f22d22e8c6af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenes.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * @brief utility class implementing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieve_of_Eratosthenes">Sieve of Eratosthenes</a>
+ */
+public final class SieveOfEratosthenes {
+    private SieveOfEratosthenes() {
+    }
+
+    private static void checkInput(int n) {
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("n must be positive.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static Type[] sievePrimesTill(int n) {
+        checkInput(n);
+        Type[] isPrimeArray = new Type[n + 1];
+        Arrays.fill(isPrimeArray, Type.PRIME);
+        isPrimeArray[0] = Type.NOT_PRIME;
+        isPrimeArray[1] = Type.NOT_PRIME;
+
+        double cap = Math.sqrt(n);
+        for (int i = 2; i <= cap; i++) {
+            if (isPrimeArray[i] == Type.PRIME) {
+                for (int j = 2; i * j <= n; j++) {
+                    isPrimeArray[i * j] = Type.NOT_PRIME;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return isPrimeArray;
+    }
+
+    private static int countPrimes(Type[] isPrimeArray) {
+        return (int) Arrays.stream(isPrimeArray).filter(element -> element == Type.PRIME).count();
+    }
+
+    private static int[] extractPrimes(Type[] isPrimeArray) {
+        int numberOfPrimes = countPrimes(isPrimeArray);
+        int[] primes = new int[numberOfPrimes];
+        int primeIndex = 0;
+        for (int curNumber = 0; curNumber < isPrimeArray.length; ++curNumber) {
+            if (isPrimeArray[curNumber] == Type.PRIME) {
+                primes[primeIndex++] = curNumber;
+            }
+        }
+        return primes;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief finds all of the prime numbers up to the given upper (inclusive) limit
+     * @param n upper (inclusive) limit
+     * @exception IllegalArgumentException n is non-positive
+     * @return the array of all primes up to the given number (inclusive)
+     */
+    public static int[] findPrimesTill(int n) {
+        return extractPrimes(sievePrimesTill(n));
+    }
+
+    private enum Type {
+        PRIME,
+        NOT_PRIME,
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SimpsonIntegration.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SimpsonIntegration.java
index 473afc4a3702..1163208a1f83 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SimpsonIntegration.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SimpsonIntegration.java
@@ -7,9 +7,9 @@ public class SimpsonIntegration {
     /*
      * Calculate definite integrals by using Composite Simpson's rule.
      * Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson%27s_rule#Composite_Simpson's_rule
-     * Given f a function and an even number N of intervals that divide the integration interval e.g. [a, b],
-     * we calculate the step h = (b-a)/N and create a table that contains all the x points of
-     * the real axis xi = x0 + i*h and the value f(xi) that corresponds to these xi.
+     * Given f a function and an even number N of intervals that divide the integration interval
+     * e.g. [a, b], we calculate the step h = (b-a)/N and create a table that contains all the x
+     * points of the real axis xi = x0 + i*h and the value f(xi) that corresponds to these xi.
      *
      * To evaluate the integral i use the formula below:
      * I = h/3 * {f(x0) + 4*f(x1) + 2*f(x2) + 4*f(x3) + ... + 2*f(xN-2) + 4*f(xN-1) + f(xN)}
@@ -19,19 +19,19 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         SimpsonIntegration integration = new SimpsonIntegration();
 
         // Give random data for the example purposes
-        int N = 16;
+        int n = 16;
         double a = 1;
         double b = 3;
 
-        // Check so that N is even
-        if (N % 2 != 0) {
-            System.out.println("N must be even number for Simpsons method. Aborted");
+        // Check so that n is even
+        if (n % 2 != 0) {
+            System.out.println("n must be even number for Simpsons method. Aborted");
             System.exit(1);
         }
 
         // Calculate step h and evaluate the integral
-        double h = (b - a) / (double) N;
-        double integralEvaluation = integration.simpsonsMethod(N, h, a);
+        double h = (b - a) / (double) n;
+        double integralEvaluation = integration.simpsonsMethod(n, h, a);
         System.out.println("The integral is equal to: " + integralEvaluation);
     }
 
@@ -45,13 +45,13 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      *
      * @return result of the integral evaluation
      */
-    public double simpsonsMethod(int N, double h, double a) {
+    public double simpsonsMethod(int n, double h, double a) {
         TreeMap<Integer, Double> data = new TreeMap<>(); // Key: i, Value: f(xi)
         double temp;
         double xi = a; // Initialize the variable xi = x0 + 0*h
 
         // Create the table of xi and yi points
-        for (int i = 0; i <= N; i++) {
+        for (int i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
             temp = f(xi); // Get the value of the function at that point
             data.put(i, temp);
             xi += h; // Increase the xi to the next point
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ public double simpsonsMethod(int N, double h, double a) {
             if (i == 0 || i == data.size() - 1) {
                 integralEvaluation += data.get(i);
                 System.out.println("Multiply f(x" + i + ") by 1");
-            } else if (i % 2 == 1) {
+            } else if (i % 2 != 0) {
                 integralEvaluation += (double) 4 * data.get(i);
                 System.out.println("Multiply f(x" + i + ") by 4");
             } else {
@@ -83,7 +83,6 @@ public double simpsonsMethod(int N, double h, double a) {
     // Function f(x) = e^(-x) * (4 - x^2)
     public double f(double x) {
         return Math.exp(-x) * (4 - Math.pow(x, 2));
-//        return Math.sqrt(x);
+        //        return Math.sqrt(x);
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..caa1abfc3203
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements the Solovay-Strassen primality test,
+ * which is a probabilistic algorithm to determine whether a number is prime.
+ * The algorithm is based on properties of the Jacobi symbol and modular exponentiation.
+ *
+ * For more information, go to {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solovay%E2%80%93Strassen_primality_test}
+ */
+final class SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest {
+
+    private final Random random;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest instance with a specified seed for randomness.
+     *
+     * @param seed the seed for generating random numbers
+     */
+    private SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest(int seed) {
+        random = new Random(seed);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Factory method to create an instance of SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.
+     *
+     * @param seed the seed for generating random numbers
+     * @return a new instance of SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest
+     */
+    public static SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest getSolovayStrassenPrimalityTest(int seed) {
+        return new SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest(seed);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates modular exponentiation using the method of exponentiation by squaring.
+     *
+     * @param base the base number
+     * @param exponent the exponent
+     * @param mod the modulus
+     * @return (base^exponent) mod mod
+     */
+    private static long calculateModularExponentiation(long base, long exponent, long mod) {
+        long x = 1; // This will hold the result of (base^exponent) % mod
+        long y = base; // This holds the current base value being squared
+
+        while (exponent > 0) {
+            // If exponent is odd, multiply the current base (y) with x
+            if (exponent % 2 == 1) {
+                x = x * y % mod; // Update result with current base
+            }
+            // Square the base for the next iteration
+            y = y * y % mod; // Update base to be y^2
+            exponent = exponent / 2; // Halve the exponent for next iteration
+        }
+
+        return x % mod; // Return final result after all iterations
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the Jacobi symbol (a/n), which is a generalization of the Legendre symbol.
+     *
+     * @param a the numerator
+     * @param num the denominator (must be an odd positive integer)
+     * @return the Jacobi symbol value: 1, -1, or 0
+     */
+    public int calculateJacobi(long a, long num) {
+        // Check if num is non-positive or even; Jacobi symbol is not defined in these cases
+        if (num <= 0 || num % 2 == 0) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        a = a % num; // Reduce a modulo num to simplify calculations
+        int jacobi = 1; // Initialize Jacobi symbol value
+
+        while (a != 0) {
+            // While a is even, reduce it and adjust jacobi based on properties of num
+            while (a % 2 == 0) {
+                a /= 2; // Divide a by 2 until it becomes odd
+                long nMod8 = num % 8; // Get num modulo 8 to check conditions for jacobi adjustment
+                if (nMod8 == 3 || nMod8 == 5) {
+                    jacobi = -jacobi; // Flip jacobi sign based on properties of num modulo 8
+                }
+            }
+
+            long temp = a; // Temporarily store value of a
+            a = num; // Set a to be num for next iteration
+            num = temp; // Set num to be previous value of a
+
+            // Adjust jacobi based on properties of both numbers when both are odd and congruent to 3 modulo 4
+            if (a % 4 == 3 && num % 4 == 3) {
+                jacobi = -jacobi; // Flip jacobi sign again based on congruences
+            }
+
+            a = a % num; // Reduce a modulo num for next iteration of Jacobi computation
+        }
+
+        return (num == 1) ? jacobi : 0; // If num reduces to 1, return jacobi value, otherwise return 0 (not defined)
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs the Solovay-Strassen primality test on a given number.
+     *
+     * @param num the number to be tested for primality
+     * @param iterations the number of iterations to run for accuracy
+     * @return true if num is likely prime, false if it is composite
+     */
+    public boolean solovayStrassen(long num, int iterations) {
+        if (num <= 1) {
+            return false; // Numbers <=1 are not prime by definition.
+        }
+        if (num <= 3) {
+            return true; // Numbers <=3 are prime.
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < iterations; i++) {
+            long r = Math.abs(random.nextLong() % (num - 1)) + 2; // Generate a non-negative random number.
+            long a = r % (num - 1) + 1; // Choose random 'a' in range [1, n-1].
+
+            long jacobi = (num + calculateJacobi(a, num)) % num;
+            // Calculate Jacobi symbol and adjust it modulo n.
+
+            long mod = calculateModularExponentiation(a, (num - 1) / 2, num);
+            // Calculate modular exponentiation: a^((n-1)/2) mod n.
+
+            if (jacobi == 0 || mod != jacobi) {
+                return false; // If Jacobi symbol is zero or doesn't match modular result, n is composite.
+            }
+        }
+
+        return true; // If no contradictions found after all iterations, n is likely prime.
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2b071307e2bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+public final class SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod {
+    private SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * get the value, return the square root
+     *
+     * @param num contains elements
+     * @return the square root of num
+     */
+    public static float squareRoot(float num) {
+        float a = num;
+        float b = 1;
+        double e = 0.000001;
+        while (a - b > e) {
+            a = (a + b) / 2;
+            b = num / a;
+        }
+        return a;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..80d185c93785
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/*
+ *To learn about the method, visit the link below :
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_method
+ *
+ * To obtain the square root, no built-in functions should be used
+ *
+ * The formula to calculate the root is : root = 0.5(x + n/x),
+ * here, n is the no. whose square root has to be calculated and
+ * x has to be guessed such that, the calculation should result into
+ * the square root of n.
+ * And the root will be obtained when the error < 0.5 or the precision value can also
+ * be changed according to the user preference.
+ */
+
+public final class SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod {
+    private SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod() {
+    }
+
+    public static double squareRoot(int n) {
+        double x = n; // initially taking a guess that x = n.
+        double root = 0.5 * (x + n / x); // applying Newton-Raphson Method.
+
+        while (Math.abs(root - x) > 0.0000001) { // root - x = error and error < 0.0000001, 0.0000001
+                                                 // is the precision value taken over here.
+            x = root; // decreasing the value of x to root, i.e. decreasing the guess.
+            root = 0.5 * (x + n / x);
+        }
+
+        return root;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardDeviation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardDeviation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a8e88d930a9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardDeviation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+public final class StandardDeviation {
+    private StandardDeviation() {
+    }
+
+    public static double stdDev(double[] data) {
+        double variance = 0;
+        double avg = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < data.length; i++) {
+            avg += data[i];
+        }
+        avg /= data.length;
+        for (int j = 0; j < data.length; j++) {
+            variance += Math.pow((data[j] - avg), 2);
+        }
+        variance /= data.length;
+        return Math.sqrt(variance);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardScore.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardScore.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..22a9f550e114
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardScore.java
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+public final class StandardScore {
+    private StandardScore() {
+    }
+
+    public static double zScore(double num, double mean, double stdDev) {
+        return (num - mean) / stdDev;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StrobogrammaticNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StrobogrammaticNumber.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bcd9a8467e50
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StrobogrammaticNumber.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * A strobogrammatic number is a number that remains the same when rotated 180 degrees.
+ * In other words, the number looks the same when rotated upside down.
+ * Examples of strobogrammatic numbers are "69", "88", "818", and "101".
+ * Numbers like "609" or "120" are not strobogrammatic because they do not look the same when rotated.
+ */
+public class StrobogrammaticNumber {
+    /**
+     * Check if a number is strobogrammatic
+     * @param number the number to be checked
+     * @return true if the number is strobogrammatic, false otherwise
+     */
+    public boolean isStrobogrammatic(String number) {
+        Map<Character, Character> strobogrammaticMap = new HashMap<>();
+        strobogrammaticMap.put('0', '0');
+        strobogrammaticMap.put('1', '1');
+        strobogrammaticMap.put('6', '9');
+        strobogrammaticMap.put('8', '8');
+        strobogrammaticMap.put('9', '6');
+
+        int left = 0;
+        int right = number.length() - 1;
+
+        while (left <= right) {
+            char leftChar = number.charAt(left);
+            char rightChar = number.charAt(right);
+
+            if (!strobogrammaticMap.containsKey(leftChar) || strobogrammaticMap.get(leftChar) != rightChar) {
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            left++;
+            right--;
+        }
+
+        return true;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java
index d6db0ab9712c..315f0d3a7d28 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java
@@ -10,23 +10,8 @@
  * <p>
  * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_progression
  */
-public class SumOfArithmeticSeries {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        /* 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 */
-        assert Double.compare(55.0, sumOfSeries(1, 1, 10)) == 0;
-
-        /* 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 */
-        assert Double.compare(100.0, sumOfSeries(1, 2, 10)) == 0;
-
-        /* 1 + 11 + 21 + 31 + 41 + 51 + 61 + 71 + 81 + 91 */
-        assert Double.compare(460.0, sumOfSeries(1, 10, 10)) == 0;
-
-        /* 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.5 + 0.6 + 0.7 + 0.8 + 0.9 + 1.0 */
-        assert Double.compare(5.5, sumOfSeries(0.1, 0.1, 10)) == 0;
-
-        assert Double.compare(49600.0, sumOfSeries(1, 10, 100)) == 0;
+public final class SumOfArithmeticSeries {
+    private SumOfArithmeticSeries() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -37,7 +22,10 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @param numOfTerms the total terms of an arithmetic series
      * @return sum of given arithmetic series
      */
-    private static double sumOfSeries(double firstTerm, double commonDiff, int numOfTerms) {
-        return numOfTerms / 2.0 * (2 * firstTerm + (numOfTerms - 1) * commonDiff);
+    public static double sumOfSeries(final double firstTerm, final double commonDiff, final int numOfTerms) {
+        if (numOfTerms < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("numOfTerms nonnegative.");
+        }
+        return (numOfTerms / 2.0 * (2 * firstTerm + (numOfTerms - 1) * commonDiff));
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigits.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigits.java
index 5ac8525c1d3a..e5ec8a02025d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigits.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigits.java
@@ -1,15 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-public class SumOfDigits {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert sumOfDigits(-123) == 6 && sumOfDigitsRecursion(-123) == 6 && sumOfDigitsFast(-123) == 6;
-
-        assert sumOfDigits(0) == 0 && sumOfDigitsRecursion(0) == 0 && sumOfDigitsFast(0) == 0;
-
-        assert sumOfDigits(12345) == 15
-                && sumOfDigitsRecursion(12345) == 15
-                && sumOfDigitsFast(12345) == 15;
+public final class SumOfDigits {
+    private SumOfDigits() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -19,12 +11,12 @@ && sumOfDigitsRecursion(12345) == 15
      * @return sum of digits of given {@code number}
      */
     public static int sumOfDigits(int number) {
-        number = number < 0 ? -number : number;
-        /* calculate abs value */
+        final int base = 10;
+        number = Math.abs(number);
         int sum = 0;
         while (number != 0) {
-            sum += number % 10;
-            number /= 10;
+            sum += number % base;
+            number /= base;
         }
         return sum;
     }
@@ -36,9 +28,9 @@ public static int sumOfDigits(int number) {
      * @return sum of digits of given {@code number}
      */
     public static int sumOfDigitsRecursion(int number) {
-        number = number < 0 ? -number : number;
-        /* calculate abs value */
-        return number < 10 ? number : number % 10 + sumOfDigitsRecursion(number / 10);
+        final int base = 10;
+        number = Math.abs(number);
+        return number < base ? number : number % base + sumOfDigitsRecursion(number / base);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -47,14 +39,7 @@ public static int sumOfDigitsRecursion(int number) {
      * @param number the number contains digits
      * @return sum of digits of given {@code number}
      */
-    public static int sumOfDigitsFast(int number) {
-        number = number < 0 ? -number : number;
-        /* calculate abs value */
-        char[] digits = (number + "").toCharArray();
-        int sum = 0;
-        for (int i = 0; i < digits.length; ++i) {
-            sum += digits[i] - '0';
-        }
-        return sum;
+    public static int sumOfDigitsFast(final int number) {
+        return String.valueOf(Math.abs(number)).chars().map(c -> c - '0').reduce(0, Integer::sum);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbers.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbers.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c0a1e782659a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbers.java
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * This program calculates the sum of the first n odd numbers.
+ *
+ * https://www.cuemath.com/algebra/sum-of-odd-numbers/
+ */
+
+public final class SumOfOddNumbers {
+    private SumOfOddNumbers() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate sum of the first n odd numbers
+     *
+     * @param n the number of odd numbers to sum
+     * @return sum of the first n odd numbers
+     */
+    public static int sumOfFirstNOddNumbers(final int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("n must be non-negative.");
+        }
+        return n * n;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfSquares.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfSquares.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c050d5a75f7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfSquares.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of Lagrange's Four Square Theorem
+ * Find minimum number of perfect squares that sum to given number
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange%27s_four-square_theorem">Lagrange's Four Square Theorem</a>
+ * @author BEASTSHRIRAM
+ */
+public final class SumOfSquares {
+
+    private SumOfSquares() {
+        // Utility class
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find minimum number of perfect squares that sum to n
+     *
+     * @param n the target number
+     * @return minimum number of squares needed
+     */
+    public static int minSquares(int n) {
+        if (isPerfectSquare(n)) {
+            return 1;
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 1; i * i <= n; i++) {
+            int remaining = n - i * i;
+            if (isPerfectSquare(remaining)) {
+                return 2;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Legendre's three-square theorem
+        int temp = n;
+        while (temp % 4 == 0) {
+            temp /= 4;
+        }
+        if (temp % 8 == 7) {
+            return 4;
+        }
+
+        return 3;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean isPerfectSquare(int n) {
+        if (n < 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        int root = (int) Math.sqrt(n);
+        return root * root == n;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperators.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperators.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5369182a0a94
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperators.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+public class SumWithoutArithmeticOperators {
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the sum of two numbers a and b without using any arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /).
+     * All the integers associated are unsigned 32-bit integers
+     *https://stackoverflow.com/questions/365522/what-is-the-best-way-to-add-two-numbers-without-using-the-operator
+     *@param a - It is the first number
+     *@param b - It is the second number
+     *@return returns an integer which is the sum of the first and second number
+     */
+
+    public int getSum(int a, int b) {
+        if (b == 0) {
+            return a;
+        }
+        int sum = a ^ b;
+        int carry = (a & b) << 1;
+        return getSum(sum, carry);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java
index 2b7ce2a9c68d..877ef4227afc 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java
@@ -7,9 +7,11 @@
  *
  * Example Input: n = 4 Output 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 3 6 7 6 3 1
  */
-public class TrinomialTriangle {
+public final class TrinomialTriangle {
+    private TrinomialTriangle() {
+    }
 
-    public static int TrinomialValue(int n, int k) {
+    public static int trinomialValue(int n, int k) {
         if (n == 0 && k == 0) {
             return 1;
         }
@@ -18,24 +20,24 @@ public static int TrinomialValue(int n, int k) {
             return 0;
         }
 
-        return TrinomialValue(n - 1, k - 1) + TrinomialValue(n - 1, k) + TrinomialValue(n - 1, k + 1);
+        return (trinomialValue(n - 1, k - 1) + trinomialValue(n - 1, k) + trinomialValue(n - 1, k + 1));
     }
 
     public static void printTrinomial(int n) {
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             for (int j = -i; j <= 0; j++) {
-                System.out.print(TrinomialValue(i, j) + " ");
+                System.out.print(trinomialValue(i, j) + " ");
             }
 
             for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++) {
-                System.out.print(TrinomialValue(i, j) + " ");
+                System.out.print(trinomialValue(i, j) + " ");
             }
 
             System.out.println();
         }
     }
 
-    public static void main(String argc[]) {
+    public static void main(String[] argc) {
         int n = 6;
         printTrinomial(n);
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TwinPrime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TwinPrime.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f4e546a2d7a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TwinPrime.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+/*
+ * Java program to find 'twin prime' of a prime number
+ * Twin Prime: Twin prime of a number n is (n+2)
+ * if and only if n & (n+2) are prime.
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_prime
+ *
+ * Author: Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ *
+ * */
+
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.PrimeCheck;
+
+public final class TwinPrime {
+    private TwinPrime() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method returns twin prime of the integer value passed as argument
+     *
+     * @param inputNumber Integer value of which twin prime is to be found
+     * @return (number + 2) if number and (number + 2) are prime, -1 otherwise
+     */
+    static int getTwinPrime(int inputNumber) {
+
+        // if inputNumber and (inputNumber + 2) are both prime
+        // then return (inputNumber + 2) as a result
+        if (PrimeCheck.isPrime(inputNumber) && PrimeCheck.isPrime(inputNumber + 2)) {
+            return inputNumber + 2;
+        }
+        // if any one from inputNumber and (inputNumber + 2) or if both of them are not prime
+        // then return -1 as a result
+        return -1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/UniformNumbers.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/UniformNumbers.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c83783aab0b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/UniformNumbers.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/**
+ * A positive integer is considered uniform if all
+ * of its digits are equal. For example, 222 is uniform,
+ * while 223 is not.
+ * Given two positive integers a and b, determine the
+ * number of uniform integers between a and b.
+ */
+public final class UniformNumbers {
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation of the utility class
+    private UniformNumbers() {
+        // Prevent instantiation
+    }
+    /**
+     * This function will find the number of uniform numbers
+     * from 1 to num
+     * @param num upper limit to find the uniform numbers
+     * @return the count of uniform numbers between 1 and num
+     */
+    public static int uniformNumbers(int num) {
+        String numStr = Integer.toString(num);
+        int uniformCount = (numStr.length() - 1) * 9;
+        int finalUniform = Integer.parseInt(String.valueOf(numStr.charAt(0)).repeat(numStr.length()));
+
+        if (finalUniform <= num) {
+            uniformCount += Integer.parseInt(String.valueOf(numStr.charAt(0)));
+        } else {
+            uniformCount += Integer.parseInt(String.valueOf(numStr.charAt(0))) - 1;
+        }
+
+        return uniformCount;
+    }
+    /**
+     * This function will calculate the number of uniform numbers
+     * between a and b
+     * @param a lower bound of range
+     * @param b upper bound of range
+     * @return  the count of uniform numbers between a and b
+     */
+    public static int countUniformIntegers(int a, int b) {
+        if (b > a && b > 0 && a > 0) {
+            return uniformNumbers(b) - uniformNumbers(a - 1);
+        } else if (b == a) {
+            return 1;
+        } else {
+            return 0;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumber.java
index bdb8a61f40bc..45bb9a587778 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumber.java
@@ -1,80 +1,48 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.Collections;
 
 /**
- * n number theory, a vampire number (or true vampire number) is a composite
+ * In number theory, a vampire number (or true vampire number) is a composite
  * natural number with an even number of digits, that can be factored into two
  * natural numbers each with half as many digits as the original number and not
  * both with trailing zeroes, where the two factors contain precisely all the
  * digits of the original number, in any order, counting multiplicity. The first
- * vampire number is 1260 = 21 × 60. *
+ * vampire number is 1260 = 21 × 60.
  *
- * <p>
- * link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire_number *
- *
- * <p>
+ * @see <a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire_number'>Vampire number on Wikipedia</a>
  */
-public class VampireNumber {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        test(10, 1000);
-    }
-
-    static void test(int startValue, int stopValue) {
-        int countofRes = 1;
-        StringBuilder res = new StringBuilder();
-
-        for (int i = startValue; i <= stopValue; i++) {
-            for (int j = i; j <= stopValue; j++) {
-                // System.out.println(i+ " "+ j);
-                if (isVampireNumber(i, j, true)) {
-                    countofRes++;
-                    res.append("" + countofRes + ": = ( " + i + "," + j + " = " + i * j + ")" + "\n");
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        System.out.println(res);
+public final class VampireNumber {
+    // Forbid instantiation.
+    private VampireNumber() {
     }
 
-    static boolean isVampireNumber(int a, int b, boolean noPseudoVamireNumbers) {
-
-        // this is for pseudoVampireNumbers  pseudovampire number need not be of length n/2 digits for
-        // example
-        // 126 = 6 x 21
-        if (noPseudoVamireNumbers) {
-            if (a * 10 <= b || b * 10 <= a) {
-                return false;
-            }
+    static boolean isVampireNumber(int a, int b, boolean ignorePseudoVampireNumbers) {
+        // Pseudo vampire numbers don't have to be of n/2 digits. E.g., 126 = 6 x 21 is such a number.
+        if (ignorePseudoVampireNumbers && String.valueOf(a).length() != String.valueOf(b).length()) {
+            return false;
         }
 
-        String mulDigits = splitIntoDigits(a * b, 0);
-        String faktorDigits = splitIntoDigits(a, b);
+        String mulDigits = splitIntoSortedDigits(a * b);
+        String factorDigits = splitIntoSortedDigits(a, b);
 
-        return mulDigits.equals(faktorDigits);
+        return mulDigits.equals(factorDigits);
     }
 
-    // methode to Split the numbers to Digits
-    static String splitIntoDigits(int num, int num2) {
-
-        StringBuilder res = new StringBuilder();
-
+    // Method to split a pair of numbers to digits and sort them in the ascending order.
+    static String splitIntoSortedDigits(int... nums) {
+        // Collect all digits in a list.
         ArrayList<Integer> digits = new ArrayList<>();
-        while (num > 0) {
-            digits.add(num % 10);
-            num /= 10;
-        }
-        while (num2 > 0) {
-            digits.add(num2 % 10);
-            num2 /= 10;
-        }
-        Collections.sort(digits);
-        for (int i : digits) {
-            res.append(i);
+        for (int num : nums) {
+            while (num > 0) {
+                digits.add(num % 10);
+                num /= 10;
+            }
         }
 
+        // Sort all digits and convert to String.
+        StringBuilder res = new StringBuilder();
+        digits.stream().sorted().forEach(res::append);
         return res.toString();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java
index 533cfc94d738..e2769744bcda 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@
  * following Java Program calculates the direction ratios of the cross products
  * of two vector. The program uses a function, cross() for doing so. The
  * direction ratios for the first and the second vector has to be passed one by
- * one seperated by a space character.
+ * one separated by a space character.
  *
  * Magnitude of a vector is the square root of the sum of the squares of the
  * direction ratios.
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ public class VectorCrossProduct {
     int y;
     int z;
 
-    //Default constructor, initialises all three Direction Ratios to 0
+    // Default constructor, initialises all three Direction Ratios to 0
     VectorCrossProduct() {
         x = 0;
         y = 0;
@@ -55,14 +55,14 @@ public class VectorCrossProduct {
     /**
      * constructor, initialises Vector with given Direction Ratios
      *
-     * @param _x set to x
-     * @param _y set to y
-     * @param _z set to z
+     * @param vectorX set to x
+     * @param vectorY set to y
+     * @param vectorZ set to z
      */
-    VectorCrossProduct(int _x, int _y, int _z) {
-        x = _x;
-        y = _y;
-        z = _z;
+    VectorCrossProduct(int vectorX, int vectorY, int vectorZ) {
+        x = vectorX;
+        y = vectorY;
+        z = vectorZ;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -110,18 +110,16 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
     }
 
     static void test() {
-        //Create two vectors
-        VectorCrossProduct A = new VectorCrossProduct(1, -2, 3);
-        VectorCrossProduct B = new VectorCrossProduct(2, 0, 3);
+        // Create two vectors
+        VectorCrossProduct a = new VectorCrossProduct(1, -2, 3);
+        VectorCrossProduct b = new VectorCrossProduct(2, 0, 3);
 
-        //Determine cross product
-        VectorCrossProduct crossProd = A.crossProduct(B);
+        // Determine cross product
+        VectorCrossProduct crossProd = a.crossProduct(b);
         crossProd.displayVector();
 
-        //Determine dot product
-        int dotProd = A.dotProduct(B);
-        System.out.println("Dot Product of A and B: " + dotProd);
-
+        // Determine dot product
+        int dotProd = a.dotProduct(b);
+        System.out.println("Dot Product of a and b: " + dotProd);
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Volume.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Volume.java
index 6a08a6c7823c..0f282b2abae2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Volume.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Volume.java
@@ -1,92 +1,105 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-
-/* Find volume of various shapes.*/
-public class Volume {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        /* test cube */
-        assert Double.compare(volumeCube(7), 343.0) == 0;
-
-        /* test cuboid */
-        assert Double.compare(volumeCuboid(2, 5, 7), 70.0) == 0;
-
-        /* test sphere */
-        assert Double.compare(volumeSphere(5), 523.5987755982989) == 0;
-
-        /* test cylinder */
-        assert Double.compare(volumeCylinder(1, 2), 12.566370614359172) == 0;
-
-        /* test hemisphere */
-        assert Double.compare(volumeHemisphere(5), 261.79938779914943) == 0;
-
-        /* test cone */
-        assert Double.compare(volumeCone(5, 7), 916.297857297023) == 0;
-
+/* Calculate the volume of various shapes.*/
+public final class Volume {
+    private Volume() {
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculate the volume of a cube.
      *
-     * @param sideLength side length of cube
-     * @return volume of given cube
+     * @param sideLength length of the given cube's sides
+     * @return volume of the given cube
      */
-    private static double volumeCube(double sidelength) {
-        return sidelength * sidelength * sidelength;
+    public static double volumeCube(double sideLength) {
+        return sideLength * sideLength * sideLength;
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculate the volume of a cuboid.
      *
-     * @param width of cuboid
-     * @param height of cuboid
-     * @param length of cuboid
+     * @param width  width of given cuboid
+     * @param height height of given cuboid
+     * @param length length of given cuboid
      * @return volume of given cuboid
      */
-    private static double volumeCuboid(double width, double height, double length) {
+    public static double volumeCuboid(double width, double height, double length) {
         return width * height * length;
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculate the volume of a sphere.
      *
-     * @param radius radius of sphere
+     * @param radius radius of given sphere
      * @return volume of given sphere
      */
-    private static double volumeSphere(double radius) {
-        return 4 / 3 * Math.PI * radius * radius * radius;
+    public static double volumeSphere(double radius) {
+        return (4 * Math.PI * radius * radius * radius) / 3;
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculate volume of a cylinder
      *
-     * @param radius radius of the floor
-     * @param height height of the cylinder.
+     * @param radius radius of the given cylinder's floor
+     * @param height height of the given cylinder
      * @return volume of given cylinder
      */
-    private static double volumeCylinder(double radius, double height) {
+    public static double volumeCylinder(double radius, double height) {
         return Math.PI * radius * radius * height;
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculate the volume of a hemisphere.
      *
-     * @param radius radius of hemisphere
+     * @param radius radius of given hemisphere
      * @return volume of given hemisphere
      */
-    private static double volumeHemisphere(double radius) {
-        return 2 / 3 * Math.PI * radius * radius * radius;
+    public static double volumeHemisphere(double radius) {
+        return (2 * Math.PI * radius * radius * radius) / 3;
     }
 
     /**
      * Calculate the volume of a cone.
      *
-     * @param radius radius of cone.
-     * @param height of cone.
-     * @return volume of given cone.
+     * @param radius radius of given cone
+     * @param height of given cone
+     * @return volume of given cone
+     */
+    public static double volumeCone(double radius, double height) {
+        return (Math.PI * radius * radius * height) / 3;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the volume of a prism.
+     *
+     * @param baseArea  area of the given prism's base
+     * @param height of given prism
+     * @return volume of given prism
+     */
+    public static double volumePrism(double baseArea, double height) {
+        return baseArea * height;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the volume of a pyramid.
+     *
+     * @param baseArea   of the given pyramid's base
+     * @param height of given pyramid
+     * @return volume of given pyramid
+     */
+    public static double volumePyramid(double baseArea, double height) {
+        return (baseArea * height) / 3;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the volume of a frustum of a cone.
+     *
+     * @param r1 radius of the top of the frustum
+     * @param r2 radius of the bottom of the frustum
+     * @param height height of the frustum
+     * @return volume of the frustum
      */
-    private static double volumeCone(double radius, double height) {
-        return Math.PI * radius * radius * height / 3;
+    public static double volumeFrustumOfCone(double r1, double r2, double height) {
+        return (Math.PI * height / 3) * (r1 * r1 + r2 * r2 + r1 * r2);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ZellersCongruence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ZellersCongruence.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..95ed061ac17f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ZellersCongruence.java
@@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.time.DateTimeException;
+import java.time.LocalDate;
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class for calculating the day of the week for a given date using Zeller's Congruence.
+ *
+ * <p>Zeller's Congruence is an algorithm devised by Christian Zeller in the 19th century to calculate
+ * the day of the week for any Julian or Gregorian calendar date. The input date must be in the format
+ * "MM-DD-YYYY" or "MM/DD/YYYY".
+ *
+ * <p>This class is final and cannot be instantiated.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeller%27s_congruence">Wikipedia: Zeller's Congruence</a>
+ */
+public final class ZellersCongruence {
+
+    private static final String[] DAYS = {"Sunday", "Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday"};
+
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation
+    private ZellersCongruence() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the day of the week for a given date using Zeller's Congruence.
+     *
+     * <p>The algorithm works for both Julian and Gregorian calendar dates. The input date must be
+     * in the format "MM-DD-YYYY" or "MM/DD/YYYY".
+     *
+     * @param input the date in the format "MM-DD-YYYY" or "MM/DD/YYYY"
+     * @return a string indicating the day of the week for the given date
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input format is invalid, the date is invalid,
+     *                                  or the year is out of range
+     */
+    public static String calculateDay(String input) {
+        if (input == null || input.length() != 10) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input date must be 10 characters long in the format MM-DD-YYYY or MM/DD/YYYY.");
+        }
+
+        int month = parsePart(input.substring(0, 2), 1, 12, "Month must be between 1 and 12.");
+        char sep1 = input.charAt(2);
+        validateSeparator(sep1);
+
+        int day = parsePart(input.substring(3, 5), 1, 31, "Day must be between 1 and 31.");
+        char sep2 = input.charAt(5);
+        validateSeparator(sep2);
+
+        int year = parsePart(input.substring(6, 10), 46, 8499, "Year must be between 46 and 8499.");
+
+        try {
+            Objects.requireNonNull(LocalDate.of(year, month, day));
+        } catch (DateTimeException e) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid date.", e);
+        }
+        if (month <= 2) {
+            year -= 1;
+            month += 12;
+        }
+
+        int century = year / 100;
+        int yearOfCentury = year % 100;
+        int t = (int) (2.6 * month - 5.39);
+        int u = century / 4;
+        int v = yearOfCentury / 4;
+        int f = (int) Math.round((day + yearOfCentury + t + u + v - 2 * century) % 7.0);
+
+        int correctedDay = (f + 7) % 7;
+
+        return "The date " + input + " falls on a " + DAYS[correctedDay] + ".";
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Parses a part of the date string and validates its range.
+     *
+     * @param part  the substring to parse
+     * @param min   the minimum valid value
+     * @param max   the maximum valid value
+     * @param error the error message to throw if validation fails
+     * @return the parsed integer value
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the part is not a valid number or is out of range
+     */
+    private static int parsePart(String part, int min, int max, String error) {
+        try {
+            int value = Integer.parseInt(part);
+            if (value < min || value > max) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException(error);
+            }
+            return value;
+        } catch (NumberFormatException e) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid numeric part: " + part, e);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Validates the separator character in the date string.
+     *
+     * @param sep the separator character
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the separator is not '-' or '/'
+     */
+    private static void validateSeparator(char sep) {
+        if (sep != '-' && sep != '/') {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Date separator must be '-' or '/'.");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..13e795a91297
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides methods to compute the inverse of a square matrix
+ * using Gaussian elimination. For more details, refer to:
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertible_matrix
+ */
+public final class InverseOfMatrix {
+    private InverseOfMatrix() {
+    }
+
+    public static double[][] invert(double[][] a) {
+        int n = a.length;
+        double[][] x = new double[n][n];
+        double[][] b = new double[n][n];
+        int[] index = new int[n];
+
+        // Initialize the identity matrix
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
+            b[i][i] = 1;
+        }
+
+        // Perform Gaussian elimination
+        gaussian(a, index);
+
+        // Update matrix b with the ratios stored during elimination
+        for (int i = 0; i < n - 1; ++i) {
+            for (int j = i + 1; j < n; ++j) {
+                for (int k = 0; k < n; ++k) {
+                    b[index[j]][k] -= a[index[j]][i] * b[index[i]][k];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Perform backward substitution to find the inverse
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
+            x[n - 1][i] = b[index[n - 1]][i] / a[index[n - 1]][n - 1];
+            for (int j = n - 2; j >= 0; --j) {
+                x[j][i] = b[index[j]][i];
+                for (int k = j + 1; k < n; ++k) {
+                    x[j][i] -= a[index[j]][k] * x[k][i];
+                }
+                x[j][i] /= a[index[j]][j];
+            }
+        }
+        return x;
+    }
+    /**
+     * Method to carry out the partial-pivoting Gaussian
+     * elimination.  Here index[] stores pivoting order.
+     **/
+    private static void gaussian(double[][] a, int[] index) {
+        int n = index.length;
+        double[] c = new double[n];
+
+        // Initialize the index array
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
+            index[i] = i;
+        }
+
+        // Find the rescaling factors for each row
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
+            double c1 = 0;
+            for (int j = 0; j < n; ++j) {
+                double c0 = Math.abs(a[i][j]);
+                if (c0 > c1) {
+                    c1 = c0;
+                }
+            }
+            c[i] = c1;
+        }
+
+        // Perform pivoting
+        for (int j = 0; j < n - 1; ++j) {
+            double pi1 = 0;
+            int k = j;
+            for (int i = j; i < n; ++i) {
+                double pi0 = Math.abs(a[index[i]][j]) / c[index[i]];
+                if (pi0 > pi1) {
+                    pi1 = pi0;
+                    k = i;
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Swap rows
+            int temp = index[j];
+            index[j] = index[k];
+            index[k] = temp;
+
+            for (int i = j + 1; i < n; ++i) {
+                double pj = a[index[i]][j] / a[index[j]][j];
+
+                // Record pivoting ratios below the diagonal
+                a[index[i]][j] = pj;
+
+                // Modify other elements accordingly
+                for (int l = j + 1; l < n; ++l) {
+                    a[index[i]][l] -= pj * a[index[j]][l];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplication.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplication.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6467a438577b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplication.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to perform matrix multiplication.
+ *
+ * <p>Matrix multiplication takes two 2D arrays (matrices) as input and
+ * produces their product, following the mathematical definition of
+ * matrix multiplication.
+ *
+ * <p>For more details:
+ * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/java/java-program-to-multiply-two-matrices-of-any-size/
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_multiplication
+ *
+ * <p>Time Complexity: O(n^3) – where n is the dimension of the matrices
+ * (assuming square matrices for simplicity).
+ *
+ * <p>Space Complexity: O(n^2) – for storing the result matrix.
+ *
+ *
+ * @author Nishitha Wihala Pitigala
+ *
+ */
+
+public final class MatrixMultiplication {
+    private MatrixMultiplication() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Multiplies two matrices.
+     *
+     * @param matrixA the first matrix rowsA x colsA
+     * @param matrixB the second matrix rowsB x colsB
+     * @return the product of the two matrices rowsA x colsB
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the matrices cannot be multiplied
+     */
+    public static double[][] multiply(double[][] matrixA, double[][] matrixB) {
+        // Check the input matrices are not null
+        if (matrixA == null || matrixB == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input matrices cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        // Check for empty matrices
+        if (matrixA.length == 0 || matrixB.length == 0 || matrixA[0].length == 0 || matrixB[0].length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input matrices must not be empty");
+        }
+
+        // Validate the matrix dimensions
+        if (matrixA[0].length != matrixB.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Matrices cannot be multiplied: incompatible dimensions.");
+        }
+
+        int rowsA = matrixA.length;
+        int colsA = matrixA[0].length;
+        int colsB = matrixB[0].length;
+
+        // Initialize the result matrix with zeros
+        double[][] result = new double[rowsA][colsB];
+
+        // Perform matrix multiplication
+        for (int i = 0; i < rowsA; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < colsB; j++) {
+                for (int k = 0; k < colsA; k++) {
+                    result[i][j] += matrixA[i][k] * matrixB[k][j];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRank.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRank.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6692b6c37c60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRank.java
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import static com.thealgorithms.matrix.utils.MatrixUtil.validateInputMatrix;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to compute the rank of a matrix.
+ * In linear algebra, the rank of a matrix is the maximum number of linearly independent rows or columns in the matrix.
+ * For example, consider the following 3x3 matrix:
+ * 1 2 3
+ * 2 4 6
+ * 3 6 9
+ * Despite having 3 rows and 3 columns, this matrix only has a rank of 1 because all rows (and columns) are multiples of each other.
+ * It's a fundamental concept that gives key insights into the structure of the matrix.
+ * It's important to note that the rank is not only defined for square matrices but for any m x n matrix.
+ *
+ * @author Anup Omkar
+ */
+public final class MatrixRank {
+
+    private MatrixRank() {
+    }
+
+    private static final double EPSILON = 1e-10;
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Computes the rank of the input matrix
+     *
+     * @param matrix The input matrix
+     * @return The rank of the input matrix
+     */
+    public static int computeRank(double[][] matrix) {
+        validateInputMatrix(matrix);
+
+        int numRows = matrix.length;
+        int numColumns = matrix[0].length;
+        int rank = 0;
+
+        boolean[] rowMarked = new boolean[numRows];
+
+        double[][] matrixCopy = deepCopy(matrix);
+
+        for (int colIndex = 0; colIndex < numColumns; ++colIndex) {
+            int pivotRow = findPivotRow(matrixCopy, rowMarked, colIndex);
+            if (pivotRow != numRows) {
+                ++rank;
+                rowMarked[pivotRow] = true;
+                normalizePivotRow(matrixCopy, pivotRow, colIndex);
+                eliminateRows(matrixCopy, pivotRow, colIndex);
+            }
+        }
+        return rank;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean isZero(double value) {
+        return Math.abs(value) < EPSILON;
+    }
+
+    private static double[][] deepCopy(double[][] matrix) {
+        int numRows = matrix.length;
+        int numColumns = matrix[0].length;
+        double[][] matrixCopy = new double[numRows][numColumns];
+        for (int rowIndex = 0; rowIndex < numRows; ++rowIndex) {
+            System.arraycopy(matrix[rowIndex], 0, matrixCopy[rowIndex], 0, numColumns);
+        }
+        return matrixCopy;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief The pivot row is the row in the matrix that is used to eliminate other rows and reduce the matrix to its row echelon form.
+     * The pivot row is selected as the first row (from top to bottom) where the value in the current column (the pivot column) is not zero.
+     * This row is then used to "eliminate" other rows, by subtracting multiples of the pivot row from them, so that all other entries in the pivot column become zero.
+     * This process is repeated for each column, each time selecting a new pivot row, until the matrix is in row echelon form.
+     * The number of pivot rows (rows with a leading entry, or pivot) then gives the rank of the matrix.
+     *
+     * @param matrix The input matrix
+     * @param rowMarked An array indicating which rows have been marked
+     * @param colIndex The column index
+     * @return The pivot row index, or the number of rows if no suitable pivot row was found
+     */
+    private static int findPivotRow(double[][] matrix, boolean[] rowMarked, int colIndex) {
+        int numRows = matrix.length;
+        for (int pivotRow = 0; pivotRow < numRows; ++pivotRow) {
+            if (!rowMarked[pivotRow] && !isZero(matrix[pivotRow][colIndex])) {
+                return pivotRow;
+            }
+        }
+        return numRows;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief This method divides all values in the pivot row by the value in the given column.
+     * This ensures that the pivot value itself will be 1, which simplifies further calculations.
+     *
+     * @param matrix The input matrix
+     * @param pivotRow The pivot row index
+     * @param colIndex The column index
+     */
+    private static void normalizePivotRow(double[][] matrix, int pivotRow, int colIndex) {
+        int numColumns = matrix[0].length;
+        for (int nextCol = colIndex + 1; nextCol < numColumns; ++nextCol) {
+            matrix[pivotRow][nextCol] /= matrix[pivotRow][colIndex];
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief This method subtracts multiples of the pivot row from all other rows,
+     * so that all values in the given column of other rows will be zero.
+     * This is a key step in reducing the matrix to row echelon form.
+     *
+     * @param matrix The input matrix
+     * @param pivotRow The pivot row index
+     * @param colIndex The column index
+     */
+    private static void eliminateRows(double[][] matrix, int pivotRow, int colIndex) {
+        int numRows = matrix.length;
+        int numColumns = matrix[0].length;
+        for (int otherRow = 0; otherRow < numRows; ++otherRow) {
+            if (otherRow != pivotRow && !isZero(matrix[otherRow][colIndex])) {
+                for (int col2 = colIndex + 1; col2 < numColumns; ++col2) {
+                    matrix[otherRow][col2] -= matrix[pivotRow][col2] * matrix[otherRow][colIndex];
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixTranspose.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixTranspose.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f91ebc10b8a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixTranspose.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+/**
+ *
+ *
+ * <h1>Find the Transpose of Matrix!</h1>
+ *
+ * Simply take input from the user and print the matrix before the transpose and
+ * after the transpose.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * <b>Note:</b> Giving proper comments in your program makes it more user
+ * friendly and it is assumed as a high quality code.
+ *
+ * @author Rajat-Jain29
+ * @version 11.0.9
+ * @since 2014-03-31
+ */
+public final class MatrixTranspose {
+    private MatrixTranspose() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the transpose of the given matrix.
+     *
+     * @param matrix The matrix to be transposed
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the matrix is empty
+     * @throws NullPointerException     if the matrix is null
+     * @return The transposed matrix
+     */
+    public static int[][] transpose(int[][] matrix) {
+        if (matrix == null || matrix.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Matrix is empty");
+        }
+
+        int rows = matrix.length;
+        int cols = matrix[0].length;
+        int[][] transposedMatrix = new int[cols][rows];
+        for (int i = 0; i < cols; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < rows; j++) {
+                transposedMatrix[i][j] = matrix[j][i];
+            }
+        }
+        return transposedMatrix;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1ec977af07c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Median of Matrix (https://medium.com/@vaibhav.yadav8101/median-in-a-row-wise-sorted-matrix-901737f3e116)
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+
+public final class MedianOfMatrix {
+    private MedianOfMatrix() {
+    }
+
+    public static int median(Iterable<List<Integer>> matrix) {
+        List<Integer> flattened = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (List<Integer> row : matrix) {
+            if (row != null) {
+                flattened.addAll(row);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (flattened.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Matrix must contain at least one element.");
+        }
+
+        Collections.sort(flattened);
+        return flattened.get((flattened.size() - 1) / 2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MirrorOfMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MirrorOfMatrix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3a3055f38732
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MirrorOfMatrix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+// Problem Statement
+
+import com.thealgorithms.matrix.utils.MatrixUtil;
+
+/*
+We have given an array of m x n (where m is the number of rows and n is the number of columns).
+Print the new matrix in such a way that the new matrix is the mirror image of the original matrix.
+
+The Original matrix is:   |   The Mirror matrix is:
+1	2	3	              |   3	 2	 1
+4	5	6	              |   6	 5	 4
+7	8	9	              |   9	 8	 7
+
+@author - Aman (https://github.com/Aman28801)
+*/
+
+public final class MirrorOfMatrix {
+    private MirrorOfMatrix() {
+    }
+
+    public static double[][] mirrorMatrix(final double[][] originalMatrix) {
+        MatrixUtil.validateInputMatrix(originalMatrix);
+
+        int numRows = originalMatrix.length;
+        int numCols = originalMatrix[0].length;
+
+        double[][] mirroredMatrix = new double[numRows][numCols];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < numRows; i++) {
+            mirroredMatrix[i] = MatrixUtil.reverseRow(originalMatrix[i]);
+        }
+        return mirroredMatrix;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4ae5970a9574
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class to print a matrix in spiral order.
+ * <p>
+ * Given a 2D array (matrix), this class provides a method to return the
+ * elements
+ * of the matrix in spiral order, starting from the top-left corner and moving
+ * clockwise.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @author Sadiul Hakim (https://github.com/sadiul-hakim)
+ */
+public class PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder {
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the elements of the given matrix in spiral order.
+     *
+     * @param matrix the 2D array to traverse in spiral order
+     * @param row    the number of rows in the matrix
+     * @param col    the number of columns in the matrix
+     * @return a list containing the elements of the matrix in spiral order
+     *
+     *         <p>
+     *         Example:
+     *
+     *         <pre>
+     * int[][] matrix = {
+     *   {1, 2, 3},
+     *   {4, 5, 6},
+     *   {7, 8, 9}
+     * };
+     * print(matrix, 3, 3) returns [1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 8, 7, 4, 5]
+     *         </pre>
+     *         </p>
+     */
+    public List<Integer> print(int[][] matrix, int row, int col) {
+        // r traverses matrix row wise from first
+        int r = 0;
+        // c traverses matrix column wise from first
+        int c = 0;
+        int i;
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        while (r < row && c < col) {
+            // print first row of matrix
+            for (i = c; i < col; i++) {
+                result.add(matrix[r][i]);
+            }
+            // increase r by one because first row printed
+            r++;
+            // print last column
+            for (i = r; i < row; i++) {
+                result.add(matrix[i][col - 1]);
+            }
+            // decrease col by one because last column has been printed
+            col--;
+            // print rows from last except printed elements
+            if (r < row) {
+                for (i = col - 1; i >= c; i--) {
+                    result.add(matrix[row - 1][i]);
+                }
+                row--;
+            }
+            // print columns from first except printed elements
+            if (c < col) {
+                for (i = row - 1; i >= r; i--) {
+                    result.add(matrix[i][c]);
+                }
+                c++;
+            }
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RotateMatriceBy90Degree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/RotateMatrixBy90Degrees.java
similarity index 80%
rename from src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RotateMatriceBy90Degree.java
rename to src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/RotateMatrixBy90Degrees.java
index 3c1b349e70b8..9a7f255282ac 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RotateMatriceBy90Degree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/RotateMatrixBy90Degrees.java
@@ -1,12 +1,13 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
 
+import java.util.Scanner;
 /**
  * Given a matrix of size n x n We have to rotate this matrix by 90 Degree Here
  * is the algorithm for this problem .
  */
-import java.util.*;
-
-class Rotate_by_90_degree {
+final class RotateMatrixBy90Degrees {
+    private RotateMatrixBy90Degrees() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
@@ -22,14 +23,13 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
                 }
             }
 
-            Rotate g = new Rotate();
-            g.rotate(arr);
+            Rotate.rotate(arr);
             printMatrix(arr);
         }
         sc.close();
     }
 
-    static void printMatrix(int arr[][]) {
+    static void printMatrix(int[][] arr) {
         for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; i++) {
             for (int j = 0; j < arr[0].length; j++) {
                 System.out.print(arr[i][j] + " ");
@@ -42,9 +42,11 @@ static void printMatrix(int arr[][]) {
 /**
  * Class containing the algo to roate matrix by 90 degree
  */
-class Rotate {
+final class Rotate {
+    private Rotate() {
+    }
 
-    static void rotate(int a[][]) {
+    static void rotate(int[][] a) {
         int n = a.length;
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
@@ -55,7 +57,8 @@ static void rotate(int a[][]) {
                 }
             }
         }
-        int i = 0, k = n - 1;
+        int i = 0;
+        int k = n - 1;
         while (i < k) {
             for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
                 int temp = a[i][j];
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/SolveSystem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/SolveSystem.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9e683bc4dc5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/SolveSystem.java
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements an algorithm for solving a system of equations of the form Ax=b using gaussian elimination and back substitution.
+ *
+ * @link <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination">Gaussian Elimination Wiki</a>
+ * @see InverseOfMatrix finds the full of inverse of a matrice, but is not required to solve a system.
+ */
+public final class SolveSystem {
+    private SolveSystem() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Problem: Given a matrix A and vector b, solve the linear system Ax = b for the vector x.\
+     * <p>
+     * <b>This OVERWRITES the input matrix to save on memory</b>
+     *
+     * @param matrix    - a square matrix of doubles
+     * @param constants - an array of constant
+     * @return solutions
+     */
+    public static double[] solveSystem(double[][] matrix, double[] constants) {
+        final double tol = 0.00000001; // tolerance for round off
+        for (int k = 0; k < matrix.length - 1; k++) {
+            // find the largest value in column (to avoid zero pivots)
+            double maxVal = Math.abs(matrix[k][k]);
+            int maxIdx = k;
+            for (int j = k + 1; j < matrix.length; j++) {
+                if (Math.abs(matrix[j][k]) > maxVal) {
+                    maxVal = matrix[j][k];
+                    maxIdx = j;
+                }
+            }
+            if (Math.abs(maxVal) < tol) {
+                // hope the matrix works out
+                continue;
+            }
+            // swap rows
+            double[] temp = matrix[k];
+            matrix[k] = matrix[maxIdx];
+            matrix[maxIdx] = temp;
+            double tempConst = constants[k];
+            constants[k] = constants[maxIdx];
+            constants[maxIdx] = tempConst;
+            for (int i = k + 1; i < matrix.length; i++) {
+                // compute multipliers and save them in the column
+                matrix[i][k] /= matrix[k][k];
+                for (int j = k + 1; j < matrix.length; j++) {
+                    matrix[i][j] -= matrix[i][k] * matrix[k][j];
+                }
+                constants[i] -= matrix[i][k] * constants[k];
+            }
+        }
+        // back substitution
+        double[] x = new double[constants.length];
+        System.arraycopy(constants, 0, x, 0, constants.length);
+        for (int i = matrix.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            double sum = 0;
+            for (int j = i + 1; j < matrix.length; j++) {
+                sum += matrix[i][j] * x[j];
+            }
+            x[i] = constants[i] - sum;
+            if (Math.abs(matrix[i][i]) > tol) {
+                x[i] /= matrix[i][i];
+            } else {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Matrix was found to be singular");
+            }
+        }
+        return x;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..85852713b9ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix.matrixexponentiation;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.matrix.utils.MatrixUtil;
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+
+/**
+ * @author Anirudh Buvanesh (https://github.com/anirudhb11) For more information
+ * see https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/matrix-exponentiation/
+ *
+ */
+public final class Fibonacci {
+    private Fibonacci() {
+    }
+
+    // Exponentiation matrix for Fibonacci sequence
+    private static final BigDecimal ONE = BigDecimal.valueOf(1);
+    private static final BigDecimal ZERO = BigDecimal.valueOf(0);
+
+    private static final BigDecimal[][] FIB_MATRIX = {{ONE, ONE}, {ONE, ZERO}};
+    private static final BigDecimal[][] IDENTITY_MATRIX = {{ONE, ZERO}, {ZERO, ONE}};
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the fibonacci number using matrix exponentiaition technique
+     *
+     * @param n The input n for which we have to determine the fibonacci number
+     * Outputs the nth * fibonacci number
+     * @return a 2 X 1 array as { {F_n+1}, {F_n} }
+     */
+    public static BigDecimal[][] fib(int n) {
+        if (n == 0) {
+            return IDENTITY_MATRIX;
+        } else {
+            BigDecimal[][] cachedResult = fib(n / 2);
+            BigDecimal[][] matrixExpResult = MatrixUtil.multiply(cachedResult, cachedResult).get();
+            if (n % 2 == 0) {
+                return matrixExpResult;
+            } else {
+                return MatrixUtil.multiply(FIB_MATRIX, matrixExpResult).get();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/utils/MatrixUtil.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/utils/MatrixUtil.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5ff9e37f6b9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/utils/MatrixUtil.java
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix.utils;
+
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.function.BiFunction;
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+
+/**
+ * @author: caos321
+ * @date: 31 October 2021 (Sunday)
+ */
+public final class MatrixUtil {
+
+    private MatrixUtil() {
+    }
+
+    private static boolean isValid(final BigDecimal[][] matrix) {
+        return matrix != null && matrix.length > 0 && matrix[0].length > 0;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean hasEqualSizes(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
+        return isValid(matrix1) && isValid(matrix2) && matrix1.length == matrix2.length && matrix1[0].length == matrix2[0].length;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean canMultiply(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
+        return isValid(matrix1) && isValid(matrix2) && matrix1[0].length == matrix2.length;
+    }
+
+    public static void validateInputMatrix(double[][] matrix) {
+        if (matrix == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The input matrix cannot be null");
+        }
+        if (matrix.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The input matrix cannot be empty");
+        }
+        if (!hasValidRows(matrix)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The input matrix cannot have null or empty rows");
+        }
+        if (isJaggedMatrix(matrix)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The input matrix cannot be jagged");
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static boolean hasValidRows(double[][] matrix) {
+        for (double[] row : matrix) {
+            if (row == null || row.length == 0) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Checks if the input matrix is a jagged matrix.
+     * Jagged matrix is a matrix where the number of columns in each row is not the same.
+     *
+     * @param matrix The input matrix
+     * @return True if the input matrix is a jagged matrix, false otherwise
+     */
+    private static boolean isJaggedMatrix(double[][] matrix) {
+        int numColumns = matrix[0].length;
+        for (double[] row : matrix) {
+            if (row.length != numColumns) {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    private static Optional<BigDecimal[][]> operate(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2, final BiFunction<BigDecimal, BigDecimal, BigDecimal> operation) {
+        if (!hasEqualSizes(matrix1, matrix2)) {
+            return Optional.empty();
+        }
+
+        final int rowSize = matrix1.length;
+        final int columnSize = matrix1[0].length;
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] result = new BigDecimal[rowSize][columnSize];
+
+        IntStream.range(0, rowSize).forEach(rowIndex -> IntStream.range(0, columnSize).forEach(columnIndex -> {
+            final BigDecimal value1 = matrix1[rowIndex][columnIndex];
+            final BigDecimal value2 = matrix2[rowIndex][columnIndex];
+
+            result[rowIndex][columnIndex] = operation.apply(value1, value2);
+        }));
+
+        return Optional.of(result);
+    }
+
+    public static Optional<BigDecimal[][]> add(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
+        return operate(matrix1, matrix2, BigDecimal::add);
+    }
+
+    public static Optional<BigDecimal[][]> subtract(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
+        return operate(matrix1, matrix2, BigDecimal::subtract);
+    }
+
+    public static Optional<BigDecimal[][]> multiply(final BigDecimal[][] matrix1, final BigDecimal[][] matrix2) {
+        if (!canMultiply(matrix1, matrix2)) {
+            return Optional.empty();
+        }
+
+        final int size = matrix1[0].length;
+
+        final int matrix1RowSize = matrix1.length;
+        final int matrix2ColumnSize = matrix2[0].length;
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] result = new BigDecimal[matrix1RowSize][matrix2ColumnSize];
+
+        IntStream.range(0, matrix1RowSize)
+            .forEach(rowIndex
+                -> IntStream.range(0, matrix2ColumnSize)
+                       .forEach(columnIndex
+                           -> result[rowIndex][columnIndex] = IntStream.range(0, size)
+                                                                  .mapToObj(index -> {
+                                                                      final BigDecimal value1 = matrix1[rowIndex][index];
+                                                                      final BigDecimal value2 = matrix2[index][columnIndex];
+
+                                                                      return value1.multiply(value2);
+                                                                  })
+                                                                  .reduce(BigDecimal.ZERO, BigDecimal::add)));
+
+        return Optional.of(result);
+    }
+
+    public static double[] reverseRow(final double[] inRow) {
+        double[] res = new double[inRow.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < inRow.length; ++i) {
+            res[i] = inRow[inRow.length - 1 - i];
+        }
+        return res;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java
deleted file mode 100644
index abbd74f6a427..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,76 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.matrixexponentiation;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-/**
- * @author Anirudh Buvanesh (https://github.com/anirudhb11) For more information
- * see https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/matrix-exponentiation/
- *
- */
-public class Fibonacci {
-
-    // Exponentiation matrix for Fibonacci sequence
-    private static final int[][] fibMatrix = {{1, 1}, {1, 0}};
-    private static final int[][] identityMatrix = {{1, 0}, {0, 1}};
-    //First 2 fibonacci numbers
-    private static final int[][] baseFibNumbers = {{1}, {0}};
-
-    /**
-     * Performs multiplication of 2 matrices
-     *
-     * @param matrix1
-     * @param matrix2
-     * @return The product of matrix1 and matrix2
-     */
-    private static int[][] matrixMultiplication(int[][] matrix1, int[][] matrix2) {
-        //Check if matrices passed can be multiplied
-        int rowsInMatrix1 = matrix1.length;
-        int columnsInMatrix1 = matrix1[0].length;
-
-        int rowsInMatrix2 = matrix2.length;
-        int columnsInMatrix2 = matrix2[0].length;
-
-        assert columnsInMatrix1 == rowsInMatrix2;
-        int[][] product = new int[rowsInMatrix1][columnsInMatrix2];
-        for (int rowIndex = 0; rowIndex < rowsInMatrix1; rowIndex++) {
-            for (int colIndex = 0; colIndex < columnsInMatrix2; colIndex++) {
-                int matrixEntry = 0;
-                for (int intermediateIndex = 0; intermediateIndex < columnsInMatrix1; intermediateIndex++) {
-                    matrixEntry += matrix1[rowIndex][intermediateIndex] * matrix2[intermediateIndex][colIndex];
-                }
-                product[rowIndex][colIndex] = matrixEntry;
-            }
-        }
-        return product;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Calculates the fibonacci number using matrix exponentiaition technique
-     *
-     * @param n The input n for which we have to determine the fibonacci number
-     * Outputs the nth * fibonacci number
-     * @return a 2 X 1 array as { {F_n+1}, {F_n} }
-     */
-    public static int[][] fib(int n) {
-        if (n == 0) {
-            return Fibonacci.identityMatrix;
-        } else {
-            int[][] cachedResult = fib(n / 2);
-            int[][] matrixExpResult = matrixMultiplication(cachedResult, cachedResult);
-            if (n % 2 == 0) {
-                return matrixExpResult;
-            } else {
-                return matrixMultiplication(Fibonacci.fibMatrix, matrixExpResult);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Returns [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 ..] for n = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.. ]
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n = sc.nextInt();
-        int[][] result = matrixMultiplication(fib(n), baseFibNumbers);
-        System.out.println("Fib(" + n + ") = " + result[1][0]);
-        sc.close();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/minimizinglateness/MinimizingLateness.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/minimizinglateness/MinimizingLateness.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 4870ae35556b..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/minimizinglateness/MinimizingLateness.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,61 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.minimizinglateness;
-
-import java.io.BufferedReader;
-import java.io.FileReader;
-import java.io.IOException;
-import java.util.StringTokenizer;
-
-public class MinimizingLateness {
-
-    private static class Schedule { // Schedule class
-
-        int t = 0; // Time required for the operation to be performed
-        int d = 0; // Time the job should be completed
-        int s = 0; // Start time of the task
-        int f = 0; // End time of the operation
-
-        public Schedule(int t, int d) {
-            this.t = t;
-            this.d = d;
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException {
-        StringTokenizer token;
-
-        BufferedReader in = new BufferedReader(new FileReader("MinimizingLateness/lateness_data.txt"));
-        String ch = in.readLine();
-        if (ch == null || ch.isEmpty()) {
-            in.close();
-            return;
-        }
-        int indexCount = Integer.parseInt(ch);
-        System.out.println("Input Data : ");
-        System.out.println(indexCount); // number of operations
-        Schedule[] array = new Schedule[indexCount]; // Create an array to hold the operation
-        int i = 0;
-        while ((ch = in.readLine()) != null) {
-            token = new StringTokenizer(ch, " ");
-            // Include the time required for the operation to be performed in the array and the time it
-            // should be completed.
-            array[i]
-                    = new Schedule(Integer.parseInt(token.nextToken()), Integer.parseInt(token.nextToken()));
-            i++;
-            System.out.println(array[i - 1].t + " " + array[i - 1].d);
-        }
-
-        int tryTime = 0; // Total time worked
-        int lateness = 0; // Lateness
-        for (int j = 0; j < indexCount - 1; j++) {
-            array[j].s = tryTime; // Start time of the task
-            array[j].f = tryTime + array[j].t; // Time finished
-            tryTime = tryTime + array[j].t; // Add total work time
-            // Lateness
-            lateness = lateness + Math.max(0, tryTime - array[j].d);
-        }
-        System.out.println();
-        System.out.println("Output Data : ");
-        System.out.println(lateness);
-        in.close();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/minimizinglateness/lateness_data.txt b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/minimizinglateness/lateness_data.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index e2bac0d1cbd0..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/minimizinglateness/lateness_data.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-6
-3 6
-2 8
-1 9
-4 9
-3 14
-2 15
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatio.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatio.java
index 23fd2f3ead62..a7e3f651cc85 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatio.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatio.java
@@ -3,12 +3,11 @@
 import java.awt.Color;
 
 /**
- * @brief A Java implementation of the offcial W3 documented procedure to
+ * @brief A Java implementation of the official W3 documented procedure to
  * calculate contrast ratio between colors on the web. This is used to calculate
  * the readability of a foreground color on top of a background color.
  * @since 2020-10-15
- * @see [Color Contrast
- * Ratio](https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20-TECHS/G17.html#G17-procedure)
+ * @see <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20-TECHS/G17.html#G17-procedure">Color Contrast Ratio</a>
  * @author [Seth Falco](https://github.com/SethFalco)
  */
 public class ColorContrastRatio {
@@ -34,8 +33,7 @@ public double getContrastRatio(Color a, Color b) {
      * @brief Calculates the relative luminance of a given color.
      * @param color Any color, used to get the red, green, and blue values.
      * @return The relative luminance of the color.
-     * @see [More info on relative
-     * luminance.](https://www.w3.org/TR/2008/REC-WCAG20-20081211/#relativeluminancedef)
+     * @see <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/2008/REC-WCAG20-20081211/#relativeluminancedef">More info on relative luminance.</a>
      */
     public double getRelativeLuminance(Color color) {
         final double red = getColor(color.getRed());
@@ -46,11 +44,9 @@ public double getRelativeLuminance(Color color) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @brief Calculates the final value for a color to be used in the relative
-     * luminance formula as described in step 1.
+     * @brief Calculates the final value for a color to be used in the relative luminance formula as described in step 1.
      * @param color8Bit 8-bit representation of a color component value.
-     * @return Value for the provided color component to be used in the relative
-     * luminance formula.
+     * @return Value for the provided color component to be used in the relative luminance formula.
      */
     public double getColor(int color8Bit) {
         final double sRgb = getColorSRgb(color8Bit);
@@ -58,51 +54,11 @@ public double getColor(int color8Bit) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @brief Calculates the Color sRGB value as denoted in step 1 of the
-     * procedure document.
+     * @brief Calculates the Color sRGB value as denoted in step 1 of the procedure document.
      * @param color8Bit 8-bit representation of a color component value.
      * @return A percentile value of the color component.
      */
     private double getColorSRgb(double color8Bit) {
         return color8Bit / 255.0;
     }
-
-    /**
-     * You can check this example against another open-source implementation
-     * available on GitHub.
-     *
-     * @see [Online Contrast
-     * Ratio](https://contrast-ratio.com/#rgb%28226%2C%20229%2C%20248-on-rgb%2823%2C%20103%2C%20154%29)
-     * @see [GitHub Repository for Online Contrast
-     * Ratio](https://github.com/LeaVerou/contrast-ratio)
-     */
-    private static void test() {
-        final ColorContrastRatio algImpl = new ColorContrastRatio();
-
-        final Color black = Color.BLACK;
-        final double blackLuminance = algImpl.getRelativeLuminance(black);
-        assert blackLuminance == 0 : "Test 1 Failed - Incorrect relative luminance.";
-
-        final Color white = Color.WHITE;
-        final double whiteLuminance = algImpl.getRelativeLuminance(white);
-        assert whiteLuminance == 1 : "Test 2 Failed - Incorrect relative luminance.";
-
-        final double highestColorRatio = algImpl.getContrastRatio(black, white);
-        assert highestColorRatio == 21 : "Test 3 Failed - Incorrect contrast ratio.";
-
-        final Color foreground = new Color(23, 103, 154);
-        final double foregroundLuminance = algImpl.getRelativeLuminance(foreground);
-        assert foregroundLuminance == 0.12215748057375966 : "Test 4 Failed - Incorrect relative luminance.";
-
-        final Color background = new Color(226, 229, 248);
-        final double backgroundLuminance = algImpl.getRelativeLuminance(background);
-        assert backgroundLuminance == 0.7898468477881603 : "Test 5 Failed - Incorrect relative luminance.";
-
-        final double contrastRatio = algImpl.getContrastRatio(foreground, background);
-        assert contrastRatio == 4.878363954846178 : "Test 6 Failed - Incorrect contrast ratio.";
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        test();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/InverseOfMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/InverseOfMatrix.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 856117246cea..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/InverseOfMatrix.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,127 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.misc;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-/*
-* Wikipedia link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertible_matrix
-*
-* Here we use gauss elimination method to find the inverse of a given matrix.
-* To understand gauss elimination method to find inverse of a matrix: https://www.sangakoo.com/en/unit/inverse-matrix-method-of-gaussian-elimination
-*
-* We can also find the inverse of a matrix 
- */
-public class InverseOfMatrix {
-
-    public static void main(String argv[]) {
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter the matrix size (Square matrix only): ");
-        int n = input.nextInt();
-        double a[][] = new double[n][n];
-        System.out.println("Enter the elements of matrix: ");
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-                a[i][j] = input.nextDouble();
-            }
-        }
-
-        double d[][] = invert(a);
-        System.out.println();
-        System.out.println("The inverse is: ");
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < n; ++j) {
-                System.out.print(d[i][j] + "  ");
-            }
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-        input.close();
-    }
-
-    public static double[][] invert(double a[][]) {
-        int n = a.length;
-        double x[][] = new double[n][n];
-        double b[][] = new double[n][n];
-        int index[] = new int[n];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
-            b[i][i] = 1;
-        }
-
-        // Transform the matrix into an upper triangle
-        gaussian(a, index);
-
-        // Update the matrix b[i][j] with the ratios stored
-        for (int i = 0; i < n - 1; ++i) {
-            for (int j = i + 1; j < n; ++j) {
-                for (int k = 0; k < n; ++k) {
-                    b[index[j]][k]
-                            -= a[index[j]][i] * b[index[i]][k];
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Perform backward substitutions
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
-            x[n - 1][i] = b[index[n - 1]][i] / a[index[n - 1]][n - 1];
-            for (int j = n - 2; j >= 0; --j) {
-                x[j][i] = b[index[j]][i];
-                for (int k = j + 1; k < n; ++k) {
-                    x[j][i] -= a[index[j]][k] * x[k][i];
-                }
-                x[j][i] /= a[index[j]][j];
-            }
-        }
-        return x;
-    }
-
-// Method to carry out the partial-pivoting Gaussian
-// elimination.  Here index[] stores pivoting order.
-    public static void gaussian(double a[][], int index[]) {
-        int n = index.length;
-        double c[] = new double[n];
-
-        // Initialize the index
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
-            index[i] = i;
-        }
-
-        // Find the rescaling factors, one from each row
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
-            double c1 = 0;
-            for (int j = 0; j < n; ++j) {
-                double c0 = Math.abs(a[i][j]);
-                if (c0 > c1) {
-                    c1 = c0;
-                }
-            }
-            c[i] = c1;
-        }
-
-        // Search the pivoting element from each column
-        int k = 0;
-        for (int j = 0; j < n - 1; ++j) {
-            double pi1 = 0;
-            for (int i = j; i < n; ++i) {
-                double pi0 = Math.abs(a[index[i]][j]);
-                pi0 /= c[index[i]];
-                if (pi0 > pi1) {
-                    pi1 = pi0;
-                    k = i;
-                }
-            }
-            // Interchange rows according to the pivoting order
-            int itmp = index[j];
-            index[j] = index[k];
-            index[k] = itmp;
-            for (int i = j + 1; i < n; ++i) {
-                double pj = a[index[i]][j] / a[index[j]][j];
-
-                // Record pivoting ratios below the diagonal
-                a[index[i]][j] = pj;
-
-                // Modify other elements accordingly
-                for (int l = j + 1; l < n; ++l) {
-                    a[index[i]][l] -= pj * a[index[j]][l];
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduce.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduce.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d98b2ee2dd03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduce.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.LinkedHashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.function.Function;
+import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+
+/**
+ * MapReduce is a programming model for processing and generating large data sets
+ * using a parallel, distributed algorithm on a cluster.
+ * It consists of two main phases:
+ * - Map: the input data is split into smaller chunks and processed in parallel.
+ * - Reduce: the results from the Map phase are aggregated to produce the final output.
+ *
+ * See also: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce
+ */
+public final class MapReduce {
+
+    private MapReduce() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the frequency of each word in a given sentence using a simple MapReduce-style approach.
+     *
+     * @param sentence the input sentence
+     * @return a string representing word frequencies in the format "word: count,word: count,..."
+     */
+    public static String countWordFrequencies(String sentence) {
+        // Map phase: split the sentence into words
+        List<String> words = Arrays.asList(sentence.trim().split("\\s+"));
+
+        // Group and count occurrences of each word, maintain insertion order
+        Map<String, Long> wordCounts = words.stream().collect(Collectors.groupingBy(Function.identity(), LinkedHashMap::new, Collectors.counting()));
+
+        // Reduce phase: format the result
+        return wordCounts.entrySet().stream().map(entry -> entry.getKey() + ": " + entry.getValue()).collect(Collectors.joining(","));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java
index 0d0024c3db18..95f86f63f720 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java
@@ -4,50 +4,74 @@
 import java.util.PriorityQueue;
 
 /**
- * @author shrutisheoran
+ * A generic abstract class to compute the median of a dynamically growing stream of numbers.
+ *
+ * @param <T> the number type, must extend Number and be Comparable
+ *
+ * Usage:
+ * Extend this class and implement {@code calculateAverage(T a, T b)} to define how averaging is done.
  */
-public class MedianOfRunningArray {
+public abstract class MedianOfRunningArray<T extends Number & Comparable<T>> {
 
-    private PriorityQueue<Integer> p1;
-    private PriorityQueue<Integer> p2;
+    private final PriorityQueue<T> maxHeap; // Lower half (max-heap)
+    private final PriorityQueue<T> minHeap; // Upper half (min-heap)
 
-    // Constructor
     public MedianOfRunningArray() {
-        this.p1 = new PriorityQueue<>(Collections.reverseOrder()); // Max Heap
-        this.p2 = new PriorityQueue<>(); // Min Heap
+        this.maxHeap = new PriorityQueue<>(Collections.reverseOrder());
+        this.minHeap = new PriorityQueue<>();
     }
 
-    /*
-      Inserting lower half of array to max Heap
-      and upper half to min heap
+    /**
+     * Inserts a new number into the data structure.
+     *
+     * @param element the number to insert
      */
-    public void insert(Integer e) {
-        p2.add(e);
-        if (p2.size() - p1.size() > 1) {
-            p1.add(p2.remove());
+    public final void insert(final T element) {
+        if (!minHeap.isEmpty() && element.compareTo(minHeap.peek()) < 0) {
+            maxHeap.offer(element);
+            balanceHeapsIfNeeded();
+        } else {
+            minHeap.offer(element);
+            balanceHeapsIfNeeded();
         }
     }
 
-    /*
-      Returns median at any given point
+    /**
+     * Returns the median of the current elements.
+     *
+     * @return the median value
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if no elements have been inserted
      */
-    public Integer median() {
-        if (p1.size() == p2.size()) {
-            return (p1.peek() + p2.peek()) / 2;
+    public final T getMedian() {
+        if (maxHeap.isEmpty() && minHeap.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Median is undefined for an empty data set.");
         }
-        return p1.size() > p2.size() ? p1.peek() : p2.peek();
+
+        if (maxHeap.size() == minHeap.size()) {
+            return calculateAverage(maxHeap.peek(), minHeap.peek());
+        }
+
+        return (maxHeap.size() > minHeap.size()) ? maxHeap.peek() : minHeap.peek();
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        /*
-        Testing the median function
-         */
+    /**
+     * Calculates the average between two values.
+     * Concrete subclasses must define how averaging works (e.g., for Integer, Double, etc.).
+     *
+     * @param a first number
+     * @param b second number
+     * @return the average of a and b
+     */
+    protected abstract T calculateAverage(T a, T b);
 
-        MedianOfRunningArray p = new MedianOfRunningArray();
-        int arr[] = {10, 7, 4, 9, 2, 3, 11, 17, 14};
-        for (int i = 0; i < 9; i++) {
-            p.insert(arr[i]);
-            System.out.print(p.median() + " ");
+    /**
+     * Balances the two heaps so that their sizes differ by at most 1.
+     */
+    private void balanceHeapsIfNeeded() {
+        if (maxHeap.size() > minHeap.size() + 1) {
+            minHeap.offer(maxHeap.poll());
+        } else if (minHeap.size() > maxHeap.size() + 1) {
+            maxHeap.offer(minHeap.poll());
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayByte.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayByte.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..668f651e7251
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayByte.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+public final class MedianOfRunningArrayByte extends MedianOfRunningArray<Byte> {
+    @Override
+    public Byte calculateAverage(final Byte a, final Byte b) {
+        return (byte) ((a + b) / 2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayDouble.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayDouble.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9d743de51643
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayDouble.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+public final class MedianOfRunningArrayDouble extends MedianOfRunningArray<Double> {
+    @Override
+    public Double calculateAverage(final Double a, final Double b) {
+        return (a + b) / 2.0d;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayFloat.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayFloat.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a667abf6121b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayFloat.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+public final class MedianOfRunningArrayFloat extends MedianOfRunningArray<Float> {
+    @Override
+    public Float calculateAverage(final Float a, final Float b) {
+        return (a + b) / 2.0f;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayInteger.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayInteger.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7154ba073136
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayInteger.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+public final class MedianOfRunningArrayInteger extends MedianOfRunningArray<Integer> {
+    @Override
+    public Integer calculateAverage(final Integer a, final Integer b) {
+        return (a + b) / 2;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayLong.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayLong.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1f138c6313fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayLong.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+public final class MedianOfRunningArrayLong extends MedianOfRunningArray<Long> {
+    @Override
+    public Long calculateAverage(final Long a, final Long b) {
+        return (a + b) / 2L;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrime.java
index 58de938394af..164e957a9d12 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrime.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrime.java
@@ -1,49 +1,57 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.misc;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
 
-public class PalindromePrime {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) { // Main funtion
-        Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter the quantity of First Palindromic Primes you want");
-        int n = in.nextInt(); // Input of how many first palindromic prime we want
-        functioning(n); // calling function - functioning
-        in.close();
+public final class PalindromePrime {
+    private PalindromePrime() {
     }
 
-    public static boolean prime(int num) { // checking if number is prime or not
+    public static boolean prime(int num) {
+        if (num < 2) {
+            return false; // Handle edge case for numbers < 2
+        }
+        if (num == 2) {
+            return true; // 2 is prime
+        }
+        if (num % 2 == 0) {
+            return false; // Even numbers > 2 are not prime
+        }
+
         for (int divisor = 3; divisor <= Math.sqrt(num); divisor += 2) {
             if (num % divisor == 0) {
-                return false; //  false if not prime
+                return false;
             }
         }
-        return true; // True if prime
+        return true;
     }
 
-    public static int reverse(int n) { //  Returns  the reverse of the number
+    public static int reverse(int n) {
         int reverse = 0;
         while (n != 0) {
-            reverse *= 10;
-            reverse += n % 10;
+            reverse = reverse * 10 + (n % 10);
             n /= 10;
         }
         return reverse;
     }
 
-    public static void functioning(int y) {
-        if (y == 0) {
-            return;
+    public static List<Integer> generatePalindromePrimes(int n) {
+        List<Integer> palindromicPrimes = new ArrayList<>();
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            return palindromicPrimes; // Handle case for 0 or negative input
         }
-        System.out.print(2 + "\n"); // print the first Palindromic Prime
+
+        palindromicPrimes.add(2); // 2 is the first palindromic prime
         int count = 1;
         int num = 3;
-        while (count < y) {
-            if (num == reverse(num) && prime(num)) { // number is prime and it's reverse is same
-                count++; // counts check when to terminate while loop
-                System.out.print(num + "\n"); // print the Palindromic Prime
+
+        while (count < n) {
+            if (num == reverse(num) && prime(num)) {
+                palindromicPrimes.add(num);
+                count++;
             }
-            num += 2; // inrease iterator value by two
+            num += 2; // Skip even numbers
         }
+        return palindromicPrimes;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java
index edd270c123ea..c81476eaec32 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.misc;
 
 import java.util.Stack;
-import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists.SinglyLinkedList;
 
 /**
  * A simple way of knowing if a singly linked list is palindrome is to push all
@@ -11,39 +10,67 @@
  * See more:
  * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/function-to-check-if-a-singly-linked-list-is-palindrome/
  */
-public class PalindromeSinglyLinkedList {
+@SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
+public final class PalindromeSinglyLinkedList {
+    private PalindromeSinglyLinkedList() {
+    }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        SinglyLinkedList linkedList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+    public static boolean isPalindrome(final Iterable linkedList) {
+        var linkedListValues = new Stack<>();
 
-        linkedList.insertHead(3);
-        linkedList.insertNth(2, 1);
-        linkedList.insertNth(1, 2);
-        linkedList.insertNth(2, 3);
-        linkedList.insertNth(3, 4);
+        for (final var x : linkedList) {
+            linkedListValues.push(x);
+        }
 
-        if (isPalindrome(linkedList)) {
-            System.out.println("It's a palindrome list");
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("It's NOT a palindrome list");
+        for (final var x : linkedList) {
+            if (x != linkedListValues.pop()) {
+                return false;
+            }
         }
+
+        return true;
     }
 
-    public static boolean isPalindrome(SinglyLinkedList linkedList) {
-        boolean ret = true;
-        Stack<Integer> linkedListValues = new Stack<>();
+    // Optimised approach with O(n) time complexity and O(1) space complexity
 
-        for (int i = 0; i < linkedList.size(); i++) {
-            linkedListValues.push(linkedList.getNth(i));
+    public static boolean isPalindromeOptimised(Node head) {
+        if (head == null || head.next == null) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        Node slow = head;
+        Node fast = head;
+        while (fast != null && fast.next != null) {
+            slow = slow.next;
+            fast = fast.next.next;
         }
+        Node midNode = slow;
 
-        for (int i = 0; i < linkedList.size(); i++) {
-            if (linkedList.getNth(i) != linkedListValues.pop()) {
-                ret = false;
-                break;
+        Node prevNode = null;
+        Node currNode = midNode;
+        Node nextNode;
+        while (currNode != null) {
+            nextNode = currNode.next;
+            currNode.next = prevNode;
+            prevNode = currNode;
+            currNode = nextNode;
+        }
+        Node left = head;
+        Node right = prevNode;
+        while (left != null && right != null) {
+            if (left.val != right.val) {
+                return false;
             }
+            right = right.next;
+            left = left.next;
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+    static class Node {
+        int val;
+        Node next;
+        Node(int val) {
+            this.val = val;
+            this.next = null;
         }
-
-        return ret;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArray.java
index dabd278b2e62..0ae73dd73f09 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArray.java
@@ -1,33 +1,46 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.misc;
 
-import java.util.*;
+/**
+ * Utility class for operations to find the range of occurrences of a key
+ * in a sorted (non-decreasing) array, and to count elements less than or equal to a given key.
+ */
+public final class RangeInSortedArray {
 
-public class RangeInSortedArray {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Testcases
-        assert Arrays.equals(sortedRange(new int[]{1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5}, 3), new int[]{2, 4});
-        assert Arrays.equals(sortedRange(new int[]{1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5}, 4), new int[]{5, 5});
-        assert Arrays.equals(sortedRange(new int[]{0, 1, 2}, 3), new int[]{-1, -1});
+    private RangeInSortedArray() {
     }
 
-    // Get the 1st and last occurrence index of a number 'key' in a non-decreasing array 'nums'
-    // Gives [-1, -1] in case element doesn't exist in array
+    /**
+     * Finds the first and last occurrence indices of the key in a sorted array.
+     *
+     * @param nums sorted array of integers (non-decreasing order)
+     * @param key the target value to search for
+     * @return int array of size two where
+     *         - index 0 is the first occurrence of key,
+     *         - index 1 is the last occurrence of key,
+     *         or [-1, -1] if the key does not exist in the array.
+     */
     public static int[] sortedRange(int[] nums, int key) {
-        int[] range = new int[]{-1, -1};
-        alteredBinSearchIter(nums, key, 0, nums.length - 1, range, true);
-        alteredBinSearchIter(nums, key, 0, nums.length - 1, range, false);
+        int[] range = new int[] {-1, -1};
+        alteredBinSearchIter(nums, key, 0, nums.length - 1, range, true); // find left boundary
+        alteredBinSearchIter(nums, key, 0, nums.length - 1, range, false); // find right boundary
         return range;
     }
 
-    // Recursive altered binary search which searches for leftmost as well as rightmost occurrence of
-    // 'key'
-    public static void alteredBinSearch(
-            int[] nums, int key, int left, int right, int[] range, boolean goLeft) {
+    /**
+     * Recursive altered binary search to find either the leftmost or rightmost occurrence of a key.
+     *
+     * @param nums the sorted array
+     * @param key the target to find
+     * @param left current left bound in search
+     * @param right current right bound in search
+     * @param range array to update with boundaries: range[0] for leftmost, range[1] for rightmost
+     * @param goLeft if true, searches for leftmost occurrence; if false, for rightmost occurrence
+     */
+    public static void alteredBinSearch(int[] nums, int key, int left, int right, int[] range, boolean goLeft) {
         if (left > right) {
             return;
         }
-        int mid = (left + right) / 2;
+        int mid = left + ((right - left) >>> 1);
         if (nums[mid] > key) {
             alteredBinSearch(nums, key, left, mid - 1, range, goLeft);
         } else if (nums[mid] < key) {
@@ -49,12 +62,19 @@ public static void alteredBinSearch(
         }
     }
 
-    // Iterative altered binary search which searches for leftmost as well as rightmost occurrence of
-    // 'key'
-    public static void alteredBinSearchIter(
-            int[] nums, int key, int left, int right, int[] range, boolean goLeft) {
+    /**
+     * Iterative altered binary search to find either the leftmost or rightmost occurrence of a key.
+     *
+     * @param nums the sorted array
+     * @param key the target to find
+     * @param left initial left bound
+     * @param right initial right bound
+     * @param range array to update with boundaries: range[0] for leftmost, range[1] for rightmost
+     * @param goLeft if true, searches for leftmost occurrence; if false, for rightmost occurrence
+     */
+    public static void alteredBinSearchIter(int[] nums, int key, int left, int right, int[] range, boolean goLeft) {
         while (left <= right) {
-            int mid = (left + right) / 2;
+            int mid = left + ((right - left) >>> 1);
             if (nums[mid] > key) {
                 right = mid - 1;
             } else if (nums[mid] < key) {
@@ -64,33 +84,48 @@ public static void alteredBinSearchIter(
                     if (mid == 0 || nums[mid - 1] != key) {
                         range[0] = mid;
                         return;
-                    } else {
-                        right = mid - 1;
                     }
+                    right = mid - 1;
                 } else {
                     if (mid == nums.length - 1 || nums[mid + 1] != key) {
                         range[1] = mid;
                         return;
-                    } else {
-                        left = mid + 1;
                     }
+                    left = mid + 1;
                 }
             }
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of elements strictly less than the given key.
+     *
+     * @param nums sorted array
+     * @param key the key to compare
+     * @return the count of elements less than the key
+     */
     public static int getCountLessThan(int[] nums, int key) {
         return getLessThan(nums, key, 0, nums.length - 1);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Helper method using binary search to count elements less than or equal to the key.
+     *
+     * @param nums sorted array
+     * @param key the key to compare
+     * @param left current left bound
+     * @param right current right bound
+     * @return count of elements less than or equal to the key
+     */
     public static int getLessThan(int[] nums, int key, int left, int right) {
         int count = 0;
         while (left <= right) {
-            int mid = (left + right) / 2;
+            int mid = left + ((right - left) >>> 1);
             if (nums[mid] > key) {
                 right = mid - 1;
-            } else if (nums[mid] <= key) {
-                count = mid + 1; // Atleast mid+1 elements exist which are <= key
+            } else {
+                // nums[mid] <= key
+                count = mid + 1; // all elements from 0 to mid inclusive are <= key
                 left = mid + 1;
             }
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArray.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e07c8df771d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArray.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * The Fisher-Yates (Knuth) Shuffle algorithm randomly permutes an array's
+ * elements, ensuring each permutation is equally likely.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Worst-case performance O(n)
+ * Best-case performance O(n)
+ * Average performance O(n)
+ * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
+ *
+ * This class provides a static method to shuffle an array in place.
+ *
+ * @author Rashi Dashore (https://github.com/rashi07dashore)
+ */
+public final class ShuffleArray {
+
+    private ShuffleArray() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Shuffles the provided array in-place using the Fisher–Yates algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to shuffle; must not be {@code null}
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input array is {@code null}
+     */
+    public static void shuffle(int[] arr) {
+        if (arr == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array must not be null");
+        }
+
+        Random random = new Random();
+        for (int i = arr.length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
+            int j = random.nextInt(i + 1);
+            swap(arr, i, j);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Swaps two elements in an array.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array
+     * @param i   index of first element
+     * @param j   index of second element
+     */
+    private static void swap(int[] arr, int i, int j) {
+        if (i != j) {
+            int temp = arr[i];
+            arr[i] = arr[j];
+            arr[j] = temp;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sort012D.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sort012D.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 206b52d58a2b..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sort012D.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,58 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.misc;
-
-import java.util.*;
-
-/**
- * The array is divided into four sections: a[1..Lo-1] zeroes a[Lo..Mid-1] ones
- * a[Mid..Hi] unknown a[Hi+1..N] twos If array [mid] =0, then swap array [mid]
- * with array [low] and increment both pointers once. If array [mid] = 1, then
- * no swapping is required. Increment mid pointer once. If array [mid] = 2, then
- * we swap array [mid] with array [high] and decrement the high pointer once.
- * For more information on the Dutch national flag algorithm refer
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_national_flag_problem
- */
-public class Sort012D {
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner np = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n = np.nextInt();
-        int a[] = new int[n];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            a[i] = np.nextInt();
-        }
-        sort012(a);
-    }
-
-    public static void sort012(int[] a) {
-        int l = 0;
-        int h = a.length - 1;
-        int mid = 0;
-        int temp;
-        while (mid <= h) {
-            switch (a[mid]) {
-                case 0: {
-                    temp = a[l];
-                    a[l] = a[mid];
-                    a[mid] = temp;
-                    l++;
-                    mid++;
-                    break;
-                }
-                case 1:
-                    mid++;
-                    break;
-                case 2: {
-                    temp = a[mid];
-                    a[mid] = a[h];
-                    a[h] = temp;
-                    h--;
-                    break;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        System.out.println("the Sorted array is ");
-        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
-            System.out.print(+a[i] + " ");
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparcity.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparcity.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 700b8c936ef0..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparcity.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,51 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.misc;
-
-import java.util.*;
-
-/*
-*A matrix is sparse if many of its coefficients are zero (In general if 2/3rd of matrix elements are 0, it is considered as sparse). 
-*The interest in sparsity arises because its exploitation can lead to enormous computational savings and because many large matrix problems that occur in practice are sparse.
-*
-* @author Ojasva Jain
- */
-
-class Sparcity {
-
-    /*
-    * @return Sparcity of matrix
-    * 
-    * where sparcity = number of zeroes/total elements in matrix
-    *
-     */
-    static double sparcity(double[][] mat) {
-        int zero = 0;
-        //Traversing the matrix to count number of zeroes 
-        for (int i = 0; i < mat.length; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < mat[i].length; j++) {
-                if (mat[i][j] == 0) {
-                    zero++;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        //return sparcity
-        return ((double) zero / (mat.length * mat[1].length));
-    }
-
-    //Driver method
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter number of rows in matrix: ");
-        int n = in.nextInt();
-        System.out.println("Enter number of Columns in matrix: ");
-        int m = in.nextInt();
-
-        System.out.println("Enter Matrix elements: ");
-        double[][] mat = new double[n][m];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < m; j++) {
-                mat[i][j] = in.nextDouble();
-            }
-        }
-        System.out.println("Sparcity of matrix is: " + sparcity(mat));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparsity.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparsity.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4a919e0e55c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparsity.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for calculating the sparsity of a matrix.
+ * A matrix is considered sparse if a large proportion of its elements are zero.
+ * Typically, if more than 2/3 of the elements are zero, the matrix is considered sparse.
+ *
+ * Sparsity is defined as:
+ * sparsity = (number of zero elements) / (total number of elements)
+ *
+ * This can lead to significant computational optimizations.
+ */
+public final class Sparsity {
+
+    private Sparsity() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the sparsity of a given 2D matrix.
+     *
+     * @param matrix the input matrix
+     * @return the sparsity value between 0 and 1
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the matrix is null, empty, or contains empty rows
+     */
+    public static double sparsity(double[][] matrix) {
+        if (matrix == null || matrix.length == 0 || matrix[0].length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Matrix cannot be null or empty");
+        }
+
+        int zeroCount = 0;
+        int totalElements = 0;
+
+        // Count the number of zero elements and total elements
+        for (double[] row : matrix) {
+            for (double value : row) {
+                if (value == 0.0) {
+                    zeroCount++;
+                }
+                totalElements++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Return sparsity as a double
+        return (double) zeroCount / totalElements;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java
index 67facd73e399..8ef10758ef80 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java
@@ -1,28 +1,17 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.misc;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
 
 public class ThreeSumProblem {
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter the target sum ");
-        int ts = scan.nextInt();
-        System.out.print("Enter the number of elements in the array ");
-        int n = scan.nextInt();
-        System.out.println("Enter all your array elements:");
-        int arr[] = new int[n];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            arr[i] = scan.nextInt();
-        }
-        ThreeSumProblem th = new ThreeSumProblem();
-        System.out.println("Brute Force Approach\n" + (th.BruteForce(arr, ts)) + "\n");
-        System.out.println("Two Pointer Approach\n" + (th.TwoPointer(arr, ts)) + "\n");
-        System.out.println("Hashmap Approach\n" + (th.Hashmap(arr, ts)));
-
-    }
-
-    public List<List<Integer>> BruteForce(int[] nums, int target) {
+    public List<List<Integer>> bruteForce(int[] nums, int target) {
         List<List<Integer>> arr = new ArrayList<List<Integer>>();
 
         for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
@@ -36,7 +25,6 @@ public List<List<Integer>> BruteForce(int[] nums, int target) {
                         Collections.sort(temp);
                         arr.add(temp);
                     }
-
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -44,7 +32,7 @@ public List<List<Integer>> BruteForce(int[] nums, int target) {
         return arr;
     }
 
-    public List<List<Integer>> TwoPointer(int[] nums, int target) {
+    public List<List<Integer>> twoPointer(int[] nums, int target) {
         Arrays.sort(nums);
         List<List<Integer>> arr = new ArrayList<List<Integer>>();
         int start = 0;
@@ -67,7 +55,6 @@ public List<List<Integer>> TwoPointer(int[] nums, int target) {
                 } else {
                     end -= 1;
                 }
-
             }
             i++;
         }
@@ -75,9 +62,9 @@ public List<List<Integer>> TwoPointer(int[] nums, int target) {
         return new ArrayList<List<Integer>>(set);
     }
 
-    public List<List<Integer>> Hashmap(int[] nums, int target) {
+    public List<List<Integer>> hashMap(int[] nums, int target) {
         Arrays.sort(nums);
-        Set<List<Integer>> ts = new HashSet();
+        Set<List<Integer>> ts = new HashSet<>();
         HashMap<Integer, Integer> hm = new HashMap<>();
 
         for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
@@ -96,7 +83,6 @@ public List<List<Integer>> Hashmap(int[] nums, int target) {
                 }
             }
         }
-        return new ArrayList(ts);
+        return new ArrayList<>(ts);
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java
index 07ec58caaa25..2fc4ed09a792 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java
@@ -1,101 +1,33 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.misc;
 
-import java.util.*;
-import java.util.stream.Collectors;
-
-public class TwoSumProblem {
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter the target sum ");
-        int ts = scan.nextInt();
-        System.out.print("Enter the number of elements in the array ");
-        int n = scan.nextInt();
-        System.out.println("Enter all your array elements:");
-        int arr[] = new int[n];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            arr[i] = scan.nextInt();
-        }
-        TwoSumProblem t = new TwoSumProblem();
-        System.out.println("Brute Force Approach\n" + Arrays.toString(t.BruteForce(arr, ts)) + "\n");
-        System.out.println("Two Pointer Approach\n" + Arrays.toString(t.TwoPointer(arr, ts)) + "\n");
-        System.out.println("Hashmap Approach\n" + Arrays.toString(t.HashMap(arr, ts)));
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
 
+public final class TwoSumProblem {
+    private TwoSumProblem() {
     }
 
-    public int[] BruteForce(int[] nums, int target) {
-        //Brute Force Approach 
-        int ans[] = new int[2];
-        for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
-            for (int j = i + 1; j < nums.length; j++) {
-                if (nums[i] + nums[j] == target) {
-                    ans[0] = i;
-                    ans[1] = j;
-
-                    break;
-                }
-
+    /**
+     * The function "twoSum" takes an array of integers and a target integer as input, and returns an
+     * array of two indices where the corresponding elements in the input array add up to the target.
+     * @param values An array of integers.
+     * @param target The target is the sum that we are trying to find using two numbers from the given array.
+     * @return A pair or indexes such that sum of values at these indexes equals to the target
+     * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+     */
+
+    public static Optional<Pair<Integer, Integer>> twoSum(final int[] values, final int target) {
+        HashMap<Integer, Integer> valueToIndex = new HashMap<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < values.length; i++) {
+            final var remainder = target - values[i];
+            if (valueToIndex.containsKey(remainder)) {
+                return Optional.of(Pair.of(valueToIndex.get(remainder), i));
             }
-        }
-
-        return ans;
-    }
-
-    public int[] TwoPointer(int[] nums, int target) {
-        // HashMap Approach
-        int ans[] = new int[2];
-        HashMap<Integer, Integer> hm = new HashMap<Integer, Integer>();
-        for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
-            hm.put(i, nums[i]);
-        }
-        HashMap<Integer, Integer> temp
-                = hm.entrySet()
-                        .stream()
-                        .sorted((i1, i2)
-                                -> i1.getValue().compareTo(
-                                i2.getValue()))
-                        .collect(Collectors.toMap(
-                                Map.Entry::getKey,
-                                Map.Entry::getValue,
-                                (e1, e2) -> e1, LinkedHashMap::new));
-
-        int start = 0;
-        int end = nums.length - 1;
-        while (start < end) {
-            int currSum = (Integer) temp.values().toArray()[start] + (Integer) temp.values().toArray()[end];
-
-            if (currSum == target) {
-                ans[0] = (Integer) temp.keySet().toArray()[start];
-                ans[1] = (Integer) temp.keySet().toArray()[end];
-                break;
-            } else if (currSum > target) {
-                end -= 1;
-            } else if (currSum < target) {
-                start += 1;
-            }
-
-        }
-        return ans;
-
-    }
-
-    public int[] HashMap(int[] nums, int target) {
-        //Using Hashmaps
-        int ans[] = new int[2];
-        HashMap<Integer, Integer> hm = new HashMap<Integer, Integer>();
-        for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
-            hm.put(nums[i], i);
-        }
-        for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
-            int t = target - nums[i];
-            if (hm.containsKey(t) && hm.get(t) != i) {
-                ans[0] = i;
-                ans[1] = hm.get(t);
-                break;
+            if (!valueToIndex.containsKey(values[i])) {
+                valueToIndex.put(values[i], i);
             }
         }
-
-        return ans;
+        return Optional.empty();
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/matrixTranspose.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/matrixTranspose.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 63d024082777..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/matrixTranspose.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,78 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.misc;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-/**
- *
- *
- * <h1>Find the Transpose of Matrix!</h1>
- *
- * Simply take input from the user and print the matrix before the transpose and
- * after the transpose.
- *
- * <p>
- * <b>Note:</b> Giving proper comments in your program makes it more user
- * friendly and it is assumed as a high quality code.
- *
- * @author Rajat-Jain29
- * @version 11.0.9
- * @since 2014-03-31
- */
-public class matrixTranspose {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        /*
-     * This is the main method
-     *
-     * @param args Unused.
-     *
-     * @return Nothing.
-         */
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int i, j, row, column;
-        System.out.println("Enter the number of rows in the 2D matrix:");
-
-        /*
-     * Take input from user for how many rows to be print
-         */
-        row = sc.nextInt();
-
-        System.out.println("Enter the number of columns in the 2D matrix:");
-
-        /*
-     * Take input from user for how many coloumn to be print
-         */
-        column = sc.nextInt();
-        int[][] arr = new int[row][column];
-        System.out.println("Enter the elements");
-        for (i = 0; i < row; i++) {
-            for (j = 0; j < column; j++) {
-                arr[i][j] = sc.nextInt();
-            }
-        }
-
-        /*
-     * Print matrix before the Transpose in proper way
-         */
-        System.out.println("The matrix is:");
-        for (i = 0; i < row; i++) {
-            for (j = 0; j < column; j++) {
-                System.out.print(arr[i][j] + "\t");
-            }
-            System.out.print("\n");
-        }
-
-        /*
-     * Print matrix after the tranpose in proper way Transpose means Interchanging
-     * of rows wth column so we interchange the rows in next loop Thus at last
-     * matrix of transpose is obtained through user input...
-         */
-        System.out.println("The Transpose of the given matrix is:");
-        for (i = 0; i < column; i++) {
-            for (j = 0; j < row; j++) {
-                System.out.print(arr[j][i] + "\t");
-            }
-            System.out.print("\n");
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotation.java
index e1dfa35f736f..b54cbec08f74 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotation.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotation.java
@@ -1,33 +1,44 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-/*
- * A left rotation operation on an array
- * shifts each of the array's elements
- * given integer n unit to the left.
- * 
- * @author sangin-lee 
+/**
+ * Provides a method to perform a left rotation on an array.
+ * A left rotation operation shifts each element of the array
+ * by a specified number of positions to the left.
+ *
+ * @author sangin-lee
  */
+public final class ArrayLeftRotation {
+    private ArrayLeftRotation() {
+    }
 
-public class ArrayLeftRotation {
+    /**
+     * Performs a left rotation on the given array by the specified number of positions.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to be rotated
+     * @param n the number of positions to rotate the array to the left
+     * @return a new array containing the elements of the input array rotated to the left
+     */
+    public static int[] rotateLeft(int[] arr, int n) {
+        int size = arr.length;
 
-	/*
-	 * Returns the result of left rotation of given array arr and integer n
-	 * 
-	 * @param arr : int[] given array
-	 * 
-	 * @param n : int given integer
-	 * 
-	 * @return : int[] result of left rotation
-	 */
-	public static int[] rotateLeft(int[] arr, int n) {
-		int size = arr.length;
-		int[] dst = new int[size];
-		n = n % size;
-		for(int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-			dst[i] = arr[n];
-			n = (n + 1) % size;
-		}
-		return dst;
-	}
+        // Handle cases where array is empty or rotation count is zero
+        if (size == 0 || n <= 0) {
+            return arr.clone();
+        }
 
+        // Normalize the number of rotations
+        n = n % size;
+        if (n == 0) {
+            return arr.clone();
+        }
+
+        int[] rotated = new int[size];
+
+        // Perform rotation
+        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+            rotated[i] = arr[(i + n) % size];
+        }
+
+        return rotated;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..125edadb6e73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+/**
+ * Provides a method to perform a right rotation on an array.
+ * A left rotation operation shifts each element of the array
+ * by a specified number of positions to the right.
+ *
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_rotation *
+ */
+public final class ArrayRightRotation {
+    private ArrayRightRotation() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs a right rotation on the given array by the specified number of positions.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to be rotated
+     * @param k the number of positions to rotate the array to the left
+     * @return a new array containing the elements of the input array rotated to the left
+     */
+    public static int[] rotateRight(int[] arr, int k) {
+        if (arr == null || arr.length == 0 || k < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid input");
+        }
+
+        int n = arr.length;
+        k = k % n; // Handle cases where k is larger than the array length
+
+        reverseArray(arr, 0, n - 1);
+        reverseArray(arr, 0, k - 1);
+        reverseArray(arr, k, n - 1);
+
+        return arr;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs reversing of a array
+     * @param arr the array to be reversed
+     * @param start starting position
+     * @param end ending position
+     */
+    private static void reverseArray(int[] arr, int start, int end) {
+        while (start < end) {
+            int temp = arr[start];
+            arr[start] = arr[end];
+            arr[end] = temp;
+            start++;
+            end--;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRT.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRT.java
index 6ae5db8e7ff4..58c6d4e56830 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRT.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRT.java
@@ -1,12 +1,22 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import java.util.Arrays;
-
 /**
- * BFPRT algorithm.
+ * The BFPRT (Median of Medians) algorithm implementation.
+ * It provides a way to find the k-th smallest element in an unsorted array
+ * with an optimal worst-case time complexity of O(n).
+ * This algorithm is used to find the k smallest numbers in an array.
  */
-public class BFPRT {
+public final class BFPRT {
+    private BFPRT() {
+    }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns the k smallest elements from the array using the BFPRT algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param k the number of smallest elements to return
+     * @return an array containing the k smallest elements, or null if k is invalid
+     */
     public static int[] getMinKNumsByBFPRT(int[] arr, int k) {
         if (k < 1 || k > arr.length) {
             return null;
@@ -14,9 +24,9 @@ public static int[] getMinKNumsByBFPRT(int[] arr, int k) {
         int minKth = getMinKthByBFPRT(arr, k);
         int[] res = new int[k];
         int index = 0;
-        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; i++) {
-            if (arr[i] < minKth) {
-                res[index++] = arr[i];
+        for (int value : arr) {
+            if (value < minKth) {
+                res[index++] = value;
             }
         }
         for (; index != res.length; index++) {
@@ -25,19 +35,39 @@ public static int[] getMinKNumsByBFPRT(int[] arr, int k) {
         return res;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns the k-th smallest element from the array using the BFPRT algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param k the rank of the smallest element to find
+     * @return the k-th smallest element
+     */
     public static int getMinKthByBFPRT(int[] arr, int k) {
         int[] copyArr = copyArray(arr);
         return bfprt(copyArr, 0, copyArr.length - 1, k - 1);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Creates a copy of the input array.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @return a copy of the array
+     */
     public static int[] copyArray(int[] arr) {
         int[] copyArr = new int[arr.length];
-        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; i++) {
-            copyArr[i] = arr[i];
-        }
+        System.arraycopy(arr, 0, copyArr, 0, arr.length);
         return copyArr;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * BFPRT recursive method to find the k-th smallest element.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param begin the starting index
+     * @param end the ending index
+     * @param i the index of the desired smallest element
+     * @return the k-th smallest element
+     */
     public static int bfprt(int[] arr, int begin, int end, int i) {
         if (begin == end) {
             return arr[begin];
@@ -54,12 +84,12 @@ public static int bfprt(int[] arr, int begin, int end, int i) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_of_medians .
+     * Finds the median of medians as the pivot element.
      *
-     * @param arr an array.
-     * @param begin begin num.
-     * @param end end num.
-     * @return median of medians.
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param begin the starting index
+     * @param end the ending index
+     * @return the median of medians
      */
     public static int medianOfMedians(int[] arr, int begin, int end) {
         int num = end - begin + 1;
@@ -71,12 +101,15 @@ public static int medianOfMedians(int[] arr, int begin, int end) {
         return bfprt(mArr, 0, mArr.length - 1, mArr.length / 2);
     }
 
-    public static void swap(int[] arr, int i, int j) {
-        int swap = arr[i];
-        arr[i] = arr[j];
-        arr[j] = swap;
-    }
-
+    /**
+     * Partitions the array around a pivot.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param begin the starting index
+     * @param end the ending index
+     * @param num the pivot element
+     * @return the range where the pivot is located
+     */
     public static int[] partition(int[] arr, int begin, int end, int num) {
         int small = begin - 1;
         int cur = begin;
@@ -90,12 +123,17 @@ public static int[] partition(int[] arr, int begin, int end, int num) {
                 cur++;
             }
         }
-        int[] pivotRange = new int[2];
-        pivotRange[0] = small + 1;
-        pivotRange[1] = big - 1;
-        return pivotRange;
+        return new int[] {small + 1, big - 1};
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Finds the median of the elements between the specified range.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param begin the starting index
+     * @param end the ending index
+     * @return the median of the specified range
+     */
     public static int getMedian(int[] arr, int begin, int end) {
         insertionSort(arr, begin, end);
         int sum = begin + end;
@@ -103,6 +141,13 @@ public static int getMedian(int[] arr, int begin, int end) {
         return arr[mid];
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Sorts a portion of the array using insertion sort.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param begin the starting index
+     * @param end the ending index
+     */
     public static void insertionSort(int[] arr, int begin, int end) {
         if (arr == null || arr.length < 2) {
             return;
@@ -118,9 +163,16 @@ public static void insertionSort(int[] arr, int begin, int end) {
         }
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] arr = {11, 9, 1, 3, 9, 2, 2, 5, 6, 5, 3, 5, 9, 7, 2, 5, 5, 1, 9};
-        int[] minK = getMinKNumsByBFPRT(arr, 5);
-        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(minK));
+    /**
+     * Swaps two elements in an array.
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param i the index of the first element
+     * @param j the index of the second element
+     */
+    public static void swap(int[] arr, int i, int j) {
+        int temp = arr[i];
+        arr[i] = arr[j];
+        arr[j] = temp;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java
index 5ecc27dbff9b..836526529374 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
+import java.util.Scanner;
+
 /**
  * This file contains an implementation of BANKER'S ALGORITM Wikipedia:
  * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banker%27s_algorithm
@@ -18,14 +20,14 @@
  *
  * @author AMRITESH ANAND (https://github.com/amritesh19)
  */
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class BankersAlgorithm {
+public final class BankersAlgorithm {
+    private BankersAlgorithm() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * This method finds the need of each process
      */
-    static void calculateNeed(int needArray[][], int maxArray[][], int allocationArray[][], int totalProcess, int totalResources) {
+    static void calculateNeed(int[][] needArray, int[][] maxArray, int[][] allocationArray, int totalProcess, int totalResources) {
         for (int i = 0; i < totalProcess; i++) {
             for (int j = 0; j < totalResources; j++) {
                 needArray[i][j] = maxArray[i][j] - allocationArray[i][j];
@@ -48,7 +50,7 @@ static void calculateNeed(int needArray[][], int maxArray[][], int allocationArr
      *
      * @return boolean if the system is in safe state or not
      */
-    static boolean checkSafeSystem(int processes[], int availableArray[], int maxArray[][], int allocationArray[][], int totalProcess, int totalResources) {
+    static boolean checkSafeSystem(int[] processes, int[] availableArray, int[][] maxArray, int[][] allocationArray, int totalProcess, int totalResources) {
         int[][] needArray = new int[totalProcess][totalResources];
 
         calculateNeed(needArray, maxArray, allocationArray, totalProcess, totalResources);
@@ -58,10 +60,7 @@ static boolean checkSafeSystem(int processes[], int availableArray[], int maxArr
         int[] safeSequenceArray = new int[totalProcess];
 
         int[] workArray = new int[totalResources];
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < totalResources; i++) {
-            workArray[i] = availableArray[i];
-        }
+        System.arraycopy(availableArray, 0, workArray, 0, totalResources);
 
         int count = 0;
 
@@ -69,7 +68,7 @@ static boolean checkSafeSystem(int processes[], int availableArray[], int maxArr
         while (count < totalProcess) {
             boolean foundSafeSystem = false;
             for (int m = 0; m < totalProcess; m++) {
-                if (finishProcesses[m] == false) {
+                if (!finishProcesses[m]) {
                     int j;
 
                     for (j = 0; j < totalResources; j++) {
@@ -93,7 +92,7 @@ static boolean checkSafeSystem(int processes[], int availableArray[], int maxArr
             }
 
             // If we could not find a next process in safe sequence.
-            if (foundSafeSystem == false) {
+            if (!foundSafeSystem) {
                 System.out.print("The system is not in the safe state because lack of resources");
                 return false;
             }
@@ -111,7 +110,8 @@ static boolean checkSafeSystem(int processes[], int availableArray[], int maxArr
      * This is main method of Banker's Algorithm
      */
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int numberOfProcesses, numberOfResources;
+        int numberOfProcesses;
+        int numberOfResources;
 
         Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
 
@@ -121,14 +121,14 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         System.out.println("Enter total number of resources");
         numberOfResources = sc.nextInt();
 
-        int processes[] = new int[numberOfProcesses];
+        int[] processes = new int[numberOfProcesses];
         for (int i = 0; i < numberOfProcesses; i++) {
             processes[i] = i;
         }
 
         System.out.println("--Enter the availability of--");
 
-        int availableArray[] = new int[numberOfResources];
+        int[] availableArray = new int[numberOfResources];
         for (int i = 0; i < numberOfResources; i++) {
             System.out.println("resource " + i + ": ");
             availableArray[i] = sc.nextInt();
@@ -136,7 +136,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
 
         System.out.println("--Enter the maximum matrix--");
 
-        int maxArray[][] = new int[numberOfProcesses][numberOfResources];
+        int[][] maxArray = new int[numberOfProcesses][numberOfResources];
         for (int i = 0; i < numberOfProcesses; i++) {
             System.out.println("For process " + i + ": ");
             for (int j = 0; j < numberOfResources; j++) {
@@ -147,7 +147,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
 
         System.out.println("--Enter the allocation matrix--");
 
-        int allocationArray[][] = new int[numberOfProcesses][numberOfResources];
+        int[][] allocationArray = new int[numberOfProcesses][numberOfResources];
         for (int i = 0; i < numberOfProcesses; i++) {
             System.out.println("For process " + i + ": ");
             for (int j = 0; j < numberOfResources; j++) {
@@ -161,9 +161,8 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         sc.close();
     }
 }
-
 /*
-    Example: 
+    Example:
     n = 5
     m = 3
 
@@ -171,10 +170,10 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
                 0   1   2    0   1   2    0   1   2
 
         0       0   1   0    7   5   3    3   3   2
-        1       2   0   0    3   2   2 
+        1       2   0   0    3   2   2
         2       3   0   2    9   0   2
         3       2   1   1    2   2   2
         4       0   0   2    4   3   3
 
-    Result: The system is in safe sequence and the sequence is as follows: P1, P3, P4, P0, P2 
+    Result: The system is in safe sequence and the sequence is as follows: P1, P3, P4, P0, P2
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFit.java
deleted file mode 100644
index f5ee41a761fd..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFit.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,106 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.ArrayList;
-
-/**
- * @author Dekas Dimitrios
- */
-public class BestFit {
-
-    private static final int NO_ALLOCATION
-            = -255; // if a process has been allocated in position -255,
-    // it means that it has not been actually allocated.
-
-    /**
-     * Method to find the maximum valued element of an array filled with
-     * positive integers.
-     *
-     * @param array: an array filled with positive integers.
-     * @return the maximum valued element of the array.
-     */
-    private static int findMaxElement(int[] array) {
-        int max = -1;
-        for (int value : array) {
-            if (value > max) {
-                max = value;
-            }
-        }
-        return max;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
-     * given process based on the best fit algorithm.
-     *
-     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
-     * @param process: the size of the process.
-     * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
-     * exists.
-     */
-    private static int findBestFit(int[] blockSizes, int processSize) {
-        // Initialize minDiff with an unreachable value by a difference between a blockSize and the
-        // processSize.
-        int minDiff = findMaxElement(blockSizes);
-        int index
-                = NO_ALLOCATION; // If there is no block that can fit the process, return NO_ALLOCATION as the
-        // result.
-        for (int i = 0;
-                i < blockSizes.length;
-                i++) { // Find the most fitting memory block for the given process.
-            if (blockSizes[i] - processSize < minDiff && blockSizes[i] - processSize >= 0) {
-                minDiff = blockSizes[i] - processSize;
-                index = i;
-            }
-        }
-        return index;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Method to allocate memory to blocks according to the best fit algorithm.
-     * It should return an ArrayList of Integers, where the index is the process
-     * ID (zero-indexed) and the value is the block number (also zero-indexed).
-     *
-     * @param sizeOfBlocks: an int array that contains the sizes of the memory
-     * blocks available.
-     * @param sizeOfProcesses: an int array that contains the sizes of the
-     * processes we need memory blocks for.
-     * @return the ArrayList filled with Integers repressenting the memory
-     * allocation that took place.
-     */
-    static ArrayList<Integer> bestFit(int[] sizeOfBlocks, int[] sizeOfProcesses) {
-        // The array list responsible for saving the memory allocations done by the best-fit algorithm
-        ArrayList<Integer> memAlloc = new ArrayList<>();
-        // Do this for every process
-        for (int processSize : sizeOfProcesses) {
-            int chosenBlockIdx
-                    = findBestFit(
-                            sizeOfBlocks, processSize); // Find the index of the memory block going to be used
-            memAlloc.add(chosenBlockIdx); // Store the chosen block index in the memAlloc array list
-            if (chosenBlockIdx
-                    != NO_ALLOCATION) { // Only if a block was chosen to store the process in it,
-                sizeOfBlocks[chosenBlockIdx] -= processSize; // resize the block based on the process size
-            }
-        }
-        return memAlloc;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Method to print the memory allocated.
-     *
-     * @param memAllocation: an ArrayList of Integer representing the memory
-     * allocation done by the bestFit method.
-     */
-    public static void printMemoryAllocation(ArrayList<Integer> memAllocation) {
-        System.out.println("Process No.\tBlock No.");
-        System.out.println("===========\t=========");
-        for (int i = 0; i < memAllocation.size(); i++) {
-            System.out.print(" " + i + "\t\t");
-            if (memAllocation.get(i) != NO_ALLOCATION) {
-                System.out.print(memAllocation.get(i));
-            } else {
-                System.out.print("Not Allocated");
-            }
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java
index 62566f7359fb..3fb97724b5ac 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java
@@ -1,48 +1,81 @@
-/* this Code is the illustration of Boyer moore's voting algorithm to
-find the majority element is an array that appears more than n/2 times in an array
-where "n" is the length of the array.
-For more information on the algorithm refer https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyer%E2%80%93Moore_majority_vote_algorithm
- */
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
+import java.util.Optional;
 
-import java.util.*;
+/**
+ * Utility class implementing Boyer-Moore's Voting Algorithm to find the majority element
+ * in an array. The majority element is defined as the element that appears more than n/2 times
+ * in the array, where n is the length of the array.
+ *
+ * For more information on the algorithm, refer to:
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyer%E2%80%93Moore_majority_vote_algorithm
+ */
+public final class BoyerMoore {
+    private BoyerMoore() {
+    }
 
-public class BoyerMoore {
+    /**
+     * Finds the majority element in the given array if it exists.
+     *
+     * @param array the input array
+     * @return an Optional containing the majority element if it exists, otherwise an empty Optional
+     */
+    public static Optional<Integer> findMajorityElement(int[] array) {
+        if (array == null || array.length == 0) {
+            return Optional.empty();
+        }
+
+        int candidate = findCandidate(array);
+        int count = countOccurrences(candidate, array);
+
+        if (isMajority(count, array.length)) {
+            return Optional.of(candidate);
+        }
+        return Optional.empty();
+    }
 
-    public static int findmajor(int[] a) {
+    /**
+     * Identifies the potential majority candidate using Boyer-Moore's Voting Algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array the input array
+     * @return the candidate for the majority element
+     */
+    private static int findCandidate(final int[] array) {
         int count = 0;
-        int cand = -1;
-        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
+        int candidate = -1;
+        for (int value : array) {
             if (count == 0) {
-                cand = a[i];
-                count = 1;
-            } else {
-                if (a[i] == cand) {
-                    count++;
-                } else {
-                    count--;
-                }
+                candidate = value;
             }
+            count += (value == candidate) ? 1 : -1;
         }
-        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
-            if (a[i] == cand) {
+        return candidate;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the occurrences of the candidate element in the array.
+     *
+     * @param candidate the candidate element
+     * @param array the input array
+     * @return the number of times the candidate appears in the array
+     */
+    private static int countOccurrences(final int candidate, final int[] array) {
+        int count = 0;
+        for (int value : array) {
+            if (value == candidate) {
                 count++;
             }
         }
-        if (count > (a.length / 2)) {
-            return cand;
-        }
-        return -1;
+        return count;
     }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n = input.nextInt();
-        int a[] = new int[n];
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            a[i] = input.nextInt();
-        }
-        System.out.println("the majority element is " + findmajor(a));
-
+    /**
+     * Determines if the count of the candidate element is more than n/2, where n is the length of the array.
+     *
+     * @param count the number of occurrences of the candidate
+     * @param totalCount the total number of elements in the array
+     * @return true if the candidate is the majority element, false otherwise
+     */
+    private static boolean isMajority(int count, int totalCount) {
+        return 2 * count > totalCount;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BrianKernighanAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BrianKernighanAlgorithm.java
index 8730ed76338d..b70fffe82c5b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BrianKernighanAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BrianKernighanAlgorithm.java
@@ -20,7 +20,9 @@
  * <p>
  * Time Complexity: O(logn)
  */
-public class BrianKernighanAlgorithm {
+public final class BrianKernighanAlgorithm {
+    private BrianKernighanAlgorithm() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * @param num: number in which we count the set bits
@@ -38,7 +40,7 @@ static int countSetBits(int num) {
     /**
      * @param args : command line arguments
      */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
         Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
         int num = sc.nextInt();
         int setBitCount = countSetBits(num);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC16.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC16.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..847ce8edab0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC16.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+/**
+ * Generates a crc16 checksum for a given string
+ */
+public final class CRC16 {
+    private CRC16() {
+    }
+
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        System.out.println(crc16("Hello World!"));
+    }
+
+    public static String crc16(String message) {
+        int crc = 0xFFFF; // initial value
+        int polynomial = 0x1021; // 0001 0000 0010 0001 (0, 5, 12)
+        byte[] bytes = message.getBytes();
+
+        for (byte b : bytes) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++) {
+                boolean bit = ((b >> (7 - i) & 1) == 1);
+                boolean c15 = ((crc >> 15 & 1) == 1);
+                crc <<= 1;
+                if (c15 ^ bit) {
+                    crc ^= polynomial;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        crc &= 0xffff;
+        return Integer.toHexString(crc).toUpperCase();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java
index 561a33f4dae9..180936ed46c1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java
@@ -5,7 +5,9 @@
 /**
  * Generates a crc32 checksum for a given string or byte array
  */
-public class CRC32 {
+public final class CRC32 {
+    private CRC32() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         System.out.println(Integer.toHexString(crc32("Hello World")));
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java
index 3b0d2f3a3003..00ddc86be820 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@
 /**
  * @author dimgrichr
  */
+@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
 public class CRCAlgorithm {
 
     private int correctMess;
@@ -25,8 +26,6 @@ public class CRCAlgorithm {
 
     private ArrayList<Integer> message;
 
-    private ArrayList<Integer> dividedMessage;
-
     private ArrayList<Integer> p;
 
     private Random randomGenerator;
@@ -44,7 +43,6 @@ public CRCAlgorithm(String str, int size, double ber) {
         messageChanged = false;
         message = new ArrayList<>();
         messSize = size;
-        dividedMessage = new ArrayList<>();
         p = new ArrayList<>();
         for (int i = 0; i < str.length(); i++) {
             p.add(Character.getNumericValue(str.charAt(i)));
@@ -103,7 +101,6 @@ public int getCorrectMess() {
     public void refactor() {
         messageChanged = false;
         message = new ArrayList<>();
-        dividedMessage = new ArrayList<>();
     }
 
     /**
@@ -156,11 +153,9 @@ public void divideMessageWithP(boolean check) {
                 }
             }
         }
-        dividedMessage = (ArrayList<Integer>) x.clone();
+        ArrayList<Integer> dividedMessage = (ArrayList<Integer>) x.clone();
         if (!check) {
-            for (int z : dividedMessage) {
-                message.add(z);
-            }
+            message.addAll(dividedMessage);
         } else {
             if (dividedMessage.contains(1) && messageChanged) {
                 wrongMessCaught++;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Conway.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Conway.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ab39890c9ece
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Conway.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+
+public final class Conway {
+    private Conway() {
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * This class will generate the conway sequence also known as the look and say sequence.
+     * To generate a member of the sequence from the previous member, read off the digits of the
+     *previous member, counting the number of digits in groups of the same digit. For example: 1 is
+     *read off as "one 1" or 11. 11 is read off as "two 1s" or 21. 21 is read off as "one 2, one 1"
+     *or 1211. 1211 is read off as "one 1, one 2, two 1s" or 111221. 111221 is read off as "three
+     *1s, two 2s, one 1" or 312211. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Look-and-say_sequence
+     * */
+
+    private static final StringBuilder BUILDER = new StringBuilder();
+
+    protected static List<String> generateList(String originalString, int maxIteration) {
+        List<String> numbers = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < maxIteration; i++) {
+            originalString = generateNextElement(originalString);
+            numbers.add(originalString);
+        }
+        return numbers;
+    }
+
+    public static String generateNextElement(String originalString) {
+        BUILDER.setLength(0);
+        String[] stp = originalString.split("(?<=(.))(?!\\1)");
+        Arrays.stream(stp).forEach(s -> BUILDER.append(s.length()).append(s.charAt(0)));
+        return BUILDER.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountChar.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountChar.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 40c0db86b178..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountChar.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,24 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class CountChar {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter your text: ");
-        String str = input.nextLine();
-        input.close();
-        System.out.println("There are " + CountCharacters(str) + " characters.");
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Count non space character in string
-     *
-     * @param str String to count the characters
-     * @return number of character in the specified string
-     */
-    private static int CountCharacters(String str) {
-        return str.replaceAll("\\s", "").length();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountWords.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountWords.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 66b8f148bcf1..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountWords.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,51 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-/**
- * You enter a string into this program, and it will return how many words were
- * in that particular string
- *
- * @author Marcus
- */
-public class CountWords {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter your text: ");
-        String str = input.nextLine();
-
-        System.out.println("Your text has " + wordCount(str) + " word(s)");
-        System.out.println("Your text has " + secondaryWordCount(str) + " word(s)");
-        input.close();
-    }
-
-    private static int wordCount(String s) {
-        if (s == null || s.isEmpty()) {
-            return 0;
-        }
-        return s.trim().split("[\\s]+").length;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * counts the number of words in a sentence but ignores all potential
-     * non-alphanumeric characters that do not represent a word. runs in O(n)
-     * where n is the length of s
-     *
-     * @param s String: sentence with word(s)
-     * @return int: number of words
-     */
-    private static int secondaryWordCount(String s) {
-        if (s == null || s.isEmpty()) {
-            return 0;
-        }
-        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
-        for (char c : s.toCharArray()) {
-            if (Character.isLetter(c) || Character.isDigit(c)) {
-                sb.append(c);
-            }
-        }
-        s = sb.toString();
-        return s.trim().split("[\\s]+").length;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Damm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Damm.java
index 7e4240d7f363..55a4c5b81a89 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Damm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Damm.java
@@ -14,7 +14,9 @@
  * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damm_algorithm">Wiki. Damm
  * algorithm</a>
  */
-public class Damm {
+public final class Damm {
+    private Damm() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Weakly totally anti-symmetric quasigroup of order 10. This table is not
@@ -33,7 +35,7 @@ public class Damm {
         {5, 8, 6, 9, 7, 2, 0, 1, 3, 4},
         {8, 9, 4, 5, 3, 6, 2, 0, 1, 7},
         {9, 4, 3, 8, 6, 1, 7, 2, 0, 5},
-        {2, 5, 8, 1, 4, 3, 6, 7, 9, 0}
+        {2, 5, 8, 1, 4, 3, 6, 7, 9, 0},
     };
 
     /**
@@ -92,9 +94,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
     }
 
     private static void checkAndPrint(String input) {
-        String validationResult = Damm.dammCheck(input)
-                ? "valid"
-                : "not valid";
+        String validationResult = Damm.dammCheck(input) ? "valid" : "not valid";
         System.out.println("Input '" + input + "' is " + validationResult);
     }
 
@@ -111,8 +111,6 @@ private static void checkInput(String input) {
     }
 
     private static int[] toIntArray(String string) {
-        return string.chars()
-                .map(i -> Character.digit(i, 10))
-                .toArray();
+        return string.chars().map(i -> Character.digit(i, 10)).toArray();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java
index 9a8b9d130254..a379100a2f3b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java
@@ -1,5 +1,9 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.NavigableSet;
+import java.util.TreeSet;
 /**
  * Dijkstra's algorithm,is a graph search algorithm that solves the
  * single-source shortest path problem for a graph with nonnegative edge path
@@ -15,9 +19,9 @@
  * https://rosettacode.org/wiki/Dijkstra%27s_algorithm#Java Also most of the
  * comments are from RosettaCode.
  */
-import java.util.*;
-
-public class Dijkstra {
+public final class Dijkstra {
+    private Dijkstra() {
+    }
 
     private static final Graph.Edge[] GRAPH = {
         // Distance from node "a" to node "b" is 7.
@@ -31,7 +35,8 @@ public class Dijkstra {
         new Graph.Edge("c", "d", 11),
         new Graph.Edge("c", "f", 2),
         new Graph.Edge("d", "e", 6),
-        new Graph.Edge("e", "f", 9),};
+        new Graph.Edge("e", "f", 9),
+    };
     private static final String START = "a";
     private static final String END = "e";
 
@@ -47,6 +52,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
 }
 
 class Graph {
+
     // mapping of vertex names to Vertex objects, built from a set of Edges
 
     private final Map<String, Vertex> graph;
@@ -56,10 +62,11 @@ class Graph {
      */
     public static class Edge {
 
-        public final String v1, v2;
+        public final String v1;
+        public final String v2;
         public final int dist;
 
-        public Edge(String v1, String v2, int dist) {
+        Edge(String v1, String v2, int dist) {
             this.v1 = v1;
             this.v2 = v2;
             this.dist = dist;
@@ -77,7 +84,7 @@ public static class Vertex implements Comparable<Vertex> {
         public Vertex previous = null;
         public final Map<Vertex, Integer> neighbours = new HashMap<>();
 
-        public Vertex(String name) {
+        Vertex(String name) {
             this.name = name;
         }
 
@@ -123,11 +130,7 @@ public boolean equals(Object object) {
             if (previous != null ? !previous.equals(vertex.previous) : vertex.previous != null) {
                 return false;
             }
-            if (neighbours != null ? !neighbours.equals(vertex.neighbours) : vertex.neighbours != null) {
-                return false;
-            }
-
-            return true;
+            return neighbours != null ? neighbours.equals(vertex.neighbours) : vertex.neighbours == null;
         }
 
         @Override
@@ -149,7 +152,7 @@ public String toString() {
     /**
      * Builds a graph from a set of edges
      */
-    public Graph(Edge[] edges) {
+    Graph(Edge[] edges) {
         graph = new HashMap<>(edges.length);
 
         // one pass to find all vertices
@@ -165,8 +168,8 @@ public Graph(Edge[] edges) {
         // another pass to set neighbouring vertices
         for (Edge e : edges) {
             graph.get(e.v1).neighbours.put(graph.get(e.v2), e.dist);
-            // graph.get(e.v2).neighbours.put(graph.get(e.v1), e.dist); // also do this for an undirected
-            // graph
+            // graph.get(e.v2).neighbours.put(graph.get(e.v1), e.dist); // also do this for an
+            // undirected graph
         }
     }
 
@@ -195,12 +198,14 @@ public void dijkstra(String startName) {
      * Implementation of dijkstra's algorithm using a binary heap.
      */
     private void dijkstra(final NavigableSet<Vertex> q) {
-        Vertex u, v;
+        Vertex u;
+        Vertex v;
         while (!q.isEmpty()) {
             // vertex with shortest distance (first iteration will return source)
             u = q.pollFirst();
             if (u.dist == Integer.MAX_VALUE) {
-                break; // we can ignore u (and any other remaining vertices) since they are unreachable
+                break; // we can ignore u (and any other remaining vertices) since they are
+                       // unreachable
             }
             // look at distances to each neighbour
             for (Map.Entry<Vertex, Integer> a : u.neighbours.entrySet()) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/EulersFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/EulersFunction.java
deleted file mode 100644
index eed7da05a0bb..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/EulersFunction.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,34 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-/**
- * You can read more about Euler's totient function
- *
- * <p>
- * See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_totient_function
- */
-public class EulersFunction {
-    // This method returns us number of x that (x < n) and gcd(x, n) == 1 in O(sqrt(n)) time
-    // complexity;
-
-    public static int getEuler(int n) {
-        int result = n;
-        for (int i = 2; i * i <= n; i++) {
-            if (n % i == 0) {
-                while (n % i == 0) {
-                    n /= i;
-                }
-                result -= result / i;
-            }
-        }
-        if (n > 1) {
-            result -= result / n;
-        }
-        return result;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        for (int i = 1; i < 100; i++) {
-            System.out.println(getEuler(i));
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FibbonaciSeries.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FibbonaciSeries.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 103e943743c7..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FibbonaciSeries.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,34 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-/**
- * Fibonacci sequence, and characterized by the fact that every number after the
- * first two is the sum of the two preceding ones.
- *
- * <p>
- * Fibonacci sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,...
- *
- * <p>
- * Source for the explanation: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number
- *
- * Problem Statement: print all Fibonacci numbers that are smaller than your
- * given input N
- */
-public class FibbonaciSeries {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Get input from the user
-        Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n = scan.nextInt();
-        int first = 0, second = 1;
-        scan.close();
-        while (first <= n) {
-            // print first fibo 0 then add second fibo into it while updating second as well
-            System.out.println(first);
-            int next = first + second;
-            first = second;
-            second = next;
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFit.java
deleted file mode 100644
index c7035d66a9a0..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFit.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,81 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.ArrayList;
-
-/**
- * @author Dekas Dimitrios
- */
-public class FirstFit {
-
-    private static final int NO_ALLOCATION
-            = -255; // if a process has been allocated in position -255,
-    // it means that it has not been actually allocated.
-
-    /**
-     * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
-     * given process based on the first fit algorithm.
-     *
-     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
-     * @param process: the size of the process.
-     * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
-     * exists.
-     */
-    private static int findFirstFit(int[] blockSizes, int processSize) {
-        for (int i = 0; i < blockSizes.length; i++) {
-            if (blockSizes[i] >= processSize) {
-                return i;
-            }
-        }
-        // If there is not a block that can fit the process, return -255 as the result
-        return NO_ALLOCATION;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Method to allocate memory to blocks according to the first fit algorithm.
-     * It should return an ArrayList of Integers, where the index is the process
-     * ID (zero-indexed) and the value is the block number (also zero-indexed).
-     *
-     * @param sizeOfBlocks: an int array that contains the sizes of the memory
-     * blocks available.
-     * @param sizeOfProcesses: an int array that contains the sizes of the
-     * processes we need memory blocks for.
-     * @return the ArrayList filled with Integers repressenting the memory
-     * allocation that took place.
-     */
-    static ArrayList<Integer> firstFit(int[] sizeOfBlocks, int[] sizeOfProcesses) {
-        // The array list responsible for saving the memory allocations done by the first-fit algorithm
-        ArrayList<Integer> memAlloc = new ArrayList<>();
-        // Do this for every process
-        for (int processSize : sizeOfProcesses) {
-            int chosenBlockIdx
-                    = findFirstFit(
-                            sizeOfBlocks, processSize); // Find the index of the memory block going to be used
-            memAlloc.add(chosenBlockIdx); // Store the chosen block index in the memAlloc array list
-            if (chosenBlockIdx
-                    != NO_ALLOCATION) { // Only if a block was chosen to store the process in it,
-                sizeOfBlocks[chosenBlockIdx] -= processSize; // resize the block based on the process size
-            }
-        }
-        return memAlloc;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Method to print the memory allocated.
-     *
-     * @param memAllocation: an ArrayList of Integer representing the memory
-     * allocation done by the firstFit method.
-     */
-    public static void printMemoryAllocation(ArrayList<Integer> memAllocation) {
-        System.out.println("Process No.\tBlock No.");
-        System.out.println("===========\t=========");
-        for (int i = 0; i < memAllocation.size(); i++) {
-            System.out.print(" " + i + "\t\t");
-            if (memAllocation.get(i) != NO_ALLOCATION) {
-                System.out.print(memAllocation.get(i));
-            } else {
-                System.out.print("Not Allocated");
-            }
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangle.java
index d25ab303e3ed..dff48443fc25 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangle.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangle.java
@@ -1,19 +1,30 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
 
-class FloydTriangle {
+final class FloydTriangle {
+    private FloydTriangle() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates a Floyd Triangle with the specified number of rows.
+     *
+     * @param rows The number of rows in the triangle.
+     * @return A List representing the Floyd Triangle.
+     */
+    public static List<List<Integer>> generateFloydTriangle(int rows) {
+        List<List<Integer>> triangle = new ArrayList<>();
+        int number = 1;
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter the number of rows which you want in your Floyd Triangle: ");
-        int r = sc.nextInt(), n = 0;
-        sc.close();
-        for (int i = 0; i < r; i++) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < rows; i++) {
+            List<Integer> row = new ArrayList<>();
             for (int j = 0; j <= i; j++) {
-                System.out.print(++n + " ");
+                row.add(number++);
             }
-            System.out.println();
+            triangle.add(row);
         }
+
+        return triangle;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GuassLegendre.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GaussLegendre.java
similarity index 72%
rename from src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GuassLegendre.java
rename to src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GaussLegendre.java
index 596ca4a45e80..b56b51f158fb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GuassLegendre.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GaussLegendre.java
@@ -6,7 +6,9 @@
  *
  * @author AKS1996
  */
-public class GuassLegendre {
+public final class GaussLegendre {
+    private GaussLegendre() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         for (int i = 1; i <= 3; ++i) {
@@ -16,12 +18,15 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
 
     static double pi(int l) {
         /*
-     * l: No of loops to run
+         * l: No of loops to run
          */
 
-        double a = 1, b = Math.pow(2, -0.5), t = 0.25, p = 1;
+        double a = 1;
+        double b = Math.pow(2, -0.5);
+        double t = 0.25;
+        double p = 1;
         for (int i = 0; i < l; ++i) {
-            double temp[] = update(a, b, t, p);
+            double[] temp = update(a, b, t, p);
             a = temp[0];
             b = temp[1];
             t = temp[2];
@@ -32,7 +37,7 @@ static double pi(int l) {
     }
 
     static double[] update(double a, double b, double t, double p) {
-        double values[] = new double[4];
+        double[] values = new double[4];
         values[0] = (a + b) / 2;
         values[1] = Math.sqrt(a * b);
         values[2] = t - p * Math.pow(a - values[0], 2);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/HappyNumbersSeq.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/HappyNumbersSeq.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 9db111574cc5..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/HappyNumbersSeq.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,35 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.HashSet;
-import java.util.Scanner;
-import java.util.Set;
-
-public class HappyNumbersSeq {
-    private static final Set<Integer> CYCLE_NUMS = new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(4, 16, 20, 37, 58, 145));
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter number: ");
-        int n = in.nextInt();
-        while (n != 1 && !isSad(n)) {
-            System.out.print(n + " ");
-            n = sumSquares(n);
-        }
-        String res = n == 1 ? "1 Happy number" : "Sad number";
-        System.out.println(res);
-    }
-
-    private static int sumSquares(int n) {
-        int s = 0;
-        for (; n > 0; n /= 10) {
-            int r = n % 10;
-            s += r * r;
-        }
-        return s;
-    }
-
-    private static boolean isSad(int n) {
-        return CYCLE_NUMS.contains(n);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Huffman.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Huffman.java
index 3b8d12480fea..22e75da502b5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Huffman.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Huffman.java
@@ -1,133 +1,211 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import java.util.PriorityQueue;
-import java.util.Scanner;
 import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
 
-// node class is the basic structure 
-// of each node present in the Huffman - tree. 
+/**
+ * Node class representing a node in the Huffman tree.
+ * Each node contains a character, its frequency, and references to left and
+ * right children.
+ */
 class HuffmanNode {
-
     int data;
     char c;
-
     HuffmanNode left;
     HuffmanNode right;
-}
-
-// comparator class helps to compare the node 
-// on the basis of one of its attribute. 
-// Here we will be compared 
-// on the basis of data values of the nodes. 
-class MyComparator implements Comparator<HuffmanNode> {
 
-    public int compare(HuffmanNode x, HuffmanNode y) {
+    /**
+     * Constructor for HuffmanNode.
+     *
+     * @param c    the character stored in this node
+     * @param data the frequency of the character
+     */
+    HuffmanNode(char c, int data) {
+        this.c = c;
+        this.data = data;
+        this.left = null;
+        this.right = null;
+    }
 
-        return x.data - y.data;
+    /**
+     * Default constructor for HuffmanNode.
+     */
+    HuffmanNode() {
+        this.left = null;
+        this.right = null;
     }
 }
 
-public class Huffman {
-
-    // recursive function to print the 
-    // huffman-code through the tree traversal. 
-    // Here s is the huffman - code generated. 
-    public static void printCode(HuffmanNode root, String s) {
-
-        // base case; if the left and right are null 
-        // then its a leaf node and we print 
-        // the code s generated by traversing the tree. 
-        if (root.left
-                == null
-                && root.right
-                == null
-                && Character.isLetter(root.c)) {
-
-            // c is the character in the node 
-            System.out.println(root.c + ":" + s);
-
-            return;
-        }
-
-        // if we go to left then add "0" to the code. 
-        // if we go to the right add"1" to the code. 
-        // recursive calls for left and 
-        // right sub-tree of the generated tree. 
-        printCode(root.left, s + "0");
-        printCode(root.right, s + "1");
+/**
+ * Comparator class for comparing HuffmanNode objects based on their frequency
+ * data.
+ * Used to maintain min-heap property in the priority queue.
+ */
+class HuffmanComparator implements Comparator<HuffmanNode> {
+    @Override
+    public int compare(HuffmanNode x, HuffmanNode y) {
+        return Integer.compare(x.data, y.data);
     }
+}
 
-    // main function 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        Scanner s = new Scanner(System.in);
+/**
+ * Implementation of Huffman Coding algorithm for data compression.
+ * Huffman Coding is a greedy algorithm that assigns variable-length codes to
+ * characters
+ * based on their frequency of occurrence. Characters with higher frequency get
+ * shorter codes.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity: O(n log n) where n is the number of unique characters
+ * Space Complexity: O(n)
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huffman_coding">Huffman
+ *      Coding</a>
+ */
+public final class Huffman {
+    private Huffman() {
+    }
 
-        // number of characters. 
-        int n = 6;
-        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f'};
-        int[] charfreq = {5, 9, 12, 13, 16, 45};
+    /**
+     * Builds a Huffman tree from the given character array and their frequencies.
+     *
+     * @param charArray array of characters
+     * @param charFreq  array of frequencies corresponding to the characters
+     * @return root node of the Huffman tree
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if arrays are null, empty, or have different
+     *                                  lengths
+     */
+    public static HuffmanNode buildHuffmanTree(char[] charArray, int[] charFreq) {
+        if (charArray == null || charFreq == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Character array and frequency array cannot be null");
+        }
+        if (charArray.length == 0 || charFreq.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Character array and frequency array cannot be empty");
+        }
+        if (charArray.length != charFreq.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Character array and frequency array must have the same length");
+        }
 
-        // creating a priority queue q. 
-        // makes a min-priority queue(min-heap). 
-        PriorityQueue<HuffmanNode> q
-                = new PriorityQueue<HuffmanNode>(n, new MyComparator());
+        int n = charArray.length;
+        PriorityQueue<HuffmanNode> priorityQueue = new PriorityQueue<>(n, new HuffmanComparator());
 
+        // Create leaf nodes and add to priority queue
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            if (charFreq[i] < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Frequencies must be non-negative");
+            }
+            HuffmanNode node = new HuffmanNode(charArray[i], charFreq[i]);
+            priorityQueue.add(node);
+        }
+
+        // Build the Huffman tree
+        while (priorityQueue.size() > 1) {
+            HuffmanNode left = priorityQueue.poll();
+            HuffmanNode right = priorityQueue.poll();
 
-            // creating a Huffman node object 
-            // and add it to the priority queue. 
-            HuffmanNode hn = new HuffmanNode();
+            HuffmanNode parent = new HuffmanNode();
+            parent.data = left.data + right.data;
+            parent.c = '-';
+            parent.left = left;
+            parent.right = right;
 
-            hn.c = charArray[i];
-            hn.data = charfreq[i];
+            priorityQueue.add(parent);
+        }
 
-            hn.left = null;
-            hn.right = null;
+        return priorityQueue.poll();
+    }
 
-            // add functions adds 
-            // the huffman node to the queue. 
-            q.add(hn);
+    /**
+     * Generates Huffman codes for all characters in the tree.
+     *
+     * @param root root node of the Huffman tree
+     * @return map of characters to their Huffman codes
+     */
+    public static Map<Character, String> generateCodes(HuffmanNode root) {
+        Map<Character, String> huffmanCodes = new HashMap<>();
+        if (root != null) {
+            generateCodesHelper(root, "", huffmanCodes);
         }
+        return huffmanCodes;
+    }
 
-        // create a root node 
-        HuffmanNode root = null;
+    /**
+     * Helper method to recursively generate Huffman codes by traversing the tree.
+     *
+     * @param node         current node in the tree
+     * @param code         current code being built
+     * @param huffmanCodes map to store character-to-code mappings
+     */
+    private static void generateCodesHelper(HuffmanNode node, String code, Map<Character, String> huffmanCodes) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return;
+        }
 
-        // Here we will extract the two minimum value 
-        // from the heap each time until 
-        // its size reduces to 1, extract until 
-        // all the nodes are extracted. 
-        while (q.size() > 1) {
+        // If it's a leaf node, store the code
+        if (node.left == null && node.right == null && Character.isLetter(node.c)) {
+            huffmanCodes.put(node.c, code.isEmpty() ? "0" : code);
+            return;
+        }
 
-            // first min extract. 
-            HuffmanNode x = q.peek();
-            q.poll();
+        // Traverse left with '0' and right with '1'
+        if (node.left != null) {
+            generateCodesHelper(node.left, code + "0", huffmanCodes);
+        }
+        if (node.right != null) {
+            generateCodesHelper(node.right, code + "1", huffmanCodes);
+        }
+    }
 
-            // second min extarct. 
-            HuffmanNode y = q.peek();
-            q.poll();
+    /**
+     * Prints Huffman codes for all characters in the tree.
+     * This method is kept for backward compatibility and demonstration purposes.
+     *
+     * @param root root node of the Huffman tree
+     * @param code current code being built (initially empty string)
+     */
+    public static void printCode(HuffmanNode root, String code) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return;
+        }
 
-            // new node f which is equal 
-            HuffmanNode f = new HuffmanNode();
+        // If it's a leaf node, print the code
+        if (root.left == null && root.right == null && Character.isLetter(root.c)) {
+            System.out.println(root.c + ":" + code);
+            return;
+        }
 
-            // to the sum of the frequency of the two nodes 
-            // assigning values to the f node. 
-            f.data = x.data + y.data;
-            f.c = '-';
+        // Traverse left with '0' and right with '1'
+        if (root.left != null) {
+            printCode(root.left, code + "0");
+        }
+        if (root.right != null) {
+            printCode(root.right, code + "1");
+        }
+    }
 
-            // first extracted node as left child. 
-            f.left = x;
+    /**
+     * Demonstrates the Huffman coding algorithm with sample data.
+     *
+     * @param args command line arguments (not used)
+     */
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        // Sample characters and their frequencies
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f'};
+        int[] charFreq = {5, 9, 12, 13, 16, 45};
 
-            // second extracted node as the right child. 
-            f.right = y;
+        System.out.println("Characters: a, b, c, d, e, f");
+        System.out.println("Frequencies: 5, 9, 12, 13, 16, 45");
+        System.out.println("\nHuffman Codes:");
 
-            // marking the f node as the root node. 
-            root = f;
+        // Build Huffman tree
+        HuffmanNode root = buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
 
-            // add this node to the priority-queue. 
-            q.add(f);
+        // Generate and print Huffman codes
+        Map<Character, String> codes = generateCodes(root);
+        for (Map.Entry<Character, String> entry : codes.entrySet()) {
+            System.out.println(entry.getKey() + ": " + entry.getValue());
         }
-
-        // print the codes by traversing the tree 
-        printCode(root, "");
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Implementing_auto_completing_features_using_trie.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Implementing_auto_completing_features_using_trie.java
index b40c175f1481..bb88c7e3ae2f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Implementing_auto_completing_features_using_trie.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Implementing_auto_completing_features_using_trie.java
@@ -1,23 +1,23 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-// Java Program to implement Auto-Complete 
+// Java Program to implement Auto-Complete
 // Feature using Trie
 class Trieac {
 
-    // Alphabet size (# of symbols) 
+    // Alphabet size (# of symbols)
     public static final int ALPHABET_SIZE = 26;
 
-    // Trie node 
+    // Trie node
     static class TrieNode {
 
-        TrieNode children[] = new TrieNode[ALPHABET_SIZE];
+        TrieNode[] children = new TrieNode[ALPHABET_SIZE];
 
-        // isWordEnd is true if the node represents 
-        // end of a word 
+        // isWordEnd is true if the node represents
+        // end of a word
         boolean isWordEnd;
-    };
+    }
 
-    // Returns new trie node (initialized to NULLs) 
+    // Returns new trie node (initialized to NULLs)
     static TrieNode getNode() {
         TrieNode pNode = new TrieNode();
         pNode.isWordEnd = false;
@@ -29,8 +29,8 @@ static TrieNode getNode() {
         return pNode;
     }
 
-    // If not present, inserts key into trie. If the 
-    // key is prefix of trie node, just marks leaf node 
+    // If not present, inserts key into trie. If the
+    // key is prefix of trie node, just marks leaf node
     static void insert(TrieNode root, final String key) {
         TrieNode pCrawl = root;
 
@@ -42,11 +42,11 @@ static void insert(TrieNode root, final String key) {
             pCrawl = pCrawl.children[index];
         }
 
-        // mark last node as leaf 
+        // mark last node as leaf
         pCrawl.isWordEnd = true;
     }
 
-    // Returns true if key presents in trie, else false 
+    // Returns true if key presents in trie, else false
     boolean search(TrieNode root, final String key) {
         int length = key.length();
         TrieNode pCrawl = root;
@@ -62,8 +62,8 @@ boolean search(TrieNode root, final String key) {
         return (pCrawl != null && pCrawl.isWordEnd);
     }
 
-    // Returns 0 if current node has a child 
-    // If all children are NULL, return 1. 
+    // Returns 0 if current node has a child
+    // If all children are NULL, return 1.
     static boolean isLastNode(TrieNode root) {
         for (int i = 0; i < ALPHABET_SIZE; i++) {
             if (root.children[i] != null) {
@@ -73,25 +73,25 @@ static boolean isLastNode(TrieNode root) {
         return true;
     }
 
-    // Recursive function to print auto-suggestions 
-    // for given node. 
+    // Recursive function to print auto-suggestions
+    // for given node.
     static void suggestionsRec(TrieNode root, String currPrefix) {
-        // found a string in Trie with the given prefix 
+        // found a string in Trie with the given prefix
         if (root.isWordEnd) {
             System.out.println(currPrefix);
         }
 
-        // All children struct node pointers are NULL 
+        // All children struct node pointers are NULL
         if (isLastNode(root)) {
             return;
         }
 
         for (int i = 0; i < ALPHABET_SIZE; i++) {
             if (root.children[i] != null) {
-                // append current character to currPrefix string 
+                // append current character to currPrefix string
                 currPrefix += (char) (97 + i);
 
-                // recur over the rest 
+                // recur over the rest
                 suggestionsRec(root.children[i], currPrefix);
             }
         }
@@ -99,20 +99,19 @@ static void suggestionsRec(TrieNode root, String currPrefix) {
 
     // Fucntion  to print suggestions for
     // given query prefix.
-    static int printAutoSuggestions(TrieNode root,
-            final String query) {
+    static int printAutoSuggestions(TrieNode root, final String query) {
         TrieNode pCrawl = root;
 
-        // Check if prefix is present and find the 
-        // the node (of last level) with last character 
-        // of given string. 
+        // Check if prefix is present and find the
+        // the node (of last level) with last character
+        // of given string.
         int level;
         int n = query.length();
 
         for (level = 0; level < n; level++) {
             int index = (query.charAt(level) - 'a');
 
-            // no string in the Trie has this prefix 
+            // no string in the Trie has this prefix
             if (pCrawl.children[index] == null) {
                 return 0;
             }
@@ -120,23 +119,23 @@ static int printAutoSuggestions(TrieNode root,
             pCrawl = pCrawl.children[index];
         }
 
-        // If prefix is present as a word. 
-        boolean isWord = (pCrawl.isWordEnd == true);
+        // If prefix is present as a word.
+        boolean isWord = (pCrawl.isWordEnd);
 
-        // If prefix is last node of tree (has no 
-        // children) 
+        // If prefix is last node of tree (has no
+        // children)
         boolean isLast = isLastNode(pCrawl);
 
-        // If prefix is present as a word, but 
-        // there is no subtree below the last 
-        // matching node. 
+        // If prefix is present as a word, but
+        // there is no subtree below the last
+        // matching node.
         if (isWord && isLast) {
             System.out.println(query);
             return -1;
         }
 
-        // If there are are nodes below last 
-        // matching character. 
+        // If there are nodes below the last
+        // matching character.
         if (!isLast) {
             String prefix = query;
             suggestionsRec(pCrawl, prefix);
@@ -162,10 +161,10 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
 
         if (comp == -1) {
             System.out.println("No other strings found "
-                    + "with this prefix\n");
+                + "with this prefix\n");
         } else if (comp == 0) {
             System.out.println("No string found with"
-                    + " this prefix\n");
+                + " this prefix\n");
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArray.java
index 23c8671e729a..06a2539ee8b7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArray.java
@@ -1,50 +1,173 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Scanner;
 
-public class InsertDeleteInArray {
+/**
+ * Utility class for performing insert and delete operations on arrays.
+ * <p>
+ * This class demonstrates how to insert an element at a specific position and
+ * delete an element from a specific position in an integer array. Since arrays
+ * in Java have fixed size, insertion creates a new array with increased size,
+ * and deletion shifts elements to fill the gap.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * <strong>Time Complexity:</strong>
+ * </p>
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>Insert: O(n) - requires copying elements to new array</li>
+ * <li>Delete: O(n) - requires shifting elements</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * <strong>Space Complexity:</strong>
+ * </p>
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>Insert: O(n) - new array of size n+1</li>
+ * <li>Delete: O(1) - in-place modification (excluding result array)</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * @author TheAlgorithms community
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array_(data_structure)">Array
+ *      Data Structure</a>
+ */
+public final class InsertDeleteInArray {
+    private InsertDeleteInArray() {
+    }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner s = new Scanner(System.in); // Input statement
-        System.out.println("Enter the size of the array");
-        int size = s.nextInt();
-        int a[] = new int[size];
-        int i;
-
-        // To enter the initial elements
-        for (i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-            System.out.println("Enter the element");
-            a[i] = s.nextInt();
+    /**
+     * Inserts an element at the specified position in the array.
+     * <p>
+     * Creates a new array with size = original array size + 1.
+     * Elements at positions &lt;= insertPos retain their positions,
+     * while elements at positions &gt; insertPos are shifted right by one position.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param array    the original array
+     * @param element  the element to be inserted
+     * @param position the index at which the element should be inserted (0-based)
+     * @return a new array with the element inserted at the specified position
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if position is negative or greater than
+     *                                  array length
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if array is null
+     */
+    public static int[] insertElement(int[] array, int element, int position) {
+        if (array == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array cannot be null");
+        }
+        if (position < 0 || position > array.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Position must be between 0 and " + array.length);
         }
 
-        // To insert a new element(we are creating a new array)
-        System.out.println("Enter the index at which the element should be inserted");
-        int insert_pos = s.nextInt();
-        System.out.println("Enter the element to be inserted");
-        int ins = s.nextInt();
-        int size2 = size + 1;
-        int b[] = new int[size2];
-        for (i = 0; i < size2; i++) {
-            if (i <= insert_pos) {
-                b[i] = a[i];
-            } else {
-                b[i] = a[i - 1];
-            }
+        int[] newArray = new int[array.length + 1];
+
+        // Copy elements before insertion position
+        System.arraycopy(array, 0, newArray, 0, position);
+
+        // Insert the new element
+        newArray[position] = element;
+
+        // Copy remaining elements after insertion position
+        System.arraycopy(array, position, newArray, position + 1, array.length - position);
+
+        return newArray;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Deletes an element at the specified position from the array.
+     * <p>
+     * Creates a new array with size = original array size - 1.
+     * Elements after the deletion position are shifted left by one position.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param array    the original array
+     * @param position the index of the element to be deleted (0-based)
+     * @return a new array with the element at the specified position removed
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if position is negative or greater than or
+     *                                  equal to array length
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if array is null or empty
+     */
+    public static int[] deleteElement(int[] array, int position) {
+        if (array == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array cannot be null");
         }
-        b[insert_pos] = ins;
-        for (i = 0; i < size2; i++) {
-            System.out.println(b[i]);
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array is empty");
         }
-
-        // To delete an element given the index
-        System.out.println("Enter the index at which element is to be deleted");
-        int del_pos = s.nextInt();
-        for (i = del_pos; i < size2 - 1; i++) {
-            b[i] = b[i + 1];
+        if (position < 0 || position >= array.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Position must be between 0 and " + (array.length - 1));
         }
-        for (i = 0; i < size2 - 1; i++) {
-            System.out.println(b[i]);
+
+        int[] newArray = new int[array.length - 1];
+
+        // Copy elements before deletion position
+        System.arraycopy(array, 0, newArray, 0, position);
+
+        // Copy elements after deletion position
+        System.arraycopy(array, position + 1, newArray, position, array.length - position - 1);
+
+        return newArray;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Main method demonstrating insert and delete operations on an array.
+     * <p>
+     * This method interactively:
+     * <ol>
+     * <li>Takes array size and elements as input</li>
+     * <li>Inserts a new element at a specified position</li>
+     * <li>Deletes an element from a specified position</li>
+     * <li>Displays the array after each operation</li>
+     * </ol>
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param args command line arguments (not used)
+     */
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        try (Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in)) {
+            // Input: array size and elements
+            System.out.println("Enter the size of the array:");
+            int size = scanner.nextInt();
+
+            if (size <= 0) {
+                System.out.println("Array size must be positive");
+                return;
+            }
+
+            int[] array = new int[size];
+
+            System.out.println("Enter " + size + " elements:");
+            for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+                array[i] = scanner.nextInt();
+            }
+
+            System.out.println("Original array: " + Arrays.toString(array));
+
+            // Insert operation
+            System.out.println("\nEnter the index at which the element should be inserted (0-" + size + "):");
+            int insertPos = scanner.nextInt();
+            System.out.println("Enter the element to be inserted:");
+            int elementToInsert = scanner.nextInt();
+
+            try {
+                array = insertElement(array, elementToInsert, insertPos);
+                System.out.println("Array after insertion: " + Arrays.toString(array));
+            } catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
+                System.out.println("Error during insertion: " + e.getMessage());
+                return;
+            }
+
+            // Delete operation
+            System.out.println("\nEnter the index at which element is to be deleted (0-" + (array.length - 1) + "):");
+            int deletePos = scanner.nextInt();
+
+            try {
+                array = deleteElement(array, deletePos);
+                System.out.println("Array after deletion: " + Arrays.toString(array));
+            } catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
+                System.out.println("Error during deletion: " + e.getMessage());
+            }
         }
-        s.close();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFill.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFill.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3ef90369bd52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFill.java
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of the Flood Fill algorithm using an iterative BFS (Breadth-First Search) approach.
+ *
+ * <p>The Flood Fill algorithm is used to fill connected areas in an image with a new color, starting from a specified point.
+ * This implementation uses an iterative BFS approach with a queue
+ * instead of recursion to avoid stack overflow issues with large images.</p>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Implementation Features:</b></p>
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Supports 8-connected filling (horizontal, vertical, and diagonal directions)</li>
+ *   <li>Uses BFS traversal through {@link java.util.Queue}</li>
+ *   <li>Includes nested {@code Point} class to represent pixel coordinates</li>
+ *   <li>Iterative approach avoids stack overflow for large images</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p><b>Time Complexity:</b> O(M × N) where M and N are the dimensions of the image</p>
+ * <p><b>Space Complexity:</b> O(M × N) in the worst case the queue stores every pixel</p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dsa/flood-fill-algorithm">Flood Fill Algorithm - GeeksforGeeks</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_fill">Flood Fill Algorithm - Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class IterativeFloodFill {
+    private IterativeFloodFill() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Iteratively fill the 2D image with new color
+     *
+     * @param image    The image to be filled
+     * @param x        The x co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     * @param y        The y co-ordinate at which color is to be filled
+     * @param newColor The new color which to be filled in the image
+     * @param oldColor The old color which is to be replaced in the image
+     * @see <a href=https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dsa/flood-fill-algorithm>FloodFill BFS<a/>
+     */
+    public static void floodFill(final int[][] image, final int x, final int y, final int newColor, final int oldColor) {
+        if (image.length == 0 || image[0].length == 0 || newColor == oldColor || shouldSkipPixel(image, x, y, oldColor)) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        Queue<Point> queue = new LinkedList<>();
+        queue.add(new Point(x, y));
+
+        int[] dx = {0, 0, -1, 1, 1, -1, 1, -1};
+        int[] dy = {-1, 1, 0, 0, -1, 1, 1, -1};
+
+        while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
+            Point currPoint = queue.poll();
+
+            if (shouldSkipPixel(image, currPoint.x, currPoint.y, oldColor)) {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            image[currPoint.x][currPoint.y] = newColor;
+
+            for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++) {
+                int curX = currPoint.x + dx[i];
+                int curY = currPoint.y + dy[i];
+
+                if (!shouldSkipPixel(image, curX, curY, oldColor)) {
+                    queue.add(new Point(curX, curY));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a point in 2D space with integer coordinates.
+     */
+    private static class Point {
+        final int x;
+        final int y;
+
+        Point(final int x, final int y) {
+            this.x = x;
+            this.y = y;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a pixel should be skipped during flood fill operation.
+     *
+     * @param image    The image to get boundaries
+     * @param x        The x co-ordinate of pixel to check
+     * @param y        The y co-ordinate of pixel to check
+     * @param oldColor The old color which is to be replaced in the image
+     * @return {@code true} if pixel should be skipped, else {@code false}
+     */
+    private static boolean shouldSkipPixel(final int[][] image, final int x, final int y, final int oldColor) {
+
+        if (x < 0 || x >= image.length || y < 0 || y >= image[0].length || image[x][y] != oldColor) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        return false;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java
index 5d160e4873a7..10986aabec4f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java
@@ -1,10 +1,13 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import java.awt.*;
+import java.awt.BasicStroke;
+import java.awt.Color;
+import java.awt.Graphics2D;
 import java.awt.image.BufferedImage;
 import java.io.File;
 import java.io.IOException;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
 import javax.imageio.ImageIO;
 
 /**
@@ -22,14 +25,16 @@
  * https://natureofcode.com/book/chapter-8-fractals/
  * #84-the-koch-curve-and-the-arraylist-technique ).
  */
-public class KochSnowflake {
+public final class KochSnowflake {
+    private KochSnowflake() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         // Test Iterate-method
         ArrayList<Vector2> vectors = new ArrayList<Vector2>();
         vectors.add(new Vector2(0, 0));
         vectors.add(new Vector2(1, 0));
-        ArrayList<Vector2> result = Iterate(vectors, 1);
+        ArrayList<Vector2> result = iterate(vectors, 1);
 
         assert result.get(0).x == 0;
         assert result.get(0).y == 0;
@@ -50,7 +55,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         int imageWidth = 600;
         double offsetX = imageWidth / 10.;
         double offsetY = imageWidth / 3.7;
-        BufferedImage image = GetKochSnowflake(imageWidth, 5);
+        BufferedImage image = getKochSnowflake(imageWidth, 5);
 
         // The background should be white
         assert image.getRGB(0, 0) == new Color(255, 255, 255).getRGB();
@@ -76,10 +81,10 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @param steps The number of iterations.
      * @return The transformed vectors after the iteration-steps.
      */
-    public static ArrayList<Vector2> Iterate(ArrayList<Vector2> initialVectors, int steps) {
+    public static ArrayList<Vector2> iterate(ArrayList<Vector2> initialVectors, int steps) {
         ArrayList<Vector2> vectors = initialVectors;
         for (int i = 0; i < steps; i++) {
-            vectors = IterationStep(vectors);
+            vectors = iterationStep(vectors);
         }
 
         return vectors;
@@ -92,7 +97,7 @@ public static ArrayList<Vector2> Iterate(ArrayList<Vector2> initialVectors, int
      * @param steps The number of iterations.
      * @return The image of the rendered Koch snowflake.
      */
-    public static BufferedImage GetKochSnowflake(int imageWidth, int steps) {
+    public static BufferedImage getKochSnowflake(int imageWidth, int steps) {
         if (imageWidth <= 0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("imageWidth should be greater than zero");
         }
@@ -100,16 +105,15 @@ public static BufferedImage GetKochSnowflake(int imageWidth, int steps) {
         double offsetX = imageWidth / 10.;
         double offsetY = imageWidth / 3.7;
         Vector2 vector1 = new Vector2(offsetX, offsetY);
-        Vector2 vector2
-                = new Vector2(imageWidth / 2, Math.sin(Math.PI / 3) * imageWidth * 0.8 + offsetY);
+        Vector2 vector2 = new Vector2(imageWidth / 2.0, Math.sin(Math.PI / 3.0) * imageWidth * 0.8 + offsetY);
         Vector2 vector3 = new Vector2(imageWidth - offsetX, offsetY);
         ArrayList<Vector2> initialVectors = new ArrayList<Vector2>();
         initialVectors.add(vector1);
         initialVectors.add(vector2);
         initialVectors.add(vector3);
         initialVectors.add(vector1);
-        ArrayList<Vector2> vectors = Iterate(initialVectors, steps);
-        return GetImage(vectors, imageWidth, imageWidth);
+        ArrayList<Vector2> vectors = iterate(initialVectors, steps);
+        return getImage(vectors, imageWidth, imageWidth);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -122,7 +126,7 @@ public static BufferedImage GetKochSnowflake(int imageWidth, int steps) {
      * applied.
      * @return The transformed vectors after the iteration-step.
      */
-    private static ArrayList<Vector2> IterationStep(ArrayList<Vector2> vectors) {
+    private static ArrayList<Vector2> iterationStep(List<Vector2> vectors) {
         ArrayList<Vector2> newVectors = new ArrayList<Vector2>();
         for (int i = 0; i < vectors.size() - 1; i++) {
             Vector2 startVector = vectors.get(i);
@@ -146,8 +150,7 @@ private static ArrayList<Vector2> IterationStep(ArrayList<Vector2> vectors) {
      * @param imageHeight The height of the rendered image.
      * @return The image of the rendered edges.
      */
-    private static BufferedImage GetImage(
-            ArrayList<Vector2> vectors, int imageWidth, int imageHeight) {
+    private static BufferedImage getImage(ArrayList<Vector2> vectors, int imageWidth, int imageHeight) {
         BufferedImage image = new BufferedImage(imageWidth, imageHeight, BufferedImage.TYPE_INT_RGB);
         Graphics2D g2d = image.createGraphics();
 
@@ -176,9 +179,10 @@ private static BufferedImage GetImage(
      */
     private static class Vector2 {
 
-        double x, y;
+        double x;
+        double y;
 
-        public Vector2(double x, double y) {
+        Vector2(double x, double y) {
             this.x = x;
             this.y = y;
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Krishnamurthy.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Krishnamurthy.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 2b0c61ff99c7..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Krishnamurthy.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,33 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-class Krishnamurthy {
-
-    static int fact(int n) {
-        int i, p = 1;
-        for (i = n; i >= 1; i--) {
-            p = p * i;
-        }
-        return p;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int a, b, s = 0;
-        System.out.print("Enter the number : ");
-        a = sc.nextInt();
-        int n = a;
-        while (a > 0) {
-            b = a % 10;
-            s = s + fact(b);
-            a = a / 10;
-        }
-        if (s == n) {
-            System.out.print(n + " is a krishnamurthy number");
-        } else {
-            System.out.print(n + " is not a krishnamurthy number");
-        }
-        sc.close();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweep.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweep.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b7db964c98d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweep.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+
+/**
+ * The Line Sweep algorithm is used to solve range problems efficiently. It works by:
+ * 1. Sorting a list of ranges by their start values in non-decreasing order.
+ * 2. Sweeping through the number line (x-axis) while updating a count for each point based on the ranges.
+ *
+ * An overlapping range is defined as:
+ * - (StartA <= EndB) AND (EndA >= StartB)
+ *
+ * References:
+ * - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweep_line_algorithm
+ * - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Morgan%27s_laws
+ */
+public final class LineSweep {
+    private LineSweep() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the maximum endpoint from a list of ranges.
+     *
+     * @param ranges a 2D array where each element is a range represented by [start, end]
+     * @return the maximum endpoint among all ranges
+     */
+    public static int findMaximumEndPoint(int[][] ranges) {
+        Arrays.sort(ranges, Comparator.comparingInt(range -> range[1]));
+        return ranges[ranges.length - 1][1];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Determines if any of the given ranges overlap.
+     *
+     * @param ranges a 2D array where each element is a range represented by [start, end]
+     * @return true if any ranges overlap, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isOverlap(int[][] ranges) {
+        if (ranges == null || ranges.length == 0) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        int maximumEndPoint = findMaximumEndPoint(ranges);
+        int[] numberLine = new int[maximumEndPoint + 2];
+        for (int[] range : ranges) {
+            int start = range[0];
+            int end = range[1];
+
+            numberLine[start] += 1;
+            numberLine[end + 1] -= 1;
+        }
+
+        int currentCount = 0;
+        int maxOverlaps = 0;
+        for (int count : numberLine) {
+            currentCount += count;
+            maxOverlaps = Math.max(maxOverlaps, currentCount);
+        }
+        return maxOverlaps > 1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinearCongruentialGenerator.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinearCongruentialGenerator.java
index 7e097f1b09db..36bcca3edc00 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinearCongruentialGenerator.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinearCongruentialGenerator.java
@@ -9,7 +9,10 @@
  */
 public class LinearCongruentialGenerator {
 
-    private double a, c, m, previousValue;
+    private final double a;
+    private final double c;
+    private final double m;
+    private double previousValue;
 
     /**
      * *
@@ -35,8 +38,7 @@ public LinearCongruentialGenerator(double multiplier, double increment, double m
      * @param modulo The maximum number that can be generated (exclusive). A
      * common value is 2^32.
      */
-    public LinearCongruentialGenerator(
-            double seed, double multiplier, double increment, double modulo) {
+    public LinearCongruentialGenerator(double seed, double multiplier, double increment, double modulo) {
         this.previousValue = seed;
         this.a = multiplier;
         this.c = increment;
@@ -58,8 +60,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         // Show the LCG in action.
         // Decisive proof that the LCG works could be made by adding each number
         // generated to a Set while checking for duplicates.
-        LinearCongruentialGenerator lcg
-                = new LinearCongruentialGenerator(1664525, 1013904223, Math.pow(2.0, 32.0));
+        LinearCongruentialGenerator lcg = new LinearCongruentialGenerator(1664525, 1013904223, Math.pow(2.0, 32.0));
         for (int i = 0; i < 512; i++) {
             System.out.println(lcg.nextNumber());
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindrome.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindrome.java
index 4b11134452fa..a3ca8d6f6db8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindrome.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindrome.java
@@ -1,149 +1,180 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import java.util.InputMismatchException;
-import java.util.Scanner;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * Class for finding the lowest base in which a given integer is a palindrome.
- * Includes auxiliary methods for converting between bases and reversing
- * strings.
- *
+ * Utility class for finding the lowest base in which a given integer is a
+ * palindrome.
+ * <p>
+ * A number is a palindrome in a given base if its representation in that base
+ * reads the same
+ * forwards and backwards. For example, 15 in base 2 is 1111, which is
+ * palindromic.
+ * This class provides methods to check palindromic properties and find the
+ * smallest base
+ * where a number becomes palindromic.
+ * </p>
  * <p>
- * NOTE: There is potential for error, see note at line 63.
+ * Example: The number 15 in base 2 is represented as [1,1,1,1], which is
+ * palindromic.
+ * The number 10 in base 3 is represented as [1,0,1], which is also palindromic.
+ * </p>
  *
- * @author RollandMichael
- * @version 2017.09.28
+ * @see <a href="https://oeis.org/A016026">OEIS A016026 - Smallest base in which
+ *      n is palindromic</a>
+ * @author TheAlgorithms Contributors
  */
-public class LowestBasePalindrome {
+public final class LowestBasePalindrome {
+    private LowestBasePalindrome() {
+    }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n = 0;
-        while (true) {
-            try {
-                System.out.print("Enter number: ");
-                n = in.nextInt();
-                break;
-            } catch (InputMismatchException e) {
-                System.out.println("Invalid input!");
-                in.next();
-            }
+    /**
+     * Validates the base, ensuring it is greater than 1.
+     *
+     * @param base the base to be checked
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the base is less than or equal to 1
+     */
+    private static void checkBase(int base) {
+        if (base <= 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Base must be greater than 1.");
         }
-        System.out.println(n + " is a palindrome in base " + lowestBasePalindrome(n));
-        System.out.println(base2base(Integer.toString(n), 10, lowestBasePalindrome(n)));
-        in.close();
     }
 
     /**
-     * Given a number in base 10, returns the lowest base in which the number is
-     * represented by a palindrome (read the same left-to-right and
-     * right-to-left).
+     * Validates the number, ensuring it is non-negative.
      *
-     * @param num A number in base 10.
-     * @return The lowest base in which num is a palindrome.
+     * @param number the number to be checked
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the number is negative
      */
-    public static int lowestBasePalindrome(int num) {
-        int base, num2 = num;
-        int digit;
-        char digitC;
-        boolean foundBase = false;
-        String newNum = "";
-        String digits = "0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
+    private static void checkNumber(int number) {
+        if (number < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number must be non-negative.");
+        }
+    }
 
-        while (!foundBase) {
-            // Try from bases 2 to num-1
-            for (base = 2; base < num2; base++) {
-                newNum = "";
-                while (num > 0) {
-                    // Obtain the first digit of n in the current base,
-                    // which is equivalent to the integer remainder of (n/base).
-                    // The next digit is obtained by dividing n by the base and
-                    // continuing the process of getting the remainder. This is done
-                    // until n is <=0 and the number in the new base is obtained.
-                    digit = (num % base);
-                    num /= base;
-                    // If the digit isn't in the set of [0-9][A-Z] (beyond base 36), its character
-                    // form is just its value in ASCII.
+    /**
+     * Computes the digits of a given number in a specified base.
+     * <p>
+     * The digits are returned in reverse order (least significant digit first).
+     * For example, the number 13 in base 2 produces [1,0,1,1] representing 1101 in
+     * binary.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param number the number to be converted (must be non-negative)
+     * @param base   the base to be used for the conversion (must be greater than 1)
+     * @return a list of digits representing the number in the given base, with the
+     *         least significant digit at the beginning of the list
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the number is negative or the base is
+     *                                  less than 2
+     */
+    public static List<Integer> computeDigitsInBase(int number, int base) {
+        checkNumber(number);
+        checkBase(base);
 
-                    // NOTE: This may cause problems, as the capital letters are ASCII values
-                    // 65-90. It may cause false positives when one digit is, for instance 10 and assigned
-                    // 'A' from the character array and the other is 65 and also assigned 'A'.
-                    // Regardless, the character is added to the representation of n
-                    // in the current base.
-                    if (digit >= digits.length()) {
-                        digitC = (char) (digit);
-                        newNum += digitC;
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    newNum += digits.charAt(digit);
-                }
-                // Num is assigned back its original value for the next iteration.
-                num = num2;
-                // Auxiliary method reverses the number.
-                String reverse = reverse(newNum);
-                // If the number is read the same as its reverse, then it is a palindrome.
-                // The current base is returned.
-                if (reverse.equals(newNum)) {
-                    foundBase = true;
-                    return base;
-                }
-            }
+        List<Integer> digits = new ArrayList<>();
+        while (number > 0) {
+            digits.add(number % base);
+            number /= base;
         }
-        // If all else fails, n is always a palindrome in base n-1. ("11")
-        return num - 1;
+        return digits;
     }
 
-    private static String reverse(String str) {
-        String reverse = "";
-        for (int i = str.length() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-            reverse += str.charAt(i);
+    /**
+     * Checks if a list of integers is palindromic.
+     * <p>
+     * A list is palindromic if it reads the same forwards and backwards.
+     * For example, [1,2,1] is palindromic, but [1,2,3] is not.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param list the list of integers to be checked
+     * @return {@code true} if the list is a palindrome, {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isPalindromic(List<Integer> list) {
+        int size = list.size();
+        for (int i = 0; i < size / 2; i++) {
+            if (!list.get(i).equals(list.get(size - 1 - i))) {
+                return false;
+            }
         }
-        return reverse;
+        return true;
     }
 
-    private static String base2base(String n, int b1, int b2) {
-        // Declare variables: decimal value of n,
-        // character of base b1, character of base b2,
-        // and the string that will be returned.
-        int decimalValue = 0, charB2;
-        char charB1;
-        String output = "";
-        // Go through every character of n
-        for (int i = 0; i < n.length(); i++) {
-            // store the character in charB1
-            charB1 = n.charAt(i);
-            // if it is a non-number, convert it to a decimal value >9 and store it in charB2
-            if (charB1 >= 'A' && charB1 <= 'Z') {
-                charB2 = 10 + (charB1 - 'A');
-            } // Else, store the integer value in charB2
-            else {
-                charB2 = charB1 - '0';
-            }
-            // Convert the digit to decimal and add it to the
-            // decimalValue of n
-            decimalValue = decimalValue * b1 + charB2;
+    /**
+     * Checks if the representation of a given number in a specified base is
+     * palindromic.
+     * <p>
+     * This method first validates the input, then applies optimization: if the
+     * number
+     * ends with 0 in the given base (i.e., divisible by the base), it cannot be
+     * palindromic
+     * as palindromes cannot start with 0.
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Examples:
+     * - 101 in base 10 is palindromic (101)
+     * - 15 in base 2 is palindromic (1111)
+     * - 10 in base 3 is palindromic (101)
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param number the number to be checked (must be non-negative)
+     * @param base   the base in which the number will be represented (must be
+     *               greater than 1)
+     * @return {@code true} if the number is palindromic in the specified base,
+     *         {@code false} otherwise
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the number is negative or the base is
+     *                                  less than 2
+     */
+    public static boolean isPalindromicInBase(int number, int base) {
+        checkNumber(number);
+        checkBase(base);
+
+        if (number <= 1) {
+            return true;
         }
 
-        // Converting the decimal value to base b2:
-        // A number is converted from decimal to another base
-        // by continuously dividing by the base and recording
-        // the remainder until the quotient is zero. The number in the
-        // new base is the remainders, with the last remainder
-        // being the left-most digit.
-        // While the quotient is NOT zero:
-        while (decimalValue != 0) {
-            // If the remainder is a digit < 10, simply add it to
-            // the left side of the new number.
-            if (decimalValue % b2 < 10) {
-                output = Integer.toString(decimalValue % b2) + output;
-            } // If the remainder is >= 10, add a character with the
-            // corresponding value to the new number. (A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, ...)
-            else {
-                output = (char) ((decimalValue % b2) + 55) + output;
-            }
-            // Divide by the new base again
-            decimalValue /= b2;
+        if (number % base == 0) {
+            // If the last digit of the number in the given base is 0, it can't be
+            // palindromic
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        return isPalindromic(computeDigitsInBase(number, base));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the smallest base in which the representation of a given number is
+     * palindromic.
+     * <p>
+     * This method iteratively checks bases starting from 2 until it finds one where
+     * the number is palindromic. For any number n ≥ 2, the number is always
+     * palindromic
+     * in base n-1 (represented as [1, 1]), so this algorithm is guaranteed to
+     * terminate.
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Time Complexity: O(n * log(n)) in the worst case, where we check each base
+     * and
+     * convert the number to that base.
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Examples:
+     * - lowestBasePalindrome(15) returns 2 (15 in base 2 is 1111)
+     * - lowestBasePalindrome(10) returns 3 (10 in base 3 is 101)
+     * - lowestBasePalindrome(11) returns 10 (11 in base 10 is 11)
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param number the number to be checked (must be non-negative)
+     * @return the smallest base in which the number is a palindrome (base ≥ 2)
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the number is negative
+     */
+    public static int lowestBasePalindrome(int number) {
+        checkNumber(number);
+
+        int base = 2;
+        while (!isPalindromicInBase(number, base)) {
+            base++;
         }
-        return output;
+        return base;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java
index 351dc13f7341..600128a7725b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java
@@ -38,7 +38,9 @@
  *
  * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luhn_algorithm">Wiki</a>
  */
-public class Luhn {
+public final class Luhn {
+    private Luhn() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Check input digits array by Luhn algorithm. Initial array doesn't change
@@ -68,7 +70,8 @@ public static boolean luhnCheck(int[] digits) {
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         System.out.println("Luhn algorithm usage examples:");
         int[] validInput = {4, 5, 6, 1, 2, 6, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 6, 7};
-        int[] invalidInput = {4, 5, 6, 1, 2, 6, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 6, 4}; //typo in last symbol
+        int[] invalidInput = {4, 5, 6, 1, 2, 6, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 6, 4}; // typo in last
+                                                                               // symbol
         checkAndPrint(validInput);
         checkAndPrint(invalidInput);
 
@@ -82,13 +85,10 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
     }
 
     private static void checkAndPrint(int[] input) {
-        String validationResult = Luhn.luhnCheck(input)
-                ? "valid"
-                : "not valid";
+        String validationResult = Luhn.luhnCheck(input) ? "valid" : "not valid";
         System.out.println("Input " + Arrays.toString(input) + " is " + validationResult);
     }
 
-
     /*
         ========================
          Business usage example
@@ -98,7 +98,6 @@ private static void checkAndPrint(int[] input) {
      * Object representation of credit card.
      */
     private record CreditCard(int[] digits) {
-
         private static final int DIGITS_COUNT = 16;
 
         /**
@@ -145,9 +144,7 @@ public String toString() {
         }
 
         private static int[] toIntArray(String string) {
-            return string.chars()
-                    .map(i -> Character.digit(i, 10))
-                    .toArray();
+            return string.chars().map(i -> Character.digit(i, 10)).toArray();
         }
     }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java
index 7e2837f1d765..6d7588090ba8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import java.awt.*;
+import java.awt.Color;
 import java.awt.image.BufferedImage;
 import java.io.File;
 import java.io.IOException;
@@ -23,7 +23,9 @@
  * also https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotting_algorithms_for_the_Mandelbrot_set
  * )
  */
-public class Mandelbrot {
+public final class Mandelbrot {
+    private Mandelbrot() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         // Test black and white
@@ -70,14 +72,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
      * @param useDistanceColorCoding Render in color or black and white.
      * @return The image of the rendered Mandelbrot set.
      */
-    public static BufferedImage getImage(
-            int imageWidth,
-            int imageHeight,
-            double figureCenterX,
-            double figureCenterY,
-            double figureWidth,
-            int maxStep,
-            boolean useDistanceColorCoding) {
+    public static BufferedImage getImage(int imageWidth, int imageHeight, double figureCenterX, double figureCenterY, double figureWidth, int maxStep, boolean useDistanceColorCoding) {
         if (imageWidth <= 0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("imageWidth should be greater than zero");
         }
@@ -103,12 +98,7 @@ public static BufferedImage getImage(
                 double distance = getDistance(figureX, figureY, maxStep);
 
                 // color the corresponding pixel based on the selected coloring-function
-                image.setRGB(
-                        imageX,
-                        imageY,
-                        useDistanceColorCoding
-                                ? colorCodedColorMap(distance).getRGB()
-                                : blackAndWhiteColorMap(distance).getRGB());
+                image.setRGB(imageX, imageY, useDistanceColorCoding ? colorCodedColorMap(distance).getRGB() : blackAndWhiteColorMap(distance).getRGB());
             }
         }
 
@@ -151,18 +141,18 @@ private static Color colorCodedColorMap(double distance) {
             int t = (int) (val * (1 - (1 - f) * saturation));
 
             switch (hi) {
-                case 0:
-                    return new Color(v, t, p);
-                case 1:
-                    return new Color(q, v, p);
-                case 2:
-                    return new Color(p, v, t);
-                case 3:
-                    return new Color(p, q, v);
-                case 4:
-                    return new Color(t, p, v);
-                default:
-                    return new Color(v, p, q);
+            case 0:
+                return new Color(v, t, p);
+            case 1:
+                return new Color(q, v, p);
+            case 2:
+                return new Color(p, v, t);
+            case 3:
+                return new Color(p, q, v);
+            case 4:
+                return new Color(t, p, v);
+            default:
+                return new Color(v, p, q);
             }
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dec813dd3213
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.java
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Algorithm to find the maximum sum of a subarray of size K with all distinct
+ * elements.
+ *
+ * This implementation uses a sliding window approach with a hash map to
+ * efficiently
+ * track element frequencies within the current window. The algorithm maintains
+ * a window
+ * of size K and slides it across the array, ensuring all elements in the window
+ * are distinct.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(n) where n is the length of the input array
+ * Space Complexity: O(k) for storing elements in the hash map
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_algorithm">Streaming
+ *      Algorithm</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sliding_window_protocol">Sliding
+ *      Window</a>
+ * @author Swarga-codes (https://github.com/Swarga-codes)
+ */
+public final class MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK {
+    private MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the maximum sum of a subarray of size K consisting of distinct
+     * elements.
+     *
+     * The algorithm uses a sliding window technique with a frequency map to track
+     * the count of each element in the current window. A window is valid only if
+     * all K elements are distinct (frequency map size equals K).
+     *
+     * @param k    The size of the subarray. Must be non-negative.
+     * @param nums The array from which subarrays will be considered.
+     * @return The maximum sum of any distinct-element subarray of size K.
+     *         Returns 0 if no such subarray exists or if k is 0 or negative.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if k is negative
+     */
+    public static long maximumSubarraySum(int k, int... nums) {
+        if (k <= 0 || nums == null || nums.length < k) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        long maxSum = 0;
+        long currentSum = 0;
+        Map<Integer, Integer> frequencyMap = new HashMap<>();
+
+        // Initialize the first window of size k
+        for (int i = 0; i < k; i++) {
+            currentSum += nums[i];
+            frequencyMap.put(nums[i], frequencyMap.getOrDefault(nums[i], 0) + 1);
+        }
+
+        // Check if the first window has all distinct elements
+        if (frequencyMap.size() == k) {
+            maxSum = currentSum;
+        }
+
+        // Slide the window across the array
+        for (int i = k; i < nums.length; i++) {
+            // Remove the leftmost element from the window
+            int leftElement = nums[i - k];
+            currentSum -= leftElement;
+            int leftFrequency = frequencyMap.get(leftElement);
+            if (leftFrequency == 1) {
+                frequencyMap.remove(leftElement);
+            } else {
+                frequencyMap.put(leftElement, leftFrequency - 1);
+            }
+
+            // Add the new rightmost element to the window
+            int rightElement = nums[i];
+            currentSum += rightElement;
+            frequencyMap.put(rightElement, frequencyMap.getOrDefault(rightElement, 0) + 1);
+
+            // If all elements in the window are distinct, update maxSum if needed
+            if (frequencyMap.size() == k && currentSum > maxSum) {
+                maxSum = currentSum;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return maxSum;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MemoryManagementAlgorithms.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MemoryManagementAlgorithms.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0924b8569942
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MemoryManagementAlgorithms.java
@@ -0,0 +1,282 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+/**
+ * @author Alexandros Lemonaris
+ */
+public abstract class MemoryManagementAlgorithms {
+
+    /**
+     * Method to allocate memory to blocks according to CPU algorithms.
+     * Use of inheritance to avoid repeated code.
+     * Abstract method since it is implemented different for each algorithm.
+     * It should return an ArrayList of Integers, where the index is the process
+     * ID (zero-indexed) and the value is the block number (also zero-indexed).
+     * @param sizeOfBlocks an int array that contains the sizes of the memory
+     * blocks available.
+     * @param sizeOfProcesses: an int array that contains the sizes of the
+     * processes we need memory blocks for.
+     * @return the ArrayList filled with Integers repressenting the memory
+     * allocation that took place.
+     */
+    public abstract ArrayList<Integer> fitProcess(int[] sizeOfBlocks, int[] sizeOfProcesses);
+
+    /**
+     * A constant value used to indicate that an allocation has not been made.
+     * This value is used as a sentinel value to represent that no allocation has been made
+     * when allocating space in an array or other data structure.
+     * The value is -255 and is marked as protected and final to ensure that it cannot be modified
+     * from outside the class and that its value remains consistent throughout the program
+     * execution.
+     *
+     * @author: Ishan Makadia (github.com/intrepid-ishan)
+     * @version: April 06, 2023
+     */
+    protected static final int NO_ALLOCATION = -255;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @author Dekas Dimitrios
+ */
+class BestFitCPU extends MemoryManagementAlgorithms {
+
+    /**
+     * Method to find the maximum valued element of an array filled with
+     * positive integers.
+     *
+     * @param array: an array filled with positive integers.
+     * @return the maximum valued element of the array.
+     */
+    private static int findMaxElement(int[] array) {
+        int max = -1;
+        for (int value : array) {
+            if (value > max) {
+                max = value;
+            }
+        }
+        return max;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
+     * given process based on the best fit algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
+     * @param process: the size of the process.
+     * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
+     * exists.
+     */
+    private static int findBestFit(int[] blockSizes, int processSize) {
+        // Initialize minDiff with an unreachable value by a difference between a blockSize and the
+        // processSize.
+        int minDiff = findMaxElement(blockSizes);
+        int index = NO_ALLOCATION; // If there is no block that can fit the process, return
+                                   // NO_ALLOCATION as the
+        // result.
+        for (int i = 0; i < blockSizes.length; i++) { // Find the most fitting memory block for the given process.
+            if (blockSizes[i] - processSize < minDiff && blockSizes[i] - processSize >= 0) {
+                minDiff = blockSizes[i] - processSize;
+                index = i;
+            }
+        }
+        return index;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Method to allocate memory to blocks according to the best fit algorithm.
+     * It should return an ArrayList of Integers, where the index is the process
+     * ID (zero-indexed) and the value is the block number (also zero-indexed).
+     *
+     * @param sizeOfBlocks: an int array that contains the sizes of the memory
+     * blocks available.
+     * @param sizeOfProcesses: an int array that contains the sizes of the
+     * processes we need memory blocks for.
+     * @return the ArrayList filled with Integers repressenting the memory
+     * allocation that took place.
+     */
+    public ArrayList<Integer> fitProcess(int[] sizeOfBlocks, int[] sizeOfProcesses) {
+        // The array list responsible for saving the memory allocations done by the best-fit
+        // algorithm
+        ArrayList<Integer> memAlloc = new ArrayList<>();
+        // Do this for every process
+        for (int processSize : sizeOfProcesses) {
+            int chosenBlockIdx = findBestFit(sizeOfBlocks, processSize); // Find the index of the memory block going to be used
+            memAlloc.add(chosenBlockIdx); // Store the chosen block index in the memAlloc array list
+            if (chosenBlockIdx != NO_ALLOCATION) { // Only if a block was chosen to store the process in it,
+                sizeOfBlocks[chosenBlockIdx] -= processSize; // resize the block based on the process size
+            }
+        }
+        return memAlloc;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @author Dekas Dimitrios
+ */
+class WorstFitCPU extends MemoryManagementAlgorithms {
+
+    /**
+     * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
+     * given process based on the worst fit algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
+     * @param process: the size of the process.
+     * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
+     * exists.
+     */
+    private static int findWorstFit(int[] blockSizes, int processSize) {
+        int max = -1;
+        int index = -1;
+        for (int i = 0; i < blockSizes.length; i++) { // Find the index of the biggest memory block available.
+            if (blockSizes[i] > max) {
+                max = blockSizes[i];
+                index = i;
+            }
+        }
+        // If the biggest memory block cannot fit the process, return -255 as the result
+        if (processSize > blockSizes[index]) {
+            return NO_ALLOCATION;
+        }
+        return index;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Method to allocate memory to blocks according to the worst fit algorithm.
+     * It should return an ArrayList of Integers, where the index is the process
+     * ID (zero-indexed) and the value is the block number (also zero-indexed).
+     *
+     * @param sizeOfBlocks: an int array that contains the sizes of the memory
+     * blocks available.
+     * @param sizeOfProcesses: an int array that contains the sizes of the
+     * processes we need memory blocks for.
+     * @return the ArrayList filled with Integers repressenting the memory
+     * allocation that took place.
+     */
+    public ArrayList<Integer> fitProcess(int[] sizeOfBlocks, int[] sizeOfProcesses) {
+        // The array list responsible for saving the memory allocations done by the worst-fit
+        // algorithm
+        ArrayList<Integer> memAlloc = new ArrayList<>();
+        // Do this for every process
+        for (int processSize : sizeOfProcesses) {
+            int chosenBlockIdx = findWorstFit(sizeOfBlocks, processSize); // Find the index of the memory block going to be used
+            memAlloc.add(chosenBlockIdx); // Store the chosen block index in the memAlloc array list
+            if (chosenBlockIdx != NO_ALLOCATION) { // Only if a block was chosen to store the process in it,
+                sizeOfBlocks[chosenBlockIdx] -= processSize; // resize the block based on the process size
+            }
+        }
+        return memAlloc;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @author Dekas Dimitrios
+ */
+class FirstFitCPU extends MemoryManagementAlgorithms {
+
+    /**
+     * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
+     * given process based on the first fit algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
+     * @param process: the size of the process.
+     * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
+     * exists.
+     */
+    private static int findFirstFit(int[] blockSizes, int processSize) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < blockSizes.length; i++) {
+            if (blockSizes[i] >= processSize) {
+                return i;
+            }
+        }
+        // If there is not a block that can fit the process, return -255 as the result
+        return NO_ALLOCATION;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Method to allocate memory to blocks according to the first fit algorithm.
+     * It should return an ArrayList of Integers, where the index is the process
+     * ID (zero-indexed) and the value is the block number (also zero-indexed).
+     *
+     * @param sizeOfBlocks: an int array that contains the sizes of the memory
+     * blocks available.
+     * @param sizeOfProcesses: an int array that contains the sizes of the
+     * processes we need memory blocks for.
+     * @return the ArrayList filled with Integers repressenting the memory
+     * allocation that took place.
+     */
+    public ArrayList<Integer> fitProcess(int[] sizeOfBlocks, int[] sizeOfProcesses) {
+        // The array list responsible for saving the memory allocations done by the first-fit
+        // algorithm
+        ArrayList<Integer> memAlloc = new ArrayList<>();
+        // Do this for every process
+        for (int processSize : sizeOfProcesses) {
+            int chosenBlockIdx = findFirstFit(sizeOfBlocks, processSize); // Find the index of the memory block going to be used
+            memAlloc.add(chosenBlockIdx); // Store the chosen block index in the memAlloc array list
+            if (chosenBlockIdx != NO_ALLOCATION) { // Only if a block was chosen to store the process in it,
+                sizeOfBlocks[chosenBlockIdx] -= processSize; // resize the block based on the process size
+            }
+        }
+        return memAlloc;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @author Alexandros Lemonaris
+ */
+class NextFit extends MemoryManagementAlgorithms {
+
+    private int counter = 0; // variable that keeps the position of the last registration into the memory
+
+    /**
+     * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
+     * given process based on the next fit algorithm. In the case of next fit,
+     * if the search is interrupted in between, the new search is carried out from the last
+     * location.
+     *
+     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
+     * @param process: the size of the process.
+     * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
+     * exists.
+     */
+    private int findNextFit(int[] blockSizes, int processSize) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < blockSizes.length; i++) {
+            if (counter + i >= blockSizes.length) {
+                counter = -i; // starts from the start of the array
+            }
+            if (blockSizes[i + counter] >= processSize) {
+                counter += i;
+                return counter;
+            }
+        }
+        // If there is not a block that can fit the process, return -255 as the result
+        counter += blockSizes.length; // counter keeps its last value
+        return NO_ALLOCATION;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Method to allocate memory to blocks according to the first fit algorithm.
+     * It should return an ArrayList of Integers, where the index is the process
+     * ID (zero-indexed) and the value is the block number (also zero-indexed).
+     *
+     * @param sizeOfBlocks: an int array that contains the sizes of the memory
+     * blocks available.
+     * @param sizeOfProcesses: an int array that contains the sizes of the
+     * processes we need memory blocks for.
+     * @return the ArrayList filled with Integers repressenting the memory
+     * allocation that took place.
+     */
+    public ArrayList<Integer> fitProcess(int[] sizeOfBlocks, int[] sizeOfProcesses) {
+        // The array list responsible for saving the memory allocations done by the first-fit
+        // algorithm
+        ArrayList<Integer> memAlloc = new ArrayList<>();
+        // Do this for every process
+        for (int processSize : sizeOfProcesses) {
+            int chosenBlockIdx = findNextFit(sizeOfBlocks, processSize); // Find the index of the memory block going to be used
+            memAlloc.add(chosenBlockIdx); // Store the chosen block index in the memAlloc array list
+            if (chosenBlockIdx != NO_ALLOCATION) { // Only if a block was chosen to store the process in it,
+                sizeOfBlocks[chosenBlockIdx] -= processSize; // resize the block based on the process size
+            }
+        }
+        return memAlloc;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java
index f40862baab1e..28dc980034f3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java
@@ -4,59 +4,105 @@
 import java.util.Random;
 
 /**
- * MiniMax is an algorithm used int artificial intelligence and game theory for
- * minimizing the possible loss for the worst case scenario.
+ * MiniMax is an algorithm used in artificial intelligence and game theory for
+ * minimizing the possible loss for the worst case scenario. It is commonly used
+ * in two-player turn-based games such as Tic-Tac-Toe, Chess, and Checkers.
  *
- * See more (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimax,
- * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/minimax-algorithm-in-game-theory-set-1-introduction/).
+ * <p>
+ * The algorithm simulates all possible moves in a game tree and chooses the
+ * move that minimizes the maximum possible loss. The algorithm assumes both
+ * players play optimally.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity: O(b^d) where b is the branching factor and d is the depth
+ * <p>
+ * Space Complexity: O(d) for the recursive call stack
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * See more:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimax">Wikipedia - Minimax</a>
+ * <li><a href=
+ * "https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/minimax-algorithm-in-game-theory-set-1-introduction/">
+ * GeeksforGeeks - Minimax Algorithm</a>
+ * </ul>
  *
  * @author aitofi (https://github.com/aitorfi)
  */
-public class MiniMaxAlgorithm {
+public final class MiniMaxAlgorithm {
+
+    private static final Random RANDOM = new Random();
 
     /**
      * Game tree represented as an int array containing scores. Each array
-     * element is a leaf node.
+     * element is a leaf node. The array length must be a power of 2.
      */
     private int[] scores;
+
+    /**
+     * The height of the game tree, calculated as log2(scores.length).
+     */
     private int height;
 
     /**
-     * Initializes the scores with 8 random leaf nodes
+     * Initializes the MiniMaxAlgorithm with 8 random leaf nodes (2^3 = 8).
+     * Each score is a random integer between 1 and 99 inclusive.
      */
     public MiniMaxAlgorithm() {
-        scores = getRandomScores(3, 99);
-        height = log2(scores.length);
+        this(getRandomScores(3, 99));
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Initializes the MiniMaxAlgorithm with the provided scores.
+     *
+     * @param scores An array of scores representing leaf nodes. The length must be
+     *               a power of 2.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the scores array length is not a power of
+     *                                  2
+     */
+    public MiniMaxAlgorithm(int[] scores) {
+        if (!isPowerOfTwo(scores.length)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The number of scores must be a power of 2.");
+        }
+        this.scores = Arrays.copyOf(scores, scores.length);
+        this.height = log2(scores.length);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Demonstrates the MiniMax algorithm with a random game tree.
+     *
+     * @param args Command line arguments (not used)
+     */
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-        MiniMaxAlgorithm miniMaxAlgorith = new MiniMaxAlgorithm();
+        MiniMaxAlgorithm miniMaxAlgorithm = new MiniMaxAlgorithm();
         boolean isMaximizer = true; // Specifies the player that goes first.
-        boolean verbose = true; // True to show each players choices.
         int bestScore;
 
-        bestScore = miniMaxAlgorith.miniMax(0, isMaximizer, 0, verbose);
+        bestScore = miniMaxAlgorithm.miniMax(0, isMaximizer, 0, true);
 
-        if (verbose) {
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-
-        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(miniMaxAlgorith.getScores()));
-        System.out.println(
-                "The best score for " + (isMaximizer ? "Maximizer" : "Minimizer") + " is " + String.valueOf(bestScore));
+        System.out.println();
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(miniMaxAlgorithm.getScores()));
+        System.out.println("The best score for " + (isMaximizer ? "Maximizer" : "Minimizer") + " is " + bestScore);
     }
 
     /**
      * Returns the optimal score assuming that both players play their best.
      *
-     * @param depth Indicates how deep we are into the game tree.
-     * @param isMaximizer True if it is maximizers turn; otherwise false.
-     * @param index Index of the leaf node that is being evaluated.
-     * @param verbose True to show each players choices.
+     * <p>
+     * This method recursively evaluates the game tree using the minimax algorithm.
+     * At each level, the maximizer tries to maximize the score while the minimizer
+     * tries to minimize it.
+     *
+     * @param depth       The current depth in the game tree (0 at root).
+     * @param isMaximizer True if it is the maximizer's turn; false for minimizer.
+     * @param index       Index of the current node in the game tree.
+     * @param verbose     True to print each player's choice during evaluation.
      * @return The optimal score for the player that made the first move.
      */
     public int miniMax(int depth, boolean isMaximizer, int index, boolean verbose) {
-        int bestScore, score1, score2;
+        int bestScore;
+        int score1;
+        int score2;
 
         if (depth == height) { // Leaf node reached.
             return scores[index];
@@ -74,54 +120,85 @@ public int miniMax(int depth, boolean isMaximizer, int index, boolean verbose) {
         }
 
         // Leaf nodes can be sequentially inspected by
-        // recurssively multiplying (0 * 2) and ((0 * 2) + 1):
+        // recursively multiplying (0 * 2) and ((0 * 2) + 1):
         // (0 x 2) = 0; ((0 x 2) + 1) = 1
         // (1 x 2) = 2; ((1 x 2) + 1) = 3
         // (2 x 2) = 4; ((2 x 2) + 1) = 5 ...
         if (verbose) {
-            System.out.println(String.format("From %02d and %02d, %s chooses %02d", score1, score2,
-                    (isMaximizer ? "Maximizer" : "Minimizer"), bestScore));
+            System.out.printf("From %02d and %02d, %s chooses %02d%n", score1, score2, (isMaximizer ? "Maximizer" : "Minimizer"), bestScore);
         }
 
         return bestScore;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns an array of random numbers which lenght is a power of 2.
+     * Returns an array of random numbers whose length is a power of 2.
      *
-     * @param size The power of 2 that will determine the lenght of the array.
-     * @param maxScore The maximum possible score.
-     * @return An array of random numbers.
+     * @param size     The power of 2 that will determine the length of the array
+     *                 (array length = 2^size).
+     * @param maxScore The maximum possible score (scores will be between 1 and
+     *                 maxScore inclusive).
+     * @return An array of random numbers with length 2^size.
      */
     public static int[] getRandomScores(int size, int maxScore) {
         int[] randomScores = new int[(int) Math.pow(2, size)];
-        Random rand = new Random();
 
         for (int i = 0; i < randomScores.length; i++) {
-            randomScores[i] = rand.nextInt(maxScore) + 1;
+            randomScores[i] = RANDOM.nextInt(maxScore) + 1;
         }
 
         return randomScores;
     }
 
-    // A utility function to find Log n in base 2
+    /**
+     * Calculates the logarithm base 2 of a number.
+     *
+     * @param n The number to calculate log2 for (must be a power of 2).
+     * @return The log2 of n.
+     */
     private int log2(int n) {
         return (n == 1) ? 0 : log2(n / 2) + 1;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Checks if a number is a power of 2.
+     *
+     * @param n The number to check.
+     * @return True if n is a power of 2, false otherwise.
+     */
+    private boolean isPowerOfTwo(int n) {
+        return n > 0 && (n & (n - 1)) == 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sets the scores array for the game tree.
+     *
+     * @param scores The array of scores. Length must be a power of 2.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the scores array length is not a power of
+     *                                  2
+     */
     public void setScores(int[] scores) {
-        if (scores.length % 1 == 0) {
-            this.scores = scores;
-            height = log2(this.scores.length);
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("The number of scores must be a power of 2.");
+        if (!isPowerOfTwo(scores.length)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The number of scores must be a power of 2.");
         }
+        this.scores = Arrays.copyOf(scores, scores.length);
+        height = log2(this.scores.length);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns a copy of the scores array.
+     *
+     * @return A copy of the scores array.
+     */
     public int[] getScores() {
-        return scores;
+        return Arrays.copyOf(scores, scores.length);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns the height of the game tree.
+     *
+     * @return The height of the game tree (log2 of the number of leaf nodes).
+     */
     public int getHeight() {
         return height;
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2d2778339a7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,260 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+
+/**
+ * Mo's Algorithm (Square Root Decomposition) for offline range queries
+ *
+ * Mo's Algorithm is used to answer range queries efficiently when:
+ * 1. Queries can be processed offline (all queries known beforehand)
+ * 2. We can efficiently add/remove elements from current range
+ * 3. The problem has optimal substructure for range operations
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O((N + Q) * sqrt(N)) where N = array size, Q = number of queries
+ * Space Complexity: O(N + Q)
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dsa/mos-algorithm-query-square-root-decomposition-set-1-introduction/">Mo's Algorithm</a>
+ * @author BEASTSHRIRAM
+ */
+public final class MosAlgorithm {
+
+    /**
+     * Query structure to store range queries
+     */
+    public static class Query {
+        public final int left;
+        public final int right;
+        public final int index; // Original index of query
+        public int result; // Result of the query
+
+        public Query(int left, int right, int index) {
+            this.left = left;
+            this.right = right;
+            this.index = index;
+            this.result = 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private MosAlgorithm() {
+        // Utility class
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves range sum queries using Mo's Algorithm
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param queries array of queries to process
+     * @return array of results corresponding to each query
+     */
+    public static int[] solveRangeSumQueries(int[] arr, Query[] queries) {
+        if (arr == null || queries == null || arr.length == 0) {
+            return new int[0];
+        }
+
+        int n = arr.length;
+        int blockSize = (int) Math.sqrt(n);
+
+        // Sort queries using Mo's ordering
+        Arrays.sort(queries, new MoComparator(blockSize));
+
+        // Initialize variables for current range
+        int currentLeft = 0;
+        int currentRight = -1;
+        int currentSum = 0;
+
+        // Process each query
+        for (Query query : queries) {
+            // Expand or shrink the current range to match query range
+
+            // Expand right boundary
+            while (currentRight < query.right) {
+                currentRight++;
+                currentSum += arr[currentRight];
+            }
+
+            // Shrink right boundary
+            while (currentRight > query.right) {
+                currentSum -= arr[currentRight];
+                currentRight--;
+            }
+
+            // Expand left boundary
+            while (currentLeft < query.left) {
+                currentSum -= arr[currentLeft];
+                currentLeft++;
+            }
+
+            // Shrink left boundary
+            while (currentLeft > query.left) {
+                currentLeft--;
+                currentSum += arr[currentLeft];
+            }
+
+            // Store the result
+            query.result = currentSum;
+        }
+
+        // Extract results in original query order
+        int[] results = new int[queries.length];
+        for (Query query : queries) {
+            results[query.index] = query.result;
+        }
+
+        return results;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves range frequency queries using Mo's Algorithm
+     * Example: Count occurrences of a specific value in range [L, R]
+     *
+     * @param arr the input array
+     * @param queries array of queries to process
+     * @param targetValue the value to count in each range
+     * @return array of results corresponding to each query
+     */
+    public static int[] solveRangeFrequencyQueries(int[] arr, Query[] queries, int targetValue) {
+        if (arr == null || queries == null || arr.length == 0) {
+            return new int[0];
+        }
+
+        int n = arr.length;
+        int blockSize = (int) Math.sqrt(n);
+
+        // Sort queries using Mo's ordering
+        Arrays.sort(queries, new MoComparator(blockSize));
+
+        // Initialize variables for current range
+        int currentLeft = 0;
+        int currentRight = -1;
+        int currentCount = 0;
+
+        // Process each query
+        for (Query query : queries) {
+            // Expand right boundary
+            while (currentRight < query.right) {
+                currentRight++;
+                if (arr[currentRight] == targetValue) {
+                    currentCount++;
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Shrink right boundary
+            while (currentRight > query.right) {
+                if (arr[currentRight] == targetValue) {
+                    currentCount--;
+                }
+                currentRight--;
+            }
+
+            // Expand left boundary
+            while (currentLeft < query.left) {
+                if (arr[currentLeft] == targetValue) {
+                    currentCount--;
+                }
+                currentLeft++;
+            }
+
+            // Shrink left boundary
+            while (currentLeft > query.left) {
+                currentLeft--;
+                if (arr[currentLeft] == targetValue) {
+                    currentCount++;
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Store the result
+            query.result = currentCount;
+        }
+
+        // Extract results in original query order
+        int[] results = new int[queries.length];
+        for (Query query : queries) {
+            results[query.index] = query.result;
+        }
+
+        return results;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Comparator for Mo's Algorithm query ordering
+     * Queries are sorted by block of left endpoint, then by right endpoint
+     */
+    private static class MoComparator implements Comparator<Query> {
+        private final int blockSize;
+
+        MoComparator(int blockSize) {
+            this.blockSize = blockSize;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compare(Query a, Query b) {
+            int blockA = a.left / blockSize;
+            int blockB = b.left / blockSize;
+
+            if (blockA != blockB) {
+                return Integer.compare(blockA, blockB);
+            }
+
+            // For odd blocks, sort right in ascending order
+            // For even blocks, sort right in descending order (optimization)
+            if ((blockA & 1) == 1) {
+                return Integer.compare(a.right, b.right);
+            } else {
+                return Integer.compare(b.right, a.right);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Demo method showing usage of Mo's Algorithm
+     *
+     * @param args command line arguments
+     */
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        // Example: Range sum queries
+        int[] arr = {1, 3, 5, 2, 7, 6, 3, 1, 4, 8};
+
+        Query[] queries = {
+            new Query(0, 2, 0), // Sum of elements from index 0 to 2: 1+3+5 = 9
+            new Query(1, 4, 1), // Sum of elements from index 1 to 4: 3+5+2+7 = 17
+            new Query(2, 6, 2), // Sum of elements from index 2 to 6: 5+2+7+6+3 = 23
+            new Query(3, 8, 3) // Sum of elements from index 3 to 8: 2+7+6+3+1+4 = 23
+        };
+
+        System.out.println("Array: " + Arrays.toString(arr));
+        System.out.println("Range Sum Queries:");
+
+        // Store original queries for display
+        Query[] originalQueries = new Query[queries.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < queries.length; i++) {
+            originalQueries[i] = new Query(queries[i].left, queries[i].right, queries[i].index);
+        }
+
+        int[] results = solveRangeSumQueries(arr, queries);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < originalQueries.length; i++) {
+            System.out.printf("Query %d: Sum of range [%d, %d] = %d%n", i, originalQueries[i].left, originalQueries[i].right, results[i]);
+        }
+
+        // Example: Range frequency queries
+        System.out.println("\nRange Frequency Queries (count of value 3):");
+        Query[] freqQueries = {
+            new Query(0, 5, 0), // Count of 3 in range [0, 5]: 1 occurrence
+            new Query(2, 8, 1), // Count of 3 in range [2, 8]: 2 occurrences
+            new Query(6, 9, 2) // Count of 3 in range [6, 9]: 1 occurrence
+        };
+
+        // Store original frequency queries for display
+        Query[] originalFreqQueries = new Query[freqQueries.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < freqQueries.length; i++) {
+            originalFreqQueries[i] = new Query(freqQueries[i].left, freqQueries[i].right, freqQueries[i].index);
+        }
+
+        int[] freqResults = solveRangeFrequencyQueries(arr, freqQueries, 3);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < originalFreqQueries.length; i++) {
+            System.out.printf("Query %d: Count of 3 in range [%d, %d] = %d%n", i, originalFreqQueries[i].left, originalFreqQueries[i].right, freqResults[i]);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java
index d9a2e648e893..2899b80bcee8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java
@@ -1,97 +1,307 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import java.util.*;
-
-class PageRank {
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        int nodes, i, j;
-        Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter the Number of WebPages: ");
-        nodes = in.nextInt();
-        PageRank p = new PageRank();
-        System.out.println("Enter the Adjacency Matrix with 1->PATH & 0->NO PATH Between two WebPages: ");
-        for (i = 1; i <= nodes; i++) {
-            for (j = 1; j <= nodes; j++) {
-                p.path[i][j] = in.nextInt();
-                if (j == i) {
-                    p.path[i][j] = 0;
+import java.util.Scanner;
+
+/**
+ * PageRank Algorithm Implementation
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The PageRank algorithm is used by Google Search to rank web pages in their
+ * search engine
+ * results. It was named after Larry Page, one of the founders of Google.
+ * PageRank is a way of
+ * measuring the importance of website pages.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Algorithm: 1. Initialize PageRank values for all pages to 1/N (where N is the
+ * total number
+ * of pages) 2. For each iteration: - For each page, calculate the new PageRank
+ * by summing the
+ * contributions from all incoming links - Apply the damping factor: PR(page) =
+ * (1-d) + d *
+ * sum(PR(incoming_page) / outgoing_links(incoming_page)) 3. Repeat until
+ * convergence
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PageRank">PageRank Algorithm</a>
+ */
+public final class PageRank {
+
+    private static final int MAX_NODES = 10;
+    private static final double DEFAULT_DAMPING_FACTOR = 0.85;
+    private static final int DEFAULT_ITERATIONS = 2;
+
+    private int[][] adjacencyMatrix;
+    private double[] pageRankValues;
+    private int nodeCount;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize PageRank with specified number of nodes
+     *
+     * @param numberOfNodes the number of nodes/pages in the graph
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if numberOfNodes is less than 1 or greater
+     *                                  than MAX_NODES
+     */
+    public PageRank(int numberOfNodes) {
+        if (numberOfNodes < 1 || numberOfNodes > MAX_NODES) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number of nodes must be between 1 and " + MAX_NODES);
+        }
+        this.nodeCount = numberOfNodes;
+        this.adjacencyMatrix = new int[MAX_NODES][MAX_NODES];
+        this.pageRankValues = new double[MAX_NODES];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Default constructor for interactive mode
+     */
+    public PageRank() {
+        this.adjacencyMatrix = new int[MAX_NODES][MAX_NODES];
+        this.pageRankValues = new double[MAX_NODES];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Main method for interactive PageRank calculation
+     *
+     * @param args command line arguments (not used)
+     */
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        try (Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in)) {
+            System.out.print("Enter the Number of WebPages: ");
+            int nodes = scanner.nextInt();
+
+            PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(nodes);
+            System.out.println("Enter the Adjacency Matrix with 1->PATH & 0->NO PATH Between two WebPages: ");
+
+            for (int i = 1; i <= nodes; i++) {
+                for (int j = 1; j <= nodes; j++) {
+                    int value = scanner.nextInt();
+                    pageRank.setEdge(i, j, value);
                 }
             }
+
+            pageRank.calculatePageRank(nodes, DEFAULT_DAMPING_FACTOR, DEFAULT_ITERATIONS, true);
         }
-        p.calc(nodes);
     }
 
-    public int path[][] = new int[10][10];
-    public double pagerank[] = new double[10];
+    /**
+     * Sets an edge in the adjacency matrix
+     *
+     * @param from  source node (1-indexed)
+     * @param to    destination node (1-indexed)
+     * @param value 1 if edge exists, 0 otherwise
+     */
+    public void setEdge(int from, int to, int value) {
+        if (from == to) {
+            adjacencyMatrix[from][to] = 0; // No self-loops
+        } else {
+            adjacencyMatrix[from][to] = value;
+        }
+    }
 
-    public void calc(double totalNodes) {
+    /**
+     * Sets the adjacency matrix for the graph
+     *
+     * @param matrix the adjacency matrix (1-indexed)
+     */
+    public void setAdjacencyMatrix(int[][] matrix) {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= nodeCount; i++) {
+            for (int j = 1; j <= nodeCount; j++) {
+                setEdge(i, j, matrix[i][j]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
 
-        double InitialPageRank;
-        double OutgoingLinks = 0;
-        double DampingFactor = 0.85;
-        double TempPageRank[] = new double[10];
-        int ExternalNodeNumber;
-        int InternalNodeNumber;
-        int k = 1; // For Traversing
-        int ITERATION_STEP = 1;
-        InitialPageRank = 1 / totalNodes;
-        System.out.printf(
-                " Total Number of Nodes :" + totalNodes + "\t Initial PageRank  of All Nodes :" + InitialPageRank + "\n");
+    /**
+     * Gets the PageRank value for a specific node
+     *
+     * @param node the node index (1-indexed)
+     * @return the PageRank value
+     */
+    public double getPageRank(int node) {
+        if (node < 1 || node > nodeCount) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Node index out of bounds");
+        }
+        return pageRankValues[node];
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Gets all PageRank values
+     *
+     * @return array of PageRank values (1-indexed)
+     */
+    public double[] getAllPageRanks() {
+        return pageRankValues.clone();
+    }
 
-        // 0th ITERATION _ OR _ INITIALIZATION PHASE //
-        for (k = 1; k <= totalNodes; k++) {
-            this.pagerank[k] = InitialPageRank;
+    /**
+     * Calculates PageRank using the default damping factor and iterations
+     *
+     * @param totalNodes the total number of nodes
+     * @return array of PageRank values
+     */
+    public double[] calculatePageRank(int totalNodes) {
+        return calculatePageRank(totalNodes, DEFAULT_DAMPING_FACTOR, DEFAULT_ITERATIONS, false);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates PageRank with custom parameters
+     *
+     * @param totalNodes    the total number of nodes
+     * @param dampingFactor the damping factor (typically 0.85)
+     * @param iterations    number of iterations to perform
+     * @param verbose       whether to print detailed output
+     * @return array of PageRank values
+     */
+    public double[] calculatePageRank(int totalNodes, double dampingFactor, int iterations, boolean verbose) {
+        validateInputParameters(totalNodes, dampingFactor, iterations);
+
+        this.nodeCount = totalNodes;
+        double initialPageRank = 1.0 / totalNodes;
+
+        if (verbose) {
+            System.out.printf("Total Number of Nodes: %d\tInitial PageRank of All Nodes: %.6f%n", totalNodes, initialPageRank);
         }
-        System.out.printf("\n Initial PageRank Values , 0th Step \n");
 
-        for (k = 1; k <= totalNodes; k++) {
-            System.out.printf(" Page Rank of " + k + " is :\t" + this.pagerank[k] + "\n");
+        initializePageRanks(totalNodes, initialPageRank, verbose);
+        performIterations(totalNodes, dampingFactor, iterations, verbose);
+
+        if (verbose) {
+            System.out.println("\nFinal PageRank:");
+            printPageRanks(totalNodes);
         }
 
-        while (ITERATION_STEP <= 2) // Iterations
-        {
-            // Store the PageRank for All Nodes in Temporary Array
-            for (k = 1; k <= totalNodes; k++) {
-                TempPageRank[k] = this.pagerank[k];
-                this.pagerank[k] = 0;
-            }
+        return pageRankValues.clone();
+    }
 
-            for (InternalNodeNumber = 1; InternalNodeNumber <= totalNodes; InternalNodeNumber++) {
-                for (ExternalNodeNumber = 1; ExternalNodeNumber <= totalNodes; ExternalNodeNumber++) {
-                    if (this.path[ExternalNodeNumber][InternalNodeNumber] == 1) {
-                        k = 1;
-                        OutgoingLinks = 0; // Count the Number of Outgoing Links for each ExternalNodeNumber
-                        while (k <= totalNodes) {
-                            if (this.path[ExternalNodeNumber][k] == 1) {
-                                OutgoingLinks = OutgoingLinks + 1; // Counter for Outgoing Links
-                            }
-                            k = k + 1;
-                        }
-                        // Calculate PageRank
-                        this.pagerank[InternalNodeNumber] += TempPageRank[ExternalNodeNumber] * (1 / OutgoingLinks);
-                    }
-                }
-                System.out.printf("\n After " + ITERATION_STEP + "th Step \n");
+    /**
+     * Validates input parameters for PageRank calculation
+     *
+     * @param totalNodes    the total number of nodes
+     * @param dampingFactor the damping factor
+     * @param iterations    number of iterations
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if parameters are invalid
+     */
+    private void validateInputParameters(int totalNodes, double dampingFactor, int iterations) {
+        if (totalNodes < 1 || totalNodes > MAX_NODES) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Total nodes must be between 1 and " + MAX_NODES);
+        }
+        if (dampingFactor < 0 || dampingFactor > 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Damping factor must be between 0 and 1");
+        }
+        if (iterations < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Iterations must be at least 1");
+        }
+    }
 
-                for (k = 1; k <= totalNodes; k++) {
-                    System.out.printf(" Page Rank of " + k + " is :\t" + this.pagerank[k] + "\n");
-                }
+    /**
+     * Initializes PageRank values for all nodes
+     *
+     * @param totalNodes      the total number of nodes
+     * @param initialPageRank the initial PageRank value
+     * @param verbose         whether to print output
+     */
+    private void initializePageRanks(int totalNodes, double initialPageRank, boolean verbose) {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= totalNodes; i++) {
+            pageRankValues[i] = initialPageRank;
+        }
 
-                ITERATION_STEP = ITERATION_STEP + 1;
+        if (verbose) {
+            System.out.println("\nInitial PageRank Values, 0th Step");
+            printPageRanks(totalNodes);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs the iterative PageRank calculation
+     *
+     * @param totalNodes    the total number of nodes
+     * @param dampingFactor the damping factor
+     * @param iterations    number of iterations
+     * @param verbose       whether to print output
+     */
+    private void performIterations(int totalNodes, double dampingFactor, int iterations, boolean verbose) {
+        for (int iteration = 1; iteration <= iterations; iteration++) {
+            double[] tempPageRank = storeCurrentPageRanks(totalNodes);
+            calculateNewPageRanks(totalNodes, tempPageRank);
+            applyDampingFactor(totalNodes, dampingFactor);
+
+            if (verbose) {
+                System.out.printf("%nAfter %d iteration(s)%n", iteration);
+                printPageRanks(totalNodes);
             }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Stores current PageRank values in a temporary array
+     *
+     * @param totalNodes the total number of nodes
+     * @return temporary array with current PageRank values
+     */
+    private double[] storeCurrentPageRanks(int totalNodes) {
+        double[] tempPageRank = new double[MAX_NODES];
+        for (int i = 1; i <= totalNodes; i++) {
+            tempPageRank[i] = pageRankValues[i];
+            pageRankValues[i] = 0;
+        }
+        return tempPageRank;
+    }
 
-            // Add the Damping Factor to PageRank
-            for (k = 1; k <= totalNodes; k++) {
-                this.pagerank[k] = (1 - DampingFactor) + DampingFactor * this.pagerank[k];
+    /**
+     * Calculates new PageRank values based on incoming links
+     *
+     * @param totalNodes   the total number of nodes
+     * @param tempPageRank temporary array with previous PageRank values
+     */
+    private void calculateNewPageRanks(int totalNodes, double[] tempPageRank) {
+        for (int targetNode = 1; targetNode <= totalNodes; targetNode++) {
+            for (int sourceNode = 1; sourceNode <= totalNodes; sourceNode++) {
+                if (adjacencyMatrix[sourceNode][targetNode] == 1) {
+                    int outgoingLinks = countOutgoingLinks(sourceNode, totalNodes);
+                    if (outgoingLinks > 0) {
+                        pageRankValues[targetNode] += tempPageRank[sourceNode] / outgoingLinks;
+                    }
+                }
             }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Applies the damping factor to all PageRank values
+     *
+     * @param totalNodes    the total number of nodes
+     * @param dampingFactor the damping factor
+     */
+    private void applyDampingFactor(int totalNodes, double dampingFactor) {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= totalNodes; i++) {
+            pageRankValues[i] = (1 - dampingFactor) + dampingFactor * pageRankValues[i];
+        }
+    }
 
-            // Display PageRank
-            System.out.printf("\n Final Page Rank : \n");
-            for (k = 1; k <= totalNodes; k++) {
-                System.out.printf(" Page Rank of " + k + " is :\t" + this.pagerank[k] + "\n");
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of outgoing links from a node
+     *
+     * @param node       the source node (1-indexed)
+     * @param totalNodes total number of nodes
+     * @return the count of outgoing links
+     */
+    private int countOutgoingLinks(int node, int totalNodes) {
+        int count = 0;
+        for (int i = 1; i <= totalNodes; i++) {
+            if (adjacencyMatrix[node][i] == 1) {
+                count++;
             }
+        }
+        return count;
+    }
 
+    /**
+     * Prints the PageRank values for all nodes
+     *
+     * @param totalNodes the total number of nodes
+     */
+    private void printPageRanks(int totalNodes) {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= totalNodes; i++) {
+            System.out.printf("PageRank of %d: %.6f%n", i, pageRankValues[i]);
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGen.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGen.java
index a88d94653bbd..da9f21bc918f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGen.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGen.java
@@ -11,25 +11,33 @@
  * @author AKS1996
  * @date 2017.10.25
  */
-class PasswordGen {
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        String password = generatePassword(8, 16);
-        System.out.print("Password: " + password);
+final class PasswordGen {
+    private static final String UPPERCASE_LETTERS = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
+    private static final String LOWERCASE_LETTERS = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz";
+    private static final String DIGITS = "0123456789";
+    private static final String SPECIAL_CHARACTERS = "!@#$%^&*(){}?";
+    private static final String ALL_CHARACTERS = UPPERCASE_LETTERS + LOWERCASE_LETTERS + DIGITS + SPECIAL_CHARACTERS;
+
+    private PasswordGen() {
     }
 
-    static String generatePassword(int min_length, int max_length) {
-        Random random = new Random();
-
-        String upper = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
-        String lower = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz";
-        String numbers = "0123456789";
-        String specialChars = "!@#$%^&*(){}?";
+    /**
+     * Generates a random password with a length between minLength and maxLength.
+     *
+     * @param minLength The minimum length of the password.
+     * @param maxLength The maximum length of the password.
+     * @return A randomly generated password.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if minLength is greater than maxLength or if either is non-positive.
+     */
+    public static String generatePassword(int minLength, int maxLength) {
+        if (minLength > maxLength || minLength <= 0 || maxLength <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Incorrect length parameters: minLength must be <= maxLength and both must be > 0");
+        }
 
-        String allChars = upper + lower + numbers + specialChars;
+        Random random = new Random();
 
-        List<Character> letters = new ArrayList<Character>();
-        for (char c : allChars.toCharArray()) {
+        List<Character> letters = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (char c : ALL_CHARACTERS.toCharArray()) {
             letters.add(c);
         }
 
@@ -38,8 +46,8 @@ static String generatePassword(int min_length, int max_length) {
         StringBuilder password = new StringBuilder();
 
         // Note that size of the password is also random
-        for (int i = random.nextInt(max_length - min_length) + min_length; i > 0; --i) {
-            password.append(letters.get(random.nextInt(letters.size())));
+        for (int i = random.nextInt(maxLength - minLength) + minLength; i > 0; --i) {
+            password.append(ALL_CHARACTERS.charAt(random.nextInt(ALL_CHARACTERS.length())));
         }
 
         return password.toString();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoise.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoise.java
index 88671f4aabcf..d97e3395ff18 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoise.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoise.java
@@ -4,98 +4,156 @@
 import java.util.Scanner;
 
 /**
- * For detailed info and implementation see: <a
- * href="http://devmag.org.za/2009/04/25/perlin-noise/">Perlin-Noise</a>
+ * Utility for generating 2D value-noise blended across octaves (commonly known
+ * as Perlin-like noise).
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The implementation follows the classic approach of:
+ * <ol>
+ * <li>Generate a base grid of random values in [0, 1).</li>
+ * <li>For each octave k, compute a layer by bilinear interpolation of the base
+ * grid
+ * at period 2^k.</li>
+ * <li>Blend all layers from coarse to fine using a geometric series of
+ * amplitudes
+ * controlled by {@code persistence}, then normalize to [0, 1].</li>
+ * </ol>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * For background see:
+ * <a href="http://devmag.org.za/2009/04/25/perlin-noise/">Perlin Noise</a>.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Constraints and notes:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>{@code width} and {@code height} should be positive.</li>
+ * <li>{@code octaveCount} must be at least 1 (0 would lead to a division by
+ * zero).</li>
+ * <li>{@code persistence} should be in (0, 1], typical values around
+ * 0.5–0.8.</li>
+ * <li>Given the same seed and parameters, results are deterministic.</li>
+ * </ul>
  */
-public class PerlinNoise {
+
+public final class PerlinNoise {
+    private PerlinNoise() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * @param width width of noise array
-     * @param height height of noise array
-     * @param octaveCount numbers of layers used for blending noise
-     * @param persistence value of impact each layer get while blending
-     * @param seed used for randomizer
-     * @return float array containing calculated "Perlin-Noise" values
+     * Generate a 2D array of blended noise values normalized to [0, 1].
+     *
+     * @param width       width of the noise array (columns)
+     * @param height      height of the noise array (rows)
+     * @param octaveCount number of octaves (layers) to blend; must be >= 1
+     * @param persistence per-octave amplitude multiplier in (0, 1]
+     * @param seed        seed for the random base grid
+     * @return a {@code width x height} array containing blended noise values in [0,
+     *         1]
      */
-    static float[][] generatePerlinNoise(
-            int width, int height, int octaveCount, float persistence, long seed) {
-        final float[][] base = new float[width][height];
-        final float[][] perlinNoise = new float[width][height];
-        final float[][][] noiseLayers = new float[octaveCount][][];
+    static float[][] generatePerlinNoise(int width, int height, int octaveCount, float persistence, long seed) {
+        if (width <= 0 || height <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("width and height must be > 0");
+        }
+
+        if (octaveCount < 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("octaveCount must be >= 1");
+        }
+        if (!(persistence > 0f && persistence <= 1f)) { // using > to exclude 0 and NaN
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("persistence must be in (0, 1]");
+        }
+        final float[][] base = createBaseGrid(width, height, seed);
+        final float[][][] layers = createLayers(base, width, height, octaveCount);
+        return blendAndNormalize(layers, width, height, persistence);
+    }
 
+    /** Create the base random lattice values in [0,1). */
+    static float[][] createBaseGrid(int width, int height, long seed) {
+        final float[][] base = new float[width][height];
         Random random = new Random(seed);
-        // fill base array with random values as base for noise
         for (int x = 0; x < width; x++) {
             for (int y = 0; y < height; y++) {
                 base[x][y] = random.nextFloat();
             }
         }
+        return base;
+    }
 
-        // calculate octaves with different roughness
+    /** Pre-compute each octave layer at increasing frequency. */
+    static float[][][] createLayers(float[][] base, int width, int height, int octaveCount) {
+        final float[][][] noiseLayers = new float[octaveCount][][];
         for (int octave = 0; octave < octaveCount; octave++) {
             noiseLayers[octave] = generatePerlinNoiseLayer(base, width, height, octave);
         }
+        return noiseLayers;
+    }
 
+    /** Blend layers using geometric amplitudes and normalize to [0,1]. */
+    static float[][] blendAndNormalize(float[][][] layers, int width, int height, float persistence) {
+        final int octaveCount = layers.length;
+        final float[][] out = new float[width][height];
         float amplitude = 1f;
         float totalAmplitude = 0f;
 
-        // calculate perlin noise by blending each layer together with specific persistence
         for (int octave = octaveCount - 1; octave >= 0; octave--) {
             amplitude *= persistence;
             totalAmplitude += amplitude;
-
+            final float[][] layer = layers[octave];
             for (int x = 0; x < width; x++) {
                 for (int y = 0; y < height; y++) {
-                    // adding each value of the noise layer to the noise
-                    // by increasing amplitude the rougher noises will have more impact
-                    perlinNoise[x][y] += noiseLayers[octave][x][y] * amplitude;
+                    out[x][y] += layer[x][y] * amplitude;
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        // normalize values so that they stay between 0..1
+        if (totalAmplitude <= 0f || Float.isInfinite(totalAmplitude) || Float.isNaN(totalAmplitude)) {
+            throw new IllegalStateException("Invalid totalAmplitude computed during normalization");
+        }
+
+        final float invTotal = 1f / totalAmplitude;
         for (int x = 0; x < width; x++) {
             for (int y = 0; y < height; y++) {
-                perlinNoise[x][y] /= totalAmplitude;
+                out[x][y] *= invTotal;
             }
         }
-
-        return perlinNoise;
+        return out;
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param base base random float array
-     * @param width width of noise array
+     * Generate a single octave layer by bilinear interpolation of a base grid at a
+     * given octave (period = 2^octave).
+     *
+     * @param base   base random float array of size {@code width x height}
+     * @param width  width of noise array
      * @param height height of noise array
-     * @param octave current layer
-     * @return float array containing calculated "Perlin-Noise-Layer" values
+     * @param octave current octave (0 for period 1, 1 for period 2, ...)
+     * @return float array containing the octave's interpolated values
      */
     static float[][] generatePerlinNoiseLayer(float[][] base, int width, int height, int octave) {
         float[][] perlinNoiseLayer = new float[width][height];
 
-        // calculate period (wavelength) for different shapes
+        // Calculate period (wavelength) for different shapes.
         int period = 1 << octave; // 2^k
         float frequency = 1f / period; // 1/2^k
 
         for (int x = 0; x < width; x++) {
-            // calculates the horizontal sampling indices
+            // Calculate the horizontal sampling indices.
             int x0 = (x / period) * period;
             int x1 = (x0 + period) % width;
-            float horizintalBlend = (x - x0) * frequency;
+            float horizontalBlend = (x - x0) * frequency;
 
             for (int y = 0; y < height; y++) {
-                // calculates the vertical sampling indices
+                // Calculate the vertical sampling indices.
                 int y0 = (y / period) * period;
                 int y1 = (y0 + period) % height;
                 float verticalBlend = (y - y0) * frequency;
 
-                // blend top corners
-                float top = interpolate(base[x0][y0], base[x1][y0], horizintalBlend);
+                // Blend top corners.
+                float top = interpolate(base[x0][y0], base[x1][y0], horizontalBlend);
 
-                // blend bottom corners
-                float bottom = interpolate(base[x0][y1], base[x1][y1], horizintalBlend);
+                // Blend bottom corners.
+                float bottom = interpolate(base[x0][y1], base[x1][y1], horizontalBlend);
 
-                // blend top and bottom interpolation to get the final blend value for this cell
+                // Blend top and bottom interpolation to get the final value for this cell.
                 perlinNoiseLayer[x][y] = interpolate(top, bottom, verticalBlend);
             }
         }
@@ -104,16 +162,21 @@ static float[][] generatePerlinNoiseLayer(float[][] base, int width, int height,
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param a value of point a
-     * @param b value of point b
-     * @param alpha determine which value has more impact (closer to 0 -> a,
-     * closer to 1 -> b)
-     * @return interpolated value
+     * Linear interpolation between two values.
+     *
+     * @param a     value at alpha = 0
+     * @param b     value at alpha = 1
+     * @param alpha interpolation factor in [0, 1]
+     * @return interpolated value {@code (1 - alpha) * a + alpha * b}
      */
     static float interpolate(float a, float b, float alpha) {
         return a * (1 - alpha) + alpha * b;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Small demo that prints a text representation of the noise using a provided
+     * character set.
+     */
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
 
@@ -147,7 +210,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         final char[] chars = charset.toCharArray();
         final int length = chars.length;
         final float step = 1f / length;
-        // output based on charset
+        // Output based on charset thresholds.
         for (int x = 0; x < width; x++) {
             for (int y = 0; y < height; y++) {
                 float value = step;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java
index d699c4a6b94c..b43110d4d3ff 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java
@@ -15,17 +15,14 @@
  *
  * @author sahilb2 (https://www.github.com/sahilb2)
  */
-class QueueWithStack {
-
-    // Stack to keep track of elements inserted into the queue
-    private Stack<Object> inStack;
-    // Stack to keep track of elements to be removed next in queue
-    private Stack<Object> outStack;
+public class QueueUsingTwoStacks {
+    private final Stack<Object> inStack;
+    private final Stack<Object> outStack;
 
     /**
      * Constructor
      */
-    public QueueWithStack() {
+    public QueueUsingTwoStacks() {
         this.inStack = new Stack<>();
         this.outStack = new Stack<>();
     }
@@ -94,7 +91,7 @@ public boolean isEmpty() {
      * @return true if the inStack is empty.
      */
     public boolean isInStackEmpty() {
-        return (inStack.size() == 0);
+        return (inStack.isEmpty());
     }
 
     /**
@@ -103,71 +100,6 @@ public boolean isInStackEmpty() {
      * @return true if the outStack is empty.
      */
     public boolean isOutStackEmpty() {
-        return (outStack.size() == 0);
-    }
-}
-
-/**
- * This class is the example for the Queue class
- *
- * @author sahilb2 (https://www.github.com/sahilb2)
- */
-public class QueueUsingTwoStacks {
-
-    /**
-     * Main method
-     *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        QueueWithStack myQueue = new QueueWithStack();
-        myQueue.insert(1);
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekBack()); // Will print 1
-        // instack: [(top) 1]
-        // outStack: []
-        myQueue.insert(2);
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekBack()); // Will print 2
-        // instack: [(top) 2, 1]
-        // outStack: []
-        myQueue.insert(3);
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekBack()); // Will print 3
-        // instack: [(top) 3, 2, 1]
-        // outStack: []
-        myQueue.insert(4);
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekBack()); // Will print 4
-        // instack: [(top) 4, 3, 2, 1]
-        // outStack: []
-
-        System.out.println(myQueue.isEmpty()); // Will print false
-
-        System.out.println(myQueue.remove()); // Will print 1
-        System.out.println((myQueue.isInStackEmpty()) ? "null" : myQueue.peekBack()); // Will print NULL
-        // instack: []
-        // outStack: [(top) 2, 3, 4]
-
-        myQueue.insert(5);
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekFront()); // Will print 2
-        // instack: [(top) 5]
-        // outStack: [(top) 2, 3, 4]
-
-        myQueue.remove();
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekFront()); // Will print 3
-        // instack: [(top) 5]
-        // outStack: [(top) 3, 4]
-        myQueue.remove();
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekFront()); // Will print 4
-        // instack: [(top) 5]
-        // outStack: [(top) 4]
-        myQueue.remove();
-        // instack: [(top) 5]
-        // outStack: []
-        System.out.println(myQueue.peekFront()); // Will print 5
-        // instack: []
-        // outStack: [(top) 5]
-        myQueue.remove();
-        // instack: []
-        // outStack: []
-
-        System.out.println(myQueue.isEmpty()); // Will print true
+        return (outStack.isEmpty());
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java
deleted file mode 100644
index fbf171cf06b9..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,45 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.io.BufferedReader;
-import java.io.InputStreamReader;
-
-/**
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
- */
-public class RemoveDuplicateFromString {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
-        BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
-        String inpStr = br.readLine();
-
-        System.out.println("Actual string is: " + inpStr);
-        System.out.println("String after removing duplicates: " + removeDuplicate(inpStr));
-
-        br.close();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * This method produces a string after removing all the duplicate characters
-     * from input string and returns it Example: Input String - "aabbbccccddddd"
-     * Output String - "abcd"
-     *
-     * @param s String from which duplicate characters have to be removed
-     * @return string with only unique characters
-     */
-    public static String removeDuplicate(String s) {
-        if (s == null || s.isEmpty()) {
-            return s;
-        }
-
-        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
-        int n = s.length();
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            if (sb.toString().indexOf(s.charAt(i)) == -1) {
-                sb.append(String.valueOf(s.charAt(i)));
-            }
-        }
-
-        return sb.toString();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ReturnSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ReturnSubsequence.java
deleted file mode 100644
index d1e3c2cfee54..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ReturnSubsequence.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,53 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class ReturnSubsequence {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        System.out.println("Enter String: ");
-        Scanner s = new Scanner(System.in);
-        String givenString = s.next(); // given string
-        String[] subsequence = returnSubsequence(givenString); // calling returnSubsequence() function
-        System.out.println("Subsequences : ");
-        // print the given array of subsequences
-        for (int i = 0; i < subsequence.length; i++) {
-            System.out.println(subsequence[i]);
-        }
-        s.close();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @param givenString
-     * @return subsequence
-     */
-    private static String[] returnSubsequence(String givenString) {
-        if (givenString.length()
-                == 0) // If string is empty we will create an array of size=1 and insert "" (Empty string)
-        // in it
-        {
-            String[] ans = new String[1];
-            ans[0] = "";
-            return ans;
-        }
-        String[] SmallAns
-                = returnSubsequence(
-                        givenString.substring(
-                                1)); // recursive call to get subsequences of substring starting from index
-        // position=1
-
-        String[] ans
-                = new String[2 * SmallAns.length]; // Our answer will be an array off string of size=2*SmallAns
-        int i = 0;
-        for (; i < SmallAns.length; i++) {
-            ans[i] = SmallAns[i]; // Copying all the strings present in SmallAns to ans string array
-        }
-        for (int k = 0; k < SmallAns.length; k++) {
-            ans[k + SmallAns.length]
-                    = givenString.charAt(0)
-                    + SmallAns[k]; // Insert character at index=0 of the given substring in front of every string
-            // in SmallAns
-        }
-        return ans;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ReverseStackUsingRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ReverseStackUsingRecursion.java
deleted file mode 100644
index c16122088768..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ReverseStackUsingRecursion.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,62 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-/* Program to reverse a Stack using Recursion*/
-import java.util.Stack;
-
-public class ReverseStackUsingRecursion {
-
-    // Stack
-    private static Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
-
-    // Main function
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // To Create a Dummy Stack containing integers from 0-9
-        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
-            stack.push(i);
-        }
-        System.out.println("STACK");
-
-        // To print that dummy Stack
-        for (int k = 9; k >= 0; k--) {
-            System.out.println(k);
-        }
-
-        // Reverse Function called
-        reverseUsingRecursion(stack);
-
-        System.out.println("REVERSED STACK : ");
-        // To print reversed  stack
-        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
-            System.out.println(stack.pop());
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Function Used to reverse Stack Using Recursion
-    private static void reverseUsingRecursion(Stack<Integer> stack) {
-        if (stack.isEmpty()) // If stack is empty then return
-        {
-            return;
-        }
-        /* All items are stored in call stack until we reach the end*/
-
-        int temptop = stack.peek();
-        stack.pop();
-        reverseUsingRecursion(stack); // Recursion call
-        insertAtEnd(temptop); // Insert items held in call stack one by one into stack
-    }
-
-    // Function used to insert element at the end of stack
-    private static void insertAtEnd(int temptop) {
-        if (stack.isEmpty()) {
-            stack.push(temptop); // If stack is empty push the element
-        } else {
-            int temp = stack.peek();
-            /* All the items are stored in call stack until we reach end*/
-            stack.pop();
-
-            insertAtEnd(temptop); // Recursive call
-
-            stack.push(temp);
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RootPrecision.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RootPrecision.java
deleted file mode 100644
index e22db1b99931..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RootPrecision.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,36 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class RootPrecision {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // take input
-        Scanner scn = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        // N is the input number
-        int N = scn.nextInt();
-
-        // P is precision value for eg - P is 3 in 2.564 and 5 in 3.80870.
-        int P = scn.nextInt();
-        System.out.println(squareRoot(N, P));
-
-        scn.close();
-    }
-
-    public static double squareRoot(int N, int P) {
-        // rv means return value
-        double rv;
-
-        double root = Math.pow(N, 0.5);
-
-        // calculate precision to power of 10 and then multiply it with root value.
-        int precision = (int) Math.pow(10, P);
-        root = root * precision;
-        /*typecast it into integer then divide by precision and again typecast into double
-    so as to have decimal points upto P precision */
-
-        rv = (int) root;
-        return rv / precision;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SJF.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SJF.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 0ced44166814..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SJF.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,188 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-/**
- *
- *
- * <h2>Shortest job first.</h2>
- *
- * <p>
- * Shortest job first (SJF) or shortest job next, is a scheduling policy that
- * selects the waiting process with the smallest execution time to execute next
- * Shortest Job first has the advantage of having minimum average waiting time
- * among all scheduling algorithms. It is a Greedy Algorithm. It may cause
- * starvation if shorter processes keep coming. This problem has been solved
- * using the concept of aging.
- *
- * @author shivg7706
- * @since 2018/10/27
- */
-import java.util.*;
-import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.Comparator;
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-class Process {
-
-    public int pid;
-    public int arrivalTime;
-    public int burstTime;
-    public int priority;
-    public int turnAroundTime;
-    public int waitTime;
-    public int remainingTime;
-}
-
-class Schedule {
-
-    private int noOfProcess;
-    private int timer = 0;
-    private ArrayList<Process> processes;
-    private ArrayList<Process> remainingProcess;
-    private ArrayList<Integer> gantChart;
-    private float burstAll;
-    private Map<Integer, ArrayList<Process>> arrivals;
-
-    Schedule() {
-        Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        processes = new ArrayList<Process>();
-        remainingProcess = new ArrayList<Process>();
-
-        gantChart = new ArrayList<>();
-        arrivals = new HashMap<>();
-
-        System.out.print("Enter the no. of processes: ");
-        noOfProcess = in.nextInt();
-        System.out.println("Enter the arrival, burst and priority of processes");
-        for (int i = 0; i < noOfProcess; i++) {
-            Process p = new Process();
-            p.pid = i;
-            p.arrivalTime = in.nextInt();
-            p.burstTime = in.nextInt();
-            p.priority = in.nextInt();
-            p.turnAroundTime = 0;
-            p.waitTime = 0;
-            p.remainingTime = p.burstTime;
-
-            if (arrivals.get(p.arrivalTime) == null) {
-                arrivals.put(p.arrivalTime, new ArrayList<Process>());
-            }
-            arrivals.get(p.arrivalTime).add(p);
-            processes.add(p);
-            burstAll += p.burstTime;
-        }
-        in.close();
-    }
-
-    void startScheduling() {
-
-        processes.sort(
-                new Comparator<Process>() {
-            @Override
-            public int compare(Process a, Process b) {
-                return a.arrivalTime - b.arrivalTime;
-            }
-        });
-
-        while (!(arrivals.size() == 0 && remainingProcess.size() == 0)) {
-            removeFinishedProcess();
-            if (arrivals.get(timer) != null) {
-                remainingProcess.addAll(arrivals.get(timer));
-                arrivals.remove(timer);
-            }
-
-            remainingProcess.sort(
-                    new Comparator<Process>() {
-                private int alpha = 6;
-                private int beta = 1;
-
-                @Override
-                public int compare(Process a, Process b) {
-                    int aRem = a.remainingTime;
-                    int bRem = b.remainingTime;
-                    int aprior = a.priority;
-                    int bprior = b.priority;
-                    return (alpha * aRem + beta * aprior) - (alpha * bRem + beta * bprior);
-                }
-            });
-
-            int k = timeElapsed(timer);
-            ageing(k);
-            timer++;
-        }
-
-        System.out.println("Total time required: " + (timer - 1));
-    }
-
-    void removeFinishedProcess() {
-        ArrayList<Integer> completed = new ArrayList<Integer>();
-        for (int i = 0; i < remainingProcess.size(); i++) {
-            if (remainingProcess.get(i).remainingTime == 0) {
-                completed.add(i);
-            }
-        }
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < completed.size(); i++) {
-            int pid = remainingProcess.get(completed.get(i)).pid;
-            processes.get(pid).waitTime = remainingProcess.get(completed.get(i)).waitTime;
-            remainingProcess.remove(remainingProcess.get(completed.get(i)));
-        }
-    }
-
-    public int timeElapsed(int i) {
-        if (!remainingProcess.isEmpty()) {
-            gantChart.add(i, remainingProcess.get(0).pid);
-            remainingProcess.get(0).remainingTime--;
-            return 1;
-        }
-        return 0;
-    }
-
-    public void ageing(int k) {
-        for (int i = k; i < remainingProcess.size(); i++) {
-            remainingProcess.get(i).waitTime++;
-            if (remainingProcess.get(i).waitTime % 7 == 0) {
-                remainingProcess.get(i).priority--;
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    public void solve() {
-        System.out.println("Gant chart ");
-        for (int i = 0; i < gantChart.size(); i++) {
-            System.out.print(gantChart.get(i) + " ");
-        }
-        System.out.println();
-
-        float waitTimeTot = 0;
-        float tatTime = 0;
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < noOfProcess; i++) {
-            processes.get(i).turnAroundTime = processes.get(i).waitTime + processes.get(i).burstTime;
-
-            waitTimeTot += processes.get(i).waitTime;
-            tatTime += processes.get(i).turnAroundTime;
-
-            System.out.println(
-                    "Process no.: "
-                    + i
-                    + " Wait time: "
-                    + processes.get(i).waitTime
-                    + " Turn Around Time: "
-                    + processes.get(i).turnAroundTime);
-        }
-
-        System.out.println("Average Waiting Time: " + waitTimeTot / noOfProcess);
-        System.out.println("Average TAT Time: " + tatTime / noOfProcess);
-        System.out.println("Throughput: " + (float) noOfProcess / (timer - 1));
-    }
-}
-
-public class SJF {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Schedule s = new Schedule();
-        s.startScheduling();
-        s.solve();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SieveOfEratosthenes.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SieveOfEratosthenes.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 7ba6d76b4612..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SieveOfEratosthenes.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,80 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Arrays;
-
-/**
- * Sieve of Eratosthenes is an ancient algorithm for finding all prime numbers
- * up to any given limit. It does so by iteratively marking as composite (i.e.,
- * not prime) the multiples of each prime, starting with the first prime number,
- * 2. The multiples of a given prime are generated as a sequence of numbers
- * starting from that prime, with constant difference between them that is equal
- * to that prime. This is the sieve's key distinction from using trial division
- * to sequentially test each candidate number for divisibility by each prime.
- * Once all the multiples of each discovered prime have been marked as
- * composites, the remaining unmarked numbers are primes.
- * <p>
- * Poetry about Sieve of Eratosthenes:
- * <p>
- * <i>Sift the Two's and Sift the Three's:</i></p>
- * <p>
- * <i>The Sieve of Eratosthenes.</i></p>
- * <p>
- * <i>When the multiples sublime,</i></p>
- * <p>
- * <i>The numbers that remain are Prime.</i></p>
- *
- * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieve_of_Eratosthenes">Wiki</a>
- */
-public class SieveOfEratosthenes {
-
-    /**
-     * @param n The number till which we have to check for prime Prints all the
-     * prime numbers till n. Should be more than 1.
-     * @return array of all prime numbers between 0 to n
-     */
-    public static int[] findPrimesTill(int n) {
-        // Create array where index is number and value is flag - is that number a prime or not.
-        // size of array is n + 1 cause in Java array indexes starts with 0
-        Type[] numbers = new Type[n + 1];
-
-        // Start with assumption that all numbers except 0 and 1 are primes.
-        Arrays.fill(numbers, Type.PRIME);
-        numbers[0] = numbers[1] = Type.NOT_PRIME;
-
-        double cap = Math.sqrt(n);
-        // Main algorithm: mark all numbers which are multiples of some other values as not prime
-        for (int i = 2; i <= cap; i++) {
-            if (numbers[i] == Type.PRIME) {
-                for (int j = 2; i * j <= n; j++) {
-                    numbers[i * j] = Type.NOT_PRIME;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        //Write all primes to result array
-        int primesCount = (int) Arrays.stream(numbers)
-                .filter(element -> element == Type.PRIME)
-                .count();
-        int[] primes = new int[primesCount];
-
-        int primeIndex = 0;
-        for (int i = 0; i < n + 1; i++) {
-            if (numbers[i] == Type.PRIME) {
-                primes[primeIndex++] = i;
-            }
-        }
-
-        return primes;
-    }
-
-    private enum Type {
-        PRIME, NOT_PRIME
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int n = 100;
-        System.out.println("Searching for all primes from zero to " + n);
-        int[] primes = findPrimesTill(n);
-        System.out.println("Found: " + Arrays.toString(primes));
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java
index 149adf4349cf..e84a5c5b585b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java
@@ -1,68 +1,68 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.Iterator;
-import java.util.Scanner;
 
+/**
+ * The {@code SkylineProblem} class is used to solve the skyline problem using a
+ * divide-and-conquer approach.
+ * It reads input for building data, processes it to find the skyline, and
+ * prints the skyline.
+ */
 public class SkylineProblem {
 
     Building[] building;
     int count;
 
-    public void run() {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        int num = sc.nextInt();
-        this.building = new Building[num];
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < num; i++) {
-            String input = sc.next();
-            String[] data = input.split(",");
-            this.add(Integer.parseInt(data[0]), Integer.parseInt(data[1]), Integer.parseInt(data[2]));
-        }
-        this.print(this.findSkyline(0, num - 1));
-
-        sc.close();
-    }
-
+    /**
+     * Adds a building with the given left, height, and right values to the
+     * buildings list.
+     *
+     * @param left   The left x-coordinate of the building.
+     * @param height The height of the building.
+     * @param right  The right x-coordinate of the building.
+     */
     public void add(int left, int height, int right) {
         building[count++] = new Building(left, height, right);
     }
 
-    public void print(ArrayList<Skyline> skyline) {
-        Iterator<Skyline> it = skyline.iterator();
-
-        while (it.hasNext()) {
-            Skyline temp = it.next();
-            System.out.print(temp.coordinates + "," + temp.height);
-            if (it.hasNext()) {
-                System.out.print(",");
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
+    /**
+     * Computes the skyline for a range of buildings using the divide-and-conquer
+     * strategy.
+     *
+     * @param start The starting index of the buildings to process.
+     * @param end   The ending index of the buildings to process.
+     * @return A list of {@link Skyline} objects representing the computed skyline.
+     */
     public ArrayList<Skyline> findSkyline(int start, int end) {
+        // Base case: only one building, return its skyline.
         if (start == end) {
             ArrayList<Skyline> list = new ArrayList<>();
             list.add(new Skyline(building[start].left, building[start].height));
-            list.add(new Skyline(building[end].right, 0));
-
+            list.add(new Skyline(building[end].right, 0)); // Add the end of the building
             return list;
         }
 
         int mid = (start + end) / 2;
 
-        ArrayList<Skyline> sky1 = this.findSkyline(start, mid);
-        ArrayList<Skyline> sky2 = this.findSkyline(mid + 1, end);
-
-        return this.mergeSkyline(sky1, sky2);
+        ArrayList<Skyline> sky1 = this.findSkyline(start, mid); // Find the skyline of the left half
+        ArrayList<Skyline> sky2 = this.findSkyline(mid + 1, end); // Find the skyline of the right half
+        return this.mergeSkyline(sky1, sky2); // Merge the two skylines
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Merges two skylines (sky1 and sky2) into one combined skyline.
+     *
+     * @param sky1 The first skyline list.
+     * @param sky2 The second skyline list.
+     * @return A list of {@link Skyline} objects representing the merged skyline.
+     */
     public ArrayList<Skyline> mergeSkyline(ArrayList<Skyline> sky1, ArrayList<Skyline> sky2) {
-        int currentH1 = 0, currentH2 = 0;
+        int currentH1 = 0;
+        int currentH2 = 0;
         ArrayList<Skyline> skyline = new ArrayList<>();
         int maxH = 0;
 
+        // Merge the two skylines
         while (!sky1.isEmpty() && !sky2.isEmpty()) {
             if (sky1.get(0).coordinates < sky2.get(0).coordinates) {
                 int currentX = sky1.get(0).coordinates;
@@ -95,6 +95,7 @@ public ArrayList<Skyline> mergeSkyline(ArrayList<Skyline> sky1, ArrayList<Skylin
             }
         }
 
+        // Add any remaining points from sky1 or sky2
         while (!sky1.isEmpty()) {
             skyline.add(sky1.get(0));
             sky1.remove(0);
@@ -108,32 +109,45 @@ public ArrayList<Skyline> mergeSkyline(ArrayList<Skyline> sky1, ArrayList<Skylin
         return skyline;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * A class representing a point in the skyline with its x-coordinate and height.
+     */
     public class Skyline {
-
         public int coordinates;
         public int height;
 
+        /**
+         * Constructor for the {@code Skyline} class.
+         *
+         * @param coordinates The x-coordinate of the skyline point.
+         * @param height      The height of the skyline at the given coordinate.
+         */
         public Skyline(int coordinates, int height) {
             this.coordinates = coordinates;
             this.height = height;
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * A class representing a building with its left, height, and right
+     * x-coordinates.
+     */
     public class Building {
-
         public int left;
         public int height;
         public int right;
 
+        /**
+         * Constructor for the {@code Building} class.
+         *
+         * @param left   The left x-coordinate of the building.
+         * @param height The height of the building.
+         * @param right  The right x-coordinate of the building.
+         */
         public Building(int left, int height, int right) {
             this.left = left;
             this.height = height;
             this.right = right;
         }
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        SkylineProblem skylineProblem = new SkylineProblem();
-        skylineProblem.run();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/StackPostfixNotation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/StackPostfixNotation.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 0a949fe874ac..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/StackPostfixNotation.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,43 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.*;
-
-public class StackPostfixNotation {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
-        String post = scanner.nextLine(); // Takes input with spaces in between eg. "1 21 +"
-        System.out.println(postfixEvaluate(post));
-        scanner.close();
-    }
-
-    // Evaluates the given postfix expression string and returns the result.
-    public static int postfixEvaluate(String exp) {
-        Stack<Integer> s = new Stack<Integer>();
-        Scanner tokens = new Scanner(exp);
-
-        while (tokens.hasNext()) {
-            if (tokens.hasNextInt()) {
-                s.push(tokens.nextInt()); // If int then push to stack
-            } else { // else pop top two values and perform the operation
-                int num2 = s.pop();
-                int num1 = s.pop();
-                String op = tokens.next();
-
-                if (op.equals("+")) {
-                    s.push(num1 + num2);
-                } else if (op.equals("-")) {
-                    s.push(num1 - num2);
-                } else if (op.equals("*")) {
-                    s.push(num1 * num2);
-                } else {
-                    s.push(num1 / num2);
-                }
-
-                //  "+", "-", "*", "/"
-            }
-        }
-        tokens.close();
-        return s.pop();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/StringMatchFiniteAutomata.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/StringMatchFiniteAutomata.java
deleted file mode 100644
index b2be51c10234..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/StringMatchFiniteAutomata.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,85 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-/**
- * @author Prateek Kumar Oraon (https://github.com/prateekKrOraon)
- */
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-// An implementaion of string matching using finite automata
-public class StringMatchFiniteAutomata {
-
-    public static final int CHARS = 256;
-    public static int[][] FA;
-    public static Scanner scanner = null;
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter String");
-        String text = scanner.nextLine();
-        System.out.println("Enter pattern");
-        String pat = scanner.nextLine();
-
-        searchPat(text, pat);
-
-        scanner.close();
-    }
-
-    public static void searchPat(String text, String pat) {
-
-        int m = pat.length();
-        int n = text.length();
-
-        FA = new int[m + 1][CHARS];
-
-        computeFA(pat, m, FA);
-
-        int state = 0;
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            state = FA[state][text.charAt(i)];
-
-            if (state == m) {
-                System.out.println("Pattern found at index " + (i - m + 1));
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Computes finite automata for the partern
-    public static void computeFA(String pat, int m, int[][] FA) {
-
-        for (int state = 0; state <= m; ++state) {
-            for (int x = 0; x < CHARS; ++x) {
-                FA[state][x] = getNextState(pat, m, state, x);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static int getNextState(String pat, int m, int state, int x) {
-
-        // if current state is less than length of pattern
-        // and input character of pattern matches the character in the alphabet
-        // then automata goes to next state
-        if (state < m && x == pat.charAt(state)) {
-            return state + 1;
-        }
-
-        for (int ns = state; ns > 0; ns--) {
-
-            if (pat.charAt(ns - 1) == x) {
-
-                for (int i = 0; i < ns - 1; i++) {
-
-                    if (pat.charAt(i) != pat.charAt(state - ns + i + 1)) {
-                        break;
-                    }
-
-                    if (i == ns - 1) {
-                        return ns;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        return 0;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Sudoku.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Sudoku.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 6c69663405d9..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Sudoku.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,134 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-class Sudoku {
-
-    public static boolean isSafe(int[][] board,
-            int row, int col,
-            int num) {
-        // Row has the unique (row-clash)
-        for (int d = 0; d < board.length; d++) {
-
-            // Check if the number we are trying to
-            // place is already present in
-            // that row, return false;
-            if (board[row][d] == num) {
-                return false;
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Column has the unique numbers (column-clash)
-        for (int r = 0; r < board.length; r++) {
-
-            // Check if the number
-            // we are trying to
-            // place is already present in
-            // that column, return false;
-            if (board[r][col] == num) {
-                return false;
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Corresponding square has
-        // unique number (box-clash)
-        int sqrt = (int) Math.sqrt(board.length);
-        int boxRowStart = row - row % sqrt;
-        int boxColStart = col - col % sqrt;
-
-        for (int r = boxRowStart;
-                r < boxRowStart + sqrt; r++) {
-            for (int d = boxColStart;
-                    d < boxColStart + sqrt; d++) {
-                if (board[r][d] == num) {
-                    return false;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // if there is no clash, it's safe
-        return true;
-    }
-
-    public static boolean solveSudoku(
-            int[][] board, int n) {
-        int row = -1;
-        int col = -1;
-        boolean isEmpty = true;
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-                if (board[i][j] == 0) {
-                    row = i;
-                    col = j;
-
-                    // We still have some remaining
-                    // missing values in Sudoku
-                    isEmpty = false;
-                    break;
-                }
-            }
-            if (!isEmpty) {
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-
-        // No empty space left
-        if (isEmpty) {
-            return true;
-        }
-
-        // Else for each-row backtrack
-        for (int num = 1; num <= n; num++) {
-            if (isSafe(board, row, col, num)) {
-                board[row][col] = num;
-                if (solveSudoku(board, n)) {
-                    // print(board, n);
-                    return true;
-                } else {
-                    // replace it
-                    board[row][col] = 0;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        return false;
-    }
-
-    public static void print(
-            int[][] board, int N) {
-
-        // We got the answer, just print it
-        for (int r = 0; r < N; r++) {
-            for (int d = 0; d < N; d++) {
-                System.out.print(board[r][d]);
-                System.out.print(" ");
-            }
-            System.out.print("\n");
-
-            if ((r + 1) % (int) Math.sqrt(N) == 0) {
-                System.out.print("");
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    // Driver Code
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-
-        int[][] board = new int[][]{
-            {3, 0, 6, 5, 0, 8, 4, 0, 0},
-            {5, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
-            {0, 8, 7, 0, 0, 0, 0, 3, 1},
-            {0, 0, 3, 0, 1, 0, 0, 8, 0},
-            {9, 0, 0, 8, 6, 3, 0, 0, 5},
-            {0, 5, 0, 0, 9, 0, 6, 0, 0},
-            {1, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 5, 0},
-            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 7, 4},
-            {0, 0, 5, 2, 0, 6, 3, 0, 0}
-        };
-        int N = board.length;
-
-        if (solveSudoku(board, N)) {
-            // print solution
-            print(board, N);
-        } else {
-            System.out.println("No solution");
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ThreeSum.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ThreeSum.java
deleted file mode 100644
index a9a6c6728862..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ThreeSum.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,54 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-/**
- * To find triplet equals to given sum in complexity O(n*log(n))
- *
- * <p>
- * Array must be sorted
- *
- * @author Ujjawal Joshi
- * @date 2020.05.18
- * <p>
- * Test Cases: Input: 6 //Length of array 12 3 4 1 6 9 target=24 Output:3 9 12
- * Explanation: There is a triplet (12, 3 and 9) present in the array whose sum
- * is 24.
- */
-class ThreeSum {
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int n = sc.nextInt(); // Length of an array
-
-        int a[] = new int[n];
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            a[i] = sc.nextInt();
-        }
-        System.out.println("Target");
-        int n_find = sc.nextInt();
-
-        Arrays.sort(a); // Sort the array if array is not sorted
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-
-            int l = i + 1, r = n - 1;
-
-            while (l < r) {
-                if (a[i] + a[l] + a[r] == n_find) {
-                    System.out.println(a[i] + " " + a[l] + " " + a[r]);
-                    break;
-                } // if you want all the triplets write l++;r--; insted of break;
-                else if (a[i] + a[l] + a[r] < n_find) {
-                    l++;
-                } else {
-                    r--;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        sc.close();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TopKWords.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TopKWords.java
deleted file mode 100644
index fe19ca82f2ad..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TopKWords.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,89 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.io.*;
-import java.util.*;
-
-/* display the most frequent K words in the file and the times it appear
-in the file – shown in order (ignore case and periods) */
-public class TopKWords {
-
-    static class CountWords {
-
-        private String fileName;
-
-        public CountWords(String fileName) {
-            this.fileName = fileName;
-        }
-
-        public Map<String, Integer> getDictionary() {
-            Map<String, Integer> dictionary = new HashMap<>();
-            FileInputStream fis = null;
-
-            try {
-
-                fis = new FileInputStream(fileName); // open the file
-                int in = 0;
-                String s = ""; // init a empty word
-                in = fis.read(); // read one character
-
-                while (-1 != in) {
-                    if (Character.isLetter((char) in)) {
-                        s += (char) in; // if get a letter, append to s
-                    } else {
-                        // this branch means an entire word has just been read
-                        if (s.length() > 0) {
-                            // see whether word exists or not
-                            if (dictionary.containsKey(s)) {
-                                // if exist, count++
-                                dictionary.put(s, dictionary.get(s) + 1);
-                            } else {
-                                // if not exist, initiate count of this word with 1
-                                dictionary.put(s, 1);
-                            }
-                        }
-                        s = ""; // reInit a empty word
-                    }
-                    in = fis.read();
-                }
-                return dictionary;
-            } catch (IOException e) {
-                e.printStackTrace();
-            } finally {
-                try {
-                    // you always have to close the I/O streams
-                    if (fis != null) {
-                        fis.close();
-                    }
-                } catch (IOException e) {
-                    e.printStackTrace();
-                }
-            }
-            return null;
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // you can replace the filePath with yours
-        CountWords cw = new CountWords("/Users/lisanaaa/Desktop/words.txt");
-        Map<String, Integer> dictionary
-                = cw.getDictionary(); // get the words dictionary: {word: frequency}
-
-        // we change the map to list for convenient sort
-        List<Map.Entry<String, Integer>> list = new ArrayList<>(dictionary.entrySet());
-
-        // sort by lambda valueComparator
-        list.sort(Comparator.comparing(m -> m.getValue()));
-
-        Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int k = input.nextInt();
-        while (k > list.size()) {
-            System.out.println("Retype a number, your number is too large");
-            input = new Scanner(System.in);
-            k = input.nextInt();
-        }
-        for (int i = 0; i < k; i++) {
-            System.out.println(list.get(list.size() - i - 1));
-        }
-        input.close();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TowerOfHanoi.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TowerOfHanoi.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 17100b2ab611..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TowerOfHanoi.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,27 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-class TowerOfHanoi {
-
-    public static void shift(int n, String startPole, String intermediatePole, String endPole) {
-        // if n becomes zero the program returns thus ending the loop.
-        if (n != 0) {
-            // Shift function is called in recursion for swapping the n-1 disc from the startPole to the
-            // intermediatePole
-            shift(n - 1, startPole, endPole, intermediatePole);
-            System.out.format("Move %d from %s to %s\n", n, startPole, endPole); // Result Printing
-            // Shift function is called in recursion for swapping the n-1 disc from the intermediatePole
-            // to the endPole
-            shift(n - 1, intermediatePole, startPole, endPole);
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        System.out.print("Enter number of discs on Pole 1: ");
-        Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int numberOfDiscs = scanner.nextInt(); // input of number of discs on pole 1
-        shift(numberOfDiscs, "Pole1", "Pole2", "Pole3"); // Shift function called
-        scanner.close();
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointers.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointers.java
index 814ac1bfb1a4..c87e26269386 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointers.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointers.java
@@ -1,55 +1,43 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import java.util.Arrays;
-
 /**
- * The two pointer technique is a useful tool to utilize when searching for
+ * The two-pointer technique is a useful tool to utilize when searching for
  * pairs in a sorted array.
  *
  * <p>
- * link: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/two-pointers-technique/
+ * Link: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/two-pointers-technique/
  */
-class TwoPointers {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] arr = {10, 20, 35, 50, 75, 80};
-        int key = 70;
-        assert isPairedSum(arr, key);
-        /* 20 + 60 == 70 */
+public final class TwoPointers {
 
-        arr = new int[]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
-        key = 13;
-        assert isPairedSum(arr, key);
-        /* 6 + 7 == 13 */
-
-        key = 14;
-        assert !isPairedSum(arr, key);
+    private TwoPointers() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Given a sorted array arr (sorted in ascending order). Find if there
-     * exists any pair of elements such that their sum is equal to key.
+     * Checks whether there exists a pair of elements in a sorted array whose sum equals the specified key.
      *
-     * @param arr the array contains elements
-     * @param key the number to search
-     * @return {@code true} if there exists a pair of elements, {@code false}
-     * otherwise.
+     * @param arr a sorted array of integers in ascending order (must not be null)
+     * @param key the target sum to find
+     * @return {@code true} if there exists at least one pair whose sum equals {@code key}, {@code false} otherwise
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code arr} is {@code null}
      */
-    private static boolean isPairedSum(int[] arr, int key) {
-        /* array sorting is necessary for this algorithm to function correctly */
-        Arrays.sort(arr);
-        int i = 0;
-        /* index of first element */
-        int j = arr.length - 1;
-        /* index of last element */
+    public static boolean isPairedSum(int[] arr, int key) {
+        if (arr == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array must not be null.");
+        }
 
-        while (i < j) {
-            if (arr[i] + arr[j] == key) {
+        int left = 0;
+        int right = arr.length - 1;
+
+        while (left < right) {
+            int sum = arr[left] + arr[right];
+
+            if (sum == key) {
                 return true;
-            } else if (arr[i] + arr[j] < key) {
-                i++;
+            }
+            if (sum < key) {
+                left++;
             } else {
-                j--;
+                right--;
             }
         }
         return false;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Verhoeff.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Verhoeff.java
index 760ef0e16b68..9088612aaa43 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Verhoeff.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Verhoeff.java
@@ -23,7 +23,9 @@
  * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verhoeff_algorithm">Wiki.
  * Verhoeff algorithm</a>
  */
-public class Verhoeff {
+public final class Verhoeff {
+    private Verhoeff() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Table {@code d}. Based on multiplication in the dihedral group D5 and is
@@ -44,14 +46,25 @@ public class Verhoeff {
         {6, 5, 9, 8, 7, 1, 0, 4, 3, 2},
         {7, 6, 5, 9, 8, 2, 1, 0, 4, 3},
         {8, 7, 6, 5, 9, 3, 2, 1, 0, 4},
-        {9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0}
+        {9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0},
     };
 
     /**
      * The inverse table {@code inv}. Represents the multiplicative inverse of a
      * digit, that is, the value that satisfies {@code d(j, inv(j)) = 0}.
      */
-    private static final byte[] MULTIPLICATIVE_INVERSE = {0, 4, 3, 2, 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9};
+    private static final byte[] MULTIPLICATIVE_INVERSE = {
+        0,
+        4,
+        3,
+        2,
+        1,
+        5,
+        6,
+        7,
+        8,
+        9,
+    };
 
     /**
      * The permutation table {@code p}. Applies a permutation to each digit
@@ -67,7 +80,7 @@ public class Verhoeff {
         {9, 4, 5, 3, 1, 2, 6, 8, 7, 0},
         {4, 2, 8, 6, 5, 7, 3, 9, 0, 1},
         {2, 7, 9, 3, 8, 0, 6, 4, 1, 5},
-        {7, 0, 4, 6, 9, 1, 3, 2, 5, 8}
+        {7, 0, 4, 6, 9, 1, 3, 2, 5, 8},
     };
 
     /**
@@ -136,9 +149,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
     }
 
     private static void checkAndPrint(String input) {
-        String validationResult = Verhoeff.verhoeffCheck(input)
-                ? "valid"
-                : "not valid";
+        String validationResult = Verhoeff.verhoeffCheck(input) ? "valid" : "not valid";
         System.out.println("Input '" + input + "' is " + validationResult);
     }
 
@@ -155,8 +166,6 @@ private static void checkInput(String input) {
     }
 
     private static int[] toIntArray(String string) {
-        return string.chars()
-                .map(i -> Character.digit(i, 10))
-                .toArray();
+        return string.chars().map(i -> Character.digit(i, 10)).toArray();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFit.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 69aedc1e9fc4..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFit.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,89 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.ArrayList;
-
-/**
- * @author Dekas Dimitrios
- */
-public class WorstFit {
-
-    private static final int NO_ALLOCATION
-            = -255; // if a process has been allocated in position -255,
-    // it means that it has not been actually allocated.
-
-    /**
-     * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
-     * given process based on the worst fit algorithm.
-     *
-     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
-     * @param process: the size of the process.
-     * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
-     * exists.
-     */
-    private static int findWorstFit(int[] blockSizes, int processSize) {
-        int max = -1;
-        int index = -1;
-        for (int i = 0;
-                i < blockSizes.length;
-                i++) { // Find the index of the biggest memory block available.
-            if (blockSizes[i] > max) {
-                max = blockSizes[i];
-                index = i;
-            }
-        }
-        // If the biggest memory block cannot fit the process, return -255 as the result
-        if (processSize > blockSizes[index]) {
-            return NO_ALLOCATION;
-        }
-        return index;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Method to allocate memory to blocks according to the worst fit algorithm.
-     * It should return an ArrayList of Integers, where the index is the process
-     * ID (zero-indexed) and the value is the block number (also zero-indexed).
-     *
-     * @param sizeOfBlocks: an int array that contains the sizes of the memory
-     * blocks available.
-     * @param sizeOfProcesses: an int array that contains the sizes of the
-     * processes we need memory blocks for.
-     * @return the ArrayList filled with Integers repressenting the memory
-     * allocation that took place.
-     */
-    static ArrayList<Integer> worstFit(int[] sizeOfBlocks, int[] sizeOfProcesses) {
-        // The array list responsible for saving the memory allocations done by the worst-fit algorithm
-        ArrayList<Integer> memAlloc = new ArrayList<>();
-        // Do this for every process
-        for (int processSize : sizeOfProcesses) {
-            int chosenBlockIdx
-                    = findWorstFit(
-                            sizeOfBlocks, processSize); // Find the index of the memory block going to be used
-            memAlloc.add(chosenBlockIdx); // Store the chosen block index in the memAlloc array list
-            if (chosenBlockIdx
-                    != NO_ALLOCATION) { // Only if a block was chosen to store the process in it,
-                sizeOfBlocks[chosenBlockIdx] -= processSize; // resize the block based on the process size
-            }
-        }
-        return memAlloc;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Method to print the memory allocated.
-     *
-     * @param memAllocation: an ArrayList of Integer representing the memory
-     * allocation done by the worstFit method.
-     */
-    public static void printMemoryAllocation(ArrayList<Integer> memAllocation) {
-        System.out.println("Process No.\tBlock No.");
-        System.out.println("===========\t=========");
-        for (int i = 0; i < memAllocation.size(); i++) {
-            System.out.print(" " + i + "\t\t");
-            if (memAllocation.get(i) != NO_ALLOCATION) {
-                System.out.print(memAllocation.get(i));
-            } else {
-                System.out.print("Not Allocated");
-            }
-            System.out.println();
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/cn/HammingDistance.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/cn/HammingDistance.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c8239d53d606
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/cn/HammingDistance.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others.cn;
+
+public final class HammingDistance {
+    private HammingDistance() {
+    }
+
+    private static void checkChar(char inChar) {
+        if (inChar != '0' && inChar != '1') {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input must be a binary string.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    public static int compute(char charA, char charB) {
+        checkChar(charA);
+        checkChar(charB);
+        return charA == charB ? 0 : 1;
+    }
+
+    public static int compute(String bitsStrA, String bitsStrB) {
+        if (bitsStrA.length() != bitsStrB.length()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input strings must have the same length.");
+        }
+
+        int totalErrorBitCount = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < bitsStrA.length(); i++) {
+            totalErrorBitCount += compute(bitsStrA.charAt(i), bitsStrB.charAt(i));
+        }
+
+        return totalErrorBitCount;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/DampedOscillator.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/DampedOscillator.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..84028b628e77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/DampedOscillator.java
@@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+/**
+ * Models a damped harmonic oscillator, capturing the behavior of a mass-spring-damper system.
+ *
+ * <p>The system is defined by the second-order differential equation:
+ *     x'' + 2 * gamma * x' + omega₀² * x = 0
+ * where:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li><b>omega₀</b> is the natural (undamped) angular frequency in radians per second.</li>
+ *   <li><b>gamma</b> is the damping coefficient in inverse seconds.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation provides:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>An analytical solution for the underdamped case (γ < ω₀).</li>
+ *   <li>A numerical integrator based on the explicit Euler method for simulation purposes.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p><strong>Usage Example:</strong>
+ * <pre>{@code
+ * DampedOscillator oscillator = new DampedOscillator(10.0, 0.5);
+ * double displacement = oscillator.displacementAnalytical(1.0, 0.0, 0.1);
+ * double[] nextState = oscillator.stepEuler(new double[]{1.0, 0.0}, 0.001);
+ * }</pre>
+ *
+ * @author [Yash Rajput](https://github.com/the-yash-rajput)
+ */
+public final class DampedOscillator {
+
+    /** Natural (undamped) angular frequency (rad/s). */
+    private final double omega0;
+
+    /** Damping coefficient (s⁻¹). */
+    private final double gamma;
+
+    private DampedOscillator() {
+        throw new AssertionError("No instances.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a damped oscillator model.
+     *
+     * @param omega0 the natural frequency (rad/s), must be positive
+     * @param gamma  the damping coefficient (s⁻¹), must be non-negative
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if parameters are invalid
+     */
+    public DampedOscillator(double omega0, double gamma) {
+        if (omega0 <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Natural frequency must be positive.");
+        }
+        if (gamma < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Damping coefficient must be non-negative.");
+        }
+        this.omega0 = omega0;
+        this.gamma = gamma;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the analytical displacement of an underdamped oscillator.
+     * Formula: x(t) = A * exp(-γt) * cos(ω_d t + φ)
+     *
+     * @param amplitude the initial amplitude A
+     * @param phase     the initial phase φ (radians)
+     * @param time      the time t (seconds)
+     * @return the displacement x(t)
+     */
+    public double displacementAnalytical(double amplitude, double phase, double time) {
+        double omegaD = Math.sqrt(Math.max(0.0, omega0 * omega0 - gamma * gamma));
+        return amplitude * Math.exp(-gamma * time) * Math.cos(omegaD * time + phase);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs a single integration step using the explicit Euler method.
+     * State vector format: [x, v], where v = dx/dt.
+     *
+     * @param state the current state [x, v]
+     * @param dt    the time step (seconds)
+     * @return the next state [x_next, v_next]
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the state array is invalid or dt is non-positive
+     */
+    public double[] stepEuler(double[] state, double dt) {
+        if (state == null || state.length != 2) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("State must be a non-null array of length 2.");
+        }
+        if (dt <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Time step must be positive.");
+        }
+
+        double x = state[0];
+        double v = state[1];
+        double acceleration = -2.0 * gamma * v - omega0 * omega0 * x;
+
+        double xNext = x + dt * v;
+        double vNext = v + dt * acceleration;
+
+        return new double[] {xNext, vNext};
+    }
+
+    /** @return the natural (undamped) angular frequency (rad/s). */
+    public double getOmega0() {
+        return omega0;
+    }
+
+    /** @return the damping coefficient (s⁻¹). */
+    public double getGamma() {
+        return gamma;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2D.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2D.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..399c3f1e041f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2D.java
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+/**
+ * 2D Elastic collision between two circular bodies
+ * Based on principles of conservation of momentum and kinetic energy.
+ *
+ * @author [Yash Rajput](https://github.com/the-yash-rajput)
+ */
+public final class ElasticCollision2D {
+
+    private ElasticCollision2D() {
+        throw new AssertionError("No instances. Utility class");
+    }
+
+    public static class Body {
+        public double x;
+        public double y;
+        public double vx;
+        public double vy;
+        public double mass;
+        public double radius;
+
+        public Body(double x, double y, double vx, double vy, double mass, double radius) {
+            this.x = x;
+            this.y = y;
+            this.vx = vx;
+            this.vy = vy;
+            this.mass = mass;
+            this.radius = radius;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Resolve instantaneous elastic collision between two circular bodies.
+     *
+     * @param a first body
+     * @param b second body
+     */
+    public static void resolveCollision(Body a, Body b) {
+        double dx = b.x - a.x;
+        double dy = b.y - a.y;
+        double dist = Math.hypot(dx, dy);
+
+        if (dist == 0) {
+            return; // overlapping
+        }
+
+        double nx = dx / dist;
+        double ny = dy / dist;
+
+        // relative velocity along normal
+        double rv = (b.vx - a.vx) * nx + (b.vy - a.vy) * ny;
+
+        if (rv > 0) {
+            return; // moving apart
+        }
+
+        // impulse with masses
+        double m1 = a.mass;
+        double m2 = b.mass;
+
+        double j = -(1 + 1.0) * rv / (1.0 / m1 + 1.0 / m2);
+
+        // impulse vector
+        double impulseX = j * nx;
+        double impulseY = j * ny;
+
+        a.vx -= impulseX / m1;
+        a.vy -= impulseY / m1;
+        b.vx += impulseX / m2;
+        b.vy += impulseY / m2;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/Gravitation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/Gravitation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..292fdc195f85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/Gravitation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+/**
+ * Implements Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.
+ * Provides simple static methods to calculate gravitational force and circular orbit velocity.
+ *
+ * @author [Priyanshu Kumar Singh](https://github.com/Priyanshu1303d)
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation">Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class Gravitation {
+
+    /** Gravitational constant in m^3 kg^-1 s^-2 */
+    public static final double GRAVITATIONAL_CONSTANT = 6.67430e-11;
+
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of this utility class.
+     */
+    private Gravitation() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the gravitational force vector exerted by one body on another.
+     *
+     * @param m1 Mass of the first body (kg).
+     * @param x1 X-position of the first body (m).
+     * @param y1 Y-position of the first body (m).
+     * @param m2 Mass of the second body (kg).
+     * @param x2 X-position of the second body (m).
+     * @param y2 Y-position of the second body (m).
+     * @return A double array `[fx, fy]` representing the force vector on the second body.
+     */
+    public static double[] calculateGravitationalForce(double m1, double x1, double y1, double m2, double x2, double y2) {
+        double dx = x1 - x2;
+        double dy = y1 - y2;
+        double distanceSq = dx * dx + dy * dy;
+
+        // If bodies are at the same position, force is zero to avoid division by zero.
+        if (distanceSq == 0) {
+            return new double[] {0, 0};
+        }
+
+        double distance = Math.sqrt(distanceSq);
+        double forceMagnitude = GRAVITATIONAL_CONSTANT * m1 * m2 / distanceSq;
+
+        // Calculate the components of the force vector
+        double fx = forceMagnitude * (dx / distance);
+        double fy = forceMagnitude * (dy / distance);
+
+        return new double[] {fx, fy};
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the speed required for a stable circular orbit.
+     *
+     * @param centralMass The mass of the central body (kg).
+     * @param radius The radius of the orbit (m).
+     * @return The orbital speed (m/s).
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if mass or radius are not positive.
+     */
+    public static double calculateCircularOrbitVelocity(double centralMass, double radius) {
+        if (centralMass <= 0 || radius <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Mass and radius must be positive.");
+        }
+        return Math.sqrt(GRAVITATIONAL_CONSTANT * centralMass / radius);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a8d7ac63a186
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+/**
+ * Ground to ground projectile motion calculator
+ *
+ * Ground to ground projectile motion is when a projectile's trajectory
+ * starts at the ground, reaches the apex, then falls back on the ground.
+ *
+ * @author [Yash Rajput](https://github.com/the-yash-rajput)
+ */
+public final class GroundToGroundProjectileMotion {
+
+    private GroundToGroundProjectileMotion() {
+        throw new AssertionError("No instances.");
+    }
+
+    /** Standard gravity constant (m/s^2) */
+    private static final double GRAVITY = 9.80665;
+
+    /**
+     * Convert degrees to radians
+     *
+     * @param degrees Angle in degrees
+     * @return Angle in radians
+     */
+    private static double degreesToRadians(double degrees) {
+        return degrees * (Math.PI / 180.0);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the time of flight
+     *
+     * @param initialVelocity The starting velocity of the projectile (m/s)
+     * @param angle The angle that the projectile is launched at in degrees
+     * @return The time that the projectile is in the air for (seconds)
+     */
+    public static double timeOfFlight(double initialVelocity, double angle) {
+        return timeOfFlight(initialVelocity, angle, GRAVITY);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the time of flight with custom gravity
+     *
+     * @param initialVelocity The starting velocity of the projectile (m/s)
+     * @param angle The angle that the projectile is launched at in degrees
+     * @param gravity The value used for the gravity constant (m/s^2)
+     * @return The time that the projectile is in the air for (seconds)
+     */
+    public static double timeOfFlight(double initialVelocity, double angle, double gravity) {
+        double viy = initialVelocity * Math.sin(degreesToRadians(angle));
+        return 2.0 * viy / gravity;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the horizontal distance that the projectile travels
+     *
+     * @param initialVelocity The starting velocity of the projectile (m/s)
+     * @param angle The angle that the projectile is launched at in degrees
+     * @param time The time that the projectile is in the air (seconds)
+     * @return Horizontal distance that the projectile travels (meters)
+     */
+    public static double horizontalRange(double initialVelocity, double angle, double time) {
+        double vix = initialVelocity * Math.cos(degreesToRadians(angle));
+        return vix * time;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the max height of the projectile
+     *
+     * @param initialVelocity The starting velocity of the projectile (m/s)
+     * @param angle The angle that the projectile is launched at in degrees
+     * @return The max height that the projectile reaches (meters)
+     */
+    public static double maxHeight(double initialVelocity, double angle) {
+        return maxHeight(initialVelocity, angle, GRAVITY);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculate the max height of the projectile with custom gravity
+     *
+     * @param initialVelocity The starting velocity of the projectile (m/s)
+     * @param angle The angle that the projectile is launched at in degrees
+     * @param gravity The value used for the gravity constant (m/s^2)
+     * @return The max height that the projectile reaches (meters)
+     */
+    public static double maxHeight(double initialVelocity, double angle, double gravity) {
+        double viy = initialVelocity * Math.sin(degreesToRadians(angle));
+        return Math.pow(viy, 2) / (2.0 * gravity);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ProjectileMotion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ProjectileMotion.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cfc79547922c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ProjectileMotion.java
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+/**
+ *
+ * This implementation calculates the flight path of a projectile launched from any INITIAL HEIGHT.
+ * It is a more flexible version of the ground-to-ground model.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projectile_motion">Wikipedia - Projectile Motion</a>
+ * @author [Priyanshu Kumar Singh](https://github.com/Priyanshu1303d)
+ */
+public final class ProjectileMotion {
+
+    private ProjectileMotion() {
+    }
+
+    /** Standard Earth gravity constant*/
+    private static final double GRAVITY = 9.80665;
+
+    /**
+     * A simple container for the results of a projectile motion calculation.
+     */
+    public static final class Result {
+        private final double timeOfFlight;
+        private final double horizontalRange;
+        private final double maxHeight;
+
+        public Result(double timeOfFlight, double horizontalRange, double maxHeight) {
+            this.timeOfFlight = timeOfFlight;
+            this.horizontalRange = horizontalRange;
+            this.maxHeight = maxHeight;
+        }
+
+        /** @return The total time the projectile is in the air (seconds). */
+        public double getTimeOfFlight() {
+            return timeOfFlight;
+        }
+
+        /** @return The total horizontal distance traveled (meters). */
+        public double getHorizontalRange() {
+            return horizontalRange;
+        }
+
+        /** @return The maximum vertical height from the ground (meters). */
+        public double getMaxHeight() {
+            return maxHeight;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates projectile trajectory using standard Earth gravity.
+     *
+     * @param initialVelocity Initial speed of the projectile (m/s).
+     * @param launchAngleDegrees Launch angle from the horizontal (degrees).
+     * @param initialHeight Starting height of the projectile (m).
+     * @return A {@link Result} object with the trajectory data.
+     */
+    public static Result calculateTrajectory(double initialVelocity, double launchAngleDegrees, double initialHeight) {
+        return calculateTrajectory(initialVelocity, launchAngleDegrees, initialHeight, GRAVITY);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates projectile trajectory with a custom gravity value.
+     *
+     * @param initialVelocity Initial speed (m/s). Must be non-negative.
+     * @param launchAngleDegrees Launch angle (degrees).
+     * @param initialHeight Starting height (m). Must be non-negative.
+     * @param gravity Acceleration due to gravity (m/s^2). Must be positive.
+     * @return A {@link Result} object with the trajectory data.
+     */
+    public static Result calculateTrajectory(double initialVelocity, double launchAngleDegrees, double initialHeight, double gravity) {
+        if (initialVelocity < 0 || initialHeight < 0 || gravity <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Velocity, height, and gravity must be non-negative, and gravity must be positive.");
+        }
+
+        double launchAngleRadians = Math.toRadians(launchAngleDegrees);
+        double initialVerticalVelocity = initialVelocity * Math.sin(launchAngleRadians); // Initial vertical velocity
+        double initialHorizontalVelocity = initialVelocity * Math.cos(launchAngleRadians); // Initial horizontal velocity
+
+        // Correctly calculate total time of flight using the quadratic formula for vertical motion.
+        // y(t) = y0 + initialVerticalVelocity*t - 0.5*g*t^2. We solve for t when y(t) = 0.
+        double totalTimeOfFlight = (initialVerticalVelocity + Math.sqrt(initialVerticalVelocity * initialVerticalVelocity + 2 * gravity * initialHeight)) / gravity;
+
+        // Calculate max height. If launched downwards, max height is the initial height.
+        double maxHeight;
+        if (initialVerticalVelocity > 0) {
+            double heightGained = initialVerticalVelocity * initialVerticalVelocity / (2 * gravity);
+            maxHeight = initialHeight + heightGained;
+        } else {
+            maxHeight = initialHeight;
+        }
+
+        double horizontalRange = initialHorizontalVelocity * totalTimeOfFlight;
+
+        return new Result(totalTimeOfFlight, horizontalRange, maxHeight);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6de69c103b5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4.java
@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+/**
+ * Simulates a simple pendulum using the Runge-Kutta 4th order method.
+ * The pendulum is modeled with the nonlinear differential equation.
+ *
+ * @author [Yash Rajput](https://github.com/the-yash-rajput)
+ */
+public final class SimplePendulumRK4 {
+
+    private SimplePendulumRK4() {
+        throw new AssertionError("No instances.");
+    }
+
+    private final double length; // meters
+    private final double g; // acceleration due to gravity (m/s^2)
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a simple pendulum simulator.
+     *
+     * @param length the length of the pendulum in meters
+     * @param g the acceleration due to gravity in m/s^2
+     */
+    public SimplePendulumRK4(double length, double g) {
+        if (length <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Length must be positive");
+        }
+        if (g <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Gravity must be positive");
+        }
+        this.length = length;
+        this.g = g;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the derivatives of the state vector.
+     * State: [theta, omega] where theta is angle and omega is angular velocity.
+     *
+     * @param state the current state [theta, omega]
+     * @return the derivatives [dtheta/dt, domega/dt]
+     */
+    private double[] derivatives(double[] state) {
+        double theta = state[0];
+        double omega = state[1];
+        double dtheta = omega;
+        double domega = -(g / length) * Math.sin(theta);
+        return new double[] {dtheta, domega};
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs one time step using the RK4 method.
+     *
+     * @param state the current state [theta, omega]
+     * @param dt the time step size
+     * @return the new state after time dt
+     */
+    public double[] stepRK4(double[] state, double dt) {
+        if (state == null || state.length != 2) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("State must be array of length 2");
+        }
+        if (dt <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Time step must be positive");
+        }
+
+        double[] k1 = derivatives(state);
+        double[] s2 = new double[] {state[0] + 0.5 * dt * k1[0], state[1] + 0.5 * dt * k1[1]};
+
+        double[] k2 = derivatives(s2);
+        double[] s3 = new double[] {state[0] + 0.5 * dt * k2[0], state[1] + 0.5 * dt * k2[1]};
+
+        double[] k3 = derivatives(s3);
+        double[] s4 = new double[] {state[0] + dt * k3[0], state[1] + dt * k3[1]};
+
+        double[] k4 = derivatives(s4);
+
+        double thetaNext = state[0] + dt / 6.0 * (k1[0] + 2 * k2[0] + 2 * k3[0] + k4[0]);
+        double omegaNext = state[1] + dt / 6.0 * (k1[1] + 2 * k2[1] + 2 * k3[1] + k4[1]);
+
+        return new double[] {thetaNext, omegaNext};
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Simulates the pendulum for a given duration.
+     *
+     * @param initialState the initial state [theta, omega]
+     * @param dt the time step size
+     * @param steps the number of steps to simulate
+     * @return array of states at each step
+     */
+    public double[][] simulate(double[] initialState, double dt, int steps) {
+        double[][] trajectory = new double[steps + 1][2];
+        trajectory[0] = initialState.clone();
+
+        double[] currentState = initialState.clone();
+        for (int i = 1; i <= steps; i++) {
+            currentState = stepRK4(currentState, dt);
+            trajectory[i] = currentState.clone();
+        }
+
+        return trajectory;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the total energy of the pendulum.
+     * E = (1/2) * m * L^2 * omega^2 + m * g * L * (1 - cos(theta))
+     * We use m = 1 for simplicity.
+     *
+     * @param state the current state [theta, omega]
+     * @return the total energy
+     */
+    public double calculateEnergy(double[] state) {
+        double theta = state[0];
+        double omega = state[1];
+        double kineticEnergy = 0.5 * length * length * omega * omega;
+        double potentialEnergy = g * length * (1 - Math.cos(theta));
+        return kineticEnergy + potentialEnergy;
+    }
+
+    public double getLength() {
+        return length;
+    }
+
+    public double getGravity() {
+        return g;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/Sudoku.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/Sudoku.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fce665c4de00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/Sudoku.java
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.puzzlesandgames;
+
+/**
+ * A class that provides methods to solve Sudoku puzzles of any n x n size
+ * using a backtracking approach, where n must be a perfect square.
+ * The algorithm checks for safe number placements in rows, columns,
+ * and subgrids (which are sqrt(n) x sqrt(n) in size) and recursively solves the puzzle.
+ * Though commonly used for 9x9 grids, it is adaptable to other valid Sudoku dimensions.
+ */
+final class Sudoku {
+
+    private Sudoku() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if placing a number in a specific position on the Sudoku board is safe.
+     * The number is considered safe if it does not violate any of the Sudoku rules:
+     * - It should not be present in the same row.
+     * - It should not be present in the same column.
+     * - It should not be present in the corresponding 3x3 subgrid.
+     * - It should not be present in the corresponding subgrid, which is sqrt(n) x sqrt(n) in size (e.g., for a 9x9 grid, the subgrid will be 3x3).
+     *
+     * @param board The current state of the Sudoku board.
+     * @param row   The row index where the number is to be placed.
+     * @param col   The column index where the number is to be placed.
+     * @param num   The number to be placed on the board.
+     * @return True if the placement is safe, otherwise false.
+     */
+    public static boolean isSafe(int[][] board, int row, int col, int num) {
+        // Check the row for duplicates
+        for (int d = 0; d < board.length; d++) {
+            if (board[row][d] == num) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Check the column for duplicates
+        for (int r = 0; r < board.length; r++) {
+            if (board[r][col] == num) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Check the corresponding 3x3 subgrid for duplicates
+        int sqrt = (int) Math.sqrt(board.length);
+        int boxRowStart = row - row % sqrt;
+        int boxColStart = col - col % sqrt;
+
+        for (int r = boxRowStart; r < boxRowStart + sqrt; r++) {
+            for (int d = boxColStart; d < boxColStart + sqrt; d++) {
+                if (board[r][d] == num) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Solves the Sudoku puzzle using backtracking.
+     * The algorithm finds an empty cell and tries placing numbers
+     * from 1 to n, where n is the size of the board
+     * (for example, from 1 to 9 in a standard 9x9 Sudoku).
+     * The algorithm finds an empty cell and tries placing numbers from 1 to 9.
+     * The standard version of Sudoku uses numbers from 1 to 9, so the algorithm can be
+     * easily modified for other variations of the game.
+     * If a number placement is valid (checked via `isSafe`), the number is
+     * placed and the function recursively attempts to solve the rest of the puzzle.
+     * If no solution is possible, the number is removed (backtracked),
+     * and the process is repeated.
+     *
+     * @param board The current state of the Sudoku board.
+     * @param n     The size of the Sudoku board (typically 9 for a standard puzzle).
+     * @return True if the Sudoku puzzle is solvable, false otherwise.
+     */
+    public static boolean solveSudoku(int[][] board, int n) {
+        int row = -1;
+        int col = -1;
+        boolean isEmpty = true;
+
+        // Find the next empty cell
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                if (board[i][j] == 0) {
+                    row = i;
+                    col = j;
+                    isEmpty = false;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            if (!isEmpty) {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // No empty space left
+        if (isEmpty) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        // Try placing numbers 1 to n in the empty cell (n should be a perfect square)
+        // Eg: n=9 for a standard 9x9 Sudoku puzzle, n=16 for a 16x16 puzzle, etc.
+        for (int num = 1; num <= n; num++) {
+            if (isSafe(board, row, col, num)) {
+                board[row][col] = num;
+                if (solveSudoku(board, n)) {
+                    return true;
+                } else {
+                    // replace it
+                    board[row][col] = 0;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Prints the current state of the Sudoku board in a readable format.
+     * Each row is printed on a new line, with numbers separated by spaces.
+     *
+     * @param board The current state of the Sudoku board.
+     * @param n     The size of the Sudoku board (typically 9 for a standard puzzle).
+     */
+    public static void print(int[][] board, int n) {
+        // Print the board in a nxn grid format
+        // if n=9, print the board in a 9x9 grid format
+        // if n=16, print the board in a 16x16 grid format
+        for (int r = 0; r < n; r++) {
+            for (int d = 0; d < n; d++) {
+                System.out.print(board[r][d]);
+                System.out.print(" ");
+            }
+            System.out.print("\n");
+
+            if ((r + 1) % (int) Math.sqrt(n) == 0) {
+                System.out.print("");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * The driver method to demonstrate solving a Sudoku puzzle.
+     * A sample 9x9 Sudoku puzzle is provided, and the program attempts to solve it
+     * using the `solveSudoku` method. If a solution is found, it is printed to the console.
+     *
+     * @param args Command-line arguments (not used in this program).
+     */
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        int[][] board = new int[][] {
+            {3, 0, 6, 5, 0, 8, 4, 0, 0},
+            {5, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 8, 7, 0, 0, 0, 0, 3, 1},
+            {0, 0, 3, 0, 1, 0, 0, 8, 0},
+            {9, 0, 0, 8, 6, 3, 0, 0, 5},
+            {0, 5, 0, 0, 9, 0, 6, 0, 0},
+            {1, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 5, 0},
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 7, 4},
+            {0, 0, 5, 2, 0, 6, 3, 0, 0},
+        };
+        int n = board.length;
+
+        if (solveSudoku(board, n)) {
+            print(board, n);
+        } else {
+            System.out.println("No solution");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/TowerOfHanoi.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/TowerOfHanoi.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..72e9a14ac070
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/TowerOfHanoi.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.puzzlesandgames;
+
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code TowerOfHanoi} class provides a recursive solution to the Tower of Hanoi puzzle.
+ * This puzzle involves moving a set of discs from one pole to another, following specific rules:
+ * 1. Only one disc can be moved at a time.
+ * 2. A disc can only be placed on top of a larger disc.
+ * 3. All discs must start on one pole and end on another.
+ *
+ * This implementation recursively calculates the steps required to solve the puzzle and stores them
+ * in a provided list.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * For more information about the Tower of Hanoi, see
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_Hanoi">Tower of Hanoi on Wikipedia</a>.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * The {@code shift} method takes the number of discs and the names of the poles,
+ * and appends the steps required to solve the puzzle to the provided list.
+ * Time Complexity: O(2^n) - Exponential time complexity due to the recursive nature of the problem.
+ * Space Complexity: O(n) - Linear space complexity due to the recursion stack.
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_Hanoi
+ */
+final class TowerOfHanoi {
+
+    private TowerOfHanoi() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively solve the Tower of Hanoi puzzle by moving discs between poles.
+     *
+     * @param n                The number of discs to move.
+     * @param startPole        The name of the start pole from which discs are moved.
+     * @param intermediatePole The name of the intermediate pole used as a temporary holding area.
+     * @param endPole          The name of the end pole to which discs are moved.
+     * @param result           A list to store the steps required to solve the puzzle.
+     *
+     *                         <p>
+     *                         This method is called recursively to move n-1 discs
+     *                         to the intermediate pole,
+     *                         then moves the nth disc to the end pole, and finally
+     *                         moves the n-1 discs from the
+     *                         intermediate pole to the end pole.
+     *                         </p>
+     *
+     *                         <p>
+     *                         Time Complexity: O(2^n) - Exponential time complexity due to the recursive nature of the problem.
+     *                         Space Complexity: O(n) - Linear space complexity due to the recursion stack.
+     *                         </p>
+     */
+    public static void shift(int n, String startPole, String intermediatePole, String endPole, List<String> result) {
+        if (n != 0) {
+            // Move n-1 discs from startPole to intermediatePole
+            shift(n - 1, startPole, endPole, intermediatePole, result);
+
+            // Add the move of the nth disc from startPole to endPole
+            result.add(String.format("Move %d from %s to %s", n, startPole, endPole));
+
+            // Move the n-1 discs from intermediatePole to endPole
+            shift(n - 1, intermediatePole, startPole, endPole, result);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/WordBoggle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggle.java
similarity index 58%
rename from src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/WordBoggle.java
rename to src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggle.java
index 625b0321eb52..ca1430f744ab 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/WordBoggle.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggle.java
@@ -1,9 +1,16 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+package com.thealgorithms.puzzlesandgames;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Set;
 
-public class WordBoggle {
+public final class WordBoggle {
 
+    private WordBoggle() {
+    }
     /**
      * O(nm * 8^s + ws) time where n = width of boggle board, m = height of
      * boggle board, s = length of longest word in string array, w = length of
@@ -24,43 +31,7 @@ public static List<String> boggleBoard(char[][] board, String[] words) {
         return new ArrayList<>(finalWords);
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Testcase
-        List<String> ans
-                = new ArrayList<>(
-                        Arrays.asList("a", "boggle", "this", "NOTRE_PEATED", "is", "simple", "board"));
-        assert (boggleBoard(
-                new char[][]{
-                    {'t', 'h', 'i', 's', 'i', 's', 'a'},
-                    {'s', 'i', 'm', 'p', 'l', 'e', 'x'},
-                    {'b', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'e', 'b'},
-                    {'x', 'o', 'g', 'g', 'l', 'x', 'o'},
-                    {'x', 'x', 'x', 'D', 'T', 'r', 'a'},
-                    {'R', 'E', 'P', 'E', 'A', 'd', 'x'},
-                    {'x', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'x'},
-                    {'N', 'O', 'T', 'R', 'E', '_', 'P'},
-                    {'x', 'x', 'D', 'E', 'T', 'A', 'E'},},
-                new String[]{
-                    "this",
-                    "is",
-                    "not",
-                    "a",
-                    "simple",
-                    "test",
-                    "boggle",
-                    "board",
-                    "REPEATED",
-                    "NOTRE_PEATED",})
-                .equals(ans));
-    }
-
-    public static void explore(
-            int i,
-            int j,
-            char[][] board,
-            TrieNode trieNode,
-            boolean[][] visited,
-            Set<String> finalWords) {
+    public static void explore(int i, int j, char[][] board, TrieNode trieNode, boolean[][] visited, Set<String> finalWords) {
         if (visited[i][j]) {
             return;
         }
@@ -86,35 +57,35 @@ public static void explore(
     public static List<Integer[]> getNeighbors(int i, int j, char[][] board) {
         List<Integer[]> neighbors = new ArrayList<>();
         if (i > 0 && j > 0) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[]{i - 1, j - 1});
+            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i - 1, j - 1});
         }
 
         if (i > 0 && j < board[0].length - 1) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[]{i - 1, j + 1});
+            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i - 1, j + 1});
         }
 
         if (i < board.length - 1 && j < board[0].length - 1) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[]{i + 1, j + 1});
+            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i + 1, j + 1});
         }
 
         if (i < board.length - 1 && j > 0) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[]{i + 1, j - 1});
+            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i + 1, j - 1});
         }
 
         if (i > 0) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[]{i - 1, j});
+            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i - 1, j});
         }
 
         if (i < board.length - 1) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[]{i + 1, j});
+            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i + 1, j});
         }
 
         if (j > 0) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[]{i, j - 1});
+            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i, j - 1});
         }
 
         if (j < board[0].length - 1) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[]{i, j + 1});
+            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i, j + 1});
         }
 
         return neighbors;
@@ -133,7 +104,7 @@ class Trie {
     TrieNode root;
     char endSymbol;
 
-    public Trie() {
+    Trie() {
         this.root = new TrieNode();
         this.endSymbol = '*';
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCut.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCut.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..14f1f97450a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCut.java
@@ -0,0 +1,195 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of Karger's Minimum Cut algorithm.
+ *
+ * <p>Karger's algorithm is a randomized algorithm to compute the minimum cut of a connected graph.
+ * A minimum cut is the smallest set of edges that, if removed, would split the graph into two
+ * disconnected components.
+ *
+ * <p>The algorithm works by repeatedly contracting random edges in the graph until only two
+ * nodes remain. The edges between these two nodes represent a cut. By running the algorithm
+ * multiple times and keeping track of the smallest cut found, the probability of finding the
+ * true minimum cut increases.
+ *
+ * <p>Key steps of the algorithm:
+ * <ol>
+ *   <li>Randomly select an edge and contract it, merging the two nodes into one.</li>
+ *   <li>Repeat the contraction process until only two nodes remain.</li>
+ *   <li>Count the edges between the two remaining nodes to determine the cut size.</li>
+ *   <li>Repeat the process multiple times to improve the likelihood of finding the true minimum cut.</li>
+ * </ol>
+ * <p>
+ * See more: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karger%27s_algorithm">Karger's algorithm</a>
+ *
+ * @author MuhammadEzzatHBK
+ */
+public final class KargerMinCut {
+
+    /**
+     * Output of the Karger algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param first  The first set of nodes in the cut.
+     * @param second The second set of nodes in the cut.
+     * @param minCut The size of the minimum cut.
+     */
+    public record KargerOutput(Set<Integer> first, Set<Integer> second, int minCut) {
+    }
+
+    private KargerMinCut() {
+    }
+
+    public static KargerOutput findMinCut(Collection<Integer> nodeSet, List<int[]> edges) {
+        return findMinCut(nodeSet, edges, 100);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the minimum cut of a graph using Karger's algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param nodeSet:    Input graph nodes
+     * @param edges:      Input graph edges
+     * @param iterations: Iterations to run the algorithms for, more iterations = more accuracy
+     * @return A KargerOutput object containing the two sets of nodes and the size of the minimum cut.
+     */
+    public static KargerOutput findMinCut(Collection<Integer> nodeSet, List<int[]> edges, int iterations) {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(nodeSet, edges);
+        KargerOutput minCut = new KargerOutput(new HashSet<>(), new HashSet<>(), Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+        KargerOutput output;
+
+        // Run the algorithm multiple times to increase the probability of finding
+        for (int i = 0; i < iterations; i++) {
+            Graph clone = graph.copy();
+            output = clone.findMinCut();
+            if (output.minCut < minCut.minCut) {
+                minCut = output;
+            }
+        }
+        return minCut;
+    }
+
+    private static class DisjointSetUnion {
+        private final int[] parent;
+        int setCount;
+
+        DisjointSetUnion(int size) {
+            parent = new int[size];
+            for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+                parent[i] = i;
+            }
+            setCount = size;
+        }
+
+        int find(int i) {
+            // If it's not its own parent, then it's not the root of its set
+            if (parent[i] != i) {
+                // Recursively find the root of its parent
+                // and update i's parent to point directly to the root (path compression)
+                parent[i] = find(parent[i]);
+            }
+
+            // Return the root (representative) of the set
+            return parent[i];
+        }
+
+        void union(int u, int v) {
+            // Find the root of each node
+            int rootU = find(u);
+            int rootV = find(v);
+
+            // If they belong to different sets, merge them
+            if (rootU != rootV) {
+                // Make rootV point to rootU — merge the two sets
+                parent[rootV] = rootU;
+
+                // Reduce the count of disjoint sets by 1
+                setCount--;
+            }
+        }
+
+        boolean inSameSet(int u, int v) {
+            return find(u) == find(v);
+        }
+
+        /*
+          This is a verbosity method, it's not a part of the core algorithm,
+          But it helps us provide more useful output.
+        */
+        Set<Integer> getAnySet() {
+            int aRoot = find(0); // Get one of the two roots
+
+            Set<Integer> set = new HashSet<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < parent.length; i++) {
+                if (find(i) == aRoot) {
+                    set.add(i);
+                }
+            }
+
+            return set;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static class Graph {
+        private final List<Integer> nodes;
+        private final List<int[]> edges;
+
+        Graph(Collection<Integer> nodeSet, List<int[]> edges) {
+            this.nodes = new ArrayList<>(nodeSet);
+            this.edges = new ArrayList<>();
+            for (int[] e : edges) {
+                this.edges.add(new int[] {e[0], e[1]});
+            }
+        }
+
+        Graph copy() {
+            return new Graph(this.nodes, this.edges);
+        }
+
+        KargerOutput findMinCut() {
+            DisjointSetUnion dsu = new DisjointSetUnion(nodes.size());
+            List<int[]> workingEdges = new ArrayList<>(edges);
+
+            Random rand = new Random();
+
+            while (dsu.setCount > 2) {
+                int[] e = workingEdges.get(rand.nextInt(workingEdges.size()));
+                if (!dsu.inSameSet(e[0], e[1])) {
+                    dsu.union(e[0], e[1]);
+                }
+            }
+
+            int cutEdges = 0;
+            for (int[] e : edges) {
+                if (!dsu.inSameSet(e[0], e[1])) {
+                    cutEdges++;
+                }
+            }
+
+            return collectResult(dsu, cutEdges);
+        }
+
+        /*
+            This is a verbosity method, it's not a part of the core algorithm,
+            But it helps us provide more useful output.
+        */
+        private KargerOutput collectResult(DisjointSetUnion dsu, int cutEdges) {
+            Set<Integer> firstIndices = dsu.getAnySet();
+            Set<Integer> firstSet = new HashSet<>();
+            Set<Integer> secondSet = new HashSet<>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < nodes.size(); i++) {
+                if (firstIndices.contains(i)) {
+                    firstSet.add(nodes.get(i));
+                } else {
+                    secondSet.add(nodes.get(i));
+                }
+            }
+            return new KargerOutput(firstSet, secondSet, cutEdges);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/MonteCarloIntegration.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/MonteCarloIntegration.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..05d7abbbcd6c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/MonteCarloIntegration.java
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+import java.util.function.Function;
+
+/**
+ * A demonstration of the Monte Carlo integration algorithm in Java.
+ *
+ * <p>This class estimates the value of definite integrals using randomized sampling,
+ * also known as the Monte Carlo method. It is particularly effective for:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Functions that are difficult or impossible to integrate analytically</li>
+ *   <li>High-dimensional integrals where traditional methods are inefficient</li>
+ *   <li>Simulation and probabilistic analysis tasks</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>The core idea is to sample random points uniformly from the integration domain,
+ * evaluate the function at those points, and compute the scaled average to estimate the integral.
+ *
+ * <p>For a one-dimensional integral over [a, b], the approximation is the function range (b-a),
+ * multiplied by the function average result for a random sample.
+ * See more: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_integration">Monte Carlo Integration</a>
+ *
+ * @author: MuhammadEzzatHBK
+ */
+
+public final class MonteCarloIntegration {
+
+    private MonteCarloIntegration() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Approximates the definite integral of a given function over a specified
+     * interval using the Monte Carlo method with a fixed random seed for
+     * reproducibility.
+     *
+     * @param fx    the function to integrate
+     * @param a     the lower bound of the interval
+     * @param b     the upper bound of the interval
+     * @param n     the number of random samples to use
+     * @param seed  the seed for the random number generator
+     * @return      the approximate value of the integral
+     */
+    public static double approximate(Function<Double, Double> fx, double a, double b, int n, long seed) {
+        return doApproximate(fx, a, b, n, new Random(seed));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Approximates the definite integral of a given function over a specified
+     * interval using the Monte Carlo method with a random seed based on the
+     * current system time for more randomness.
+     *
+     * @param fx    the function to integrate
+     * @param a     the lower bound of the interval
+     * @param b     the upper bound of the interval
+     * @param n     the number of random samples to use
+     * @return      the approximate value of the integral
+     */
+    public static double approximate(Function<Double, Double> fx, double a, double b, int n) {
+        return doApproximate(fx, a, b, n, new Random(System.currentTimeMillis()));
+    }
+
+    private static double doApproximate(Function<Double, Double> fx, double a, double b, int n, Random generator) {
+        if (!validate(fx, a, b, n)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid input parameters");
+        }
+        double totalArea = 0.0;
+        double interval = b - a;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            double x = a + generator.nextDouble() * interval;
+            totalArea += fx.apply(x);
+        }
+        return interval * totalArea / n;
+    }
+
+    private static boolean validate(Function<Double, Double> fx, double a, double b, int n) {
+        boolean isFunctionValid = fx != null;
+        boolean isIntervalValid = a < b;
+        boolean isSampleSizeValid = n > 0;
+        return isFunctionValid && isIntervalValid && isSampleSizeValid;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPair.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPair.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..616f7fb7d7cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPair.java
@@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * Randomized Closest Pair of Points Algorithm
+ *
+ * Use Case:
+ * - Efficiently finds the closest pair of points in a 2D plane.
+ * - Applicable in computational geometry, clustering, and graphics.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity:
+ * - Expected: O(n log n) using randomized divide and conquer
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closest_pair_of_points_problem">Closest Pair of Points - Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class RandomizedClosestPair {
+
+    // Prevent instantiation of utility class
+    private RandomizedClosestPair() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Utility class");
+    }
+
+    public static class Point {
+        public final double x;
+        public final double y;
+
+        public Point(double x, double y) {
+            this.x = x;
+            this.y = y;
+        }
+    }
+
+    public static double findClosestPairDistance(Point[] points) {
+        List<Point> shuffled = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(points));
+        Collections.shuffle(shuffled, new Random());
+
+        Point[] px = shuffled.toArray(new Point[0]);
+        Arrays.sort(px, Comparator.comparingDouble(p -> p.x));
+
+        Point[] py = px.clone();
+        Arrays.sort(py, Comparator.comparingDouble(p -> p.y));
+
+        return closestPair(px, py);
+    }
+
+    private static double closestPair(Point[] px, Point[] py) {
+        int n = px.length;
+        if (n <= 3) {
+            return bruteForce(px);
+        }
+
+        int mid = n / 2;
+        Point midPoint = px[mid];
+
+        Point[] qx = Arrays.copyOfRange(px, 0, mid);
+        Point[] rx = Arrays.copyOfRange(px, mid, n);
+
+        List<Point> qy = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Point> ry = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (Point p : py) {
+            if (p.x <= midPoint.x) {
+                qy.add(p);
+            } else {
+                ry.add(p);
+            }
+        }
+
+        double d1 = closestPair(qx, qy.toArray(new Point[0]));
+        double d2 = closestPair(rx, ry.toArray(new Point[0]));
+
+        double d = Math.min(d1, d2);
+
+        List<Point> strip = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (Point p : py) {
+            if (Math.abs(p.x - midPoint.x) < d) {
+                strip.add(p);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return Math.min(d, stripClosest(strip, d));
+    }
+
+    private static double bruteForce(Point[] points) {
+        double min = Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+        for (int i = 0; i < points.length; i++) {
+            for (int j = i + 1; j < points.length; j++) {
+                min = Math.min(min, distance(points[i], points[j]));
+            }
+        }
+        return min;
+    }
+
+    private static double stripClosest(List<Point> strip, double d) {
+        double min = d;
+        int n = strip.size();
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            for (int j = i + 1; j < n && (strip.get(j).y - strip.get(i).y) < min; j++) {
+                min = Math.min(min, distance(strip.get(i), strip.get(j)));
+            }
+        }
+        return min;
+    }
+
+    private static double distance(Point p1, Point p2) {
+        return Math.hypot(p1.x - p2.x, p1.y - p2.y);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b5ac7076bfd6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+
+public final class RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification {
+
+    private RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification() {
+        // Prevent instantiation of utility class
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Verifies whether A × B == C using Freivalds' algorithm.
+     * @param A Left matrix
+     * @param B Right matrix
+     * @param C Product matrix to verify
+     * @param iterations Number of randomized checks
+     * @return true if likely A×B == C; false if definitely not
+     */
+    public static boolean verify(int[][] a, int[][] b, int[][] c, int iterations) {
+        int n = a.length;
+        Random random = new Random();
+
+        for (int iter = 0; iter < iterations; iter++) {
+            // Step 1: Generate random 0/1 vector
+            int[] r = new int[n];
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                r[i] = random.nextInt(2);
+            }
+
+            // Step 2: Compute br = b × r
+            int[] br = new int[n];
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                    br[i] += b[i][j] * r[j];
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Step 3: Compute a(br)
+            int[] abr = new int[n];
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                    abr[i] += a[i][j] * br[j];
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Step 4: Compute cr = c × r
+            int[] cr = new int[n];
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                    cr[i] += c[i][j] * r[j];
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Step 5: Compare abr and cr
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                if (abr[i] != cr[i]) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return true;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedQuickSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedQuickSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e9af223a0622
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedQuickSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements the Randomized QuickSort algorithm.
+ * It selects a pivot randomly to improve performance on sorted or nearly sorted data.
+ * @author Vibhu Khera
+ */
+public final class RandomizedQuickSort {
+
+    private RandomizedQuickSort() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Utility class");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the array using the randomized quicksort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to sort
+     * @param low the starting index of the array
+     * @param high the ending index of the array
+     */
+    public static void randomizedQuickSort(int[] arr, int low, int high) {
+        if (low < high) {
+            int pivotIndex = partition(arr, low, high);
+            randomizedQuickSort(arr, low, pivotIndex - 1);
+            randomizedQuickSort(arr, pivotIndex + 1, high);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Partitions the array around a pivot chosen randomly.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to partition
+     * @param low the starting index
+     * @param high the ending index
+     * @return the index of the pivot after partitioning
+     */
+    private static int partition(int[] arr, int low, int high) {
+        int pivotIndex = low + (int) (Math.random() * (high - low + 1));
+        int pivotValue = arr[pivotIndex];
+        swap(arr, pivotIndex, high); // Move pivot to end
+        int storeIndex = low;
+        for (int i = low; i < high; i++) {
+            if (arr[i] < pivotValue) {
+                swap(arr, storeIndex, i);
+                storeIndex++;
+            }
+        }
+        swap(arr, storeIndex, high); // Move pivot to its final place
+        return storeIndex;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Swaps two elements in the array, only if the indices are different.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array in which elements are to be swapped
+     * @param i the first index
+     * @param j the second index
+     */
+    private static void swap(int[] arr, int i, int j) {
+        // Skip if indices are the same
+        if (i == j) {
+            return;
+        }
+        int temp = arr[i];
+        arr[i] = arr[j];
+        arr[j] = temp;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSampling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSampling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..05e70f635055
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSampling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * Reservoir Sampling Algorithm
+ *
+ * Use Case:
+ * - Efficient for selecting k random items from a stream of unknown size
+ * - Used in streaming systems, big data, and memory-limited environments
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(n)
+ * Space Complexity: O(k)
+ *
+ * @author Michael Alexander Montoya (@cureprotocols)
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoir_sampling">Reservoir Sampling - Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class ReservoirSampling {
+
+    // Prevent instantiation of utility class
+    private ReservoirSampling() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Utility class");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Selects k random elements from a stream using reservoir sampling.
+     *
+     * @param stream     The input stream as an array of integers.
+     * @param sampleSize The number of elements to sample.
+     * @return A list containing k randomly selected elements.
+     */
+    public static List<Integer> sample(int[] stream, int sampleSize) {
+        if (sampleSize > stream.length) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Sample size cannot exceed stream size.");
+        }
+
+        List<Integer> reservoir = new ArrayList<>(sampleSize);
+        Random rand = new Random();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < stream.length; i++) {
+            if (i < sampleSize) {
+                reservoir.add(stream[i]);
+            } else {
+                int j = rand.nextInt(i + 1);
+                if (j < sampleSize) {
+                    reservoir.set(j, stream[i]);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return reservoir;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrower.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrower.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f46d82213aaa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrower.java
@@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.recursion;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * DiceThrower - Generates all possible dice roll combinations that sum to a target
+ *
+ * This algorithm uses recursive backtracking to find all combinations of dice rolls
+ * (faces 1-6) that sum to a given target value.
+ *
+ * Example: If target = 4, possible combinations include:
+ * - "1111" (1+1+1+1 = 4)
+ * - "13" (1+3 = 4)
+ * - "22" (2+2 = 4)
+ * - "4" (4 = 4)
+ *
+ * @author BEASTSHRIRAM
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backtracking">Backtracking Algorithm</a>
+ */
+public final class DiceThrower {
+
+    private DiceThrower() {
+        // Utility class
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns all possible dice roll combinations that sum to the target
+     *
+     * @param target the target sum to achieve with dice rolls
+     * @return list of all possible combinations as strings
+     */
+    public static List<String> getDiceCombinations(int target) {
+        if (target < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Target must be non-negative");
+        }
+        return generateCombinations("", target);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Prints all possible dice roll combinations that sum to the target
+     *
+     * @param target the target sum to achieve with dice rolls
+     */
+    public static void printDiceCombinations(int target) {
+        if (target < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Target must be non-negative");
+        }
+        printCombinations("", target);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursive helper method to generate all combinations
+     *
+     * @param current the current combination being built
+     * @param remaining the remaining sum needed
+     * @return list of all combinations from this state
+     */
+    private static List<String> generateCombinations(String current, int remaining) {
+        List<String> combinations = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Base case: if remaining sum is 0, we found a valid combination
+        if (remaining == 0) {
+            combinations.add(current);
+            return combinations;
+        }
+
+        // Try all possible dice faces (1-6), but not more than remaining sum
+        for (int face = 1; face <= 6 && face <= remaining; face++) {
+            List<String> subCombinations = generateCombinations(current + face, remaining - face);
+            combinations.addAll(subCombinations);
+        }
+
+        return combinations;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursive helper method to print all combinations
+     *
+     * @param current the current combination being built
+     * @param remaining the remaining sum needed
+     */
+    private static void printCombinations(String current, int remaining) {
+        // Base case: if remaining sum is 0, we found a valid combination
+        if (remaining == 0) {
+            System.out.println(current);
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Try all possible dice faces (1-6), but not more than remaining sum
+        for (int face = 1; face <= 6 && face <= remaining; face++) {
+            printCombinations(current + face, remaining - face);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Demo method to show usage
+     *
+     * @param args command line arguments
+     */
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        int target = 4;
+
+        System.out.println("All dice combinations that sum to " + target + ":");
+        List<String> combinations = getDiceCombinations(target);
+
+        for (String combination : combinations) {
+            System.out.println(combination);
+        }
+
+        System.out.println("\nTotal combinations: " + combinations.size());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/FibonacciSeries.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/FibonacciSeries.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e5f474085367
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/FibonacciSeries.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.recursion;
+
+/*
+    The Fibonacci series is a sequence of numbers where each number is the sum of the two preceding ones,
+    starting with 0 and 1.
+       NUMBER    0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7  8  9  10 ...
+       FIBONACCI 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 ...
+*/
+
+public final class FibonacciSeries {
+    private FibonacciSeries() {
+        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Utility class");
+    }
+    public static int fibonacci(int n) {
+        if (n <= 1) {
+            return n;
+        } else {
+            return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/GenerateSubsets.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/GenerateSubsets.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0114a55e5b75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/GenerateSubsets.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.recursion;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class to generate all subsets (power set) of a given string using recursion.
+ *
+ * <p>For example, the string "ab" will produce: ["ab", "a", "b", ""]
+ */
+public final class GenerateSubsets {
+
+    private GenerateSubsets() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates all subsets (power set) of the given string using recursion.
+     *
+     * @param str the input string to generate subsets for
+     * @return a list of all subsets of the input string
+     */
+    public static List<String> subsetRecursion(String str) {
+        return generateSubsets("", str);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursive helper method to generate subsets by including or excluding characters.
+     *
+     * @param current the current prefix being built
+     * @param remaining the remaining string to process
+     * @return list of subsets formed from current and remaining
+     */
+    private static List<String> generateSubsets(String current, String remaining) {
+        if (remaining.isEmpty()) {
+            List<String> result = new ArrayList<>();
+            result.add(current);
+            return result;
+        }
+
+        char ch = remaining.charAt(0);
+        String next = remaining.substring(1);
+
+        // Include the character
+        List<String> withChar = generateSubsets(current + ch, next);
+
+        // Exclude the character
+        List<String> withoutChar = generateSubsets(current, next);
+
+        withChar.addAll(withoutChar);
+        return withChar;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/SylvesterSequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/SylvesterSequence.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2b39f66c7936
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/SylvesterSequence.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.recursion;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class for calculating numbers in Sylvester's sequence.
+ *
+ * <p>Sylvester's sequence is a sequence of integers where each term is calculated
+ * using the formula:
+ * <pre>
+ * a(n) = a(n-1) * (a(n-1) - 1) + 1
+ * </pre>
+ * with the first term being 2.
+ *
+ * <p>This class is final and cannot be instantiated.
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvester_sequence">Wikipedia: Sylvester sequence</a>
+ */
+public final class SylvesterSequence {
+
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation
+    private SylvesterSequence() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the nth number in Sylvester's sequence.
+     *
+     * <p>The sequence is defined recursively, with the first term being 2:
+     * <pre>
+     * a(1) = 2
+     * a(n) = a(n-1) * (a(n-1) - 1) + 1 for n > 1
+     * </pre>
+     *
+     * @param n the position in the sequence (must be greater than 0)
+     * @return the nth number in Sylvester's sequence
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is less than or equal to 0
+     */
+    public static BigInteger sylvester(int n) {
+        if (n <= 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("sylvester() does not accept negative numbers or zero.");
+        }
+        if (n == 1) {
+            return BigInteger.valueOf(2);
+        } else {
+            BigInteger prev = sylvester(n - 1);
+            // Sylvester sequence formula: a(n) = a(n-1) * (a(n-1) - 1) + 1
+            return prev.multiply(prev.subtract(BigInteger.ONE)).add(BigInteger.ONE);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1e5512be9edd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * AgingScheduling is an algorithm designed to prevent starvation
+ * by gradually increasing the priority of waiting tasks.
+ * The longer a process waits, the higher its priority becomes.
+ *
+ * Use Case: Useful in systems with mixed workloads to avoid
+ * lower-priority tasks being starved by higher-priority tasks.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class AgingScheduling {
+
+    static class Task {
+        String name;
+        int waitTime;
+        int priority;
+
+        Task(String name, int priority) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.priority = priority;
+            this.waitTime = 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private final Queue<Task> taskQueue;
+
+    public AgingScheduling() {
+        taskQueue = new LinkedList<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a task to the scheduler with a given priority.
+     *
+     * @param name name of the task
+     * @param priority priority of the task
+     */
+    public void addTask(String name, int priority) {
+        taskQueue.offer(new Task(name, priority));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Schedules the next task based on the priority and wait time.
+     * The priority of a task increases with the time it spends waiting.
+     *
+     * @return name of the next task to be executed
+     */
+    public String scheduleNext() {
+        if (taskQueue.isEmpty()) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        Task nextTask = taskQueue.poll();
+        nextTask.waitTime++;
+        nextTask.priority += nextTask.waitTime;
+        taskQueue.offer(nextTask);
+        return nextTask.name;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5ba79cdbb73a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The Earliest Deadline First (EDF) Scheduling class implements a dynamic scheduling algorithm.
+ * It assigns the CPU to processes with the earliest deadlines, ensuring that deadlines are met if possible.
+ * This scheduling algorithm is ideal for real-time systems where meeting deadlines is critical.
+ */
+public final class EDFScheduling {
+    private EDFScheduling() {
+    }
+
+    private List<Process> processes;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an EDFScheduling object with a list of processes.
+     *
+     * @param processes List of processes to be scheduled.
+     */
+    public EDFScheduling(final List<Process> processes) {
+        this.processes = processes;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Schedules the processes using Earliest Deadline First (EDF) scheduling.
+     * Processes are sorted by their deadlines, and the method simulates their execution.
+     * It calculates the waiting time and turnaround time for each process.
+     *
+     * @return List of processes after they have been executed in order of earliest deadline first.
+     */
+    public List<Process> scheduleProcesses() {
+        processes.sort(Comparator.comparingInt(Process::getDeadline));
+
+        int currentTime = 0;
+        List<Process> executedProcesses = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (Process process : processes) {
+            process.setWaitingTime(currentTime);
+            currentTime += process.getBurstTime();
+            process.setTurnAroundTime(process.getWaitingTime() + process.getBurstTime());
+
+            if (currentTime > process.getDeadline()) {
+                System.out.println("Warning: Process " + process.getProcessId() + " missed its deadline.");
+            }
+
+            executedProcesses.add(process);
+        }
+
+        return executedProcesses;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * The Process class represents a process with an ID, burst time, deadline, waiting time, and turnaround time.
+     */
+    public static class Process {
+        private String processId;
+        private int burstTime;
+        private int deadline;
+        private int waitingTime;
+        private int turnAroundTime;
+
+        public Process(String processId, int burstTime, int deadline) {
+            this.processId = processId;
+            this.burstTime = burstTime;
+            this.deadline = deadline;
+        }
+
+        public String getProcessId() {
+            return processId;
+        }
+
+        public int getBurstTime() {
+            return burstTime;
+        }
+
+        public int getDeadline() {
+            return deadline;
+        }
+
+        public int getWaitingTime() {
+            return waitingTime;
+        }
+
+        public void setWaitingTime(int waitingTime) {
+            this.waitingTime = waitingTime;
+        }
+
+        public int getTurnAroundTime() {
+            return turnAroundTime;
+        }
+
+        public void setTurnAroundTime(int turnAroundTime) {
+            this.turnAroundTime = turnAroundTime;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b22e81fe560e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Non-pre-emptive First Come First Serve scheduling. This can be understood here -
+ * https://www.scaler.com/topics/first-come-first-serve/
+ */
+public class FCFSScheduling {
+
+    private List<ProcessDetails> processes;
+
+    FCFSScheduling(final List<ProcessDetails> processes) {
+        this.processes = processes;
+    }
+
+    public void scheduleProcesses() {
+        evaluateWaitingTime();
+        evaluateTurnAroundTime();
+    }
+
+    private void evaluateWaitingTime() {
+        int processesNumber = processes.size();
+
+        if (processesNumber == 0) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        int waitingTime = 0;
+        int burstTime = processes.get(0).getBurstTime();
+
+        processes.get(0).setWaitingTime(waitingTime); // for the first process, waiting time will be 0.
+
+        for (int i = 1; i < processesNumber; i++) {
+            processes.get(i).setWaitingTime(waitingTime + burstTime);
+            waitingTime = processes.get(i).getWaitingTime();
+            burstTime = processes.get(i).getBurstTime();
+        }
+    }
+
+    private void evaluateTurnAroundTime() {
+        for (final var process : processes) {
+            process.setTurnAroundTimeTime(process.getBurstTime() + process.getWaitingTime());
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..776fc59c0c4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * FairShareScheduling allocates CPU resources equally among users or groups
+ * instead of individual tasks. Each group gets a proportional share,
+ * preventing resource hogging by a single user's processes.
+ *
+ * Use Case: Multi-user systems where users submit multiple tasks simultaneously,
+ * such as cloud environments.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class FairShareScheduling {
+
+    static class User {
+        String name;
+        int allocatedResources;
+        int totalWeight;
+
+        User(String name) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.allocatedResources = 0;
+            this.totalWeight = 0;
+        }
+
+        void addWeight(int weight) {
+            this.totalWeight += weight;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private final Map<String, User> users; // username -> User
+
+    public FairShareScheduling() {
+        users = new HashMap<>();
+    }
+
+    public void addUser(String userName) {
+        users.putIfAbsent(userName, new User(userName));
+    }
+
+    public void addTask(String userName, int weight) {
+        User user = users.get(userName);
+        if (user != null) {
+            user.addWeight(weight);
+        }
+    }
+
+    public void allocateResources(int totalResources) {
+        int totalWeights = users.values().stream().mapToInt(user -> user.totalWeight).sum();
+        for (User user : users.values()) {
+            user.allocatedResources = (int) ((double) user.totalWeight / totalWeights * totalResources);
+        }
+    }
+
+    public Map<String, Integer> getAllocatedResources() {
+        Map<String, Integer> allocation = new HashMap<>();
+        for (User user : users.values()) {
+            allocation.put(user.name, user.allocatedResources);
+        }
+        return allocation;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ac1ce8ddd6ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * GangScheduling groups related tasks (gangs) to run simultaneously on multiple processors.
+ * All tasks in a gang are executed together or not at all.
+ *
+ * Use Case: Parallel computing environments where multiple threads of a program
+ * need to run concurrently for optimal performance.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class GangScheduling {
+
+    static class Gang {
+        String name;
+        List<String> tasks;
+
+        Gang(String name) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.tasks = new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+
+        void addTask(String task) {
+            tasks.add(task);
+        }
+
+        List<String> getTasks() {
+            return tasks;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private final Map<String, Gang> gangs;
+
+    public GangScheduling() {
+        gangs = new HashMap<>();
+    }
+
+    public void addGang(String gangName) {
+        gangs.putIfAbsent(gangName, new Gang(gangName));
+    }
+
+    public void addTaskToGang(String gangName, String task) {
+        Gang gang = gangs.get(gangName);
+        if (gang != null) {
+            gang.addTask(task);
+        }
+    }
+
+    public Map<String, List<String>> getGangSchedules() {
+        Map<String, List<String>> schedules = new HashMap<>();
+        for (Gang gang : gangs.values()) {
+            schedules.put(gang.name, gang.getTasks());
+        }
+        return schedules;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8ed689698557
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,158 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling} class implements the
+ * Highest Response Ratio Next (HRRN) scheduling algorithm.
+ * HRRN is a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm that selects the process with
+ * the highest response ratio for execution.
+ * The response ratio is calculated as:
+ *
+ * <pre>
+ *     Response Ratio = (waiting time + burst time) / burst time
+ * </pre>
+ *
+ * HRRN is designed to reduce the average waiting time and improve overall
+ * system performance by balancing between short and long processes,
+ * minimizing process starvation.
+ */
+public final class HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling {
+
+    private static final int PROCESS_NOT_FOUND = -1;
+    private static final double INITIAL_MAX_RESPONSE_RATIO = -1.0;
+
+    private HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a process in the scheduling algorithm.
+     */
+    private static class Process {
+        String name;
+        int arrivalTime;
+        int burstTime;
+        int turnAroundTime;
+        boolean finished;
+
+        Process(String name, int arrivalTime, int burstTime) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.arrivalTime = arrivalTime;
+            this.burstTime = burstTime;
+            this.turnAroundTime = 0;
+            this.finished = false;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Calculates the response ratio for this process.
+         *
+         * @param currentTime The current time in the scheduling process.
+         * @return The response ratio for this process.
+         */
+        double calculateResponseRatio(int currentTime) {
+            return (double) (burstTime + currentTime - arrivalTime) / burstTime;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the Turn Around Time (TAT) for each process.
+     *
+     * <p>Turn Around Time is calculated as the total time a process spends
+     * in the system from arrival to completion. It is the sum of the burst time
+     * and the waiting time.</p>
+     *
+     * @param processNames Array of process names.
+     * @param arrivalTimes Array of arrival times corresponding to each process.
+     * @param burstTimes Array of burst times for each process.
+     * @param noOfProcesses The number of processes.
+     * @return An array of Turn Around Times for each process.
+     */
+    public static int[] calculateTurnAroundTime(final String[] processNames, final int[] arrivalTimes, final int[] burstTimes, final int noOfProcesses) {
+        int currentTime = 0;
+        int[] turnAroundTime = new int[noOfProcesses];
+        Process[] processes = new Process[noOfProcesses];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < noOfProcesses; i++) {
+            processes[i] = new Process(processNames[i], arrivalTimes[i], burstTimes[i]);
+        }
+
+        Arrays.sort(processes, Comparator.comparingInt(p -> p.arrivalTime));
+
+        int finishedProcessCount = 0;
+        while (finishedProcessCount < noOfProcesses) {
+            int nextProcessIndex = findNextProcess(processes, currentTime);
+            if (nextProcessIndex == PROCESS_NOT_FOUND) {
+                currentTime++;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            Process currentProcess = processes[nextProcessIndex];
+            currentTime = Math.max(currentTime, currentProcess.arrivalTime);
+            currentProcess.turnAroundTime = currentTime + currentProcess.burstTime - currentProcess.arrivalTime;
+            currentTime += currentProcess.burstTime;
+            currentProcess.finished = true;
+            finishedProcessCount++;
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < noOfProcesses; i++) {
+            turnAroundTime[i] = processes[i].turnAroundTime;
+        }
+
+        return turnAroundTime;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the Waiting Time (WT) for each process.
+     *
+     * @param turnAroundTime The Turn Around Times for each process.
+     * @param burstTimes The burst times for each process.
+     * @return An array of Waiting Times for each process.
+     */
+    public static int[] calculateWaitingTime(int[] turnAroundTime, int[] burstTimes) {
+        int[] waitingTime = new int[turnAroundTime.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < turnAroundTime.length; i++) {
+            waitingTime[i] = turnAroundTime[i] - burstTimes[i];
+        }
+        return waitingTime;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the next process to be scheduled based on arrival times and the current time.
+     *
+     * @param processes Array of Process objects.
+     * @param currentTime The current time in the scheduling process.
+     * @return The index of the next process to be scheduled, or PROCESS_NOT_FOUND if no process is ready.
+     */
+    private static int findNextProcess(Process[] processes, int currentTime) {
+        return findHighestResponseRatio(processes, currentTime);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the process with the highest response ratio.
+     *
+     * <p>The response ratio is calculated as:
+     * (waiting time + burst time) / burst time
+     * where waiting time = current time - arrival time</p>
+     *
+     * @param processes Array of Process objects.
+     * @param currentTime The current time in the scheduling process.
+     * @return The index of the process with the highest response ratio, or PROCESS_NOT_FOUND if no process is ready.
+     */
+    private static int findHighestResponseRatio(Process[] processes, int currentTime) {
+        double maxResponseRatio = INITIAL_MAX_RESPONSE_RATIO;
+        int maxIndex = PROCESS_NOT_FOUND;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < processes.length; i++) {
+            Process process = processes[i];
+            if (!process.finished && process.arrivalTime <= currentTime) {
+                double responseRatio = process.calculateResponseRatio(currentTime);
+                if (responseRatio > maxResponseRatio) {
+                    maxResponseRatio = responseRatio;
+                    maxIndex = i;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return maxIndex;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadline.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadline.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..49638d39fc2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadline.java
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+
+/**
+ * A class that implements a job scheduling algorithm to maximize profit
+ * while adhering to job deadlines and arrival times.
+ *
+ * This class provides functionality to schedule jobs based on their profit,
+ * arrival time, and deadlines to ensure that the maximum number of jobs is completed
+ * within the given timeframe. It sorts the jobs in decreasing order of profit
+ * and attempts to assign them to the latest possible time slots.
+ */
+public final class JobSchedulingWithDeadline {
+    private JobSchedulingWithDeadline() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a job with an ID, arrival time, deadline, and profit.
+     *
+     * Each job has a unique identifier, an arrival time (when it becomes available for scheduling),
+     * a deadline by which it must be completed, and a profit associated with completing the job.
+     */
+    static class Job {
+        int jobId;
+        int arrivalTime;
+        int deadline;
+        int profit;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a Job instance with the specified job ID, arrival time, deadline, and profit.
+         *
+         * @param jobId      Unique identifier for the job
+         * @param arrivalTime Time when the job becomes available for scheduling
+         * @param deadline   Deadline for completing the job
+         * @param profit     Profit earned upon completing the job
+         */
+        Job(int jobId, int arrivalTime, int deadline, int profit) {
+            this.jobId = jobId;
+            this.arrivalTime = arrivalTime;
+            this.deadline = deadline;
+            this.profit = profit;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Schedules jobs to maximize profit while respecting their deadlines and arrival times.
+     *
+     * This method sorts the jobs in descending order of profit and attempts
+     * to allocate them to time slots that are before or on their deadlines,
+     * provided they have arrived. The function returns an array where the first element
+     * is the total number of jobs scheduled and the second element is the total profit earned.
+     *
+     * @param jobs An array of Job objects, each representing a job with an ID, arrival time,
+     *             deadline, and profit.
+     * @return An array of two integers: the first element is the count of jobs
+     *         that were successfully scheduled, and the second element is the
+     *         total profit earned from those jobs.
+     */
+    public static int[] jobSequencingWithDeadlines(Job[] jobs) {
+        Arrays.sort(jobs, Comparator.comparingInt(job -> - job.profit));
+
+        int maxDeadline = Arrays.stream(jobs).mapToInt(job -> job.deadline).max().orElse(0);
+
+        int[] timeSlots = new int[maxDeadline];
+        Arrays.fill(timeSlots, -1);
+
+        int count = 0;
+        int maxProfit = 0;
+
+        // Schedule the jobs
+        for (Job job : jobs) {
+            if (job.arrivalTime <= job.deadline) {
+                for (int i = Math.min(job.deadline - 1, maxDeadline - 1); i >= job.arrivalTime - 1; i--) {
+                    if (timeSlots[i] == -1) {
+                        timeSlots[i] = job.jobId;
+                        count++;
+                        maxProfit += job.profit;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return new int[] {count, maxProfit};
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotteryScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotteryScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cea0c793d340
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotteryScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,141 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * The LotteryScheduling class implements the Lottery Scheduling algorithm, which is
+ * a probabilistic CPU scheduling algorithm. Processes are assigned tickets, and
+ * the CPU is allocated to a randomly selected process based on ticket count.
+ * Processes with more tickets have a higher chance of being selected.
+ */
+public final class LotteryScheduling {
+    private LotteryScheduling() {
+    }
+
+    private List<Process> processes;
+    private Random random;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a LotteryScheduling object with the provided list of processes.
+     *
+     * @param processes List of processes to be scheduled using Lottery Scheduling.
+     */
+    public LotteryScheduling(final List<Process> processes) {
+        this.processes = processes;
+        this.random = new Random();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a LotteryScheduling object with the provided list of processes and a Random object.
+     *
+     * @param processes List of processes to be scheduled using Lottery Scheduling.
+     * @param random    Random object used for generating random numbers.
+     */
+    public LotteryScheduling(final List<Process> processes, Random random) {
+        this.processes = processes;
+        this.random = random;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Schedules the processes using the Lottery Scheduling algorithm.
+     * Each process is assigned a certain number of tickets, and the algorithm randomly
+     * selects a process to execute based on ticket count. The method calculates the
+     * waiting time and turnaround time for each process and simulates their execution.
+     */
+    public List<Process> scheduleProcesses() {
+        int totalTickets = processes.stream().mapToInt(Process::getTickets).sum();
+        int currentTime = 0;
+        List<Process> executedProcesses = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        while (!processes.isEmpty()) {
+            int winningTicket = random.nextInt(totalTickets) + 1;
+            Process selectedProcess = selectProcessByTicket(winningTicket);
+
+            if (selectedProcess == null) {
+                // This should not happen in normal circumstances, but we'll handle it just in case
+                System.err.println("Error: No process selected. Recalculating total tickets.");
+                totalTickets = processes.stream().mapToInt(Process::getTickets).sum();
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            selectedProcess.setWaitingTime(currentTime);
+            currentTime += selectedProcess.getBurstTime();
+            selectedProcess.setTurnAroundTime(selectedProcess.getWaitingTime() + selectedProcess.getBurstTime());
+
+            executedProcesses.add(selectedProcess);
+            processes.remove(selectedProcess);
+
+            totalTickets = processes.stream().mapToInt(Process::getTickets).sum();
+        }
+
+        return executedProcesses;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Selects a process based on a winning ticket. The method iterates over the
+     * list of processes, and as the ticket sum accumulates, it checks if the
+     * current process holds the winning ticket.
+     *
+     * @param winningTicket The randomly generated ticket number that determines the selected process.
+     * @return The process associated with the winning ticket.
+     */
+    private Process selectProcessByTicket(int winningTicket) {
+        int ticketSum = 0;
+        for (Process process : processes) {
+            ticketSum += process.getTickets();
+            if (ticketSum >= winningTicket) {
+                return process;
+            }
+        }
+        return null;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * The Process class represents a process in the scheduling system. Each process has
+     * an ID, burst time (CPU time required for execution), number of tickets (used in
+     * lottery selection), waiting time, and turnaround time.
+     */
+    public static class Process {
+        private String processId;
+        private int burstTime;
+        private int tickets;
+        private int waitingTime;
+        private int turnAroundTime;
+
+        public Process(String processId, int burstTime, int tickets) {
+            this.processId = processId;
+            this.burstTime = burstTime;
+            this.tickets = tickets;
+        }
+
+        public String getProcessId() {
+            return processId;
+        }
+
+        public int getBurstTime() {
+            return burstTime;
+        }
+
+        public int getTickets() {
+            return tickets;
+        }
+
+        public int getWaitingTime() {
+            return waitingTime;
+        }
+
+        public void setWaitingTime(int waitingTime) {
+            this.waitingTime = waitingTime;
+        }
+
+        public int getTurnAroundTime() {
+            return turnAroundTime;
+        }
+
+        public void setTurnAroundTime(int turnAroundTime) {
+            this.turnAroundTime = turnAroundTime;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQScheduler.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQScheduler.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..75840a5cbdcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQScheduler.java
@@ -0,0 +1,148 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * The Multi-Level Feedback Queue (MLFQ) Scheduler class.
+ * This class simulates scheduling using multiple queues, where processes move
+ * between queues depending on their CPU burst behavior.
+ */
+public class MLFQScheduler {
+    private List<Queue<Process>> queues; // Multi-level feedback queues
+    private int[] timeQuantum; // Time quantum for each queue level
+    private int currentTime; // Current time in the system
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize the MLFQ scheduler with the specified number of
+     * levels and their corresponding time quantums.
+     *
+     * @param levels       Number of queues (priority levels)
+     * @param timeQuantums Time quantum for each queue level
+     */
+    public MLFQScheduler(int levels, int[] timeQuantums) {
+        queues = new ArrayList<>(levels);
+        for (int i = 0; i < levels; i++) {
+            queues.add(new LinkedList<>());
+        }
+        timeQuantum = timeQuantums;
+        currentTime = 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a new process to the highest priority queue (queue 0).
+     *
+     * @param p The process to be added to the scheduler
+     */
+    public void addProcess(Process p) {
+        queues.get(0).add(p);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Executes the scheduling process by running the processes in all queues,
+     * promoting or demoting them based on their completion status and behavior.
+     * The process continues until all queues are empty.
+     */
+    public void run() {
+        while (!allQueuesEmpty()) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < queues.size(); i++) {
+                Queue<Process> queue = queues.get(i);
+                if (!queue.isEmpty()) {
+                    Process p = queue.poll();
+                    int quantum = timeQuantum[i];
+
+                    // Execute the process for the minimum of the time quantum or the remaining time
+                    int timeSlice = Math.min(quantum, p.remainingTime);
+                    p.execute(timeSlice);
+                    currentTime += timeSlice; // Update the system's current time
+
+                    if (p.isFinished()) {
+                        System.out.println("Process " + p.pid + " finished at time " + currentTime);
+                    } else {
+                        if (i < queues.size() - 1) {
+                            p.priority++; // Demote the process to the next lower priority queue
+                            queues.get(i + 1).add(p); // Add to the next queue level
+                        } else {
+                            queue.add(p); // Stay in the same queue if it's the last level
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper function to check if all the queues are empty (i.e., no process is
+     * left to execute).
+     *
+     * @return true if all queues are empty, otherwise false
+     */
+    private boolean allQueuesEmpty() {
+        for (Queue<Process> queue : queues) {
+            if (!queue.isEmpty()) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the current time of the scheduler, which reflects the total time
+     * elapsed during the execution of all processes.
+     *
+     * @return The current time in the system
+     */
+    public int getCurrentTime() {
+        return currentTime;
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Represents a process in the Multi-Level Feedback Queue (MLFQ) scheduling
+ * algorithm.
+ */
+class Process {
+    int pid;
+    int burstTime;
+    int remainingTime;
+    int arrivalTime;
+    int priority;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize a new process.
+     *
+     * @param pid         Process ID
+     * @param burstTime   CPU Burst Time (time required for the process)
+     * @param arrivalTime Arrival time of the process
+     */
+    Process(int pid, int burstTime, int arrivalTime) {
+        this.pid = pid;
+        this.burstTime = burstTime;
+        this.remainingTime = burstTime;
+        this.arrivalTime = arrivalTime;
+        this.priority = 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Executes the process for a given time slice.
+     *
+     * @param timeSlice The amount of time the process is executed
+     */
+    public void execute(int timeSlice) {
+        remainingTime -= timeSlice;
+        if (remainingTime < 0) {
+            remainingTime = 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the process has finished execution.
+     *
+     * @return true if the process is finished, otherwise false
+     */
+    public boolean isFinished() {
+        return remainingTime == 0;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..113b1691dec1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * MultiAgentScheduling assigns tasks to different autonomous agents
+ * who independently decide the execution order of their assigned tasks.
+ * The focus is on collaboration between agents to optimize the overall schedule.
+ *
+ * Use Case: Distributed scheduling in decentralized systems like IoT networks.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public class MultiAgentScheduling {
+
+    static class Agent {
+        String name;
+        List<String> tasks;
+
+        Agent(String name) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.tasks = new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+
+        void addTask(String task) {
+            tasks.add(task);
+        }
+
+        List<String> getTasks() {
+            return tasks;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private final Map<String, Agent> agents;
+
+    public MultiAgentScheduling() {
+        agents = new HashMap<>();
+    }
+
+    public void addAgent(String agentName) {
+        agents.putIfAbsent(agentName, new Agent(agentName));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Assign a task to a specific agent.
+     *
+     * @param agentName the name of the agent
+     * @param task      the task to be assigned
+     */
+    public void assignTask(String agentName, String task) {
+        Agent agent = agents.get(agentName);
+        if (agent != null) {
+            agent.addTask(task);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get the scheduled tasks for each agent.
+     *
+     * @return a map of agent names to their scheduled tasks
+     */
+    public Map<String, List<String>> getScheduledTasks() {
+        Map<String, List<String>> schedule = new HashMap<>();
+        for (Agent agent : agents.values()) {
+            schedule.put(agent.name, agent.getTasks());
+        }
+        return schedule;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..414de4b24e36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements the Non-Preemptive Priority Scheduling algorithm.
+ * Processes are executed in order of their priority. The process with the
+ * highest priority (lower priority number) is executed first,
+ * and once a process starts executing, it cannot be preempted.
+ */
+public final class NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling {
+
+    private NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Represents a process with an ID, burst time, priority, arrival time, and start time.
+     */
+    static class Process implements Comparable<Process> {
+        int id;
+        int arrivalTime;
+        int startTime;
+        int burstTime;
+        int priority;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a Process instance with the specified parameters.
+         *
+         * @param id          Unique identifier for the process
+         * @param arrivalTime Time when the process arrives in the system
+         * @param burstTime   Time required for the process execution
+         * @param priority    Priority of the process
+         */
+        Process(int id, int arrivalTime, int burstTime, int priority) {
+            this.id = id;
+            this.arrivalTime = arrivalTime;
+            this.startTime = -1;
+            this.burstTime = burstTime;
+            this.priority = priority;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Compare based on priority for scheduling. The process with the lowest
+         * priority is selected first.
+         * If two processes have the same priority, the one that arrives earlier is selected.
+         *
+         * @param other The other process to compare against
+         * @return A negative integer, zero, or a positive integer as this process
+         *         is less than, equal to, or greater than the specified process.
+         */
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Process other) {
+            if (this.priority == other.priority) {
+                return Integer.compare(this.arrivalTime, other.arrivalTime);
+            }
+            return Integer.compare(this.priority, other.priority);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Schedules processes based on their priority in a non-preemptive manner, considering their arrival times.
+     *
+     * @param processes Array of processes to be scheduled.
+     * @return Array of processes in the order they are executed.
+     */
+    public static Process[] scheduleProcesses(Process[] processes) {
+        PriorityQueue<Process> pq = new PriorityQueue<>();
+        Queue<Process> waitingQueue = new LinkedList<>();
+        int currentTime = 0;
+        int index = 0;
+        Process[] executionOrder = new Process[processes.length];
+
+        Collections.addAll(waitingQueue, processes);
+
+        while (!waitingQueue.isEmpty() || !pq.isEmpty()) {
+            // Add processes that have arrived to the priority queue
+            while (!waitingQueue.isEmpty() && waitingQueue.peek().arrivalTime <= currentTime) {
+                pq.add(waitingQueue.poll());
+            }
+
+            if (!pq.isEmpty()) {
+                Process currentProcess = pq.poll();
+                currentProcess.startTime = currentTime;
+                executionOrder[index++] = currentProcess;
+                currentTime += currentProcess.burstTime;
+            } else {
+                // If no process is ready, move to the next arrival time
+                currentTime = waitingQueue.peek().arrivalTime;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return executionOrder;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the average waiting time of the processes.
+     *
+     * @param processes      Array of processes.
+     * @param executionOrder Array of processes in execution order.
+     * @return Average waiting time.
+     */
+    public static double calculateAverageWaitingTime(Process[] processes, Process[] executionOrder) {
+        int totalWaitingTime = 0;
+
+        for (Process process : executionOrder) {
+            int waitingTime = process.startTime - process.arrivalTime;
+            totalWaitingTime += waitingTime;
+        }
+
+        return (double) totalWaitingTime / processes.length;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the average turn-around time of the processes.
+     *
+     * @param processes      Array of processes.
+     * @param executionOrder Array of processes in execution order.
+     * @return Average turn-around time.
+     */
+    public static double calculateAverageTurnaroundTime(Process[] processes, Process[] executionOrder) {
+        int totalTurnaroundTime = 0;
+
+        for (Process process : executionOrder) {
+            int turnaroundTime = process.startTime + process.burstTime - process.arrivalTime;
+            totalTurnaroundTime += turnaroundTime;
+        }
+
+        return (double) totalTurnaroundTime / processes.length;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/PreemptivePriorityScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/PreemptivePriorityScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..66c99661d13d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/PreemptivePriorityScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * Preemptive Priority Scheduling Algorithm
+ *
+ * @author [Bama Charan Chhandogi](https://www.github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+public class PreemptivePriorityScheduling {
+    protected final List<ProcessDetails> processes;
+    protected final List<String> ganttChart;
+
+    public PreemptivePriorityScheduling(Collection<ProcessDetails> processes) {
+        this.processes = new ArrayList<>(processes);
+        this.ganttChart = new ArrayList<>();
+    }
+
+    public void scheduleProcesses() {
+        PriorityQueue<ProcessDetails> readyQueue = new PriorityQueue<>(Comparator.comparingInt(ProcessDetails::getPriority).reversed().thenComparingInt(ProcessDetails::getArrivalTime));
+
+        int currentTime = 0;
+        List<ProcessDetails> arrivedProcesses = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        while (!processes.isEmpty() || !readyQueue.isEmpty()) {
+            updateArrivedProcesses(currentTime, arrivedProcesses);
+            readyQueue.addAll(arrivedProcesses);
+            arrivedProcesses.clear();
+
+            if (!readyQueue.isEmpty()) {
+                ProcessDetails currentProcess = readyQueue.poll();
+                ganttChart.add(currentProcess.getProcessId());
+                currentProcess.setBurstTime(currentProcess.getBurstTime() - 1);
+
+                if (currentProcess.getBurstTime() > 0) {
+                    readyQueue.add(currentProcess);
+                }
+            } else {
+                ganttChart.add("Idle");
+            }
+
+            currentTime++;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private void updateArrivedProcesses(int currentTime, List<ProcessDetails> arrivedProcesses) {
+        processes.removeIf(process -> {
+            if (process.getArrivalTime() <= currentTime) {
+                arrivedProcesses.add(process);
+                return true;
+            }
+            return false;
+        });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fd78dc571819
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * ProportionalFairScheduling allocates resources to processes based on their
+ * proportional weight or importance. It aims to balance fairness with
+ * priority, ensuring that higher-weight processes receive a larger share of resources.
+ *
+ * Use Case: Network bandwidth allocation in cellular networks (4G/5G),
+ * where devices receive a proportional share of bandwidth.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class ProportionalFairScheduling {
+
+    static class Process {
+        String name;
+        int weight;
+        int allocatedResources;
+
+        Process(String name, int weight) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.weight = weight;
+            this.allocatedResources = 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private final List<Process> processes;
+
+    public ProportionalFairScheduling() {
+        processes = new ArrayList<>();
+    }
+
+    public void addProcess(String name, int weight) {
+        processes.add(new Process(name, weight));
+    }
+
+    public void allocateResources(int totalResources) {
+        int totalWeight = processes.stream().mapToInt(p -> p.weight).sum();
+        for (Process process : processes) {
+            process.allocatedResources = (int) ((double) process.weight / totalWeight * totalResources);
+        }
+    }
+
+    public List<String> getAllocatedResources() {
+        List<String> allocation = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (Process process : processes) {
+            allocation.add(process.name + ": " + process.allocatedResources);
+        }
+        return allocation;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..05efe1d59141
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * @author Md Asif Joardar
+ * The Round-robin scheduling algorithm is a kind of preemptive First come, First Serve CPU
+ * Scheduling algorithm. This can be understood here -
+ * https://www.scaler.com/topics/round-robin-scheduling-in-os/
+ */
+
+public class RRScheduling {
+    private List<ProcessDetails> processes;
+    private int quantumTime;
+
+    RRScheduling(final List<ProcessDetails> processes, int quantumTime) {
+        this.processes = processes;
+        this.quantumTime = quantumTime;
+    }
+
+    public void scheduleProcesses() {
+        evaluateTurnAroundTime();
+        evaluateWaitingTime();
+    }
+
+    private void evaluateTurnAroundTime() {
+        int processesNumber = processes.size();
+
+        if (processesNumber == 0) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        Queue<Integer> queue = new LinkedList<>();
+        queue.add(0);
+        int currentTime = 0; // keep track of the time
+        int completed = 0;
+        int[] mark = new int[processesNumber];
+        Arrays.fill(mark, 0);
+        mark[0] = 1;
+
+        // a copy of burst time to store the remaining burst time
+        int[] remainingBurstTime = new int[processesNumber];
+        for (int i = 0; i < processesNumber; i++) {
+            remainingBurstTime[i] = processes.get(i).getBurstTime();
+        }
+
+        while (completed != processesNumber) {
+            int index = queue.poll();
+
+            if (remainingBurstTime[index] == processes.get(index).getBurstTime()) {
+                currentTime = Math.max(currentTime, processes.get(index).getArrivalTime());
+            }
+
+            if (remainingBurstTime[index] - quantumTime > 0) {
+                remainingBurstTime[index] -= quantumTime;
+                currentTime += quantumTime;
+            } else {
+                currentTime += remainingBurstTime[index];
+                processes.get(index).setTurnAroundTimeTime(currentTime - processes.get(index).getArrivalTime());
+                completed++;
+                remainingBurstTime[index] = 0;
+            }
+
+            // If some process has arrived when this process was executing, insert them into the
+            // queue.
+            for (int i = 1; i < processesNumber; i++) {
+                if (remainingBurstTime[i] > 0 && processes.get(i).getArrivalTime() <= currentTime && mark[i] == 0) {
+                    mark[i] = 1;
+                    queue.add(i);
+                }
+            }
+
+            // If the current process has burst time remaining, push the process into the queue
+            // again.
+            if (remainingBurstTime[index] > 0) {
+                queue.add(index);
+            }
+
+            // If the queue is empty, pick the first process from the list that is not completed.
+            if (queue.isEmpty()) {
+                for (int i = 1; i < processesNumber; i++) {
+                    if (remainingBurstTime[i] > 0) {
+                        mark[i] = 1;
+                        queue.add(i);
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private void evaluateWaitingTime() {
+        for (final var process : processes) {
+            process.setWaitingTime(process.getTurnAroundTimeTime() - process.getBurstTime());
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b7e863b5cfd8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+
+/**
+ * RandomScheduling is an algorithm that assigns tasks in a random order.
+ * It doesn't consider priority, deadlines, or burst times, making it
+ * inefficient but useful in scenarios where fairness or unpredictability
+ * is required (e.g., load balancing in distributed systems).
+ *
+ * Use Case: Distributed systems where randomness helps avoid task starvation.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class RandomScheduling {
+
+    private final List<String> tasks;
+    private final Random random;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a new RandomScheduling instance.
+     *
+     * @param tasks A collection of task names to be scheduled.
+     * @param random A Random instance for generating random numbers.
+     */
+    public RandomScheduling(Collection<String> tasks, Random random) {
+        this.tasks = new ArrayList<>(tasks);
+        this.random = random;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Schedules the tasks randomly and returns the randomized order.
+     *
+     * @return A list representing the tasks in their randomized execution order.
+     */
+    public List<String> schedule() {
+        List<String> shuffledTasks = new ArrayList<>(tasks);
+        Collections.shuffle(shuffledTasks, random);
+        return shuffledTasks;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SJFScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SJFScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e3f4a8d03d07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SJFScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Shortest Job First (SJF) Scheduling Algorithm:
+ * Executes processes with the shortest burst time first among the ones that have arrived.
+ */
+public class SJFScheduling {
+    private final List<ProcessDetails> processes;
+    private final List<String> schedule;
+
+    public SJFScheduling(final List<ProcessDetails> processes) {
+        this.processes = new ArrayList<>(processes);
+        this.schedule = new ArrayList<>();
+        sortProcessesByArrivalTime(this.processes);
+    }
+
+    private static void sortProcessesByArrivalTime(List<ProcessDetails> processes) {
+        processes.sort(Comparator.comparingInt(ProcessDetails::getArrivalTime));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Executes the SJF scheduling algorithm and builds the execution order.
+     */
+    public void scheduleProcesses() {
+        List<ProcessDetails> ready = new ArrayList<>();
+        int size = processes.size();
+        int time = 0;
+        int executed = 0;
+
+        Iterator<ProcessDetails> processIterator = processes.iterator();
+
+        // This will track the next process to be checked for arrival time
+        ProcessDetails nextProcess = null;
+        if (processIterator.hasNext()) {
+            nextProcess = processIterator.next();
+        }
+
+        while (executed < size) {
+            // Load all processes that have arrived by current time
+            while (nextProcess != null && nextProcess.getArrivalTime() <= time) {
+                ready.add(nextProcess);
+                if (processIterator.hasNext()) {
+                    nextProcess = processIterator.next();
+                } else {
+                    nextProcess = null;
+                }
+            }
+
+            ProcessDetails running = findShortestJob(ready);
+            if (running == null) {
+                time++;
+            } else {
+                time += running.getBurstTime();
+                schedule.add(running.getProcessId());
+                ready.remove(running);
+                executed++;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the process with the shortest job of all the ready processes (based on  a process
+     * @param readyProcesses an array list of ready processes
+     * @return returns the process' with the shortest burst time OR NULL if there are no ready
+     *     processes
+     */
+    private ProcessDetails findShortestJob(Collection<ProcessDetails> readyProcesses) {
+        return readyProcesses.stream().min(Comparator.comparingInt(ProcessDetails::getBurstTime)).orElse(null);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the computed schedule after calling scheduleProcesses().
+     */
+    public List<String> getSchedule() {
+        return schedule;
+    }
+
+    public List<ProcessDetails> getProcesses() {
+        return List.copyOf(processes);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..99214fff20c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of Shortest Remaining Time First Scheduling Algorithm.
+ * In the SRTF scheduling algorithm, the process with the smallest amount of time remaining until completion is selected to execute.
+ * Example:
+ * Consider the processes p1, p2 and the following table with info about their arrival and burst time:
+ * Process | Burst Time | Arrival Time
+ * P1      | 6 ms        | 0 ms
+ * P2      | 2 ms        | 1 ms
+ * In this example, P1 will be executed at time = 0 until time = 1 when P2 arrives. At time = 2, P2 will be executed until time = 4. At time 4, P2 is done, and P1 is executed again to be done.
+ * That's a simple example of how the algorithm works.
+ * More information you can find here -> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_remaining_time
+ */
+public class SRTFScheduling {
+    protected List<ProcessDetails> processes;
+    protected List<String> ready;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor
+     * @param processes ArrayList of ProcessDetails given as input
+     */
+    public SRTFScheduling(ArrayList<ProcessDetails> processes) {
+        this.processes = new ArrayList<>();
+        ready = new ArrayList<>();
+        this.processes = processes;
+    }
+
+    public void evaluateScheduling() {
+        int time = 0;
+        int cr = 0; // cr=current running process, time= units of time
+        int n = processes.size();
+        int[] remainingTime = new int[n];
+
+        /* calculating remaining time of every process and total units of time */
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            remainingTime[i] = processes.get(i).getBurstTime();
+            time += processes.get(i).getBurstTime();
+        }
+
+        /* if the first process doesn't arrive at 0, we have more units of time */
+        if (processes.get(0).getArrivalTime() != 0) {
+            time += processes.get(0).getArrivalTime();
+        }
+
+        /* printing id of the process which is executed at every unit of time */
+        // if the first process doesn't arrive at 0, we print only \n until it arrives
+        if (processes.get(0).getArrivalTime() != 0) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < processes.get(0).getArrivalTime(); i++) {
+                ready.add(null);
+            }
+        }
+
+        for (int i = processes.get(0).getArrivalTime(); i < time; i++) {
+            /* checking if there's a process with remaining time less than current running process.
+               If we find it, then it executes. */
+            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                if (processes.get(j).getArrivalTime() <= i && (remainingTime[j] < remainingTime[cr] && remainingTime[j] > 0 || remainingTime[cr] == 0)) {
+                    cr = j;
+                }
+            }
+            ready.add(processes.get(cr).getProcessId());
+            remainingTime[cr]--;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..15159a07d2d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * SelfAdjustingScheduling is an algorithm where tasks dynamically adjust
+ * their priority based on real-time feedback, such as wait time and CPU usage.
+ * Tasks that wait longer will automatically increase their priority,
+ * allowing for better responsiveness and fairness in task handling.
+ *
+ * Use Case: Real-time systems that require dynamic prioritization
+ * of tasks to maintain system responsiveness and fairness.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class SelfAdjustingScheduling {
+
+    private static class Task implements Comparable<Task> {
+        String name;
+        int waitTime;
+        int priority;
+
+        Task(String name, int priority) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.waitTime = 0;
+            this.priority = priority;
+        }
+
+        void incrementWaitTime() {
+            waitTime++;
+            priority = priority + waitTime;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Task other) {
+            return Integer.compare(this.priority, other.priority);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private final PriorityQueue<Task> taskQueue;
+
+    public SelfAdjustingScheduling() {
+        taskQueue = new PriorityQueue<>();
+    }
+
+    public void addTask(String name, int priority) {
+        taskQueue.offer(new Task(name, priority));
+    }
+
+    public String scheduleNext() {
+        if (taskQueue.isEmpty()) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        Task nextTask = taskQueue.poll();
+        nextTask.incrementWaitTime();
+        taskQueue.offer(nextTask);
+        return nextTask.name;
+    }
+
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return taskQueue.isEmpty();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bbfd36f0f660
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * SlackTimeScheduling is an algorithm that prioritizes tasks based on their
+ * slack time, which is defined as the difference between the task's deadline
+ * and the time required to execute it. Tasks with less slack time are prioritized.
+ *
+ * Use Case: Real-time systems with hard deadlines, such as robotics or embedded systems.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public class SlackTimeScheduling {
+
+    static class Task {
+        String name;
+        int executionTime;
+        int deadline;
+
+        Task(String name, int executionTime, int deadline) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.executionTime = executionTime;
+            this.deadline = deadline;
+        }
+
+        int getSlackTime() {
+            return deadline - executionTime;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private final List<Task> tasks;
+
+    public SlackTimeScheduling() {
+        tasks = new ArrayList<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Adds a task to the scheduler.
+     *
+     * @param name          the name of the task
+     * @param executionTime the time required to execute the task
+     * @param deadline      the deadline by which the task must be completed
+     */
+    public void addTask(String name, int executionTime, int deadline) {
+        tasks.add(new Task(name, executionTime, deadline));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Schedules the tasks based on their slack time.
+     *
+     * @return the order in which the tasks should be executed
+     */
+    public List<String> scheduleTasks() {
+        tasks.sort(Comparator.comparingInt(Task::getSlackTime));
+        List<String> scheduledOrder = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (Task task : tasks) {
+            scheduledOrder.add(task.name);
+        }
+        return scheduledOrder;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2230ecaf35a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Circular Look Scheduling (C-LOOK) is a disk scheduling algorithm similar to
+ * the C-SCAN algorithm but with a key difference. In C-LOOK, the disk arm also
+ * moves in one direction to service requests, but instead of going all the way
+ * to the end of the disk, it only goes as far as the furthest request in the
+ * current direction. After servicing the last request in the current direction,
+ * the arm immediately jumps back to the closest request on the other side without
+ * moving to the disk's extreme ends. This reduces the unnecessary movement of the
+ * disk arm, resulting in better performance compared to C-SCAN, while still
+ * maintaining fair wait times for requests.
+ */
+public class CircularLookScheduling {
+    private int currentPosition;
+    private boolean movingUp;
+    private final int maxCylinder;
+
+    public CircularLookScheduling(int startPosition, boolean movingUp, int maxCylinder) {
+        this.currentPosition = startPosition;
+        this.movingUp = movingUp;
+        this.maxCylinder = maxCylinder;
+    }
+
+    public List<Integer> execute(List<Integer> requests) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Filter and sort valid requests in both directions
+        List<Integer> upRequests = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Integer> downRequests = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (int request : requests) {
+            if (request >= 0 && request < maxCylinder) {
+                if (request > currentPosition) {
+                    upRequests.add(request);
+                } else if (request < currentPosition) {
+                    downRequests.add(request);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Collections.sort(upRequests);
+        Collections.sort(downRequests);
+
+        if (movingUp) {
+            // Process all requests in the upward direction
+            result.addAll(upRequests);
+
+            // Jump to the lowest request and process all requests in the downward direction
+            result.addAll(downRequests);
+        } else {
+            // Process all requests in the downward direction (in reverse order)
+            Collections.reverse(downRequests);
+            result.addAll(downRequests);
+
+            // Jump to the highest request and process all requests in the upward direction (in reverse order)
+            Collections.reverse(upRequests);
+            result.addAll(upRequests);
+        }
+
+        // Update current position to the last processed request
+        if (!result.isEmpty()) {
+            currentPosition = result.get(result.size() - 1);
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    public int getCurrentPosition() {
+        return currentPosition;
+    }
+
+    public boolean isMovingUp() {
+        return movingUp;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a31c3d99a89e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Circular Scan Scheduling (C-SCAN) is a disk scheduling algorithm that
+ * works by moving the disk arm in one direction to service requests until
+ * it reaches the end of the disk. Once it reaches the end, instead of reversing
+ * direction like in the SCAN algorithm, the arm moves back to the starting point
+ * without servicing any requests. This ensures a more uniform wait time for all
+ * requests, especially those near the disk edges. The algorithm then continues in
+ * the same direction, making it effective for balancing service time across all disk sectors.
+ */
+public class CircularScanScheduling {
+    private int currentPosition;
+    private boolean movingUp;
+    private final int diskSize;
+
+    public CircularScanScheduling(int startPosition, boolean movingUp, int diskSize) {
+        this.currentPosition = startPosition;
+        this.movingUp = movingUp;
+        this.diskSize = diskSize;
+    }
+
+    public List<Integer> execute(List<Integer> requests) {
+        if (requests.isEmpty()) {
+            return new ArrayList<>(); // Return empty list if there are no requests
+        }
+
+        List<Integer> sortedRequests = new ArrayList<>(requests);
+        Collections.sort(sortedRequests);
+
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        if (movingUp) {
+            // Moving up: process requests >= current position
+            for (int request : sortedRequests) {
+                if (request >= currentPosition && request < diskSize) {
+                    result.add(request);
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Jump to the smallest request and continue processing from the start
+            for (int request : sortedRequests) {
+                if (request < currentPosition) {
+                    result.add(request);
+                }
+            }
+        } else {
+            // Moving down: process requests <= current position in reverse order
+            for (int i = sortedRequests.size() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+                int request = sortedRequests.get(i);
+                if (request <= currentPosition) {
+                    result.add(request);
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Jump to the largest request and continue processing in reverse order
+            for (int i = sortedRequests.size() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+                int request = sortedRequests.get(i);
+                if (request > currentPosition) {
+                    result.add(request);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Set final position to the last request processed
+        if (!result.isEmpty()) {
+            currentPosition = result.get(result.size() - 1);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    public int getCurrentPosition() {
+        return currentPosition;
+    }
+
+    public boolean isMovingUp() {
+        return movingUp;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..beba69b05eca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LOOK_algorithm
+ * Look Scheduling algorithm implementation.
+ * The Look algorithm moves the disk arm to the closest request in the current direction,
+ * and once it processes all requests in that direction, it reverses the direction.
+ */
+public class LookScheduling {
+    private final int maxTrack;
+    private final int currentPosition;
+    private boolean movingUp;
+    private int farthestPosition;
+    public LookScheduling(int startPosition, boolean initialDirection, int maxTrack) {
+        this.currentPosition = startPosition;
+        this.movingUp = initialDirection;
+        this.maxTrack = maxTrack;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Executes the Look Scheduling algorithm on the given list of requests.
+     *
+     * @param requests List of disk requests.
+     * @return Order in which requests are processed.
+     */
+    public List<Integer> execute(List<Integer> requests) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Integer> lower = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Integer> upper = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Split requests into two lists based on their position relative to current position
+        for (int request : requests) {
+            if (request >= 0 && request < maxTrack) {
+                if (request < currentPosition) {
+                    lower.add(request);
+                } else {
+                    upper.add(request);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Sort the requests
+        Collections.sort(lower);
+        Collections.sort(upper);
+
+        // Process the requests depending on the initial moving direction
+        if (movingUp) {
+            // Process requests in the upward direction
+            result.addAll(upper);
+            if (!upper.isEmpty()) {
+                farthestPosition = upper.get(upper.size() - 1);
+            }
+
+            // Reverse the direction and process downward
+            movingUp = false;
+            Collections.reverse(lower);
+            result.addAll(lower);
+            if (!lower.isEmpty()) {
+                farthestPosition = Math.max(farthestPosition, lower.get(0));
+            }
+        } else {
+            // Process requests in the downward direction
+            Collections.reverse(lower);
+            result.addAll(lower);
+            if (!lower.isEmpty()) {
+                farthestPosition = lower.get(0);
+            }
+
+            // Reverse the direction and process upward
+            movingUp = true;
+            result.addAll(upper);
+            if (!upper.isEmpty()) {
+                farthestPosition = Math.max(farthestPosition, upper.get(upper.size() - 1));
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    public int getCurrentPosition() {
+        return currentPosition;
+    }
+
+    public boolean isMovingUp() {
+        return movingUp;
+    }
+
+    public int getFarthestPosition() {
+        return farthestPosition;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..261c1a388393
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ *https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_seek_first
+ * Shortest Seek First (SFF) Scheduling algorithm implementation.
+ * The SFF algorithm selects the next request to be serviced based on the shortest distance
+ * from the current position of the disk arm. It continuously evaluates all pending requests
+ * and chooses the one that requires the least amount of movement to service.
+ *
+ * This approach minimizes the average seek time, making it efficient in terms of response
+ * time for individual requests. However, it may lead to starvation for requests located
+ * further away from the current position of the disk arm.
+ *
+ * The SFF algorithm is particularly effective in systems where quick response time
+ * is crucial, as it ensures that the most accessible requests are prioritized for servicing.
+ */
+public class SSFScheduling {
+    private int currentPosition;
+
+    public SSFScheduling(int currentPosition) {
+        this.currentPosition = currentPosition;
+    }
+
+    public List<Integer> execute(Collection<Integer> requests) {
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>(requests);
+        List<Integer> orderedRequests = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        while (!result.isEmpty()) {
+            int closest = findClosest(result);
+            orderedRequests.add(closest);
+            result.remove(Integer.valueOf(closest));
+            currentPosition = closest;
+        }
+        return orderedRequests;
+    }
+
+    private int findClosest(List<Integer> requests) {
+        int minDistance = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+        int closest = -1;
+        for (int request : requests) {
+            int distance = Math.abs(currentPosition - request);
+            if (distance < minDistance) {
+                minDistance = distance;
+                closest = request;
+            }
+        }
+        return closest;
+    }
+
+    public int getCurrentPosition() {
+        return currentPosition;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanScheduling.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2c4fa7844a12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanScheduling.java
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator_algorithm
+ * SCAN Scheduling algorithm implementation.
+ * The SCAN algorithm moves the disk arm towards one end of the disk, servicing all requests
+ * along the way until it reaches the end. Once it reaches the end, it reverses direction
+ * and services the requests on its way back.
+ *
+ * This algorithm ensures that all requests are serviced in a fair manner,
+ * while minimizing the seek time for requests located close to the current position
+ * of the disk arm.
+ *
+ * The SCAN algorithm is particularly useful in environments with a large number of
+ * disk requests, as it reduces the overall movement of the disk arm compared to
+ */
+public class ScanScheduling {
+    private int headPosition;
+    private int diskSize;
+    private boolean movingUp;
+
+    public ScanScheduling(int headPosition, boolean movingUp, int diskSize) {
+        this.headPosition = headPosition;
+        this.movingUp = movingUp;
+        this.diskSize = diskSize;
+    }
+
+    public List<Integer> execute(List<Integer> requests) {
+        // If the request list is empty, return an empty result
+        if (requests.isEmpty()) {
+            return new ArrayList<>();
+        }
+
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Integer> left = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Integer> right = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Separate requests into those smaller than the current head position and those larger
+        for (int request : requests) {
+            if (request < headPosition) {
+                left.add(request);
+            } else {
+                right.add(request);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Sort the requests
+        Collections.sort(left);
+        Collections.sort(right);
+
+        // Simulate the disk head movement
+        if (movingUp) {
+            // Head moving upward, process right-side requests first
+            result.addAll(right);
+            // After reaching the end of the disk, reverse direction and process left-side requests
+            result.add(diskSize - 1); // Simulate the head reaching the end of the disk
+            Collections.reverse(left);
+            result.addAll(left);
+        } else {
+            // Head moving downward, process left-side requests first
+            Collections.reverse(left);
+            result.addAll(left);
+            // After reaching the start of the disk, reverse direction and process right-side requests
+            result.add(0); // Simulate the head reaching the start of the disk
+            result.addAll(right);
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    public int getHeadPosition() {
+        return headPosition;
+    }
+
+    public boolean isMovingUp() {
+        return movingUp;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndex.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndex.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..aeddc591b32b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndex.java
@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Objects;
+
+/**
+ * Inverted Index implementation with BM25 Scoring for movie search.
+ * This class supports adding movie documents and searching for terms
+ * within those documents using the BM25 algorithm.
+ * @author Prayas Kumar (https://github.com/prayas7102)
+ */
+
+class Movie {
+    int docId; // Unique identifier for the movie
+    String name; // Movie name
+    double imdbRating; // IMDb rating of the movie
+    int releaseYear; // Year the movie was released
+    String content; // Full text content (could be the description or script)
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor for the Movie class.
+     * @param docId Unique identifier for the movie.
+     * @param name Name of the movie.
+     * @param imdbRating IMDb rating of the movie.
+     * @param releaseYear Release year of the movie.
+     * @param content Content or description of the movie.
+     */
+    Movie(int docId, String name, double imdbRating, int releaseYear, String content) {
+        this.docId = docId;
+        this.name = name;
+        this.imdbRating = imdbRating;
+        this.releaseYear = releaseYear;
+        this.content = content;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get all the words from the movie's name and content.
+     * Converts the name and content to lowercase and splits on non-word characters.
+     * @return Array of words from the movie name and content.
+     */
+    public String[] getWords() {
+        return (name + " " + content).toLowerCase().split("\\W+");
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return "Movie{"
+            + "docId=" + docId + ", name='" + name + '\'' + ", imdbRating=" + imdbRating + ", releaseYear=" + releaseYear + '}';
+    }
+}
+
+class SearchResult {
+    int docId; // Unique identifier of the movie document
+    double relevanceScore; // Relevance score based on the BM25 algorithm
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor for SearchResult class.
+     * @param docId Document ID (movie) for this search result.
+     * @param relevanceScore The relevance score based on BM25 scoring.
+     */
+    SearchResult(int docId, double relevanceScore) {
+        this.docId = docId;
+        this.relevanceScore = relevanceScore;
+    }
+
+    public int getDocId() {
+        return docId;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return "SearchResult{"
+            + "docId=" + docId + ", relevanceScore=" + relevanceScore + '}';
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object o) {
+        if (this == o) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        SearchResult that = (SearchResult) o;
+        return docId == that.docId && Double.compare(that.relevanceScore, relevanceScore) == 0;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+        return Objects.hash(docId, relevanceScore);
+    }
+
+    public double getRelevanceScore() {
+        return this.relevanceScore;
+    }
+}
+
+public final class BM25InvertedIndex {
+    private Map<String, Map<Integer, Integer>> index; // Inverted index mapping terms to document id and frequency
+    private Map<Integer, Movie> movies; // Mapping of movie document IDs to Movie objects
+    private int totalDocuments; // Total number of movies/documents
+    private double avgDocumentLength; // Average length of documents (number of words)
+    private static final double K = 1.5; // BM25 tuning parameter, controls term frequency saturation
+    private static final double B = 0.75; // BM25 tuning parameter, controls length normalization
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor for BM25InvertedIndex.
+     * Initializes the inverted index and movie storage.
+     */
+    BM25InvertedIndex() {
+        index = new HashMap<>();
+        movies = new HashMap<>();
+        totalDocuments = 0;
+        avgDocumentLength = 0.0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Add a movie to the index.
+     * @param docId Unique identifier for the movie.
+     * @param name Name of the movie.
+     * @param imdbRating IMDb rating of the movie.
+     * @param releaseYear Release year of the movie.
+     * @param content Content or description of the movie.
+     */
+    public void addMovie(int docId, String name, double imdbRating, int releaseYear, String content) {
+        Movie movie = new Movie(docId, name, imdbRating, releaseYear, content);
+        movies.put(docId, movie);
+        totalDocuments++;
+
+        // Get words (terms) from the movie's name and content
+        String[] terms = movie.getWords();
+        int docLength = terms.length;
+
+        // Update the average document length
+        avgDocumentLength = (avgDocumentLength * (totalDocuments - 1) + docLength) / totalDocuments;
+
+        // Update the inverted index
+        for (String term : terms) {
+            // Create a new entry if the term is not yet in the index
+            index.putIfAbsent(term, new HashMap<>());
+
+            // Get the list of documents containing the term
+            Map<Integer, Integer> docList = index.get(term);
+            if (docList == null) {
+                docList = new HashMap<>();
+                index.put(term, docList); // Ensure docList is added to the index
+            }
+            // Increment the term frequency in this document
+            docList.put(docId, docList.getOrDefault(docId, 0) + 1);
+        }
+    }
+
+    public int getMoviesLength() {
+        return movies.size();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Search for documents containing a term using BM25 scoring.
+     * @param term The search term.
+     * @return A list of search results sorted by relevance score.
+     */
+    public List<SearchResult> search(String term) {
+        term = term.toLowerCase(); // Normalize search term
+        if (!index.containsKey(term)) {
+            return new ArrayList<>(); // Return empty list if term not found
+        }
+
+        Map<Integer, Integer> termDocs = index.get(term); // Documents containing the term
+        List<SearchResult> results = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Compute IDF for the search term
+        double idf = computeIDF(termDocs.size());
+
+        // Calculate relevance scores for all documents containing the term
+        for (Map.Entry<Integer, Integer> entry : termDocs.entrySet()) {
+            int docId = entry.getKey();
+            int termFrequency = entry.getValue();
+            Movie movie = movies.get(docId);
+            if (movie == null) {
+                continue; // Skip this document if movie doesn't exist
+            }
+            double docLength = movie.getWords().length;
+
+            // Compute BM25 relevance score
+            double score = computeBM25Score(termFrequency, docLength, idf);
+            results.add(new SearchResult(docId, score));
+        }
+
+        // Sort the results by relevance score in descending order
+        results.sort((r1, r2) -> Double.compare(r2.relevanceScore, r1.relevanceScore));
+        return results;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compute the BM25 score for a given term and document.
+     * @param termFrequency The frequency of the term in the document.
+     * @param docLength The length of the document.
+     * @param idf The inverse document frequency of the term.
+     * @return The BM25 relevance score for the term in the document.
+     */
+    private double computeBM25Score(int termFrequency, double docLength, double idf) {
+        double numerator = termFrequency * (K + 1);
+        double denominator = termFrequency + K * (1 - B + B * (docLength / avgDocumentLength));
+        return idf * (numerator / denominator);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Compute the inverse document frequency (IDF) of a term.
+     * The IDF measures the importance of a term across the entire document set.
+     * @param docFrequency The number of documents that contain the term.
+     * @return The inverse document frequency (IDF) value.
+     */
+    private double computeIDF(int docFrequency) {
+        // Total number of documents in the index
+        return Math.log((totalDocuments - docFrequency + 0.5) / (docFrequency + 0.5) + 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java
index 22c124597f3d..bedad1667f33 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java
@@ -1,11 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import static java.lang.String.format;
-
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
-import java.util.concurrent.ThreadLocalRandom;
-import java.util.stream.IntStream;
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
 /**
@@ -31,7 +25,7 @@ class BinarySearch implements SearchAlgorithm {
      */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
-        return search(array, key, 0, array.length);
+        return search(array, key, 0, array.length - 1);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -43,7 +37,7 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
      * @param right The upper bound
      * @return the location of the key
      */
-    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int search(T array[], T key, int left, int right) {
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int search(T[] array, T key, int left, int right) {
         if (right < left) {
             return -1; // this means that the key not found
         }
@@ -59,36 +53,4 @@ private <T extends Comparable<T>> int search(T array[], T key, int left, int rig
             return search(array, key, median + 1, right);
         }
     }
-
-    // Driver Program
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Just generate data
-        Random r = ThreadLocalRandom.current();
-
-        int size = 100;
-        int maxElement = 100000;
-
-        Integer[] integers
-                = IntStream.generate(() -> r.nextInt(maxElement))
-                        .limit(size)
-                        .sorted()
-                        .boxed()
-                        .toArray(Integer[]::new);
-
-        // The element that should be found
-        int shouldBeFound = integers[r.nextInt(size - 1)];
-
-        BinarySearch search = new BinarySearch();
-        int atIndex = search.find(integers, shouldBeFound);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Should be found: %d. Found %d at index %d. An array length %d",
-                        shouldBeFound, integers[atIndex], atIndex, size));
-
-        int toCheck = Arrays.binarySearch(integers, shouldBeFound);
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Found by system method at an index: %d. Is equal: %b", toCheck, toCheck == atIndex));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArray.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..aa938447b864
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArray.java
@@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to search for a target value in a 2D sorted
+ * array.
+ * The search is performed using a combination of binary search on rows and
+ * columns.
+ * The 2D array must be strictly sorted in both rows and columns.
+ *
+ * The algorithm works by:
+ * 1. Performing a binary search on the middle column of the 2D array.
+ * 2. Depending on the value found, it eliminates rows above or below the middle
+ * element.
+ * 3. After finding or eliminating rows, it further applies binary search in the
+ * relevant columns.
+ */
+public final class BinarySearch2dArray {
+
+    private BinarySearch2dArray() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs a binary search on a 2D sorted array to find the target value.
+     * The array must be sorted in ascending order in both rows and columns.
+     *
+     * @param arr    The 2D array to search in.
+     * @param target The value to search for.
+     * @return An array containing the row and column indices of the target, or [-1,
+     *         -1] if the target is not found.
+     */
+    static int[] binarySearch(int[][] arr, int target) {
+        int rowCount = arr.length;
+        int colCount = arr[0].length;
+
+        // Edge case: If there's only one row, search that row directly.
+        if (rowCount == 1) {
+            return binarySearch(arr, target, 0, 0, colCount);
+        }
+
+        // Set initial boundaries for binary search on rows.
+        int startRow = 0;
+        int endRow = rowCount - 1;
+        int midCol = colCount / 2; // Middle column index for comparison.
+
+        // Perform binary search on rows based on the middle column.
+        while (startRow < endRow - 1) {
+            int midRow = startRow + (endRow - startRow) / 2;
+
+            // If the middle element matches the target, return its position.
+            if (arr[midRow][midCol] == target) {
+                return new int[] {midRow, midCol};
+            }
+            // If the middle element is smaller than the target, discard the upper half.
+            else if (arr[midRow][midCol] < target) {
+                startRow = midRow;
+            }
+            // If the middle element is larger than the target, discard the lower half.
+            else {
+                endRow = midRow;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // If the target wasn't found during the row search, check the middle column of
+        // startRow and endRow.
+        if (arr[startRow][midCol] == target) {
+            return new int[] {startRow, midCol};
+        }
+
+        if (arr[endRow][midCol] == target) {
+            return new int[] {endRow, midCol};
+        }
+
+        // If target is smaller than the element in the left of startRow, perform a
+        // binary search on the left of startRow.
+        if (target <= arr[startRow][midCol - 1]) {
+            return binarySearch(arr, target, startRow, 0, midCol - 1);
+        }
+
+        // If target is between midCol and the last column of startRow, perform a binary
+        // search on that part of the row.
+        if (target >= arr[startRow][midCol + 1] && target <= arr[startRow][colCount - 1]) {
+            return binarySearch(arr, target, startRow, midCol + 1, colCount - 1);
+        }
+
+        // If target is smaller than the element in the left of endRow, perform a binary
+        // search on the left of endRow.
+        if (target <= arr[endRow][midCol - 1]) {
+            return binarySearch(arr, target, endRow, 0, midCol - 1);
+        } else {
+            // Otherwise, search on the right of endRow.
+            return binarySearch(arr, target, endRow, midCol + 1, colCount - 1);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs a binary search on a specific row of the 2D array.
+     *
+     * @param arr      The 2D array to search in.
+     * @param target   The value to search for.
+     * @param row      The row index where the target will be searched.
+     * @param colStart The starting column index for the search.
+     * @param colEnd   The ending column index for the search.
+     * @return An array containing the row and column indices of the target, or [-1,
+     *         -1] if the target is not found.
+     */
+    static int[] binarySearch(int[][] arr, int target, int row, int colStart, int colEnd) {
+        // Perform binary search within the specified column range.
+        while (colStart <= colEnd) {
+            int midIndex = colStart + (colEnd - colStart) / 2;
+
+            // If the middle element matches the target, return its position.
+            if (arr[row][midIndex] == target) {
+                return new int[] {row, midIndex};
+            }
+            // If the middle element is smaller than the target, move to the right half.
+            else if (arr[row][midIndex] < target) {
+                colStart = midIndex + 1;
+            }
+            // If the middle element is larger than the target, move to the left half.
+            else {
+                colEnd = midIndex - 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return new int[] {-1, -1}; // Target not found
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMoore.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMoore.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6998021503cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMoore.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+/**
+ * Boyer-Moore string search algorithm.
+ * Efficient algorithm for substring search.
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyer%E2%80%93Moore_string-search_algorithm
+ */
+public class BoyerMoore {
+
+    private final int radix; // Radix (number of possible characters)
+    private final int[] right; // Bad character rule table
+    private final String pattern;
+
+    public BoyerMoore(String pat) {
+        this.pattern = pat;
+        this.radix = 256;
+        this.right = new int[radix];
+
+        for (int c = 0; c < radix; c++) {
+            right[c] = -1;
+        }
+
+        for (int j = 0; j < pat.length(); j++) {
+            right[pat.charAt(j)] = j;
+        }
+    }
+
+    public int search(String text) {
+        if (pattern.isEmpty()) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        int m = pattern.length();
+        int n = text.length();
+
+        int skip;
+        for (int i = 0; i <= n - m; i += skip) {
+            skip = 0;
+            for (int j = m - 1; j >= 0; j--) {
+                char txtChar = text.charAt(i + j);
+                char patChar = pattern.charAt(j);
+                if (patChar != txtChar) {
+                    skip = Math.max(1, j - right[txtChar]);
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            if (skip == 0) {
+                return i; // Match found
+            }
+        }
+
+        return -1; // No match
+    }
+
+    public static int staticSearch(String text, String pattern) {
+        return new BoyerMoore(pattern).search(text);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearch.java
index 93a41871d077..7ac9c7b01526 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearch.java
@@ -1,80 +1,71 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import com.thealgorithms.searches.DepthFirstSearch.Node;
-
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.Node;
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
+import java.util.Queue;
+import java.util.Set;
 
 /**
- * @author: caos321
- * @date: 31 October 2021 (Sunday)
+ * Breadth-First Search implementation for tree/graph traversal.
+ * @author caos321
+ * @co-author @manishraj27
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadth-first_search">Breadth-first search</a>
  */
-public class BreadthFirstSearch {
-
-    public static Optional<Node> search(final Node node, final String name) {
-        if (node.getName().equals(name)) {
-            return Optional.of(node);
+public class BreadthFirstSearch<T> {
+    private final List<T> visited = new ArrayList<>();
+    private final Set<T> visitedSet = new HashSet<>();
+
+    /**
+     * Performs a breadth-first search to find a node with the given value.
+     *
+     * @param root The root node to start the search from
+     * @param value The value to search for
+     * @return Optional containing the found node, or empty if not found
+     */
+    public Optional<Node<T>> search(final Node<T> root, final T value) {
+        if (root == null) {
+            return Optional.empty();
         }
 
-        List<Node> queue = new ArrayList<>(node.getSubNodes());
+        visited.add(root.getValue());
+        visitedSet.add(root.getValue());
+
+        if (root.getValue() == value) {
+            return Optional.of(root);
+        }
 
+        Queue<Node<T>> queue = new ArrayDeque<>(root.getChildren());
         while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
-            final Node current = queue.get(0);
+            final Node<T> current = queue.poll();
+            T currentValue = current.getValue();
 
-            if (current.getName().equals(name)) {
-                return Optional.of(current);
+            if (visitedSet.contains(currentValue)) {
+                continue;
             }
 
-            queue.addAll(current.getSubNodes());
+            visited.add(currentValue);
+            visitedSet.add(currentValue);
+
+            if (currentValue == value || (value != null && value.equals(currentValue))) {
+                return Optional.of(current);
+            }
 
-            queue.remove(0);
+            queue.addAll(current.getChildren());
         }
 
         return Optional.empty();
     }
 
-    public static void assertThat(final Object actual, final Object expected) {
-        if (!Objects.equals(actual, expected)) {
-            throw new AssertionError(String.format("expected=%s but was actual=%s", expected, actual));
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(final String[] args) {
-        final Node rootNode = new Node("A", List.of(
-                new Node("B", List.of(new Node("D"), new Node("F", List.of(
-                        new Node("H"), new Node("I")
-                )))),
-                new Node("C", List.of(new Node("G"))),
-                new Node("E")
-        ));
-
-        {
-            final String expected = "I";
-
-            final Node result = search(rootNode, expected)
-                    .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Node not found!"));
-
-            assertThat(result.getName(), expected);
-        }
-
-        {
-            final String expected = "G";
-
-            final Node result = search(rootNode, expected)
-                    .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Node not found!"));
-
-            assertThat(result.getName(), expected);
-        }
-
-        {
-            final String expected = "E";
-
-            final Node result = search(rootNode, expected)
-                    .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Node not found!"));
-
-            assertThat(result.getName(), expected);
-        }
+    /**
+     * Returns the list of nodes in the order they were visited.
+     *
+     * @return List containing the visited nodes
+     */
+    public List<T> getVisited() {
+        return visited;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java
index f355ee30392c..781768d8049e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java
@@ -1,92 +1,32 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.Node;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Optional;
 
 /**
  * @author: caos321
  * @date: 31 October 2021 (Sunday)
+ * @wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth-first_search
  */
-public class DepthFirstSearch {
+public class DepthFirstSearch<T> {
 
-    static class Node {
+    private final List<T> visited = new ArrayList<>();
 
-        private final String name;
-        private final List<Node> subNodes;
-
-        public Node(final String name) {
-            this.name = name;
-            this.subNodes = new ArrayList<>();
-        }
-
-        public Node(final String name, final List<Node> subNodes) {
-            this.name = name;
-            this.subNodes = subNodes;
-        }
-
-        public String getName() {
-            return name;
-        }
-
-        public List<Node> getSubNodes() {
-            return subNodes;
+    public Optional<Node<T>> recursiveSearch(final Node<T> node, final Integer value) {
+        if (node == null) {
+            return Optional.empty();
         }
-    }
-
-    public static Optional<Node> search(final Node node, final String name) {
-        if (node.getName().equals(name)) {
+        visited.add(node.getValue());
+        if (node.getValue().equals(value)) {
             return Optional.of(node);
         }
 
-        return node.getSubNodes()
-                .stream()
-                .map(value -> search(value, name))
-                .flatMap(Optional::stream)
-                .findAny();
-    }
-
-    public static void assertThat(final Object actual, final Object expected) {
-        if (!Objects.equals(actual, expected)) {
-            throw new AssertionError(String.format("expected=%s but was actual=%s", expected, actual));
-        }
+        return node.getChildren().stream().map(v -> recursiveSearch(v, value)).flatMap(Optional::stream).findAny();
     }
 
-    public static void main(final String[] args) {
-        final Node rootNode = new Node("A", List.of(
-                new Node("B", List.of(new Node("D"), new Node("F", List.of(
-                        new Node("H"), new Node("I")
-                )))),
-                new Node("C", List.of(new Node("G"))),
-                new Node("E")
-        ));
-
-        {
-            final String expected = "I";
-
-            final Node result = search(rootNode, expected)
-                    .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Node not found!"));
-
-            assertThat(result.getName(), expected);
-        }
-
-        {
-            final String expected = "G";
-
-            final Node result = search(rootNode, expected)
-                    .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Node not found!"));
-
-            assertThat(result.getName(), expected);
-        }
-
-        {
-            final String expected = "E";
-
-            final Node result = search(rootNode, expected)
-                    .orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Node not found!"));
-
-            assertThat(result.getName(), expected);
-        }
+    public List<T> getVisited() {
+        return visited;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentalSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentalSearch.java
index 3592f50cbe28..9187dcbc2f4b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentalSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentalSearch.java
@@ -1,58 +1,48 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
-import java.util.concurrent.ThreadLocalRandom;
-import java.util.stream.IntStream;
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
+import java.util.Arrays;
 
-import static java.lang.String.format;
-
+/**
+ * ExponentialSearch is an algorithm that efficiently finds the position of a target
+ * value within a sorted array. It works by expanding the range to find the bounds
+ * where the target might exist and then using binary search within that range.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Worst-case time complexity: O(log n)
+ * Best-case time complexity: O(1) when the element is found at the first position.
+ * Average time complexity: O(log n)
+ * Worst-case space complexity: O(1)
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Note: This algorithm requires that the input array be sorted.
+ * </p>
+ */
 class ExponentialSearch implements SearchAlgorithm {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random r = ThreadLocalRandom.current();
-
-        int size = 100;
-        int maxElement = 100000;
-
-        Integer[] integers
-                = IntStream.generate(() -> r.nextInt(maxElement))
-                        .limit(size)
-                        .sorted()
-                        .boxed()
-                        .toArray(Integer[]::new);
-
-        // The element that should be found
-        int shouldBeFound = integers[r.nextInt(size - 1)];
-
-        ExponentialSearch search = new ExponentialSearch();
-        int atIndex = search.find(integers, shouldBeFound);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Should be found: %d. Found %d at index %d. An array length %d",
-                        shouldBeFound, integers[atIndex], atIndex, size));
-
-        int toCheck = Arrays.binarySearch(integers, shouldBeFound);
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Found by system method at an index: %d. Is equal: %b", toCheck, toCheck == atIndex));
-
-    }
-
+    /**
+     * Finds the index of the specified key in a sorted array using exponential search.
+     *
+     * @param array The sorted array to search.
+     * @param key The element to search for.
+     * @param <T> The type of the elements in the array, which must be comparable.
+     * @return The index of the key if found, otherwise -1.
+     */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
-        if (array[0] == key) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return -1;
+        }
+        if (array[0].equals(key)) {
             return 0;
         }
-        if (array[array.length - 1] == key) {
-            return array.length;
+        if (array[array.length - 1].equals(key)) {
+            return array.length - 1;
         }
 
         int range = 1;
-
-        while (range < array.length && array[range].compareTo(key) <= -1) {
+        while (range < array.length && array[range].compareTo(key) < 0) {
             range = range * 2;
         }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearch.java
index fdd45cb628a2..78dac0f0a712 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearch.java
@@ -2,24 +2,43 @@
 
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
-/*
-*  Fibonacci Search is a popular algorithm which finds the position of a target value in
-*  a sorted array
-*
-*  The time complexity for this search algorithm is O(log3(n))
-*  The space complexity for this search algorithm is O(1)
-*  @author Kanakalatha Vemuru (https://github.com/KanakalathaVemuru)
+/**
+ * FibonacciSearch is a search algorithm that finds the position of a target value in
+ * a sorted array using Fibonacci numbers.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The time complexity for this search algorithm is O(log n).
+ * The space complexity for this search algorithm is O(1).
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Note: This algorithm requires that the input array be sorted.
+ * </p>
  */
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
 public class FibonacciSearch implements SearchAlgorithm {
 
     /**
-     * @param array is a sorted array where the element has to be searched
-     * @param key is an element whose position has to be found
-     * @param <T> is any comparable type
-     * @return index of the element
+     * Finds the index of the specified key in a sorted array using Fibonacci search.
+     *
+     * @param array The sorted array to search.
+     * @param key The element to search for.
+     * @param <T> The type of the elements in the array, which must be comparable.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input array is not sorted or empty, or if the key is null.
+     * @return The index of the key if found, otherwise -1.
      */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array must not be empty.");
+        }
+        if (!isSorted(array)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array must be sorted.");
+        }
+        if (key == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key must not be null.");
+        }
+
         int fibMinus1 = 1;
         int fibMinus2 = 0;
         int fibNumber = fibMinus1 + fibMinus2;
@@ -57,17 +76,12 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
         return -1;
     }
 
-    // Driver Program
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Integer[] integers = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512};
-
-        int size = integers.length;
-        Integer shouldBeFound = 128;
-        FibonacciSearch fsearch = new FibonacciSearch();
-        int atIndex = fsearch.find(integers, shouldBeFound);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                "Should be found: " + shouldBeFound + ". Found " + integers[atIndex] + " at index " + atIndex + ". An array length " + size);
+    private boolean isSorted(Comparable[] array) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < array.length; i++) {
+            if (array[i - 1].compareTo(array[i]) > 0) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotated.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotated.java
index ccdb1439e4d4..dd01378f4d5f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotated.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotated.java
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.Scanner;
 
 /*
-    Problem Statement: 
-    Given an array, find out how many times it has to been rotated 
+    Problem Statement:
+    Given an array, find out how many times it has to been rotated
     from its initial sorted position.
     Input-Output:
     Eg. [11,12,15,18,2,5,6,8]
@@ -12,18 +12,22 @@
     (One rotation means putting the first element to the end)
     Note: The array cannot contain duplicates
 
-    Logic: 
+    Logic:
     The position of the minimum element will give the number of times the array has been rotated
     from its initial sorted position.
-    Eg. For [2,5,6,8,11,12,15,18], 1 rotation gives [5,6,8,11,12,15,18,2], 2 rotations [6,8,11,12,15,18,2,5] and so on.
-    Finding the minimum element will take O(N) time but, we can  use Binary Search to find the mimimum element, we can reduce the complexity to O(log N).
-    If we look at the rotated array, to identify the minimum element (say a[i]), we observe that  a[i-1]>a[i]<a[i+1].
+    Eg. For [2,5,6,8,11,12,15,18], 1 rotation gives [5,6,8,11,12,15,18,2], 2 rotations
+   [6,8,11,12,15,18,2,5] and so on. Finding the minimum element will take O(N) time but, we can  use
+   Binary Search to find the minimum element, we can reduce the complexity to O(log N). If we look
+   at the rotated array, to identify the minimum element (say a[i]), we observe that
+   a[i-1]>a[i]<a[i+1].
 
-    Some other test cases: 
+    Some other test cases:
     1. [1,2,3,4] Number of rotations: 0 or 4(Both valid)
     2. [15,17,2,3,5] Number of rotations: 3
  */
-class HowManyTimesRotated {
+final class HowManyTimesRotated {
+    private HowManyTimesRotated() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
@@ -35,7 +39,6 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
 
         System.out.println("The array has been rotated " + rotated(a) + " times");
         sc.close();
-
     }
 
     public static int rotated(int[] a) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java
index 0ac16685d72b..3ac6be25bf53 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java
@@ -1,31 +1,36 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import static java.lang.String.format;
-
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
-import java.util.stream.IntStream;
-
 /**
- * Interpolation search algorithm implementation
+ * InterpolationSearch is an algorithm that searches for a target value within a sorted array
+ * by estimating the position based on the values at the corners of the current search range.
  *
  * <p>
- * Worst-case performance O(n) Best-case performance O(1) Average performance
- * O(log(log(n))) if the elements are uniformly distributed if not O(n)
- * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
+ * The performance of this algorithm can vary:
+ * - Worst-case performance: O(n)
+ * - Best-case performance: O(1)
+ * - Average performance: O(log(log(n))) if the elements are uniformly distributed; otherwise O(n)
+ * - Worst-case space complexity: O(1)
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * This search algorithm requires the input array to be sorted.
+ * </p>
  *
  * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
  */
 class InterpolationSearch {
 
     /**
-     * @param array is a sorted array
-     * @param key is a value what shoulb be found in the array
-     * @return an index if the array contains the key unless -1
+     * Finds the index of the specified key in a sorted array using interpolation search.
+     *
+     * @param array The sorted array to search.
+     * @param key The value to search for.
+     * @return The index of the key if found, otherwise -1.
      */
-    public int find(int array[], int key) {
+    public int find(int[] array, int key) {
         // Find indexes of two corners
-        int start = 0, end = (array.length - 1);
+        int start = 0;
+        int end = (array.length - 1);
 
         // Since array is sorted, an element present
         // in array must be in range defined by corner
@@ -49,28 +54,4 @@ public int find(int array[], int key) {
         }
         return -1;
     }
-
-    // Driver method
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random r = new Random();
-        int size = 100;
-        int maxElement = 100000;
-        int[] integers = IntStream.generate(() -> r.nextInt(maxElement)).limit(size).sorted().toArray();
-
-        // the element that should be found
-        Integer shouldBeFound = integers[r.nextInt(size - 1)];
-
-        InterpolationSearch search = new InterpolationSearch();
-        int atIndex = search.find(integers, shouldBeFound);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                String.format(
-                        "Should be found: %d. Found %d at index %d. An array length %d",
-                        shouldBeFound, integers[atIndex], atIndex, size));
-
-        int toCheck = Arrays.binarySearch(integers, shouldBeFound);
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Found by system method at an index: %d. Is equal: %b", toCheck, toCheck == atIndex));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearch.java
index ce375df24a94..05fab0534267 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearch.java
@@ -1,10 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import static java.lang.String.format;
-
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
-import java.util.stream.Stream;
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
 /**
@@ -34,7 +29,10 @@ public final class IterativeBinarySearch implements SearchAlgorithm {
      */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
-        int l, r, k, cmp;
+        int l;
+        int r;
+        int k;
+        int cmp;
 
         l = 0;
         r = array.length - 1;
@@ -54,29 +52,4 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
 
         return -1;
     }
-
-    // Only a main method for test purpose
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Random r = new Random();
-        int size = 100;
-        int maxElement = 100000;
-        Integer[] integers
-                = Stream.generate(() -> r.nextInt(maxElement)).limit(size).sorted().toArray(Integer[]::new);
-
-        // the element that should be found
-        Integer shouldBeFound = integers[r.nextInt(size - 1)];
-
-        IterativeBinarySearch search = new IterativeBinarySearch();
-        int atIndex = search.find(integers, shouldBeFound);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                String.format(
-                        "Should be found: %d. Found %d at index %d. An array length %d",
-                        shouldBeFound, integers[atIndex], atIndex, size));
-
-        int toCheck = Arrays.binarySearch(integers, shouldBeFound);
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Found by system method at an index: %d. Is equal: %b", toCheck, toCheck == atIndex));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearch.java
index 09139578e2bb..585d6787d3f8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearch.java
@@ -1,24 +1,26 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import static java.lang.String.format;
-
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
-import java.util.stream.Stream;
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
 /**
- * A iterative version of a ternary search algorithm This is better way to
- * implement the ternary search, because a recursive version adds some overhead
- * to a stack. But in java the compile can transform the recursive version to
- * iterative implicitly, so there are no much differences between these two
- * algorithms
+ * An iterative implementation of the Ternary Search algorithm.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Ternary search is a divide-and-conquer algorithm that splits the array into three parts
+ * instead of two, as in binary search. This implementation is iterative, reducing the overhead
+ * associated with recursive function calls. However, the recursive version can also be optimized
+ * by the Java compiler to resemble the iterative version, resulting in similar performance.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Worst-case performance: Θ(log3(N))<br>
+ * Best-case performance: O(1)<br>
+ * Average performance: Θ(log3(N))<br>
+ * Worst-case space complexity: O(1)
  *
  * <p>
- * Worst-case performance Θ(log3(N)) Best-case performance O(1) Average
- * performance Θ(log3(N)) Worst-case space complexity O(1)
+ * This class implements the {@link SearchAlgorithm} interface, providing a generic search method
+ * for any comparable type.
  *
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
  * @see SearchAlgorithm
  * @see TernarySearch
  * @since 2018-04-13
@@ -27,11 +29,17 @@ public class IterativeTernarySearch implements SearchAlgorithm {
 
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
+        if (array == null || array.length == 0 || key == null) {
+            return -1;
+        }
+        if (array.length == 1) {
+            return array[0].compareTo(key) == 0 ? 0 : -1;
+        }
+
         int left = 0;
         int right = array.length - 1;
 
         while (right > left) {
-
             int leftCmp = array[left].compareTo(key);
             int rightCmp = array[right].compareTo(key);
             if (leftCmp == 0) {
@@ -53,29 +61,4 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
 
         return -1;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // just generate data
-        Random r = new Random();
-        int size = 100;
-        int maxElement = 100000;
-        Integer[] integers
-                = Stream.generate(() -> r.nextInt(maxElement)).limit(size).sorted().toArray(Integer[]::new);
-
-        // the element that should be found
-        Integer shouldBeFound = integers[r.nextInt(size - 1)];
-
-        IterativeTernarySearch search = new IterativeTernarySearch();
-        int atIndex = search.find(integers, shouldBeFound);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Should be found: %d. Found %d at index %d. An array length %d",
-                        shouldBeFound, integers[atIndex], atIndex, size));
-
-        int toCheck = Arrays.binarySearch(integers, shouldBeFound);
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Found by system method at an index: %d. Is equal: %b", toCheck, toCheck == atIndex));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearch.java
index f499cf8079cc..8dcec3a819a4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearch.java
@@ -2,44 +2,55 @@
 
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
+/**
+ * An implementation of the Jump Search algorithm.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Jump Search is an algorithm for searching sorted arrays. It works by dividing the array
+ * into blocks of a fixed size (the block size is typically the square root of the array length)
+ * and jumping ahead by this block size to find a range where the target element may be located.
+ * Once the range is found, a linear search is performed within that block.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The Jump Search algorithm is particularly effective for large sorted arrays where the cost of
+ * performing a linear search on the entire array would be prohibitive.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Worst-case performance: O(√N)<br>
+ * Best-case performance: O(1)<br>
+ * Average performance: O(√N)<br>
+ * Worst-case space complexity: O(1)
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * This class implements the {@link SearchAlgorithm} interface, providing a generic search method
+ * for any comparable type.
+ */
 public class JumpSearch implements SearchAlgorithm {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        JumpSearch jumpSearch = new JumpSearch();
-        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
-        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
-            assert jumpSearch.find(array, i) == i;
-        }
-        assert jumpSearch.find(array, -1) == -1;
-        assert jumpSearch.find(array, 11) == -1;
-    }
-
     /**
-     * Jump Search algorithm implements
+     * Jump Search algorithm implementation.
      *
-     * @param array the array contains elements
-     * @param key to be searched
-     * @return index of {@code key} if found, otherwise <tt>-1</tt>
+     * @param array the sorted array containing elements
+     * @param key   the element to be searched
+     * @return the index of {@code key} if found, otherwise -1
      */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
         int length = array.length;
-        /* length of array */
         int blockSize = (int) Math.sqrt(length);
-        /* block size to be jumped */
 
         int limit = blockSize;
-        while (key.compareTo(array[limit]) > 0 && limit < array.length - 1) {
-            limit = Math.min(limit + blockSize, array.length - 1);
+        // Jumping ahead to find the block where the key may be located
+        while (limit < length && key.compareTo(array[limit]) > 0) {
+            limit = Math.min(limit + blockSize, length - 1);
         }
 
-        for (int i = limit - blockSize; i <= limit; i++) {
-            if (array[i] == key) {
-                /* execute linear search */
+        // Perform linear search within the identified block
+        for (int i = limit - blockSize; i <= limit && i < length; i++) {
+            if (array[i].equals(key)) {
                 return i;
             }
         }
         return -1;
-        /* not found */
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8bf2754ff8f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+class KMPSearch {
+
+    int kmpSearch(String pat, String txt) {
+        int m = pat.length();
+        int n = txt.length();
+
+        // create lps[] that will hold the longest
+        // prefix suffix values for pattern
+        int[] lps = new int[m];
+        int j = 0; // index for pat[]
+
+        // Preprocess the pattern (calculate lps[]
+        // array)
+        computeLPSArray(pat, m, lps);
+
+        int i = 0; // index for txt[]
+        while ((n - i) >= (m - j)) {
+            if (pat.charAt(j) == txt.charAt(i)) {
+                j++;
+                i++;
+            }
+            if (j == m) {
+                System.out.println("Found pattern "
+                    + "at index " + (i - j));
+                int index = (i - j);
+                j = lps[j - 1];
+                return index;
+            }
+            // mismatch after j matches
+            else if (i < n && pat.charAt(j) != txt.charAt(i)) {
+                // Do not match lps[0..lps[j-1]] characters,
+                // they will match anyway
+                if (j != 0) {
+                    j = lps[j - 1];
+                } else {
+                    i = i + 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        System.out.println("No pattern found");
+        return -1;
+    }
+
+    void computeLPSArray(String pat, int m, int[] lps) {
+        // length of the previous longest prefix suffix
+        int len = 0;
+        int i = 1;
+        lps[0] = 0; // lps[0] is always 0
+
+        // the loop calculates lps[i] for i = 1 to m-1
+        while (i < m) {
+            if (pat.charAt(i) == pat.charAt(len)) {
+                len++;
+                lps[i] = len;
+                i++;
+            } else { // (pat[i] != pat[len])
+                // This is tricky. Consider the example.
+                // AAACAAAA and i = 7. The idea is similar
+                // to search step.
+                if (len != 0) {
+                    len = lps[len - 1];
+                    // Also, note that we do not increment
+                    // i here
+                } else { // if (len == 0)
+                    lps[i] = len;
+                    i++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+// This code has been contributed by Amit Khandelwal.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java
index 330b68fdac34..c7b70edb5112 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import java.util.Random;
-import java.util.stream.Stream;
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
 /**
@@ -36,24 +34,4 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T value) {
         }
         return -1;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // just generate data
-        Random r = new Random();
-        int size = 200;
-        int maxElement = 100;
-        Integer[] integers
-                = Stream.generate(() -> r.nextInt(maxElement)).limit(size).toArray(Integer[]::new);
-
-        // the element that should be found
-        Integer shouldBeFound = integers[r.nextInt(size - 1)];
-
-        LinearSearch search = new LinearSearch();
-        int atIndex = search.find(integers, shouldBeFound);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                String.format(
-                        "Should be found: %d. Found %d at index %d. An array length %d",
-                        shouldBeFound, integers[atIndex], atIndex, size));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThread.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThread.java
index 686135255e27..ba3cff915f5f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThread.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThread.java
@@ -1,46 +1,47 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-public class LinearSearchThread {
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] list = new int[200];
-        for (int j = 0; j < list.length; j++) {
-            list[j] = (int) (Math.random() * 100);
-        }
-        for (int y : list) {
-            System.out.print(y + " ");
-        }
-        System.out.println();
-        System.out.print("Enter number to search for: ");
-        Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int x = in.nextInt();
-        Searcher t = new Searcher(list, 0, 50, x);
-        Searcher t1 = new Searcher(list, 50, 100, x);
-        Searcher t2 = new Searcher(list, 100, 150, x);
-        Searcher t3 = new Searcher(list, 150, 200, x);
-        t.start();
-        t1.start();
-        t2.start();
-        t3.start();
-        try {
-            t.join();
-            t1.join();
-            t2.join();
-            t3.join();
-        } catch (InterruptedException e) {
-        }
-        boolean found = t.getResult() || t1.getResult() || t2.getResult() || t3.getResult();
-        System.out.println("Found = " + found);
+/**
+ * LinearSearchThread is a multithreaded implementation of the linear search algorithm.
+ * It creates multiple threads to search for a specific number in an array.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The class generates an array of random integers, prompts the user to enter a number to search for,
+ * and divides the array into four segments, each handled by a separate thread.
+ * The threads run concurrently and search for the specified number within their designated segments.
+ * Finally, it consolidates the results to determine if the number was found.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Example usage:
+ * 1. The program will output the generated array.
+ * 2. The user will be prompted to input a number to search for.
+ * 3. The program will display whether the number was found in the array.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class LinearSearchThread {
+    private LinearSearchThread() {
     }
 }
 
+/**
+ * The Searcher class extends Thread and is responsible for searching for a specific
+ * number in a segment of an array.
+ */
 class Searcher extends Thread {
-    private final int[] arr;
-    private final int left, right;
-    private final int x;
-    private boolean found;
+    private final int[] arr; // The array to search in
+    private final int left; // Starting index of the segment
+    private final int right; // Ending index of the segment
+    private final int x; // The number to search for
+    private boolean found; // Result flag
 
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize the Searcher.
+     *
+     * @param arr The array to search in
+     * @param left The starting index of the segment
+     * @param right The ending index of the segment
+     * @param x The number to search for
+     */
     Searcher(int[] arr, int left, int right, int x) {
         this.arr = arr;
         this.left = left;
@@ -48,6 +49,9 @@ class Searcher extends Thread {
         this.x = x;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * The run method for the thread, performing the linear search in its segment.
+     */
     @Override
     public void run() {
         int k = left;
@@ -59,6 +63,11 @@ public void run() {
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Returns whether the number was found in the segment.
+     *
+     * @return true if the number was found, false otherwise
+     */
     boolean getResult() {
         return found;
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java
index 1fc9b24b0777..5a1401edd3c2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java
@@ -1,10 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import static java.lang.String.format;
-
-import java.util.Random;
-import java.util.concurrent.ThreadLocalRandom;
-import java.util.stream.IntStream;
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
 /**
@@ -27,38 +22,6 @@
  */
 class LowerBound implements SearchAlgorithm {
 
-    // Driver Program
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Just generate data
-        Random r = ThreadLocalRandom.current();
-
-        int size = 100;
-        int maxElement = 100000;
-
-        Integer[] integers
-                = IntStream.generate(() -> r.nextInt(maxElement))
-                        .limit(size)
-                        .sorted()
-                        .boxed()
-                        .toArray(Integer[]::new);
-
-        // The element for which the lower bound is to be found
-        int val = integers[r.nextInt(size - 1)] + 1;
-
-        LowerBound search = new LowerBound();
-        int atIndex = search.find(integers, val);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Val: %d. Lower Bound Found %d at index %d. An array length %d",
-                        val, integers[atIndex], atIndex, size));
-
-        boolean toCheck = integers[atIndex] >= val || integers[size - 1] < val;
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Lower Bound found at an index: %d. Is greater or max element: %b", atIndex, toCheck));
-    }
-
     /**
      * @param array is an array where the LowerBound value is to be found
      * @param key is an element for which the LowerBound is to be found
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java
index d6f6c756bc8b..aa74398b708b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.Comparator;
 import java.util.Random;
 
@@ -39,12 +39,6 @@ public Node(Node parent, boolean isPlayersTurn) {
     static final int WIN_SCORE = 10;
     static final int TIME_LIMIT = 500; // Time the algorithm will be running for (in milliseconds).
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        MonteCarloTreeSearch mcts = new MonteCarloTreeSearch();
-
-        mcts.monteCarloTreeSearch(mcts.new Node(null, true));
-    }
-
     /**
      * Explores a game tree using Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) and returns the
      * most promising node.
@@ -78,7 +72,7 @@ public Node monteCarloTreeSearch(Node rootNode) {
 
         winnerNode = getWinnerNode(rootNode);
         printScores(rootNode);
-        System.out.format("\nThe optimal node is: %02d\n", rootNode.childNodes.indexOf(winnerNode) + 1);
+        System.out.format("%nThe optimal node is: %02d%n", rootNode.childNodes.indexOf(winnerNode) + 1);
 
         return winnerNode;
     }
@@ -118,8 +112,7 @@ public Node getPromisingNode(Node rootNode) {
                     break;
                 }
 
-                uctTemp = ((double) childNode.score / childNode.visitCount)
-                        + 1.41 * Math.sqrt(Math.log(promisingNode.visitCount) / (double) childNode.visitCount);
+                uctTemp = ((double) childNode.score / childNode.visitCount) + 1.41 * Math.sqrt(Math.log(promisingNode.visitCount) / (double) childNode.visitCount);
 
                 if (uctTemp > uctIndex) {
                     uctIndex = uctTemp;
@@ -148,7 +141,7 @@ public void simulateRandomPlay(Node promisingNode) {
         // To use the MCTS algorithm correctly this should be a simulation of the nodes' current
         // state of the game until it finishes (if possible) and use an evaluation function to
         // determine how good or bad the play was.
-        // e.g. Play tic tac toe choosing random squares until the game ends. 
+        // e.g. Play tic tac toe choosing random squares until the game ends.
         promisingNode.playerWon = (rand.nextInt(6) == 0);
 
         isPlayerWinner = promisingNode.playerWon;
@@ -158,8 +151,7 @@ public void simulateRandomPlay(Node promisingNode) {
             tempNode.visitCount++;
 
             // Add wining scores to bouth player and opponent depending on the turn.
-            if ((tempNode.isPlayersTurn && isPlayerWinner)
-                    || (!tempNode.isPlayersTurn && !isPlayerWinner)) {
+            if ((tempNode.isPlayersTurn && isPlayerWinner) || (!tempNode.isPlayersTurn && !isPlayerWinner)) {
                 tempNode.score += WIN_SCORE;
             }
 
@@ -175,8 +167,7 @@ public void printScores(Node rootNode) {
         System.out.println("N.\tScore\t\tVisits");
 
         for (int i = 0; i < rootNode.childNodes.size(); i++) {
-            System.out.println(String.format("%02d\t%d\t\t%d", i + 1,
-                    rootNode.childNodes.get(i).score, rootNode.childNodes.get(i).visitCount));
+            System.out.printf("%02d\t%d\t\t%d%n", i + 1, rootNode.childNodes.get(i).score, rootNode.childNodes.get(i).visitCount);
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d85cb37c4427
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+// URL: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/order-agnostic-binary-search/
+
+/* Order Agnostic Binary Search is an algorithm where we do not know whether the given
+   sorted array is ascending or descending order.
+   We declare a boolean variable to find whether the array is ascending order.
+   In the while loop, we use the two pointer method (start and end) to get the middle element.
+   if the middle element is equal to our target element, then that is the answer.
+   If not, then we check if the array is ascending or descending order.
+   Depending upon the condition, respective statements will be executed and we will get our answer.
+ */
+
+public final class OrderAgnosticBinarySearch {
+    private OrderAgnosticBinarySearch() {
+    }
+
+    static int binSearchAlgo(int[] arr, int start, int end, int target) {
+
+        // Checking whether the given array is ascending order
+        boolean ascOrd = arr[start] < arr[end];
+
+        while (start <= end) {
+            int middle = start + (end - start) / 2;
+
+            // Check if the desired element is present at the middle position
+            if (arr[middle] == target) {
+                return middle; // returns the index of the middle element
+            }
+            if (ascOrd) {
+                // Ascending order
+                if (arr[middle] < target) {
+                    start = middle + 1;
+                } else {
+                    end = middle - 1;
+                }
+            } else {
+                // Descending order
+                if (arr[middle] > target) {
+                    start = middle + 1;
+                } else {
+                    end = middle - 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        // Element is not present
+        return -1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearch.java
index 8ce01575b67d..495e2e41bc5b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearch.java
@@ -1,29 +1,54 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-class PerfectBinarySearch {
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
-    static int binarySearch(int[] arr, int target) {
-        int low = 0;
-        int high = arr.length - 1;
+/**
+ * Binary search is one of the most popular algorithms The algorithm finds the
+ * position of a target value within a sorted array
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Worst-case performance O(log n) Best-case performance O(1) Average
+ * performance O(log n) Worst-case space complexity O(1)
+ *
+ * @author D Sunil (https://github.com/sunilnitdgp)
+ * @see SearchAlgorithm
+ */
 
-        while (low <= high) {
-            int mid = (low + high) / 2;
+public class PerfectBinarySearch<T> implements SearchAlgorithm {
 
-            if (arr[mid] == target) {
-                return mid;
-            } else if (arr[mid] > target) {
-                high = mid - 1;
+    /**
+     * @param array is an array where the element should be found
+     * @param key is an element which should be found
+     * @param <T> is any comparable type
+     * @return index of the element
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
+        return search(array, key, 0, array.length - 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method implements the Generic Binary Search iteratively.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to make the binary search
+     * @param key   The number you are looking for
+     * @return the location of the key, or -1 if not found
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int search(T[] array, T key, int left, int right) {
+        while (left <= right) {
+            int median = (left + right) >>> 1;
+            int comp = key.compareTo(array[median]);
+
+            if (comp == 0) {
+                return median; // Key found
+            }
+
+            if (comp < 0) {
+                right = median - 1; // Adjust the right bound
             } else {
-                low = mid + 1;
+                left = median + 1; // Adjust the left bound
             }
         }
-        return -1;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        PerfectBinarySearch BinarySearch = new PerfectBinarySearch();
-        int[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
-        assert BinarySearch.binarySearch(array, -1) == -1;
-        assert BinarySearch.binarySearch(array, 11) == -1;
+        return -1; // Key not found
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelect.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelect.java
index fee11cabbcee..d5f695293a6a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelect.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelect.java
@@ -1,12 +1,17 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import java.util.*;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Objects;
 
 /**
  * An implementation of the Quickselect algorithm as described
  * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_of_medians">here</a>.
  */
 public final class QuickSelect {
+    private QuickSelect() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Selects the {@code n}-th largest element of {@code list}, i.e. the element that would
@@ -26,7 +31,7 @@ public final class QuickSelect {
     public static <T extends Comparable<T>> T select(List<T> list, int n) {
         Objects.requireNonNull(list, "The list of elements must not be null.");
 
-        if (list.size() == 0) {
+        if (list.isEmpty()) {
             String msg = "The list of elements must not be empty.";
             throw new IllegalArgumentException(msg);
         }
@@ -49,15 +54,11 @@ private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int selectIndex(List<T> list, int n) {
         return selectIndex(list, 0, list.size() - 1, n);
     }
 
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int selectIndex(
-            List<T> list,
-            int left,
-            int right,
-            int n
-    ) {
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int selectIndex(List<T> list, int left, int right, int n) {
         while (true) {
-            if (left == right)
+            if (left == right) {
                 return left;
+            }
             int pivotIndex = pivot(list, left, right);
             pivotIndex = partition(list, left, right, pivotIndex, n);
             if (n == pivotIndex) {
@@ -70,13 +71,7 @@ private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int selectIndex(
         }
     }
 
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int partition(
-            List<T> list,
-            int left,
-            int right,
-            int pivotIndex,
-            int n
-    ) {
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int partition(List<T> list, int left, int right, int pivotIndex, int n) {
         T pivotValue = list.get(pivotIndex);
         Collections.swap(list, pivotIndex, right);
         int storeIndex = left;
@@ -99,16 +94,10 @@ private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int partition(
 
         Collections.swap(list, right, storeIndexEq);
 
-        return (n < storeIndex)
-                ? storeIndex
-                : Math.min(n, storeIndexEq);
+        return (n < storeIndex) ? storeIndex : Math.min(n, storeIndexEq);
     }
 
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int pivot(
-            List<T> list,
-            int left,
-            int right
-    ) {
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int pivot(List<T> list, int left, int right) {
         if (right - left < 5) {
             return partition5(list, left, right);
         }
@@ -128,11 +117,7 @@ private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int pivot(
         return selectIndex(list, left, rightIndex, mid);
     }
 
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int partition5(
-            List<T> list,
-            int left,
-            int right
-    ) {
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int partition5(List<T> list, int left, int right) {
         List<T> ts = list.subList(left, right);
         ts.sort(Comparator.naturalOrder());
         return (left + right) >>> 1;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithm.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..81e16dbbbf07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithm.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+// Implementation of Rabin Karp Algorithm
+
+public final class RabinKarpAlgorithm {
+    private RabinKarpAlgorithm() {
+    }
+
+    private static final int ALPHABET_SIZE = 256;
+
+    public static int search(String pattern, String text, int primeNumber) {
+
+        int index = -1; // -1 here represents not found
+        int patternLength = pattern.length();
+        int textLength = text.length();
+        int hashForPattern = 0;
+        int hashForText = 0;
+        int h = 1;
+
+        // The value of h would be "pow(d, patternLength-1)%primeNumber"
+        for (int i = 0; i < patternLength - 1; i++) {
+            h = (h * ALPHABET_SIZE) % primeNumber;
+        }
+
+        // Calculate the hash value of pattern and first
+        // window of text
+        for (int i = 0; i < patternLength; i++) {
+            hashForPattern = (ALPHABET_SIZE * hashForPattern + pattern.charAt(i)) % primeNumber;
+            hashForText = (ALPHABET_SIZE * hashForText + text.charAt(i)) % primeNumber;
+        }
+
+        // Slide the pattern over text one by one
+        for (int i = 0; i <= textLength - patternLength; i++) {
+            /* Check the hash values of current window of text
+               and pattern. If the hash values match then only
+               check for characters one by one*/
+
+            int j = 0;
+            if (hashForPattern == hashForText) {
+                /* Check for characters one by one */
+                for (j = 0; j < patternLength; j++) {
+                    if (text.charAt(i + j) != pattern.charAt(j)) {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // if hashForPattern == hashForText and pattern[0...patternLength-1] = text[i, i+1, ...i+patternLength-1]
+                if (j == patternLength) {
+                    index = i;
+                    return index;
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Calculate hash value for next window of text: Remove
+            // leading digit, add trailing digit
+            if (i < textLength - patternLength) {
+                hashForText = (ALPHABET_SIZE * (hashForText - text.charAt(i) * h) + text.charAt(i + patternLength)) % primeNumber;
+
+                // handling negative hashForText
+                if (hashForText < 0) {
+                    hashForText = (hashForText + primeNumber);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return index; // return -1 if pattern does not found
+    }
+}
+// This code is contributed by nuclode
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RandomSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RandomSearch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3417ff7ddb21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RandomSearch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Random;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * A Random Search algorithm that randomly selects an index and checks if the
+ * value at that index matches the target. It repeats the process until it
+ * finds the target or checks all elements.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity: O(n) in the worst case.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public class RandomSearch implements SearchAlgorithm {
+
+    private final Random random = new Random();
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the index of a given element using random search.
+     *
+     * @param array Array to search through
+     * @param key Element to search for
+     * @return Index of the element if found, -1 otherwise
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
+        Set<Integer> visitedIndices = new HashSet<>();
+        int size = array.length;
+
+        while (visitedIndices.size() < size) {
+            int randomIndex = random.nextInt(size);
+            if (array[randomIndex].compareTo(key) == 0) {
+                return randomIndex;
+            }
+            visitedIndices.add(randomIndex);
+        }
+
+        return -1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RecursiveBinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RecursiveBinarySearch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..daf0c12c0978
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RecursiveBinarySearch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+// Code by Pronay Debnath
+// Created:- 1/10/2023
+// File Name should be RecursiveBinarySearch.java
+// Explanation:- https://www.tutorialspoint.com/java-program-for-binary-search-recursive
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import java.util.Scanner;
+
+// Create a SearchAlgorithm class with a generic type
+abstract class SearchAlgorithm<T extends Comparable<T>> {
+    // Abstract find method to be implemented by subclasses
+    public abstract int find(T[] arr, T target);
+}
+
+public class RecursiveBinarySearch<T extends Comparable<T>> extends SearchAlgorithm<T> {
+
+    // Override the find method as required
+    @Override
+    public int find(T[] arr, T target) {
+        // Call the recursive binary search function
+        return binsear(arr, 0, arr.length - 1, target);
+    }
+
+    // Recursive binary search function
+    public int binsear(T[] arr, int left, int right, T target) {
+        if (right >= left) {
+            int mid = left + (right - left) / 2;
+
+            // Compare the element at the middle with the target
+            int comparison = arr[mid].compareTo(target);
+
+            // If the element is equal to the target, return its index
+            if (comparison == 0) {
+                return mid;
+            }
+
+            // If the element is greater than the target, search in the left subarray
+            if (comparison > 0) {
+                return binsear(arr, left, mid - 1, target);
+            }
+
+            // Otherwise, search in the right subarray
+            return binsear(arr, mid + 1, right, target);
+        }
+
+        // Element is not present in the array
+        return -1;
+    }
+
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        try (Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in)) {
+            // User inputs
+            System.out.print("Enter the number of elements in the array: ");
+            int n = sc.nextInt();
+
+            Integer[] a = new Integer[n]; // You can change the array type as needed
+
+            System.out.println("Enter the elements in sorted order:");
+
+            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                a[i] = sc.nextInt();
+            }
+
+            System.out.print("Enter the target element to search for: ");
+            int t = sc.nextInt();
+
+            RecursiveBinarySearch<Integer> searcher = new RecursiveBinarySearch<>();
+            int res = searcher.find(a, t);
+
+            if (res == -1) {
+                System.out.println("Element not found in the array.");
+            } else {
+                System.out.println("Element found at index " + res);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b40c7554d84b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.MatrixSearchAlgorithm;
+
+/**
+ * The search is for any array which is sorted row and column-wise too. For ex :
+ * {{10, 20, 30, 40},
+ *  {15, 25, 35, 45},
+ *  {18, 28, 38, 48},
+ *  {21, 31, 41, 51}}
+ *
+ * This array is sorted in both row and column manner.
+ * In this two pointers are taken, the first points to the 0th row and the second one points to end
+ * column, and then the element corresponding to the pointers placed in the array is compared with
+ * the target that either its equal, greater or smaller than the target. If the element is equal to
+ * the target, the co-ordinates of that element is returned i.e. an array of the two pointers will
+ * be returned, else if the target is greater than corresponding element then the pointer pointing
+ * to the 0th row will be incremented by 1, else if the target is lesser than the corresponding
+ * element then the pointer pointing to the end column will be decremented by 1. And if the element
+ * doesn't exist in the array, an array
+ * {-1, -1} will be returned.
+ */
+public class RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch implements MatrixSearchAlgorithm {
+
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> int[] find(T[][] matrix, T key) {
+        return search(matrix, key);
+    }
+
+    public static <T extends Comparable<T>> int[] search(T[][] matrix, T target) {
+        int rowPointer = 0; // The pointer at 0th row
+        int colPointer = matrix[0].length - 1; // The pointer at end column
+
+        while (rowPointer < matrix.length && colPointer >= 0) {
+            int comp = target.compareTo(matrix[rowPointer][colPointer]);
+
+            if (comp == 0) {
+                return new int[] {rowPointer, colPointer};
+            } else if (comp > 0) {
+                rowPointer++; // Incrementing the row pointer if the target is greater
+            } else {
+                colPointer--; // Decrementing the column pointer if the target is lesser
+            }
+        }
+        return new int[] {-1, -1}; // The not found condition
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearch.java
index 719a60d31f8a..192c4d26c735 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearch.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
  * Program to perform Saddleback Search Given a sorted 2D array(elements are
  * sorted across every row and column, assuming ascending order) of size n*m we
@@ -16,7 +14,9 @@
  *
  * @author Nishita Aggarwal
  */
-public class SaddlebackSearch {
+public final class SaddlebackSearch {
+    private SaddlebackSearch() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * This method performs Saddleback Search
@@ -25,13 +25,17 @@ public class SaddlebackSearch {
      * @param row the current row.
      * @param col the current column.
      * @param key the element that we want to search for.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the array is empty.
      * @return The index(row and column) of the element if found. Else returns
      * -1 -1.
      */
-    private static int[] find(int arr[][], int row, int col, int key) {
+    static int[] find(int[][] arr, int row, int col, int key) {
+        if (arr.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array is empty");
+        }
 
         // array to store the answer row and column
-        int ans[] = {-1, -1};
+        int[] ans = {-1, -1};
         if (row < 0 || col >= arr[row].length) {
             return ans;
         }
@@ -46,27 +50,4 @@ else if (arr[row][col] > key) {
         // else we move right
         return find(arr, row, col + 1, key);
     }
-
-    /**
-     * Main method
-     *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // TODO Auto-generated method stub
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        int arr[][];
-        int i, j, rows = sc.nextInt(), col = sc.nextInt();
-        arr = new int[rows][col];
-        for (i = 0; i < rows; i++) {
-            for (j = 0; j < col; j++) {
-                arr[i][j] = sc.nextInt();
-            }
-        }
-        int ele = sc.nextInt();
-        // we start from bottom left corner
-        int ans[] = find(arr, rows - 1, 0, ele);
-        System.out.println(ans[0] + " " + ans[1]);
-        sc.close();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b53c7e5256ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+public class SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix {
+    /**
+     * Search a key in row and column wise sorted matrix
+     *
+     * @param matrix matrix to be searched
+     * @param value  Key being searched for
+     * @author Sadiul Hakim : https://github.com/sadiul-hakim
+     */
+    public int[] search(int[][] matrix, int value) {
+        int n = matrix.length;
+        // This variable iterates over rows
+        int i = 0;
+        // This variable iterates over columns
+        int j = n - 1;
+        int[] result = {-1, -1};
+        while (i < n && j >= 0) {
+            if (matrix[i][j] == value) {
+                result[0] = i;
+                result[1] = j;
+                return result;
+            }
+            if (value > matrix[i][j]) {
+                i++;
+            } else {
+                j--;
+            }
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SentinelLinearSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SentinelLinearSearch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1a5903a5d134
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SentinelLinearSearch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
+
+/**
+ * Sentinel Linear Search is a variation of linear search that eliminates the
+ * need to check the array bounds in each iteration by placing the search key
+ * at the end of the array as a sentinel value.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * The algorithm works by:
+ * 1. Storing the last element of the array
+ * 2. Placing the search key at the last position (sentinel)
+ * 3. Searching from the beginning without bound checking
+ * 4. If found before the last position, return the index
+ * 5. If found at the last position, check if it was originally there
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Time Complexity:
+ * - Best case: O(1) - when the element is at the first position
+ * - Average case: O(n) - when the element is in the middle
+ * - Worst case: O(n) - when the element is not present
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Space Complexity: O(1) - only uses constant extra space
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Advantages over regular linear search:
+ * - Reduces the number of comparisons by eliminating bound checking
+ * - Slightly more efficient in practice due to fewer conditional checks
+ *
+ * @author TheAlgorithms Contributors
+ * @see LinearSearch
+ * @see SearchAlgorithm
+ */
+public class SentinelLinearSearch implements SearchAlgorithm {
+    /**
+     * Performs sentinel linear search on the given array.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to search in
+     * @param key the element to search for
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, must be Comparable
+     * @return the index of the first occurrence of the key, or -1 if not found
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the array is null
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> int find(T[] array, T key) {
+        if (array == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return -1;
+        }
+
+        if (key == null) {
+            return findNull(array);
+        }
+
+        // Store the last element
+        T lastElement = array[array.length - 1];
+
+        // Place the sentinel (search key) at the end
+        array[array.length - 1] = key;
+
+        int i = 0;
+        // Search without bound checking since sentinel guarantees we'll find the key
+        while (array[i].compareTo(key) != 0) {
+            i++;
+        }
+
+        // Restore the original last element
+        array[array.length - 1] = lastElement;
+
+        // Check if we found the key before the sentinel position
+        // or if the original last element was the key we were looking for
+        if (i < array.length - 1 || (lastElement != null && lastElement.compareTo(key) == 0)) {
+            return i;
+        }
+
+        return -1; // Key not found
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to find null values in the array.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to search in
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array
+     * @return the index of the first null element, or -1 if not found
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int findNull(T[] array) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            if (array[i] == null) {
+                return i;
+            }
+        }
+        return -1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearch.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6a2a46c2821f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearch.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+public final class SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearch {
+    private SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearch() {
+    }
+    public static int find(int[] arr, int key) {
+        int start = 0;
+        int end = arr.length - 1;
+        boolean arrDescending = arr[start] > arr[end]; // checking for Array is in ascending order or descending order.
+        while (start <= end) {
+            int mid = end - start / 2;
+            if (arr[mid] == key) {
+                return mid;
+            }
+            if (arrDescending) { // boolean is true then our array is in descending order
+                if (key < arr[mid]) {
+                    start = mid + 1;
+                } else {
+                    end = mid - 1;
+                }
+            } else { // otherwise our array is in ascending order
+                if (key > arr[mid]) {
+                    start = mid + 1;
+                } else {
+                    end = mid - 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return -1;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearch.java
index 399499f57ed9..95e062c274fd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearch.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
 /**
  * Given an integer x, find the square root of x. If x is not a perfect square,
  * then return floor(√x).
@@ -14,19 +12,8 @@
  *
  * @author sahil
  */
-public class SquareRootBinarySearch {
-
-    /**
-     * This is the driver method.
-     *
-     * @param args Command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter a number you want to calculate square root of : ");
-        int num = sc.nextInt();
-        long ans = squareRoot(num);
-        System.out.println("The square root is : " + ans);
+public final class SquareRootBinarySearch {
+    private SquareRootBinarySearch() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -37,7 +24,7 @@ public static void main(String args[]) {
      * @param num Number
      * @return answer
      */
-    private static long squareRoot(long num) {
+    static long squareRoot(long num) {
         if (num == 0 || num == 1) {
             return num;
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java
index 47bb690b191a..4d9f55ea9917 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java
@@ -1,10 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import static java.lang.String.format;
-
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.Random;
-import java.util.stream.Stream;
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
 /**
@@ -62,29 +57,4 @@ private <T extends Comparable<T>> int ternarySearch(T[] arr, T key, int start, i
             return ternarySearch(arr, key, mid1, mid2);
         }
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // just generate data
-        Random r = new Random();
-        int size = 100;
-        int maxElement = 100000;
-        Integer[] integers
-                = Stream.generate(() -> r.nextInt(maxElement)).limit(size).sorted().toArray(Integer[]::new);
-
-        // the element that should be found
-        Integer shouldBeFound = integers[r.nextInt(size - 1)];
-
-        TernarySearch search = new TernarySearch();
-        int atIndex = search.find(integers, shouldBeFound);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Should be found: %d. Found %d at index %d. An array length %d",
-                        shouldBeFound, integers[atIndex], atIndex, size));
-
-        int toCheck = Arrays.binarySearch(integers, shouldBeFound);
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Found by system method at an index: %d. Is equal: %b", toCheck, toCheck == atIndex));
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java
index d32e4fd3ec1f..01202a982266 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java
@@ -1,12 +1,31 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import java.util.*;
-
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * The Union-Find data structure, also known as Disjoint Set Union (DSU),
+ * is a data structure that tracks a set of elements partitioned into
+ * disjoint (non-overlapping) subsets. It supports two main operations:
+ *
+ * 1. **Find**: Determine which subset a particular element is in.
+ * 2. **Union**: Join two subsets into a single subset.
+ *
+ * This implementation uses path compression in the `find` operation
+ * and union by rank in the `union` operation for efficiency.
+ */
 public class UnionFind {
 
-    private int[] p;
-    private int[] r;
+    private final int[] p; // Parent array
+    private final int[] r; // Rank array
 
+    /**
+     * Initializes a Union-Find data structure with n elements.
+     * Each element is its own parent initially.
+     *
+     * @param n the number of elements
+     */
     public UnionFind(int n) {
         p = new int[n];
         r = new int[n];
@@ -16,6 +35,13 @@ public UnionFind(int n) {
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Finds the root of the set containing the element i.
+     * Uses path compression to flatten the structure.
+     *
+     * @param i the element to find
+     * @return the root of the set
+     */
     public int find(int i) {
         int parent = p[i];
 
@@ -23,9 +49,19 @@ public int find(int i) {
             return i;
         }
 
-        return p[i] = find(parent);
+        // Path compression
+        final int result = find(parent);
+        p[i] = result;
+        return result;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Unites the sets containing elements x and y.
+     * Uses union by rank to attach the smaller tree under the larger tree.
+     *
+     * @param x the first element
+     * @param y the second element
+     */
     public void union(int x, int y) {
         int r0 = find(x);
         int r1 = find(y);
@@ -34,6 +70,7 @@ public void union(int x, int y) {
             return;
         }
 
+        // Union by rank
         if (r[r0] > r[r1]) {
             p[r1] = r0;
         } else if (r[r1] > r[r0]) {
@@ -44,39 +81,24 @@ public void union(int x, int y) {
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of disjoint sets.
+     *
+     * @return the number of disjoint sets
+     */
     public int count() {
-        List parents = new ArrayList();
+        List<Integer> parents = new ArrayList<>();
         for (int i = 0; i < p.length; i++) {
-            if (!parents.contains(find(i))) {
-                parents.add(find(i));
+            int root = find(i);
+            if (!parents.contains(root)) {
+                parents.add(root);
             }
         }
         return parents.size();
     }
 
+    @Override
     public String toString() {
         return "p " + Arrays.toString(p) + " r " + Arrays.toString(r) + "\n";
     }
-
-    // Tests
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        UnionFind uf = new UnionFind(5);
-        System.out.println("init /w 5 (should print 'p [0, 1, 2, 3, 4] r [0, 0, 0, 0, 0]'):");
-        System.out.println(uf);
-
-        uf.union(1, 2);
-        System.out.println("union 1 2 (should print 'p [0, 1, 1, 3, 4] r [0, 1, 0, 0, 0]'):");
-        System.out.println(uf);
-
-        uf.union(3, 4);
-        System.out.println("union 3 4 (should print 'p [0, 1, 1, 3, 3] r [0, 1, 0, 1, 0]'):");
-        System.out.println(uf);
-
-        uf.find(4);
-        System.out.println("find 4 (should print 'p [0, 1, 1, 3, 3] r [0, 1, 0, 1, 0]'):");
-        System.out.println(uf);
-
-        System.out.println("count (should print '3'):");
-        System.out.println(uf.count());
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java
index cae38363eb0d..ec52c7a0ae5c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java
@@ -1,10 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import static java.lang.String.format;
-
-import java.util.Random;
-import java.util.concurrent.ThreadLocalRandom;
-import java.util.stream.IntStream;
 import com.thealgorithms.devutils.searches.SearchAlgorithm;
 
 /**
@@ -27,38 +22,6 @@
  */
 class UpperBound implements SearchAlgorithm {
 
-    // Driver Program
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Just generate data
-        Random r = ThreadLocalRandom.current();
-
-        int size = 100;
-        int maxElement = 100000;
-
-        Integer[] integers
-                = IntStream.generate(() -> r.nextInt(maxElement))
-                        .limit(size)
-                        .sorted()
-                        .boxed()
-                        .toArray(Integer[]::new);
-
-        // The element for which the upper bound is to be found
-        int val = integers[r.nextInt(size - 1)] + 1;
-
-        UpperBound search = new UpperBound();
-        int atIndex = search.find(integers, val);
-
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Val: %d. Upper Bound Found %d at index %d. An array length %d",
-                        val, integers[atIndex], atIndex, size));
-
-        boolean toCheck = integers[atIndex] > val || integers[size - 1] < val;
-        System.out.println(
-                format(
-                        "Upper Bound found at an index: %d. Is greater or max element: %b", atIndex, toCheck));
-    }
-
     /**
      * @param array is an array where the UpperBound value is to be found
      * @param key is an element for which the UpperBound is to be found
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..55c3f709b467
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+/**
+ * The Longest Subarray with Sum Less Than or Equal to k algorithm finds the length
+ * of the longest subarray whose sum is less than or equal to a given value k.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Worst-case performance O(n)
+ * Best-case performance O(n)
+ * Average performance O(n)
+ * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
+ *
+ * @author https://github.com/Chiefpatwal
+ */
+public final class LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK {
+
+    // Prevent instantiation
+    private LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method finds the length of the longest subarray with a sum less than or equal to k.
+     *
+     * @param arr is the input array
+     * @param k   is the maximum sum allowed
+     * @return the length of the longest subarray with sum less than or equal to k
+     */
+    public static int longestSubarrayWithSumLEK(int[] arr, int k) {
+        int maxLength = 0; // To store the maximum length found
+        int currentSum = 0; // To store the current sum of the window
+        int left = 0; // Left index of the sliding window
+
+        for (int right = 0; right < arr.length; right++) {
+            currentSum += arr[right]; // Expand the window to the right
+
+            // Shrink the window from the left if the current sum exceeds k
+            while (currentSum > k && left <= right) {
+                currentSum -= arr[left]; // Remove the leftmost element
+                left++; // Move the left index to the right
+            }
+
+            // Update maxLength if the current window is valid
+            maxLength = Math.max(maxLength, right - left + 1);
+        }
+
+        return maxLength; // Return the maximum length found
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0641730d8b09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+
+/**
+ * The Longest Substring Without Repeating Characters algorithm finds the length of
+ * the longest substring without repeating characters in a given string.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Worst-case performance O(n)
+ * Best-case performance O(n)
+ * Average performance O(n)
+ * Worst-case space complexity O(min(n, m)), where n is the length of the string
+ * and m is the size of the character set.
+ *
+ * @author  (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ */
+public final class LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters {
+
+    // Prevent instantiation
+    private LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method finds the length of the longest substring without repeating characters.
+     *
+     * @param s is the input string
+     * @return the length of the longest substring without repeating characters
+     */
+    public static int lengthOfLongestSubstring(String s) {
+        int maxLength = 0;
+        int left = 0;
+        HashSet<Character> charSet = new HashSet<>();
+
+        for (int right = 0; right < s.length(); right++) {
+            // If the character is already in the set, remove characters from the left
+            while (charSet.contains(s.charAt(right))) {
+                charSet.remove(s.charAt(left));
+                left++;
+            }
+            charSet.add(s.charAt(right));
+            maxLength = Math.max(maxLength, right - left + 1);
+        }
+
+        return maxLength;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarray.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7e8095e08a0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarray.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+/**
+ * The Sliding Window algorithm is used to find the maximum sum of a subarray
+ * of a fixed size k within a given array.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Worst-case performance O(n)
+ * Best-case performance O(n)
+ * Average performance O(n)
+ * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
+ *
+ * @author Your Name (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ */
+public final class MaxSumKSizeSubarray {
+
+    // Prevent instantiation
+    private MaxSumKSizeSubarray() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method finds the maximum sum of a subarray of a given size k.
+     *
+     * @param arr is the input array where the maximum sum needs to be found
+     * @param k   is the size of the subarray
+     * @return the maximum sum of the subarray of size k
+     */
+    public static int maxSumKSizeSubarray(int[] arr, int k) {
+        if (arr.length < k) {
+            return -1; // Edge case: not enough elements
+        }
+
+        int maxSum;
+        int windowSum = 0;
+
+        // Calculate the sum of the first window
+        for (int i = 0; i < k; i++) {
+            windowSum += arr[i];
+        }
+        maxSum = windowSum;
+
+        // Slide the window across the array
+        for (int i = k; i < arr.length; i++) {
+            windowSum += arr[i] - arr[i - k];
+            maxSum = Math.max(maxSum, windowSum);
+        }
+
+        return maxSum;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindow.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindow.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f52ba28fd8b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindow.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.Deque;
+
+/**
+ * Maximum Sliding Window Algorithm
+ *
+ * This algorithm finds the maximum element in each sliding window of size k
+ * in a given array of integers. It uses a deque (double-ended queue) to
+ * efficiently keep track of potential maximum values in the current window.
+ *
+ * Time Complexity: O(n), where n is the number of elements in the input array
+ * Space Complexity: O(k), where k is the size of the sliding window
+ */
+
+public class MaximumSlidingWindow {
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the maximum values in each sliding window of size k.
+     *
+     * @param nums The input array of integers
+     * @param windowSize The size of the sliding window
+     * @return An array of integers representing the maximums in each window
+     */
+    public int[] maxSlidingWindow(int[] nums, int windowSize) {
+        if (nums == null || nums.length == 0 || windowSize <= 0 || windowSize > nums.length) {
+            return new int[0]; // Handle edge cases
+        }
+
+        int[] result = new int[nums.length - windowSize + 1];
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new ArrayDeque<>();
+
+        for (int currentIndex = 0; currentIndex < nums.length; currentIndex++) {
+
+            // Remove the first element if it's outside the current window
+            if (!deque.isEmpty() && deque.peekFirst() == currentIndex - windowSize) {
+                deque.pollFirst();
+            }
+
+            // Remove all elements smaller than the current element from the end
+            while (!deque.isEmpty() && nums[deque.peekLast()] < nums[currentIndex]) {
+                deque.pollLast();
+            }
+
+            // Add the current element's index to the deque
+            deque.offerLast(currentIndex);
+
+            // If we have processed at least k elements, add to result
+            if (currentIndex >= windowSize - 1) {
+                result[currentIndex - windowSize + 1] = nums[deque.peekFirst()];
+            }
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarray.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..40a5441fa7a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarray.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+/**
+ * The Sliding Window algorithm is used to find the minimum sum of a subarray
+ * of a fixed size k within a given array.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Worst-case performance O(n)
+ * Best-case performance O(n)
+ * Average performance O(n)
+ * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
+ *
+ * This class provides a static method to find the minimum sum of a subarray
+ * with a specified length k.
+ *
+ * @author Rashi Dashore (https://github.com/rashi07dashore)
+ */
+public final class MinSumKSizeSubarray {
+
+    // Prevent instantiation
+    private MinSumKSizeSubarray() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This method finds the minimum sum of a subarray of a given size k.
+     *
+     * @param arr is the input array where the minimum sum needs to be found
+     * @param k   is the size of the subarray
+     * @return the minimum sum of the subarray of size k
+     */
+    public static int minSumKSizeSubarray(int[] arr, int k) {
+        if (arr.length < k) {
+            return -1; // Edge case: not enough elements
+        }
+
+        int minSum;
+        int windowSum = 0;
+
+        // Calculate the sum of the first window
+        for (int i = 0; i < k; i++) {
+            windowSum += arr[i];
+        }
+        minSum = windowSum;
+
+        // Slide the window across the array
+        for (int i = k; i < arr.length; i++) {
+            windowSum += arr[i] - arr[i - k];
+            minSum = Math.min(minSum, windowSum);
+        }
+        return minSum;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstring.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstring.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c1a5ac067ab5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstring.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+
+/**
+ * Finds the minimum window substring in 's' that contains all characters of 't'.
+ *
+ * Worst-case performance O(n)
+ * Best-case performance O(n)
+ * Average performance O(n)
+ * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
+ *
+ * @author https://github.com/Chiefpatwal
+ */
+public final class MinimumWindowSubstring {
+    // Prevent instantiation
+    private MinimumWindowSubstring() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the minimum window substring of 's' containing all characters of 't'.
+     *
+     * @param s The input string to search within.
+     * @param t The string with required characters.
+     * @return The minimum window substring, or empty string if not found.
+     */
+    public static String minWindow(String s, String t) {
+        if (s.length() < t.length()) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        HashMap<Character, Integer> tFreq = new HashMap<>();
+        for (char c : t.toCharArray()) {
+            tFreq.put(c, tFreq.getOrDefault(c, 0) + 1);
+        }
+
+        HashMap<Character, Integer> windowFreq = new HashMap<>();
+        int left = 0;
+        int right = 0;
+        int minLen = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+        int count = 0;
+        String result = "";
+
+        while (right < s.length()) {
+            char c = s.charAt(right);
+            windowFreq.put(c, windowFreq.getOrDefault(c, 0) + 1);
+
+            if (tFreq.containsKey(c) && windowFreq.get(c).intValue() <= tFreq.get(c).intValue()) {
+                count++;
+            }
+
+            while (count == t.length()) {
+                if (right - left + 1 < minLen) {
+                    minLen = right - left + 1;
+                    result = s.substring(left, right + 1);
+                }
+
+                char leftChar = s.charAt(left);
+                windowFreq.put(leftChar, windowFreq.get(leftChar) - 1);
+                if (tFreq.containsKey(leftChar) && windowFreq.get(leftChar) < tFreq.get(leftChar)) {
+                    count--;
+                }
+                left++;
+            }
+            right++;
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegment.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegment.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b99f7ca7d62f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegment.java
@@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+
+/**
+ * The Sliding Window technique together with 2-stack technique is used to find coprime segment of minimal size in an array.
+ * Segment a[i],...,a[i+l] is coprime if gcd(a[i], a[i+1], ..., a[i+l]) = 1
+ * <p>
+ * Run-time complexity: O(n log n)
+ * What is special about this 2-stack technique is that it enables us to remove element a[i] and find gcd(a[i+1],...,a[i+l]) in amortized O(1) time.
+ * For 'remove' worst-case would be O(n) operation, but this happens rarely.
+ * Main observation is that each element gets processed a constant amount of times, hence complexity will be:
+ * O(n log n), where log n comes from complexity of gcd.
+ * <p>
+ * More generally, the 2-stack technique enables us to 'remove' an element fast if it is known how to 'add' an element fast to the set.
+ * In our case 'adding' is calculating d' = gcd(a[i],...,a[i+l+1]), when d = gcd(a[i],...a[i]) with d' = gcd(d, a[i+l+1]).
+ * and removing is find gcd(a[i+1],...,a[i+l]). We don't calculate it explicitly, but it is pushed in the stack which we can pop in O(1).
+ * <p>
+ * One can change methods 'legalSegment' and function 'f' in DoubleStack to adapt this code to other sliding-window type problems.
+ * I recommend this article for more explanations: "<a href="https://codeforces.com/edu/course/2/lesson/9/2">CF Article</a>">Article 1</a> or <a href="https://usaco.guide/gold/sliding-window?lang=cpp#method-2---two-stacks">USACO Article</a>
+ * <p>
+ * Another method to solve this problem is through segment trees. Then query operation would have O(log n), not O(1) time, but runtime complexity would still be O(n log n)
+ *
+ * @author DomTr (<a href="https://github.com/DomTr">Github</a>)
+ */
+public final class ShortestCoprimeSegment {
+    // Prevent instantiation
+    private ShortestCoprimeSegment() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @param arr is the input array
+     * @return shortest segment in the array which has gcd equal to 1. If no such segment exists or array is empty, returns empty array
+     */
+    public static long[] shortestCoprimeSegment(long[] arr) {
+        if (arr == null || arr.length == 0) {
+            return new long[] {};
+        }
+        DoubleStack front = new DoubleStack();
+        DoubleStack back = new DoubleStack();
+        int n = arr.length;
+        int l = 0;
+        int shortestLength = n + 1;
+        int beginsAt = -1; // beginning index of the shortest coprime segment
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            back.push(arr[i]);
+            while (legalSegment(front, back)) {
+                remove(front, back);
+                if (shortestLength > i - l + 1) {
+                    beginsAt = l;
+                    shortestLength = i - l + 1;
+                }
+                l++;
+            }
+        }
+        if (shortestLength > n) {
+            shortestLength = -1;
+        }
+        if (shortestLength == -1) {
+            return new long[] {};
+        }
+        return Arrays.copyOfRange(arr, beginsAt, beginsAt + shortestLength);
+    }
+
+    private static boolean legalSegment(DoubleStack front, DoubleStack back) {
+        return gcd(front.top(), back.top()) == 1;
+    }
+
+    private static long gcd(long a, long b) {
+        if (a < b) {
+            return gcd(b, a);
+        } else if (b == 0) {
+            return a;
+        } else {
+            return gcd(a % b, b);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * This solves the problem of removing elements quickly.
+     * Even though the worst case of 'remove' method is O(n), it is a very pessimistic view.
+     * We will need to empty out 'back', only when 'from' is empty.
+     * Consider element x when it is added to stack 'back'.
+     * After some time 'front' becomes empty and x goes to 'front'. Notice that in the for-loop we proceed further and x will  never come back to any stacks 'back' or 'front'.
+     * In other words, every element gets processed by a constant number of operations.
+     * So 'remove' amortized runtime is actually O(n).
+     */
+    private static void remove(DoubleStack front, DoubleStack back) {
+        if (front.isEmpty()) {
+            while (!back.isEmpty()) {
+                front.push(back.pop());
+            }
+        }
+        front.pop();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * DoubleStack serves as a collection of two stacks. One is a normal stack called 'stack', the other 'values' stores gcd-s up until some index.
+     */
+    private static class DoubleStack {
+        LinkedList<Long> stack;
+        LinkedList<Long> values;
+
+        DoubleStack() {
+            values = new LinkedList<>();
+            stack = new LinkedList<>();
+            values.add(0L); // Initialise with 0 which is neutral element in terms of gcd, i.e. gcd(a,0) = a
+        }
+
+        long f(long a, long b) { // Can be replaced with other function
+            return gcd(a, b);
+        }
+
+        public void push(long x) {
+            stack.addLast(x);
+            values.addLast(f(values.getLast(), x));
+        }
+
+        public long top() {
+            return values.getLast();
+        }
+
+        public long pop() {
+            long res = stack.getLast();
+            stack.removeLast();
+            values.removeLast();
+            return res;
+        }
+
+        public boolean isEmpty() {
+            return stack.isEmpty();
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..09ea349875ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class AdaptiveMergeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        if (array.length <= 1) {
+            return array;
+        }
+        T[] aux = array.clone();
+        sort(array, aux, 0, array.length - 1);
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void sort(T[] array, T[] aux, int low, int high) {
+        if (low >= high) {
+            return;
+        }
+        int mid = low + (high - low) / 2;
+        sort(array, aux, low, mid);
+        sort(array, aux, mid + 1, high);
+        merge(array, aux, low, mid, high);
+    }
+
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void merge(T[] array, T[] aux, int low, int mid, int high) {
+        System.arraycopy(array, low, aux, low, high - low + 1);
+        int i = low;
+        int j = mid + 1;
+        for (int k = low; k <= high; k++) {
+            if (i > mid) {
+                array[k] = aux[j++];
+            } else if (j > high) {
+                array[k] = aux[i++];
+            } else if (SortUtils.less(aux[j], aux[i])) {
+                array[k] = aux[j++];
+            } else {
+                array[k] = aux[i++];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BeadSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BeadSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1e1c64905e46
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BeadSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+public class BeadSort {
+    private enum BeadState { BEAD, EMPTY }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the given array using the BeadSort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array The array of non-negative integers to be sorted.
+     * @return The sorted array.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the array contains negative numbers.
+     */
+    public int[] sort(int[] array) {
+        allInputsMustBeNonNegative(array);
+        return extractSortedFromGrid(fillGrid(array));
+    }
+
+    private void allInputsMustBeNonNegative(final int[] array) {
+        if (Arrays.stream(array).anyMatch(s -> s < 0)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("BeadSort cannot sort negative numbers.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    private BeadState[][] fillGrid(final int[] array) {
+        final var maxValue = Arrays.stream(array).max().orElse(0);
+        var grid = getEmptyGrid(array.length, maxValue);
+
+        int[] count = new int[maxValue];
+        for (int i = 0, arrayLength = array.length; i < arrayLength; i++) {
+            int k = 0;
+            for (int j = 0; j < array[i]; j++) {
+                grid[count[maxValue - k - 1]++][k] = BeadState.BEAD;
+                k++;
+            }
+        }
+        return grid;
+    }
+
+    private BeadState[][] getEmptyGrid(final int arrayLength, final int maxValue) {
+        BeadState[][] grid = new BeadState[arrayLength][maxValue];
+        for (int i = 0; i < arrayLength; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < maxValue; j++) {
+                grid[i][j] = BeadState.EMPTY;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return grid;
+    }
+
+    private int[] extractSortedFromGrid(final BeadState[][] grid) {
+        int[] sorted = new int[grid.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < grid.length; i++) {
+            int k = 0;
+            for (int j = 0; j < grid[grid.length - 1 - i].length && grid[grid.length - 1 - i][j] == BeadState.BEAD; j++) {
+                k++;
+            }
+            sorted[i] = k;
+        }
+        return sorted;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BinaryInsertionSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BinaryInsertionSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b8086bd0ebca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BinaryInsertionSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * BinaryInsertionSort class implements the SortAlgorithm interface using the binary insertion sort technique.
+ * Binary Insertion Sort improves upon the simple insertion sort by using binary search to find the appropriate
+ * location to insert the new element, reducing the number of comparisons in the insertion step.
+ */
+public class BinaryInsertionSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the given array using the Binary Insertion Sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, which must implement the Comparable interface
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @return the sorted array
+     */
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < array.length; i++) {
+            final T temp = array[i];
+            int low = 0;
+            int high = i - 1;
+
+            while (low <= high) {
+                final int mid = (low + high) >>> 1;
+                if (SortUtils.less(temp, array[mid])) {
+                    high = mid - 1;
+                } else {
+                    low = mid + 1;
+                }
+            }
+
+            for (int j = i; j >= low + 1; j--) {
+                array[j] = array[j - 1];
+            }
+
+            array[low] = temp;
+        }
+        return array;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSort.java
index 4f780ebdfe04..1c1a3ac45540 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSort.java
@@ -1,79 +1,112 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-/* Java program for Bitonic Sort. Note that this program
-works only when size of input is a power of 2. */
-public class BitonicSort {
-
-    /* The parameter dir indicates the sorting direction,
-  ASCENDING or DESCENDING; if (a[i] > a[j]) agrees
-  with the direction, then a[i] and a[j] are
-  interchanged. */
-    void compAndSwap(int a[], int i, int j, int dir) {
-        if ((a[i] > a[j] && dir == 1) || (a[i] < a[j] && dir == 0)) {
-            // Swapping elements
-            int temp = a[i];
-            a[i] = a[j];
-            a[j] = temp;
-        }
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.function.BiPredicate;
+
+/**
+ * BitonicSort class implements the SortAlgorithm interface using the bitonic sort technique.
+ */
+public class BitonicSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+    private enum Direction {
+        DESCENDING,
+        ASCENDING,
     }
 
-    /* It recursively sorts a bitonic sequence in ascending
-  order, if dir = 1, and in descending order otherwise
-  (means dir=0). The sequence to be sorted starts at
-  index position low, the parameter cnt is the number
-  of elements to be sorted.*/
-    void bitonicMerge(int a[], int low, int cnt, int dir) {
-        if (cnt > 1) {
-            int k = cnt / 2;
-            for (int i = low; i < low + k; i++) {
-                compAndSwap(a, i, i + k, dir);
-            }
-            bitonicMerge(a, low, k, dir);
-            bitonicMerge(a, low + k, k, dir);
+    /**
+     * Sorts the given array using the Bitonic Sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, which must implement the Comparable interface
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @return the sorted array
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
         }
+
+        final int paddedSize = nextPowerOfTwo(array.length);
+        T[] paddedArray = Arrays.copyOf(array, paddedSize);
+
+        // Fill the padded part with a maximum value
+        final T maxValue = max(array);
+        Arrays.fill(paddedArray, array.length, paddedSize, maxValue);
+
+        bitonicSort(paddedArray, 0, paddedSize, Direction.ASCENDING);
+        return Arrays.copyOf(paddedArray, array.length);
     }
 
-    /* This funcion first produces a bitonic sequence by
-  recursively sorting its two halves in opposite sorting
-  orders, and then calls bitonicMerge to make them in
-  the same order */
-    void bitonicSort(int a[], int low, int cnt, int dir) {
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void bitonicSort(final T[] array, final int low, final int cnt, final Direction direction) {
         if (cnt > 1) {
-            int k = cnt / 2;
+            final int k = cnt / 2;
 
-            // sort in ascending order since dir here is 1
-            bitonicSort(a, low, k, 1);
+            // Sort first half in ascending order
+            bitonicSort(array, low, k, Direction.ASCENDING);
 
-            // sort in descending order since dir here is 0
-            bitonicSort(a, low + k, k, 0);
+            // Sort second half in descending order
+            bitonicSort(array, low + k, cnt - k, Direction.DESCENDING);
 
-            // Will merge whole sequence in ascending order
-            // since dir=1.
-            bitonicMerge(a, low, cnt, dir);
+            // Merge the whole sequence in ascending order
+            bitonicMerge(array, low, cnt, direction);
         }
     }
 
-    /*Caller of bitonicSort for sorting the entire array
-  of length N in ASCENDING order */
-    void sort(int a[], int N, int up) {
-        bitonicSort(a, 0, N, up);
+    /**
+     * Merges the bitonic sequence in the specified direction.
+     *
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, which must be Comparable
+     * @param array the array containing the bitonic sequence to be merged
+     * @param low the starting index of the sequence to be merged
+     * @param cnt the number of elements in the sequence to be merged
+     * @param direction the direction of sorting
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void bitonicMerge(T[] array, int low, int cnt, Direction direction) {
+        if (cnt > 1) {
+            final int k = cnt / 2;
+
+            final BiPredicate<T, T> areSorted = (direction == Direction.ASCENDING) ? (a, b) -> SortUtils.less(a, b) : (a, b) -> SortUtils.greater(a, b);
+            for (int i = low; i < low + k; i++) {
+                if (!areSorted.test(array[i], array[i + k])) {
+                    SortUtils.swap(array, i, i + k);
+                }
+            }
+
+            bitonicMerge(array, low, k, direction);
+            bitonicMerge(array, low + k, cnt - k, direction);
+        }
     }
 
-    /* A utility function to print array of size n */
-    static void printArray(int arr[]) {
-        int n = arr.length;
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
-            System.out.print(arr[i] + " ");
+    /**
+     * Finds the next power of two greater than or equal to the given number.
+     *
+     * @param n the number
+     * @return the next power of two
+     */
+    private static int nextPowerOfTwo(int n) {
+        int count = 0;
+
+        // First n in the below condition is for the case where n is 0
+        if ((n & (n - 1)) == 0) {
+            return n;
+        }
+
+        while (n != 0) {
+            n >>= 1;
+            count += 1;
         }
-        System.out.println();
+
+        return 1 << count;
     }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        int a[] = {3, 7, 4, 8, 6, 2, 1, 5};
-        int up = 1;
-        BitonicSort ob = new BitonicSort();
-        ob.sort(a, a.length, up);
-        System.out.println("\nSorted array");
-        printArray(a);
+    /**
+     * Finds the maximum element in the given array.
+     *
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, which must implement the Comparable interface
+     * @param array the array to be searched
+     * @return the maximum element in the array
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the array is null or empty
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> T max(final T[] array) {
+        return Arrays.stream(array).max(Comparable::compareTo).orElseThrow();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java
index 75f1e84367c3..7a1f7b216437 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
  */
 public class BogoSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
-    private static final Random random = new Random();
+    private static final Random RANDOM = new Random();
 
     private static <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean isSorted(T[] array) {
         for (int i = 0; i < array.length - 1; i++) {
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ private static <T> void nextPermutation(T[] array) {
         int length = array.length;
 
         for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
-            int randomIndex = i + random.nextInt(length - i);
+            int randomIndex = i + RANDOM.nextInt(length - i);
             SortUtils.swap(array, randomIndex, i);
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java
index 3e5aae21d6b0..6823c68d0a74 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
 /**
  * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
  * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
@@ -21,8 +19,8 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
         for (int i = 1, size = array.length; i < size; ++i) {
             boolean swapped = false;
             for (int j = 0; j < size - i; ++j) {
-                if (greater(array[j], array[j + 1])) {
-                    swap(array, j, j + 1);
+                if (SortUtils.greater(array[j], array[j + 1])) {
+                    SortUtils.swap(array, j, j + 1);
                     swapped = true;
                 }
             }
@@ -32,28 +30,4 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
         }
         return array;
     }
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        Integer[] integers = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
-        BubbleSort bubbleSort = new BubbleSort();
-        bubbleSort.sort(integers);
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < integers.length - 1; ++i) {
-            assert integers[i] <= integers[i + 1];
-        }
-        print(integers);
-        /* output: [1, 4, 6, 9, 12, 23, 54, 78, 231] */
-
-        String[] strings = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
-        bubbleSort.sort(strings);
-        for (int i = 0; i < strings.length - 1; i++) {
-            assert strings[i].compareTo(strings[i + 1]) <= 0;
-        }
-        print(bubbleSort.sort(strings));
-        /* output: [a, b, c, d, e] */
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursion.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 10197969e853..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursion.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,57 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
-
-import java.util.Random;
-
-/**
- * BubbleSort algorithm implements using recursion
- */
-public class BubbleSortRecursion implements SortAlgorithm {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Integer[] array = new Integer[10];
-
-        Random random = new Random();
-        /* generate 10 random numbers from -50 to 49 */
-        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; ++i) {
-            array[i] = random.nextInt(100) - 50;
-        }
-
-        BubbleSortRecursion bubbleSortRecursion = new BubbleSortRecursion();
-        bubbleSortRecursion.sort(array);
-
-        /* check array is sorted or not */
-        for (int i = 0; i < array.length - 1; ++i) {
-            assert (array[i].compareTo(array[i + 1]) <= 0);
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @param unsorted - an array should be sorted
-     * @return sorted array
-     */
-    @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] unsorted) {
-        bubbleSort(unsorted, unsorted.length);
-        return unsorted;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * BubbleSort algorithm implements using recursion
-     *
-     * @param unsorted array contains elements
-     * @param len length of given array
-     */
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void bubbleSort(T[] unsorted, int len) {
-        boolean swapped = false;
-        /* flag to check if array is sorted or not */
-        for (int i = 0; i < len - 1; ++i) {
-            if (SortUtils.greater(unsorted[i], unsorted[i + 1])) {
-                SortUtils.swap(unsorted, i, i + 1);
-                swapped = true;
-            }
-        }
-        if (swapped) {
-            bubbleSort(unsorted, len - 1);
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursive.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursive.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d9cc00f95b69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursive.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * BubbleSort algorithm implemented using recursion
+ */
+public class BubbleSortRecursive implements SortAlgorithm {
+    /**
+     * @param array - an array should be sorted
+     * @return sorted array
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        bubbleSort(array, array.length);
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * BubbleSort algorithm implements using recursion
+     *
+     * @param array array contains elements
+     * @param len length of given array
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void bubbleSort(T[] array, int len) {
+        boolean swapped = false;
+        for (int i = 0; i < len - 1; ++i) {
+            if (SortUtils.greater(array[i], array[i + 1])) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i, i + 1);
+                swapped = true;
+            }
+        }
+        if (swapped) {
+            bubbleSort(array, len - 1);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSort.java
index e4239b5f2be8..8882a1cb4bbd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSort.java
@@ -3,113 +3,128 @@
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Random;
 
 /**
- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_sort
+ * BucketSort class provides a method to sort an array of elements using the Bucket Sort algorithm
+ * and implements the SortAlgorithm interface.
  */
-public class BucketSort {
+public class BucketSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] arr = new int[10];
+    // Constant that defines the divisor for determining the number of buckets
+    private static final int BUCKET_DIVISOR = 10;
 
-        /* generate 10 random numbers from -50 to 49 */
-        Random random = new Random();
-        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; ++i) {
-            arr[i] = random.nextInt(100) - 50;
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
         }
 
-        bucketSort(arr);
+        T min = findMin(array);
+        T max = findMax(array);
+        int numberOfBuckets = calculateNumberOfBuckets(array.length);
 
-        /* check array is sorted or not */
-        for (int i = 0, limit = arr.length - 1; i < limit; ++i) {
-            assert arr[i] <= arr[i + 1];
-        }
+        List<List<T>> buckets = initializeBuckets(numberOfBuckets);
+        distributeElementsIntoBuckets(array, buckets, min, max, numberOfBuckets);
+
+        return concatenateBuckets(buckets, array);
     }
 
     /**
-     * BucketSort algorithms implements
+     * Calculates the number of buckets to use based on the size of the array.
      *
-     * @param arr the array contains elements
+     * @param arrayLength the length of the array
+     * @return the number of buckets
      */
-    private static void bucketSort(int[] arr) {
-        /* get max value of arr */
-        int max = max(arr);
-
-        /* get min value of arr */
-        int min = min(arr);
-
-        /* number of buckets */
-        int numberOfBuckets = max - min + 1;
-
-        List<List<Integer>> buckets = new ArrayList<>(numberOfBuckets);
+    private int calculateNumberOfBuckets(final int arrayLength) {
+        return Math.max(arrayLength / BUCKET_DIVISOR, 1);
+    }
 
-        /* init buckets */
-        for (int i = 0; i < numberOfBuckets; ++i) {
+    /**
+     * Initializes a list of empty buckets.
+     *
+     * @param numberOfBuckets the number of buckets to initialize
+     * @param <T> the type of elements to be sorted
+     * @return a list of empty buckets
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> List<List<T>> initializeBuckets(int numberOfBuckets) {
+        List<List<T>> buckets = new ArrayList<>(numberOfBuckets);
+        for (int i = 0; i < numberOfBuckets; i++) {
             buckets.add(new ArrayList<>());
         }
-
-        /* store elements to buckets */
-        for (int value : arr) {
-            int hash = hash(value, min, numberOfBuckets);
-            buckets.get(hash).add(value);
-        }
-
-        /* sort individual bucket */
-        for (List<Integer> bucket : buckets) {
-            Collections.sort(bucket);
-        }
-
-        /* concatenate buckets to origin array */
-        int index = 0;
-        for (List<Integer> bucket : buckets) {
-            for (int value : bucket) {
-                arr[index++] = value;
-            }
-        }
+        return buckets;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Get index of bucket which of our elements gets placed into it.
+     * Distributes elements from the array into the appropriate buckets.
      *
-     * @param elem the element of array to be sorted
-     * @param min min value of array
-     * @param numberOfBucket the number of bucket
-     * @return index of bucket
+     * @param array the array of elements to distribute
+     * @param buckets the list of buckets
+     * @param min the minimum value in the array
+     * @param max the maximum value in the array
+     * @param numberOfBuckets the total number of buckets
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array
      */
-    private static int hash(int elem, int min, int numberOfBucket) {
-        return (elem - min) / numberOfBucket;
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void distributeElementsIntoBuckets(T[] array, List<List<T>> buckets, final T min, final T max, final int numberOfBuckets) {
+        for (final T element : array) {
+            int bucketIndex = hash(element, min, max, numberOfBuckets);
+            buckets.get(bucketIndex).add(element);
+        }
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate max value of array
+     * Concatenates the sorted buckets back into the original array.
      *
-     * @param arr the array contains elements
-     * @return max value of given array
+     * @param buckets the list of sorted buckets
+     * @param array the original array
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array
+     * @return the sorted array
      */
-    public static int max(int[] arr) {
-        int max = arr[0];
-        for (int value : arr) {
-            if (value > max) {
-                max = value;
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] concatenateBuckets(Iterable<List<T>> buckets, T[] array) {
+        int index = 0;
+        for (List<T> bucket : buckets) {
+            Collections.sort(bucket);
+            for (T element : bucket) {
+                array[index++] = element;
             }
         }
-        return max;
+        return array;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Calculate min value of array
+     * The method computes the index of the bucket in which a given element should be placed.
+     * This is done by "normalizing" the element within the range of the array's minimum (min) and maximum (max) values,
+     * and then mapping this normalized value to a specific bucket index.
      *
-     * @param arr the array contains elements
-     * @return min value of given array
+     * @param element the element of the array
+     * @param min the minimum value in the array
+     * @param max the maximum value in the array
+     * @param numberOfBuckets the total number of buckets
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array
+     * @return the index of the bucket
      */
-    public static int min(int[] arr) {
-        int min = arr[0];
-        for (int value : arr) {
-            if (value < min) {
-                min = value;
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int hash(final T element, final T min, final T max, final int numberOfBuckets) {
+        double range = max.compareTo(min);
+        double normalizedValue = element.compareTo(min) / range;
+        return (int) (normalizedValue * (numberOfBuckets - 1));
+    }
+
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T findMin(T[] array) {
+        T min = array[0];
+        for (T element : array) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(element, min)) {
+                min = element;
             }
         }
         return min;
     }
+
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T findMax(T[] array) {
+        T max = array[0];
+        for (T element : array) {
+            if (SortUtils.greater(element, max)) {
+                max = element;
+            }
+        }
+        return max;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSort.java
index 7dcd63f46cb1..2863a40a2075 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSort.java
@@ -1,26 +1,32 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
 public class CircleSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     /* This method implements the circle sort
-    * @param array The array to be sorted 
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
      */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
-        int n = array.length;
-        while (doSort(array, 0, n - 1));
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
+        }
+        while (doSort(array, 0, array.length - 1)) {
+        }
         return array;
     }
 
-    /* This method implements the cyclic sort recursive version
-    * @param array The array to be sorted
-    * @param the left boundary of the part currently being sorted
-    * @param the right boundary of the part currently being sorted
+    /**
+     * Recursively sorts the array in a circular manner by comparing elements
+     * from the start and end of the current segment.
+     *
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param left  The left boundary of the current segment being sorted
+     * @param right The right boundary of the current segment being sorted
+     * @return true if any elements were swapped during the sort; false otherwise
      */
-    private <T extends Comparable<T>> Boolean doSort(T[] array, int left, int right) {
-        Boolean swapped = false;
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean doSort(final T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
+        boolean swapped = false;
 
         if (left == right) {
             return false;
@@ -30,40 +36,23 @@ private <T extends Comparable<T>> Boolean doSort(T[] array, int left, int right)
         int high = right;
 
         while (low < high) {
-            if (array[low].compareTo(array[high]) > 0) {
-                swap(array, low, high);
+            if (SortUtils.greater(array[low], array[high])) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, low, high);
                 swapped = true;
             }
             low++;
             high--;
         }
 
-        if (low == high && array[low].compareTo(array[high + 1]) > 0) {
-            swap(array, low, high + 1);
+        if (low == high && SortUtils.greater(array[low], array[high + 1])) {
+            SortUtils.swap(array, low, high + 1);
             swapped = true;
         }
 
-        int mid = left + (right - left) / 2;
-        Boolean leftHalf = doSort(array, left, mid);
-        Boolean rightHalf = doSort(array, mid + 1, right);
-
-        return swapped || leftHalf || rightHalf;
-    }
+        final int mid = left + (right - left) / 2;
+        final boolean leftHalfSwapped = doSort(array, left, mid);
+        final boolean rightHalfSwapped = doSort(array, mid + 1, right);
 
-    /* Driver code*/
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        CircleSort CSort = new CircleSort();
-
-        Integer[] arr = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
-        CSort.sort(arr);
-        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length - 1; ++i) {
-            assert arr[i] <= arr[i + 1];
-        }
-
-        String[] stringArray = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
-        CSort.sort(stringArray);
-        for (int i = 0; i < stringArray.length - 1; ++i) {
-            assert arr[i].compareTo(arr[i + 1]) <= 0;
-        }
+        return swapped || leftHalfSwapped || rightHalfSwapped;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java
index 6bf98dbc8bc3..600ae8d3efc9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java
@@ -1,57 +1,81 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
 /**
+ * CocktailShakerSort class implements the Cocktail Shaker Sort algorithm,
+ * which is a bidirectional bubble sort. It sorts the array by passing
+ * through it back and forth, progressively moving the largest elements
+ * to the end and the smallest elements to the beginning.
+ *
  * @author Mateus Bizzo (https://github.com/MattBizzo)
  * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
  */
 class CocktailShakerSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     /**
-     * This method implements the Generic Cocktail Shaker Sort
+     * Sorts the given array using the Cocktail Shaker Sort algorithm.
      *
-     * @param array The array to be sorted Sorts the array in increasing order
+     * @param <T> The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @return The sorted array
      */
     @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(final T[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
+        }
 
-        int length = array.length;
         int left = 0;
-        int right = length - 1;
-        int swappedLeft, swappedRight;
+        int right = array.length - 1;
+
         while (left < right) {
-            // front
-            swappedRight = 0;
-            for (int i = left; i < right; i++) {
-                if (SortUtils.less(array[i + 1], array[i])) {
-                    SortUtils.swap(array, i, i + 1);
-                    swappedRight = i;
-                }
-            }
-            // back
-            right = swappedRight;
-            swappedLeft = length - 1;
-            for (int j = right; j > left; j--) {
-                if (SortUtils.less(array[j], array[j - 1])) {
-                    SortUtils.swap(array, j - 1, j);
-                    swappedLeft = j;
-                }
-            }
-            left = swappedLeft;
+            right = performForwardPass(array, left, right);
+            left = performBackwardPass(array, left, right);
         }
+
         return array;
     }
 
-    // Driver Program
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Integer Input
-        Integer[] integers = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
-        CocktailShakerSort shakerSort = new CocktailShakerSort();
+    /**
+     * Performs a forward pass through the array, moving larger elements to the end.
+     *
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @param array The array being sorted
+     * @param left  The current left boundary of the sorting area
+     * @param right The current right boundary of the sorting area
+     * @return The index of the last swapped element during this pass
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int performForwardPass(final T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
+        int lastSwappedIndex = left;
 
-        // Output => 1 4 6 9 12 23 54 78 231
-        SortUtils.print(shakerSort.sort(integers));
+        for (int i = left; i < right; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[i + 1], array[i])) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i, i + 1);
+                lastSwappedIndex = i;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return lastSwappedIndex;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs a backward pass through the array, moving smaller elements to the beginning.
+     *
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @param array The array being sorted
+     * @param left  The current left boundary of the sorting area
+     * @param right The current right boundary of the sorting area
+     * @return The index of the last swapped element during this pass
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int performBackwardPass(final T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
+        int lastSwappedIndex = right;
+
+        for (int i = right; i > left; i--) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[i], array[i - 1])) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i - 1, i);
+                lastSwappedIndex = i;
+            }
+        }
 
-        // String Input
-        String[] strings = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
-        SortUtils.print(shakerSort.sort(strings));
+        return lastSwappedIndex;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java
index 9bd3fb181c33..cd12a5b2853c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
 /**
  * Comb Sort algorithm implementation
  *
@@ -18,56 +16,57 @@
  * @see SortAlgorithm
  */
 class CombSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+    private static final double SHRINK_FACTOR = 1.3;
 
-    // To find gap between elements
-    private int nextGap(int gap) {
-        // Shrink gap by Shrink factor
-        gap = (gap * 10) / 13;
-        return (gap < 1) ? 1 : gap;
+    /**
+     * Method to find the next gap
+     *
+     * @param gap the current gap
+     * @return the next gap value
+     */
+    private int getNextGap(int gap) {
+        gap = (int) (gap / SHRINK_FACTOR);
+        return Math.max(gap, 1);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Function to sort arr[] using Comb
+     * Method to sort the array using CombSort
      *
-     * @param arr - an array should be sorted
-     * @return sorted array
+     * @param arr the array to be sorted
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array
+     * @return the sorted array
      */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] arr) {
-        int size = arr.length;
-
-        // initialize gap
-        int gap = size;
-
-        // Initialize swapped as true to make sure that loop runs
+        int gap = arr.length;
         boolean swapped = true;
 
-        // Keep running while gap is more than 1 and last iteration caused a swap
         while (gap != 1 || swapped) {
-            // Find next gap
-            gap = nextGap(gap);
-
-            // Initialize swapped as false so that we can check if swap happened or not
-            swapped = false;
-
-            // Compare all elements with current gap
-            for (int i = 0; i < size - gap; i++) {
-                if (less(arr[i + gap], arr[i])) {
-                    // Swap arr[i] and arr[i+gap]
-                    swapped = swap(arr, i, i + gap);
-                }
-            }
+            gap = getNextGap(gap);
+            swapped = performSwaps(arr, gap);
         }
+
         return arr;
     }
 
-    // Driver method
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        CombSort ob = new CombSort();
-        Integer[] arr = {8, 4, 1, 56, 3, -44, -1, 0, 36, 34, 8, 12, -66, -78, 23, -6, 28, 0};
-        ob.sort(arr);
+    /**
+     * Method to perform the swapping of elements in the array based on the current gap
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to be sorted
+     * @param gap the current gap
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array
+     * @return true if a swap occurred, false otherwise
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean performSwaps(final T[] arr, final int gap) {
+        boolean swapped = false;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length - gap; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(arr[i + gap], arr[i])) {
+                SortUtils.swap(arr, i, i + gap);
+                swapped = true;
+            }
+        }
 
-        System.out.println("sorted array");
-        print(arr);
+        return swapped;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java
index 47e91d880a21..5d54205032d4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java
@@ -1,97 +1,60 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.print;
-import static java.util.stream.Collectors.toList;
-import static java.util.stream.Collectors.toMap;
-
-import java.util.*;
-import java.util.stream.IntStream;
-import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import java.util.Arrays;
 
 /**
- * @author Youssef Ali (https://github.com/youssefAli11997)
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * A standard implementation of the Counting Sort algorithm for integer arrays.
+ * This implementation has a time complexity of O(n + k), where n is the number
+ * of elements in the input array and k is the range of the input.
+ * It works only with integer arrays.
+ *
+ * The space complexity is O(k), where k is the range of the input integers.
+ *
+ * Note: This implementation handles negative integers as it
+ * calculates the range based on the minimum and maximum values of the array.
+ *
  */
-class CountingSort implements SortAlgorithm {
-
-    @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] unsorted) {
-        return sort(Arrays.asList(unsorted)).toArray(unsorted);
+public final class CountingSort {
+    private CountingSort() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method implements the Generic Counting Sort
+     * Sorts an array of integers using the Counting Sort algorithm.
      *
-     * @param list The list to be sorted
-     * <p>
-     * Sorts the list in increasing order The method uses list elements as keys
-     * in the frequency map
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @return the sorted array
      */
-    @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> List<T> sort(List<T> list) {
-
-        Map<T, Integer> frequency = new TreeMap<>();
-        // The final output array
-        List<T> sortedArray = new ArrayList<>(list.size());
-
-        // Counting the frequency of @param array elements
-        list.forEach(v -> frequency.put(v, frequency.getOrDefault(v, 0) + 1));
-
-        // Filling the sortedArray
-        for (Map.Entry<T, Integer> element : frequency.entrySet()) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < element.getValue(); j++) {
-                sortedArray.add(element.getKey());
-            }
+    public static int[] sort(int[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
         }
-
-        return sortedArray;
+        final var stats = Arrays.stream(array).summaryStatistics();
+        final int min = stats.getMin();
+        int[] count = computeHistogram(array, min, stats.getMax() - min + 1);
+        toCumulative(count);
+        return reconstructSorted(count, min, array);
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Stream Counting Sort The same as method {@link CountingSort#sort(List)} }
-     * but this method uses stream API
-     *
-     * @param list The list to be sorted
-     */
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> List<T> streamSort(List<T> list) {
-        return list.stream()
-                .collect(toMap(k -> k, v -> 1, (v1, v2) -> v1 + v2, TreeMap::new))
-                .entrySet()
-                .stream()
-                .flatMap(entry -> IntStream.rangeClosed(1, entry.getValue()).mapToObj(t -> entry.getKey()))
-                .collect(toList());
+    private static int[] computeHistogram(final int[] array, final int shift, final int spread) {
+        int[] res = new int[spread];
+        for (final var value : array) {
+            res[value - shift]++;
+        }
+        return res;
     }
 
-    // Driver Program
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // Integer Input
-        List<Integer> unsortedInts
-                = Stream.of(4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 23, 1, 9, 231, 9, 12).collect(toList());
-        CountingSort countingSort = new CountingSort();
-
-        System.out.println("Before Sorting:");
-        print(unsortedInts);
-
-        // Output => 1 1 4 6 9 9 12 23 23 54 78 231
-        System.out.println("After Sorting:");
-        print(countingSort.sort(unsortedInts));
-        System.out.println("After Sorting By Streams:");
-        print(streamSort(unsortedInts));
-
-        System.out.println("\n------------------------------\n");
-
-        // String Input
-        List<String> unsortedStrings
-                = Stream.of("c", "a", "e", "b", "d", "a", "f", "g", "c").collect(toList());
-
-        System.out.println("Before Sorting:");
-        print(unsortedStrings);
-
-        // Output => a a b c c d e f g
-        System.out.println("After Sorting:");
-        print(countingSort.sort(unsortedStrings));
+    private static void toCumulative(int[] count) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < count.length; i++) {
+            count[i] += count[i - 1];
+        }
+    }
 
-        System.out.println("After Sorting By Streams:");
-        print(streamSort(unsortedStrings));
+    private static int[] reconstructSorted(final int[] cumulativeCount, final int shift, final int[] array) {
+        int[] res = new int[array.length];
+        for (int i = array.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            res[cumulativeCount[array[i] - shift] - 1] = array[i];
+            cumulativeCount[array[i] - shift]--;
+        }
+        return res;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java
index 8e463c811ce7..4ef051419cbb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java
@@ -1,84 +1,88 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.less;
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.print;
-
 /**
+ * This class implements the cycle sort algorithm.
+ * Cycle sort is an in-place sorting algorithm, unstable, and efficient for scenarios with limited memory usage.
  * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
  */
 class CycleSort implements SortAlgorithm {
-
+    /**
+     * Sorts an array of comparable elements using the cycle sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @return The sorted array
+     */
     @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] arr) {
-        int n = arr.length;
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(final T[] array) {
+        final int length = array.length;
 
-        // traverse array elements
-        for (int j = 0; j <= n - 2; j++) {
-            // initialize item as starting point
-            T item = arr[j];
+        for (int cycleStart = 0; cycleStart <= length - 2; cycleStart++) {
+            T item = array[cycleStart];
+            int pos = findPosition(array, cycleStart, item);
 
-            // Find position where we put the item.
-            int pos = j;
-            for (int i = j + 1; i < n; i++) {
-                if (less(arr[i], item)) {
-                    pos++;
-                }
+            if (pos == cycleStart) {
+                continue; // Item is already in the correct position
             }
 
-            // If item is already in correct position
-            if (pos == j) {
-                continue;
-            }
+            item = placeItem(array, item, pos);
 
-            // ignore all duplicate elements
-            while (item.compareTo(arr[pos]) == 0) {
-                pos += 1;
+            // Rotate the rest of the cycle
+            while (pos != cycleStart) {
+                pos = findPosition(array, cycleStart, item);
+                item = placeItem(array, item, pos);
             }
+        }
+        return array;
+    }
 
-            // put the item to it's right position
-            if (pos != j) {
-                item = replace(arr, pos, item);
-            }
-
-            // Rotate rest of the cycle
-            while (pos != j) {
-                pos = j;
-
-                // Find position where we put the element
-                for (int i = j + 1; i < n; i++) {
-                    if (less(arr[i], item)) {
-                        pos += 1;
-                    }
-                }
-
-                // ignore all duplicate elements
-                while (item.compareTo(arr[pos]) == 0) {
-                    pos += 1;
-                }
-
-                // put the item to it's right position
-                if (item != arr[pos]) {
-                    item = replace(arr, pos, item);
-                }
+    /**
+     * Finds the correct position for the given item starting from cycleStart.
+     *
+     * @param <T>        The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @param array      The array to be sorted
+     * @param cycleStart The starting index of the cycle
+     * @param item       The item whose position is to be found
+     * @return The correct position of the item
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int findPosition(final T[] array, final int cycleStart, final T item) {
+        int pos = cycleStart;
+        for (int i = cycleStart + 1; i < array.length; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[i], item)) {
+                pos++;
             }
         }
-
-        return arr;
+        return pos;
     }
 
-    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T replace(T[] arr, int pos, T item) {
-        T temp = item;
-        item = arr[pos];
-        arr[pos] = temp;
-        return item;
+    /**
+     * Places the item in its correct position, handling duplicates, and returns the displaced item.
+     *
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @param array The array being sorted
+     * @param item  The item to be placed
+     * @param pos   The position where the item is to be placed
+     * @return The displaced item
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T placeItem(final T[] array, final T item, int pos) {
+        while (item.compareTo(array[pos]) == 0) {
+            pos++;
+        }
+        return replace(array, pos, item);
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Integer arr[] = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 26, 11, 23, 0, -6, 3, 54, 231, 9, 12};
-        CycleSort cycleSort = new CycleSort();
-        cycleSort.sort(arr);
-
-        System.out.println("After sort : ");
-        print(arr);
+    /**
+     * Replaces an element in the array with the given item and returns the replaced item.
+     *
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @param array The array in which the replacement will occur
+     * @param pos   The position at which the replacement will occur
+     * @param item  The item to be placed in the array
+     * @return The replaced item
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T replace(final T[] array, final int pos, final T item) {
+        final T replacedItem = array[pos];
+        array[pos] = item;
+        return replacedItem;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DNFSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DNFSort.java
deleted file mode 100644
index b02bfc54ef67..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DNFSort.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,51 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
-
-public class DNFSort {
-
-    // Sort the input array, the array is assumed to
-    // have values in {0, 1, 2}
-    static void sort012(int a[], int arr_size) {
-        int low = 0;
-        int high = arr_size - 1;
-        int mid = 0, temp = 0;
-        while (mid <= high) {
-            switch (a[mid]) {
-                case 0: {
-                    temp = a[low];
-                    a[low] = a[mid];
-                    a[mid] = temp;
-                    low++;
-                    mid++;
-                    break;
-                }
-                case 1:
-                    mid++;
-                    break;
-                case 2: {
-                    temp = a[mid];
-                    a[mid] = a[high];
-                    a[high] = temp;
-                    high--;
-                    break;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    /* Utility function to print array arr[] */
-    static void printArray(int arr[], int arr_size) {
-        for (int i = 0; i < arr_size; i++) {
-            System.out.print(arr[i] + " ");
-        }
-        System.out.println("");
-    }
-
-    /*Driver function to check for above functions*/
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int arr[] = {0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 1};
-        int arr_size = arr.length;
-        sort012(arr, arr_size);
-        System.out.println("Array after seggregation ");
-        printArray(arr, arr_size);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4887d7d124ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * Dark Sort algorithm implementation.
+ *
+ * Dark Sort uses a temporary array to count occurrences of elements and
+ * reconstructs the sorted array based on the counts.
+ */
+class DarkSort {
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the array using the Dark Sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param unsorted the array to be sorted
+     * @return sorted array
+     */
+    public Integer[] sort(Integer[] unsorted) {
+        if (unsorted == null || unsorted.length <= 1) {
+            return unsorted;
+        }
+
+        int max = findMax(unsorted); // Find the maximum value in the array
+
+        // Create a temporary array for counting occurrences
+        int[] temp = new int[max + 1];
+
+        // Count occurrences of each element
+        for (int value : unsorted) {
+            temp[value]++;
+        }
+
+        // Reconstruct the sorted array
+        int index = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < temp.length; i++) {
+            while (temp[i] > 0) {
+                unsorted[index++] = i;
+                temp[i]--;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return unsorted;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to find the maximum value in an array.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array
+     * @return the maximum value
+     */
+    private int findMax(Integer[] arr) {
+        int max = arr[0];
+        for (int value : arr) {
+            if (value > max) {
+                max = value;
+            }
+        }
+        return max;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ada745acd25a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * Dual Pivot Quick Sort Algorithm
+ *
+ * @author Debasish Biswas (https://github.com/debasishbsws) *
+ * @see SortAlgorithm
+ */
+public class DualPivotQuickSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts an array using the Dual Pivot QuickSort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @return The sorted array
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(final T[] array) {
+        if (array.length <= 1) {
+            return array;
+        }
+
+        dualPivotQuicksort(array, 0, array.length - 1);
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively applies the Dual Pivot QuickSort algorithm to subarrays.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param left  The starting index of the subarray
+     * @param right The ending index of the subarray
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void dualPivotQuicksort(final T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
+        if (left < right) {
+            final int[] pivots = partition(array, left, right);
+
+            dualPivotQuicksort(array, left, pivots[0] - 1);
+            dualPivotQuicksort(array, pivots[0] + 1, pivots[1] - 1);
+            dualPivotQuicksort(array, pivots[1] + 1, right);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Partitions the array into three parts using two pivots.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be partitioned
+     * @param left  The starting index for partitioning
+     * @param right The ending index for partitioning
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @return An array containing the indices of the two pivots
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int[] partition(final T[] array, int left, final int right) {
+        if (SortUtils.greater(array[left], array[right])) {
+            SortUtils.swap(array, left, right);
+        }
+
+        final T pivot1 = array[left];
+        final T pivot2 = array[right];
+
+        int pivot1End = left + 1;
+        int low = left + 1;
+        int high = right - 1;
+
+        while (low <= high) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[low], pivot1)) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, low, pivot1End);
+                pivot1End++;
+            } else if (SortUtils.greaterOrEqual(array[low], pivot2)) {
+                while (low < high && SortUtils.greater(array[high], pivot2)) {
+                    high--;
+                }
+                SortUtils.swap(array, low, high);
+                high--;
+
+                if (SortUtils.less(array[low], pivot1)) {
+                    SortUtils.swap(array, low, pivot1End);
+                    pivot1End++;
+                }
+            }
+            low++;
+        }
+
+        // Place the pivots in their correct positions
+        pivot1End--;
+        high++;
+
+        SortUtils.swap(array, left, pivot1End);
+        SortUtils.swap(array, right, high);
+
+        // Return the indices of the pivots
+        return new int[] {low, high};
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f7e12da06568
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * The Dutch National Flag Sort sorts a sequence of values into three permutations which are defined
+ * by a value given as the indented middle. First permutation: values less than middle. Second
+ * permutation: values equal middle. Third permutation: values greater than middle. If no indented
+ * middle is given, this implementation will use a value from the given Array. This value is the one
+ * positioned in the arrays' middle if the arrays' length is odd. If the arrays' length is even, the
+ * value left to the middle will be used. More information and Pseudocode:
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_national_flag_problem
+ */
+public class DutchNationalFlagSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        return dutchNationalFlagSort(array, array[(int) Math.ceil((array.length) / 2.0) - 1]);
+    }
+
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array, T intendedMiddle) {
+        return dutchNationalFlagSort(array, intendedMiddle);
+    }
+
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] dutchNationalFlagSort(final T[] array, final T intendedMiddle) {
+        int i = 0;
+        int j = 0;
+        int k = array.length - 1;
+
+        while (j <= k) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[j], intendedMiddle)) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i, j);
+                j++;
+                i++;
+            } else if (SortUtils.greater(array[j], intendedMiddle)) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, j, k);
+                k--;
+            } else {
+                j++;
+            }
+        }
+        return array;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a58caaf1031a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * ExchangeSort is an implementation of the Exchange Sort algorithm.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Exchange sort works by comparing each element with all subsequent elements,
+ * swapping where needed, to ensure the correct placement of each element
+ * in the final sorted order. It iteratively performs this process for each
+ * element in the array. While it lacks the advantage of bubble sort in
+ * detecting sorted lists in one pass, it can be more efficient than bubble sort
+ * due to a constant factor (one less pass over the data to be sorted; half as
+ * many total comparisons) in worst-case scenarios.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Exchange_sort
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @author 555vedant (Vedant Kasar)
+ */
+class ExchangeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+    /**
+     * Implementation of Exchange Sort Algorithm
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted.
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array.
+     * @return the sorted array.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length - 1; i++) {
+            for (int j = i + 1; j < array.length; j++) {
+                if (SortUtils.greater(array[i], array[j])) {
+                    SortUtils.swap(array, i, j);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return array;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e8dbf8c42742
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,206 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of Flash Sort algorithm that implements the SortAlgorithm interface.
+ *
+ * Sorts an array using the Flash Sort algorithm.
+ * <p>
+ * Flash Sort is a distribution sorting algorithm that partitions the data into
+ * different classes based on a classification array. It performs the sorting by
+ * first distributing the data elements into different buckets (or classes) and
+ * then permuting these buckets into the sorted order.
+ * <p>
+ * The method works as follows:
+ * <ol>
+ *     <li>Finds the minimum and maximum values in the array.</li>
+ *     <li>Initializes a classification array `L` to keep track of the number of elements in each class.</li>
+ *     <li>Computes a normalization constant `c1` to map elements into classes.</li>
+ *     <li>Classifies each element of the array into the corresponding bucket in the classification array.</li>
+ *     <li>Transforms the classification array to compute the starting indices of each bucket.</li>
+ *     <li>Permutes the elements of the array into sorted order based on the classification.</li>
+ *     <li>Uses insertion sort for the final arrangement to ensure complete sorting.</li>
+ * </ol>
+ */
+public class FlashSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+    private double classificationRatio = 0.45;
+
+    public FlashSort() {
+    }
+
+    public FlashSort(double classificationRatio) {
+        if (classificationRatio <= 0 || classificationRatio >= 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Classification ratio must be between 0 and 1 (exclusive).");
+        }
+        this.classificationRatio = classificationRatio;
+    }
+
+    public double getClassificationRatio() {
+        return classificationRatio;
+    }
+
+    public void setClassificationRatio(double classificationRatio) {
+        if (classificationRatio <= 0 || classificationRatio >= 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Classification ratio must be between 0 and 1 (exclusive).");
+        }
+        this.classificationRatio = classificationRatio;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts an array using the Flash Sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements to be sorted, must be comparable.
+     * @return the sorted array.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        flashSort(array);
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts an array using the Flash Sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to be sorted.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements to be sorted, must be comparable.
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<? super T>> void flashSort(T[] arr) {
+        if (arr.length == 0) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        final T min = findMin(arr);
+        final int maxIndex = findMaxIndex(arr);
+
+        if (arr[maxIndex].compareTo(min) == 0) {
+            return; // All elements are the same
+        }
+
+        final int m = (int) (classificationRatio * arr.length);
+
+        final int[] classificationArray = new int[m];
+
+        final double c1 = (double) (m - 1) / arr[maxIndex].compareTo(min);
+
+        classify(arr, classificationArray, c1, min);
+
+        transform(classificationArray);
+
+        permute(arr, classificationArray, c1, min, arr.length, m);
+
+        insertionSort(arr);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the minimum value in the array.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to find the minimum value in.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, must be comparable.
+     * @return the minimum value in the array.
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<? super T>> T findMin(final T[] arr) {
+        T min = arr[0];
+        for (int i = 1; i < arr.length; i++) {
+            if (arr[i].compareTo(min) < 0) {
+                min = arr[i];
+            }
+        }
+        return min;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the index of the maximum value in the array.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to find the maximum value index in.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, must be comparable.
+     * @return the index of the maximum value in the array.
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<? super T>> int findMaxIndex(final T[] arr) {
+        int maxIndex = 0;
+        for (int i = 1; i < arr.length; i++) {
+            if (arr[i].compareTo(arr[maxIndex]) > 0) {
+                maxIndex = i;
+            }
+        }
+        return maxIndex;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Classifies elements of the array into the classification array classificationArray.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to be classified.
+     * @param classificationArray the classification array holding the count of elements in each class.
+     * @param c1 the normalization constant used to map the elements to the classification array.
+     * @param min the minimum value in the array.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, must be comparable.
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<? super T>> void classify(final T[] arr, final int[] classificationArray, final double c1, final T min) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; i++) {
+            int k = (int) (c1 * arr[i].compareTo(min));
+            classificationArray[k]++;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Transforms the classification array classificationArray into the starting index array.
+     *
+     * @param classificationArray the classification array holding the count of elements in each class.
+     */
+    private void transform(final int[] classificationArray) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < classificationArray.length; i++) {
+            classificationArray[i] += classificationArray[i - 1];
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Permutes the array into sorted order based on the classification array classificationArray.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to be permuted.
+     * @param classificationArray the classification array holding the count of elements in each class.
+     * @param c1 the normalization constant used to map the elements to the classification array.
+     * @param min the minimum value in the array.
+     * @param n the length of the array.
+     * @param m the number of classes in the classification array.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, must be comparable.
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<? super T>> void permute(final T[] arr, final int[] classificationArray, final double c1, T min, int n, int m) {
+        int move = 0;
+        int j = 0;
+        int k = m - 1;
+        T flash;
+        while (move < n - 1) {
+            while (j > classificationArray[k] - 1) {
+                j++;
+                k = (int) (c1 * arr[j].compareTo(min));
+            }
+            flash = arr[j];
+            while (j != classificationArray[k]) {
+                k = (int) (c1 * flash.compareTo(min));
+                T temp = arr[classificationArray[k] - 1];
+                arr[classificationArray[k] - 1] = flash;
+                flash = temp;
+                classificationArray[k]--;
+                move++;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts an array using the insertion sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to be sorted.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements to be sorted, must be comparable.
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<? super T>> void insertionSort(final T[] arr) {
+        int n = arr.length;
+        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+            T key = arr[i];
+            int j = i - 1;
+            while (j >= 0 && arr[j].compareTo(key) > 0) {
+                arr[j + 1] = arr[j];
+                j--;
+            }
+            arr[j + 1] = key;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java
index fcdd4a917667..b074c271404d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
 /**
  * Implementation of gnome sort
  *
@@ -11,33 +9,20 @@
 public class GnomeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] arr) {
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(final T[] array) {
         int i = 1;
         int j = 2;
-        while (i < arr.length) {
-            if (less(arr[i - 1], arr[i])) {
+        while (i < array.length) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[i - 1], array[i])) {
                 i = j++;
             } else {
-                swap(arr, i - 1, i);
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i - 1, i);
                 if (--i == 0) {
                     i = j++;
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        return null;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Integer[] integers = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 26, 11, 23, 0, -6, 3, 54, 231, 9, 12};
-        String[] strings = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d", "dd", "da", "zz", "AA", "aa", "aB", "Hb", "Z"};
-        GnomeSort gnomeSort = new GnomeSort();
-
-        gnomeSort.sort(integers);
-        gnomeSort.sort(strings);
-
-        System.out.println("After sort : ");
-        print(integers);
-        print(strings);
+        return array;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java
index 92669a7be9ec..e798fb91b925 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java
@@ -1,124 +1,47 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
-import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.List;
-
 /**
- * Heap Sort Algorithm Implements MinHeap
+ * Heap Sort Algorithm Implementation
  *
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heapsort">Heap Sort Algorithm</a>
  */
 public class HeapSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
-    private static class Heap<T extends Comparable<T>> {
-
-        /**
-         * Array to store heap
-         */
-        private T[] heap;
-
-        /**
-         * Constructor
-         *
-         * @param heap array of unordered integers
-         */
-        public Heap(T[] heap) {
-            this.heap = heap;
-        }
-
-        /**
-         * Heapifies subtree from top as root to last as last child
-         *
-         * @param rootIndex index of root
-         * @param lastChild index of last child
-         */
-        private void heapSubtree(int rootIndex, int lastChild) {
-            int leftIndex = rootIndex * 2 + 1;
-            int rightIndex = rootIndex * 2 + 2;
-            T root = heap[rootIndex];
-            if (rightIndex <= lastChild) { // if has right and left children
-                T left = heap[leftIndex];
-                T right = heap[rightIndex];
-                if (less(left, right) && less(left, root)) {
-                    swap(heap, leftIndex, rootIndex);
-                    heapSubtree(leftIndex, lastChild);
-                } else if (less(right, root)) {
-                    swap(heap, rightIndex, rootIndex);
-                    heapSubtree(rightIndex, lastChild);
-                }
-            } else if (leftIndex <= lastChild) { // if no right child, but has left child
-                T left = heap[leftIndex];
-                if (less(left, root)) {
-                    swap(heap, leftIndex, rootIndex);
-                    heapSubtree(leftIndex, lastChild);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        /**
-         * Makes heap with root as root
-         *
-         * @param root index of root of heap
-         */
-        private void makeMinHeap(int root) {
-            int leftIndex = root * 2 + 1;
-            int rightIndex = root * 2 + 2;
-            boolean hasLeftChild = leftIndex < heap.length;
-            boolean hasRightChild = rightIndex < heap.length;
-            if (hasRightChild) { // if has left and right
-                makeMinHeap(leftIndex);
-                makeMinHeap(rightIndex);
-                heapSubtree(root, heap.length - 1);
-            } else if (hasLeftChild) {
-                heapSubtree(root, heap.length - 1);
-            }
-        }
-
-        /**
-         * Gets the root of heap
-         *
-         * @return root of heap
-         */
-        private T getRoot(int size) {
-            swap(heap, 0, size);
-            heapSubtree(0, size - 1);
-            return heap[size]; // return old root
-        }
-    }
-
+    /**
+     * For simplicity, we are considering the heap root index as 1 instead of 0.
+     * This approach simplifies future calculations. As a result, we decrease
+     * the indexes by 1 when calling {@link SortUtils#less(Comparable, Comparable)}
+     * and provide adjusted values to the {@link SortUtils#swap(Object[], int, int)} methods.
+     */
     @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] unsorted) {
-        return sort(Arrays.asList(unsorted)).toArray(unsorted);
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        int n = array.length;
+        heapify(array, n);
+        while (n > 1) {
+            SortUtils.swap(array, 0, n - 1);
+            n--;
+            siftDown(array, 1, n);
+        }
+        return array;
     }
 
-    @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> List<T> sort(List<T> unsorted) {
-        int size = unsorted.size();
-
-        @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
-        Heap<T> heap = new Heap<>(unsorted.toArray((T[]) new Comparable[unsorted.size()]));
-
-        heap.makeMinHeap(0); // make min heap using index 0 as root.
-        List<T> sorted = new ArrayList<>(size);
-        while (size > 0) {
-            T min = heap.getRoot(--size);
-            sorted.add(min);
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void heapify(final T[] array, final int n) {
+        for (int k = n / 2; k >= 1; k--) {
+            siftDown(array, k, n);
         }
-
-        return sorted;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Main method
-     *
-     * @param args the command line arguments
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Integer[] heap = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
-        HeapSort heapSort = new HeapSort();
-        print(heapSort.sort(heap));
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void siftDown(final T[] array, int k, final int n) {
+        while (2 * k <= n) {
+            int j = 2 * k;
+            if (j < n && SortUtils.less(array[j - 1], array[j])) {
+                j++;
+            }
+            if (!SortUtils.less(array[k - 1], array[j - 1])) {
+                break;
+            }
+            SortUtils.swap(array, k - 1, j - 1);
+            k = j;
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java
index cde6d7bee57a..21ebf3827b5f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java
@@ -1,45 +1,91 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.less;
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.print;
-
 class InsertionSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     /**
-     * Generic insertion sort algorithm in increasing order.
+     * Sorts the given array using the standard Insertion Sort algorithm.
      *
-     * @param array the array to be sorted.
-     * @param <T> the class of array.
-     * @return sorted array.
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @return The sorted array
      */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
-        for (int i = 1; i < array.length; i++) {
-            T insertValue = array[i];
-            int j;
-            for (j = i - 1; j >= 0 && less(insertValue, array[j]); j--) {
+        return sort(array, 0, array.length);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts a subarray of the given array using the standard Insertion Sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param lo    The starting index of the subarray
+     * @param hi    The ending index of the subarray (exclusive)
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @return The sorted array
+     */
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array, final int lo, final int hi) {
+        if (array == null || lo >= hi) {
+            return array;
+        }
+
+        for (int i = lo + 1; i < hi; i++) {
+            final T key = array[i];
+            int j = i - 1;
+            while (j >= lo && SortUtils.less(key, array[j])) {
                 array[j + 1] = array[j];
+                j--;
             }
-            if (j != i - 1) {
-                array[j + 1] = insertValue;
+            array[j + 1] = key;
+        }
+
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sentinel sort is a function which on the first step finds the minimal element in the provided
+     * array and puts it to the zero position, such a trick gives us an ability to avoid redundant
+     * comparisons like `j > 0` and swaps (we can move elements on position right, until we find
+     * the right position for the chosen element) on further step.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @return The sorted array
+     */
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sentinelSort(T[] array) {
+        if (array == null || array.length <= 1) {
+            return array;
+        }
+
+        final int minElemIndex = findMinIndex(array);
+        SortUtils.swap(array, 0, minElemIndex);
+
+        for (int i = 2; i < array.length; i++) {
+            final T currentValue = array[i];
+            int j = i;
+            while (j > 0 && SortUtils.less(currentValue, array[j - 1])) {
+                array[j] = array[j - 1];
+                j--;
             }
+            array[j] = currentValue;
         }
+
         return array;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Driver Code
+     * Finds the index of the minimum element in the array.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be searched
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @return The index of the minimum element
      */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Integer[] integers = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
-        InsertionSort sort = new InsertionSort();
-        sort.sort(integers);
-        print(integers);
-        /* [1, 4, 6, 9, 12, 23, 54, 78, 231] */
-
-        String[] strings = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
-        sort.sort(strings);
-        print(strings);
-        /* [a, b, c, d, e] */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int findMinIndex(final T[] array) {
+        int minIndex = 0;
+        for (int i = 1; i < array.length; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[i], array[minIndex])) {
+                minIndex = i;
+            }
+        }
+        return minIndex;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/IntrospectiveSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/IntrospectiveSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6f846c7b9a8f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/IntrospectiveSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * Introspective Sort Algorithm Implementation
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introsort">IntroSort Algorithm</a>
+ */
+public class IntrospectiveSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+
+    private static final int INSERTION_SORT_THRESHOLD = 16;
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the given array using Introspective Sort, which combines quicksort, heapsort, and insertion sort.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @return The sorted array
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        if (array == null || array.length <= 1) {
+            return array;
+        }
+        final int depth = 2 * (int) (Math.log(array.length) / Math.log(2));
+        introspectiveSort(array, 0, array.length - 1, depth);
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Performs introspective sort on the specified subarray.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param low   The starting index of the subarray
+     * @param high  The ending index of the subarray
+     * @param depth The current depth of recursion
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void introspectiveSort(T[] array, final int low, int high, final int depth) {
+        while (high - low > INSERTION_SORT_THRESHOLD) {
+            if (depth == 0) {
+                heapSort(array, low, high);
+                return;
+            }
+            final int pivotIndex = partition(array, low, high);
+            introspectiveSort(array, pivotIndex + 1, high, depth - 1);
+            high = pivotIndex - 1;
+        }
+        insertionSort(array, low, high);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Partitions the array around a pivot.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be partitioned
+     * @param low   The starting index of the subarray
+     * @param high  The ending index of the subarray
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     * @return The index of the pivot
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int partition(T[] array, final int low, final int high) {
+        final int pivotIndex = low + (int) (Math.random() * (high - low + 1));
+        SortUtils.swap(array, pivotIndex, high);
+        final T pivot = array[high];
+        int i = low - 1;
+        for (int j = low; j < high; j++) {
+            if (SortUtils.greaterOrEqual(pivot, array[j])) {
+                i++;
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i, j);
+            }
+        }
+        SortUtils.swap(array, i + 1, high);
+        return i + 1;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts a subarray using insertion sort.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param low   The starting index of the subarray
+     * @param high  The ending index of the subarray
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void insertionSort(T[] array, final int low, final int high) {
+        for (int i = low + 1; i <= high; i++) {
+            final T key = array[i];
+            int j = i - 1;
+            while (j >= low && SortUtils.greater(array[j], key)) {
+                array[j + 1] = array[j];
+                j--;
+            }
+            array[j + 1] = key;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts a subarray using heapsort.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be sorted
+     * @param low   The starting index of the subarray
+     * @param high  The ending index of the subarray
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void heapSort(T[] array, final int low, final int high) {
+        final int n = high - low + 1;
+        for (int i = (n / 2) - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            heapify(array, i, n, low);
+        }
+        for (int i = high; i > low; i--) {
+            SortUtils.swap(array, low, i);
+            heapify(array, 0, i - low, low);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Maintains the heap property for a subarray.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be heapified
+     * @param i     The index to be heapified
+     * @param n     The size of the heap
+     * @param low   The starting index of the subarray
+     * @param <T>   The type of elements in the array, which must be comparable
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void heapify(T[] array, final int i, final int n, final int low) {
+        final int left = 2 * i + 1;
+        final int right = 2 * i + 2;
+        int largest = i;
+
+        if (left < n && SortUtils.greater(array[low + left], array[low + largest])) {
+            largest = left;
+        }
+        if (right < n && SortUtils.greater(array[low + right], array[low + largest])) {
+            largest = right;
+        }
+        if (largest != i) {
+            SortUtils.swap(array, low + i, low + largest);
+            heapify(array, largest, n, low);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/LinkListSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/LinkListSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..800d78f36549
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/LinkListSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,326 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+/**
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/siddhant2002">Siddhant Swarup Mallick</a>
+ * Program description - To sort the LinkList as per sorting technique
+ */
+public class LinkListSort {
+
+    public static boolean isSorted(int[] p, int option) {
+        int[] a = p;
+        // Array is taken as input from test class
+        int[] b = p;
+        // array similar to a
+        int ch = option;
+        // Choice is choosed as any number from 1 to 3 (So the linked list will be
+        // sorted by Merge sort technique/Insertion sort technique/Heap sort technique)
+        switch (ch) {
+        case 1:
+            Task nm = new Task();
+            Node start = null;
+            Node prev = null;
+            Node fresh;
+            Node ptr;
+            for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
+                // New nodes are created and values are added
+                fresh = new Node(); // Node class is called
+                fresh.val = a[i]; // Node val is stored
+                if (start == null) {
+                    start = fresh;
+                } else {
+                    prev.next = fresh;
+                }
+                prev = fresh;
+            }
+            start = nm.sortByMergeSort(start);
+            // method is being called
+            int i = 0;
+            for (ptr = start; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
+                a[i++] = ptr.val;
+                // storing the sorted values in the array
+            }
+            Arrays.sort(b);
+            // array b is sorted and it will return true when checked with sorted list
+            LinkListSort uu = new LinkListSort();
+            return uu.compare(a, b);
+            // The given array and the expected array is checked if both are same then true
+            // is displayed else false is displayed
+        case 2:
+            Node start1 = null;
+            Node prev1 = null;
+            Node fresh1;
+            Node ptr1;
+            for (int i1 = 0; i1 < a.length; i1++) {
+                // New nodes are created and values are added
+                fresh1 = new Node(); // New node is created
+                fresh1.val = a[i1]; // Value is stored in the value part of the node
+                if (start1 == null) {
+                    start1 = fresh1;
+                } else {
+                    prev1.next = fresh1;
+                }
+                prev1 = fresh1;
+            }
+            Task1 kk = new Task1();
+            start1 = kk.sortByInsertionSort(start1);
+            // method is being called
+            int i1 = 0;
+            for (ptr1 = start1; ptr1 != null; ptr1 = ptr1.next) {
+                a[i1++] = ptr1.val;
+                // storing the sorted values in the array
+            }
+            LinkListSort uu1 = new LinkListSort();
+            // array b is not sorted and it will return false when checked with sorted list
+            return uu1.compare(a, b);
+            // The given array and the expected array is checked if both are same then true
+            // is displayed else false is displayed
+        case 3:
+            Task2 mm = new Task2();
+            Node start2 = null;
+            Node prev2 = null;
+            Node fresh2;
+            Node ptr2;
+            for (int i2 = 0; i2 < a.length; i2++) {
+                // New nodes are created and values are added
+                fresh2 = new Node(); // Node class is created
+                fresh2.val = a[i2]; // Value is stored in the value part of the Node
+                if (start2 == null) {
+                    start2 = fresh2;
+                } else {
+                    prev2.next = fresh2;
+                }
+                prev2 = fresh2;
+            }
+            start2 = mm.sortByHeapSort(start2);
+            // method is being called
+            int i3 = 0;
+            for (ptr2 = start2; ptr2 != null; ptr2 = ptr2.next) {
+                a[i3++] = ptr2.val;
+                // storing the sorted values in the array
+            }
+            Arrays.sort(b);
+            // array b is sorted and it will return true when checked with sorted list
+            LinkListSort uu2 = new LinkListSort();
+            return uu2.compare(a, b);
+            // The given array and the expected array is checked if both are same then true
+            // is displayed else false is displayed
+        default:
+            // default is used incase user puts a unauthorized value
+            System.out.println("Wrong choice");
+        }
+        // Switch case is used to call the classes as per the user requirement
+        return false;
+    }
+    /**
+     * OUTPUT :
+     * Input - {89,56,98,123,26,75,12,40,39,68,91} is same for all the 3 classes
+     * Output: [12 26 39 40 56 68 75 89 91 98 123] is same for all the 3 classes
+     * 1st approach Time Complexity : O(n logn)
+     * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(n)
+     * 2nd approach Time Complexity : O(n^2)
+     * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(n)
+     * 3rd approach Time Complexity : O(n logn)
+     * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(n)
+     */
+    boolean compare(int[] a, int[] b) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
+            if (a[i] != b[i]) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+        // Both the arrays are checked for equalness. If both are equal then true is
+        // returned else false is returned
+    }
+}
+
+class Node {
+
+    int val;
+    Node next;
+    // Node class for creation of linklist nodes
+}
+
+class Task {
+
+    private int[] a;
+
+    public Node sortByMergeSort(Node head) {
+        if (head == null || head.next == null) {
+            return head;
+        }
+        int c = count(head);
+        a = new int[c];
+        // Array of size c is created
+        int i = 0;
+        for (Node ptr = head; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
+            a[i++] = ptr.val;
+        }
+        // values are stored in the array
+        i = 0;
+        task(a, 0, c - 1);
+        // task method will be executed
+        for (Node ptr = head; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
+            ptr.val = a[i++];
+            // Value is stored in the linklist after being sorted
+        }
+        return head;
+    }
+
+    int count(Node head) {
+        int c = 0;
+        Node ptr;
+        for (ptr = head; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
+            c++;
+        }
+        return c;
+        // This Method is used to count number of elements/nodes present in the linklist
+        // It will return a integer type value denoting the number of nodes present
+    }
+
+    void task(int[] n, int i, int j) {
+        if (i < j) {
+            int m = (i + j) / 2;
+            task(n, i, m);
+            task(n, m + 1, j);
+            task1(n, i, m, j);
+            // Array is halved and sent for sorting
+        }
+    }
+
+    void task1(int[] n, int s, int m, int e) {
+        int i = s;
+        int k = 0;
+        int j = m + 1;
+        int[] b = new int[e - s + 1];
+        while (i <= m && j <= e) {
+            if (n[j] >= n[i]) {
+                b[k++] = n[i++];
+            } else {
+                b[k++] = n[j++];
+            }
+        }
+        // Smallest number is stored after checking from both the arrays
+        while (i <= m) {
+            b[k++] = n[i++];
+        }
+        while (j <= e) {
+            b[k++] = n[j++];
+        }
+        for (int p = s; p <= e; p++) {
+            a[p] = b[p - s];
+        }
+    }
+    // The method task and task1 is used to sort the linklist using merge sort
+}
+
+class Task1 {
+
+    public Node sortByInsertionSort(Node head) {
+        if (head == null || head.next == null) {
+            return head;
+        }
+        int c = count(head);
+        int[] a = new int[c];
+        // Array of size c is created
+        a[0] = head.val;
+        int i;
+        Node ptr;
+        for (ptr = head.next, i = 1; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next, i++) {
+            int j = i - 1;
+            while (j >= 0 && a[j] > ptr.val) {
+                // values are stored in the array
+                a[j + 1] = a[j];
+                j--;
+            }
+            a[j + 1] = ptr.val;
+        }
+        i = 0;
+        for (ptr = head; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
+            ptr.val = a[i++];
+            // Value is stored in the linklist after being sorted
+        }
+        return head;
+    }
+
+    static int count(Node head) {
+        Node ptr;
+        int c = 0;
+        for (ptr = head; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
+            c++;
+        }
+        return c;
+        // This Method is used to count number of elements/nodes present in the linklist
+        // It will return a integer type value denoting the number of nodes present
+    }
+    // The method task and task1 is used to sort the linklist using insertion sort
+}
+
+class Task2 {
+
+    public Node sortByHeapSort(Node head) {
+        if (head == null || head.next == null) {
+            return head;
+        }
+        int c = count(head);
+        int[] a = new int[c];
+        // Array of size c is created
+        int i = 0;
+        for (Node ptr = head; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
+            a[i++] = ptr.val;
+            // values are stored in the array
+        }
+        i = 0;
+        task(a);
+        for (Node ptr = head; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
+            ptr.val = a[i++];
+            // Value is stored in the linklist after being sorted
+        }
+        return head;
+    }
+
+    int count(Node head) {
+        int c = 0;
+        Node ptr;
+        for (ptr = head; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
+            c++;
+        }
+        return c;
+        // This Method is used to count number of elements/nodes present in the linklist
+        // It will return a integer type value denoting the number of nodes present
+    }
+
+    void task(int[] n) {
+        int k = n.length;
+        for (int i = k / 2 - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            task1(n, k, i);
+        }
+        for (int i = k - 1; i > 0; i--) {
+            int d = n[0];
+            n[0] = n[i];
+            n[i] = d;
+            task1(n, i, 0);
+            // recursive calling of task1 method
+        }
+    }
+
+    void task1(int[] n, int k, int i) {
+        int p = i;
+        int l = 2 * i + 1;
+        int r = 2 * i + 2;
+        if (l < k && n[l] > n[p]) {
+            p = l;
+        }
+        if (r < k && n[r] > n[p]) {
+            p = r;
+        }
+        if (p != i) {
+            int d = n[p];
+            n[p] = n[i];
+            n[i] = d;
+            task1(n, k, p);
+        }
+    }
+    // The method task and task1 is used to sort the linklist using heap sort
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java
index ce50a4344006..86a184f67b26 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java
@@ -1,12 +1,17 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
+import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.less;
+
 /**
  * Generic merge sort algorithm.
  *
  * @see SortAlgorithm
  */
+@SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
 class MergeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
+    private Comparable[] aux;
+
     /**
      * Generic merge sort algorithm implements.
      *
@@ -16,6 +21,7 @@ class MergeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
      */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] unsorted) {
+        aux = new Comparable[unsorted.length];
         doSort(unsorted, 0, unsorted.length - 1);
         return unsorted;
     }
@@ -25,7 +31,7 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] unsorted) {
      * @param left the first index of the array.
      * @param right the last index of the array.
      */
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void doSort(T[] arr, int left, int right) {
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void doSort(T[] arr, int left, int right) {
         if (left < right) {
             int mid = (left + right) >>> 1;
             doSort(arr, left, mid);
@@ -43,49 +49,22 @@ private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void doSort(T[] arr, int left, int righ
      * @param right the last index of the array merges two parts of an array in
      * increasing order.
      */
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void merge(T[] arr, int left, int mid, int right) {
-        int length = right - left + 1;
-        @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
-        T[] temp = (T[]) new Comparable[length];
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void merge(T[] arr, int left, int mid, int right) {
         int i = left;
         int j = mid + 1;
-        int k = 0;
+        System.arraycopy(arr, left, aux, left, right + 1 - left);
 
-        while (i <= mid && j <= right) {
-            if (arr[i].compareTo(arr[j]) <= 0) {
-                temp[k++] = arr[i++];
+        for (int k = left; k <= right; k++) {
+            if (j > right) {
+                arr[k] = (T) aux[i++];
+            } else if (i > mid) {
+                arr[k] = (T) aux[j++];
+            } else if (less(aux[j], aux[i])) {
+                arr[k] = (T) aux[j++];
             } else {
-                temp[k++] = arr[j++];
+                arr[k] = (T) aux[i++];
             }
         }
-
-        while (i <= mid) {
-            temp[k++] = arr[i++];
-        }
-
-        while (j <= right) {
-            temp[k++] = arr[j++];
-        }
-
-        System.arraycopy(temp, 0, arr, left, length);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Driver code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        MergeSort mergeSort = new MergeSort();
-
-        Integer[] arr = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
-        mergeSort.sort(arr);
-        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length - 1; ++i) {
-            assert arr[i] <= arr[i + 1];
-        }
-
-        String[] stringArray = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
-        mergeSort.sort(stringArray);
-        for (int i = 0; i < stringArray.length - 1; ++i) {
-            assert arr[i].compareTo(arr[i + 1]) <= 0;
-        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpace.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpace.java
index f4df83726577..7aa3b56e068c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpace.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpace.java
@@ -1,76 +1,88 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
 import java.util.Arrays;
-import java.util.*;
 
-/*This code implements the mergeSort algorithm without extra space
-For understanding about mergesort visit :https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/merge-sort/
+/**
+ * Implementation of Merge Sort without using extra space for merging.
+ * This implementation performs in-place merging to sort the array of integers.
  */
-public class MergeSortNoExtraSpace {
-
-    public static void call_merge_sort(int a[], int n) {
-        int maxele = Arrays.stream(a).max().getAsInt() + 1;
-        merge_sort(a, 0, n - 1, maxele);
+public final class MergeSortNoExtraSpace {
+    private MergeSortNoExtraSpace() {
     }
 
-    public static void merge_sort(int a[], int start, int end, int maxele) { //this function divides the array into 2 halves
+    /**
+     * Sorts the array using in-place merge sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @return the sorted array
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the array contains negative numbers.
+     */
+    public static int[] sort(int[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
+        }
+        if (Arrays.stream(array).anyMatch(s -> s < 0)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Implementation cannot sort negative numbers.");
+        }
+
+        final int maxElement = Arrays.stream(array).max().getAsInt() + 1;
+        mergeSort(array, 0, array.length - 1, maxElement);
+        return array;
+    }
 
+    /**
+     * Recursively divides the array into two halves, sorts and merges them.
+     *
+     * @param array  the array to be sorted
+     * @param start  the starting index of the array
+     * @param end    the ending index of the array
+     * @param maxElement the value greater than any element in the array, used for encoding
+     */
+    public static void mergeSort(int[] array, int start, int end, int maxElement) {
         if (start < end) {
-            int mid = (start + end) / 2;
-            merge_sort(a, start, mid, maxele);
-            merge_sort(a, mid + 1, end, maxele);
-            implement_merge_sort(a, start, mid, end, maxele);
-
+            final int middle = (start + end) >>> 1;
+            mergeSort(array, start, middle, maxElement);
+            mergeSort(array, middle + 1, end, maxElement);
+            merge(array, start, middle, end, maxElement);
         }
     }
 
-    public static void implement_merge_sort(int a[], int start, int mid, int end, int maxele) {  //implementation of mergesort
+    /**
+     * Merges two sorted subarrays [start...middle] and [middle+1...end] in place.
+     *
+     * @param array  the array containing the subarrays to be merged
+     * @param start  the starting index of the first subarray
+     * @param middle    the ending index of the first subarray and starting index of the second subarray
+     * @param end    the ending index of the second subarray
+     * @param maxElement the value greater than any element in the array, used for encoding
+     */
+    private static void merge(int[] array, int start, int middle, int end, int maxElement) {
         int i = start;
-        int j = mid + 1;
+        int j = middle + 1;
         int k = start;
-        while (i <= mid && j <= end) {
-            if (a[i] % maxele <= a[j] % maxele) {
-                a[k] = a[k] + (a[i]
-                        % maxele) * maxele;
+        while (i <= middle && j <= end) {
+            if (array[i] % maxElement <= array[j] % maxElement) {
+                array[k] = array[k] + (array[i] % maxElement) * maxElement;
                 k++;
                 i++;
             } else {
-                a[k] = a[k] + (a[j]
-                        % maxele) * maxele;
+                array[k] = array[k] + (array[j] % maxElement) * maxElement;
                 k++;
                 j++;
             }
         }
-        while (i <= mid) {
-            a[k] = a[k] + (a[i]
-                    % maxele) * maxele;
+        while (i <= middle) {
+            array[k] = array[k] + (array[i] % maxElement) * maxElement;
             k++;
             i++;
         }
         while (j <= end) {
-            a[k] = a[k] + (a[j]
-                    % maxele) * maxele;
+            array[k] = array[k] + (array[j] % maxElement) * maxElement;
             k++;
             j++;
         }
         for (i = start; i <= end; i++) {
-            a[i] = a[i] / maxele;
-        }
-
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        Scanner inp = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.println("Enter array size");
-        int n = inp.nextInt();
-        int a[] = new int[n];
-        System.out.println("Enter array elements");
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            a[i] = inp.nextInt();
-        }
-        call_merge_sort(a, n);
-        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
-            System.out.print(a[i] + " ");
+            array[i] = array[i] / maxElement;
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java
index 7e81a8303ef2..910157b83231 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.List;
 
@@ -12,13 +11,11 @@ public MergeSortRecursive(List<Integer> arr) {
         this.arr = arr;
     }
 
-    public void mergeSort() {
-        List<Integer> arrSorted = merge(arr);
-        System.out.println(arrSorted);
+    public List<Integer> mergeSort() {
+        return merge(arr);
     }
 
     private static List<Integer> merge(List<Integer> arr) {
-
         // base condition
         if (arr.size() <= 1) {
             return arr;
@@ -37,40 +34,27 @@ private static List<Integer> merge(List<Integer> arr) {
     }
 
     private static List<Integer> sort(List<Integer> unsortedA, List<Integer> unsortedB) {
-        if (unsortedA.size() <= 0 && unsortedB.size() <= 0) {
+        if (unsortedA.isEmpty() && unsortedB.isEmpty()) {
             return new ArrayList<>();
         }
-        if (unsortedA.size() <= 0) {
+        if (unsortedA.isEmpty()) {
             return unsortedB;
         }
-        if (unsortedB.size() <= 0) {
+        if (unsortedB.isEmpty()) {
             return unsortedA;
         }
         if (unsortedA.get(0) <= unsortedB.get(0)) {
             List<Integer> newAl = new ArrayList<Integer>() {
-                {
-                    add(unsortedA.get(0));
-                }
+                { add(unsortedA.get(0)); }
             };
             newAl.addAll(sort(unsortedA.subList(1, unsortedA.size()), unsortedB));
             return newAl;
         } else {
             List<Integer> newAl = new ArrayList<Integer>() {
-                {
-                    add(unsortedB.get(0));
-                }
+                { add(unsortedB.get(0)); }
             };
             newAl.addAll(sort(unsortedA, unsortedB.subList(1, unsortedB.size())));
             return newAl;
         }
     }
-
-}
-
-class App {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        MergeSortRecursive sort = new MergeSortRecursive(new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(4, 3, 1, 8, 5, 10, 0, 1, 4, 11, 8, 9)));
-        sort.mergeSort();
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSort.java
index e6fe5e6cade5..b854842e9645 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSort.java
@@ -1,67 +1,51 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import java.util.Random;
-
-// https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odd%E2%80%93even_sort
-public class OddEvenSort {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] arr = new int[100];
-
-        Random random = new Random();
-
-        // Print out unsorted elements
-        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; ++i) {
-            arr[i] = random.nextInt(100) - 50;
-            System.out.println(arr[i]);
-        }
-        System.out.println("--------------");
-
-        oddEvenSort(arr);
-
-        //Print Sorted elements
-        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length - 1; ++i) {
-            System.out.println(arr[i]);
-            assert arr[i] <= arr[i + 1];
-        }
-    }
+/**
+ * OddEvenSort class implements the SortAlgorithm interface using the odd-even sort technique.
+ * Odd-even sort is a comparison sort related to bubble sort.
+ * It operates by comparing all (odd, even)-indexed pairs of adjacent elements in the list and, if a pair is in the wrong order, swapping them.
+ * The next step repeats this process for (even, odd)-indexed pairs. This process continues until the list is sorted.
+ *
+ */
+public final class OddEvenSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     /**
-     * Odd Even Sort algorithms implements
+     * Sorts the given array using the Odd-Even Sort algorithm.
      *
-     * @param arr the array contains elements
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, which must implement the Comparable interface
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @return the sorted array
      */
-    public static void oddEvenSort(int[] arr) {
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
         boolean sorted = false;
         while (!sorted) {
-            sorted = true;
+            sorted = performOddSort(array);
+            sorted = performEvenSort(array) && sorted;
+        }
 
-            for (int i = 1; i < arr.length - 1; i += 2) {
-                if (arr[i] > arr[i + 1]) {
-                    swap(arr, i, i + 1);
-                    sorted = false;
-                }
-            }
+        return array;
+    }
 
-            for (int i = 0; i < arr.length - 1; i += 2) {
-                if (arr[i] > arr[i + 1]) {
-                    swap(arr, i, i + 1);
-                    sorted = false;
-                }
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean performOddSort(T[] array) {
+        boolean sorted = true;
+        for (int i = 1; i < array.length - 1; i += 2) {
+            if (SortUtils.greater(array[i], array[i + 1])) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i, i + 1);
+                sorted = false;
             }
         }
+        return sorted;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Helper function to swap two array values.
-     *
-     * @param arr the array contains elements
-     * @param i the first index to be swapped
-     * @param j the second index to be swapped
-     */
-    private static void swap(int[] arr, int i, int j) {
-        int temp = arr[i];
-        arr[i] = arr[j];
-        arr[j] = temp;
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean performEvenSort(T[] array) {
+        boolean sorted = true;
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length - 1; i += 2) {
+            if (SortUtils.greater(array[i], array[i + 1])) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i, i + 1);
+                sorted = false;
+            }
+        }
+        return sorted;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java
index 1d0b76fc04c7..6079672a1d77 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
 /**
  * Implementation of pancake sort
  *
@@ -12,30 +10,35 @@ public class PancakeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
-        int size = array.length;
+        if (array.length < 2) {
+            return array;
+        }
 
-        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-            T max = array[0];
-            int index = 0;
-            for (int j = 0; j < size - i; j++) {
-                if (less(max, array[j])) {
-                    max = array[j];
-                    index = j;
-                }
-            }
-            flip(array, index, array.length - 1 - i);
+        for (int currentSize = 0; currentSize < array.length; currentSize++) {
+            int maxIndex = findMaxIndex(array, currentSize);
+            SortUtils.flip(array, maxIndex, array.length - 1 - currentSize);
         }
+
         return array;
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        Integer[] arr = {
-            10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 15, 14, 7, 4, 3, 8, 6, 3, 1, 2, -2, -5, -8, -3, -1, 13, 12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
-        };
-        PancakeSort pancakeSort = new PancakeSort();
-        System.out.println("After sorting:");
-        pancakeSort.sort(arr);
-        print(arr);
+    /**
+     * Finds the index of the maximum element in the array up to the given size.
+     *
+     * @param array      the array to be searched
+     * @param currentSize the current size of the unsorted portion of the array
+     * @param <T>        the type of elements in the array
+     * @return the index of the maximum element
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int findMaxIndex(T[] array, int currentSize) {
+        T max = array[0];
+        int maxIndex = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length - currentSize; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(max, array[i])) {
+                max = array[i];
+                maxIndex = i;
+            }
+        }
+        return maxIndex;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PatienceSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PatienceSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0edce8d9a15d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PatienceSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * This class implements the Patience Sort algorithm. Patience Sort is a sorting algorithm that
+ * is particularly good for sorting sequences that are already partially sorted.
+ */
+public class PatienceSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts an array of comparable elements using the Patience Sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, must be comparable
+     * @return the sorted array
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
+        }
+
+        final List<List<T>> piles = formPiles(array);
+        final PriorityQueue<PileNode<T>> pq = mergePiles(piles);
+        extractPiles(array, pq);
+
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Forms piles from the given array. Each pile is a list of elements where
+     * each element is smaller than the one before it. Binary search is used
+     * to find the appropriate pile for each element.
+     *
+     * @param array the array of elements to be organized into piles
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, must be comparable
+     * @return a list of piles
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> List<List<T>> formPiles(final T[] array) {
+        final List<List<T>> piles = new ArrayList<>();
+        final List<T> lastElements = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (T x : array) {
+            int pos = Collections.binarySearch(lastElements, x);
+            if (pos < 0) {
+                pos = -pos - 1;
+            }
+
+            if (pos < piles.size()) {
+                piles.get(pos).add(x);
+                lastElements.set(pos, x);
+            } else {
+                List<T> newPile = new ArrayList<>();
+                newPile.add(x);
+                piles.add(newPile);
+                lastElements.add(x);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return piles;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges the piles into a priority queue where the smallest elements are
+     * prioritized.
+     *
+     * @param piles the list of piles to be merged
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the piles, must be comparable
+     * @return a priority queue containing the top element of each pile
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> PriorityQueue<PileNode<T>> mergePiles(final Iterable<List<T>> piles) {
+        PriorityQueue<PileNode<T>> pq = new PriorityQueue<>();
+        for (List<T> pile : piles) {
+            pq.add(new PileNode<>(pile.removeLast(), pile));
+        }
+        return pq;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Extracts elements from the priority queue to form the sorted array.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be filled with sorted elements
+     * @param pq the priority queue containing the elements to be extracted
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array, must be comparable
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void extractPiles(final T[] array, final PriorityQueue<PileNode<T>> pq) {
+        int index = 0;
+        while (!pq.isEmpty()) {
+            PileNode<T> node = pq.poll();
+            array[index++] = node.value;
+            if (!node.pile.isEmpty()) {
+                pq.add(new PileNode<>(node.pile.removeLast(), node.pile));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A helper record representing a node in the priority queue.
+     *
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the node, must be comparable
+     */
+    private record PileNode<T extends Comparable<T>>(T value, List<T> pile) implements Comparable<PileNode<T>> {
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(PileNode<T> other) {
+            return this.value.compareTo(other.value);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PigeonholeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PigeonholeSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..19f4291d8213
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PigeonholeSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+
+public final class PigeonholeSort {
+    private PigeonholeSort() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the given array using the pigeonhole sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if any negative integers are found
+     * @return the sorted array
+     */
+    public static int[] sort(int[] array) {
+
+        checkForNegativeInput(array);
+
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
+        }
+
+        final int maxElement = Arrays.stream(array).max().orElseThrow();
+        final List<List<Integer>> pigeonHoles = createPigeonHoles(maxElement);
+
+        populatePigeonHoles(array, pigeonHoles);
+        collectFromPigeonHoles(array, pigeonHoles);
+
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the array contains any negative integers.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be checked
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if any negative integers are found
+     */
+    private static void checkForNegativeInput(int[] array) {
+        for (final int number : array) {
+            if (number < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array contains negative integers.");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Creates pigeonholes for sorting using an ArrayList of ArrayLists.
+     *
+     * @param maxElement the maximum element in the array
+     * @return an ArrayList of ArrayLists
+     */
+    private static List<List<Integer>> createPigeonHoles(int maxElement) {
+        List<List<Integer>> pigeonHoles = new ArrayList<>(maxElement + 1);
+        for (int i = 0; i <= maxElement; i++) {
+            pigeonHoles.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        return pigeonHoles;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Populates the pigeonholes with elements from the array.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param pigeonHoles the pigeonholes to be populated
+     */
+    private static void populatePigeonHoles(int[] array, List<List<Integer>> pigeonHoles) {
+        for (int element : array) {
+            pigeonHoles.get(element).add(element);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Collects sorted elements from the pigeonholes back into the array.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param pigeonHoles the populated pigeonholes
+     */
+    private static void collectFromPigeonHoles(int[] array, Iterable<List<Integer>> pigeonHoles) {
+        int index = 0;
+        for (final var pigeonHole : pigeonHoles) {
+            for (final int element : pigeonHole) {
+                array[index++] = element;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PriorityQueueSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PriorityQueueSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..16f13050e8b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PriorityQueueSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import java.util.PriorityQueue;
+
+/**
+ * Sorts an array using Java's PriorityQueue (Min-Heap).
+ *
+ * <p>Example: Input: [7, 2, 9, 4, 1] Output: [1, 2, 4, 7, 9]
+ *
+ * <p>Time Complexity:
+ * - Inserting n elements into the PriorityQueue → O(n log n)
+ * - Polling n elements → O(n log n)
+ * - Total: O(n log n)
+ *
+ * <p>Space Complexity: O(n) for the PriorityQueue
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heap_(data_structure)">
+ *     Heap / PriorityQueue</a>
+ */
+public final class PriorityQueueSort {
+
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation (utility class)
+    private PriorityQueueSort() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the given array in ascending order using a PriorityQueue.
+     *
+     * @param arr the array to be sorted
+     * @return the sorted array (in-place)
+     */
+    public static int[] sort(int[] arr) {
+        if (arr == null || arr.length == 0) {
+            return arr;
+        }
+
+        PriorityQueue<Integer> pq = new PriorityQueue<>();
+        for (int num : arr) {
+            pq.offer(num);
+        }
+
+        int i = 0;
+        while (!pq.isEmpty()) {
+            arr[i++] = pq.poll();
+        }
+
+        return arr;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSort.java
index 6eab72f847f1..3abb1aae2306 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSort.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
 /**
  * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
  * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
@@ -27,25 +25,25 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
      * @param right The last index of an array
      * @param array The array to be sorted
      */
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void doSort(T[] array, int left, int right) {
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void doSort(T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
         if (left < right) {
-            int pivot = randomPartition(array, left, right);
+            final int pivot = randomPartition(array, left, right);
             doSort(array, left, pivot - 1);
             doSort(array, pivot, right);
         }
     }
 
     /**
-     * Ramdomize the array to avoid the basically ordered sequences
+     * Randomize the array to avoid the basically ordered sequences
      *
      * @param array The array to be sorted
      * @param left The first index of an array
      * @param right The last index of an array
      * @return the partition index of the array
      */
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int randomPartition(T[] array, int left, int right) {
-        int randomIndex = left + (int) (Math.random() * (right - left + 1));
-        swap(array, randomIndex, right);
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int randomPartition(T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
+        final int randomIndex = left + (int) (Math.random() * (right - left + 1));
+        SortUtils.swap(array, randomIndex, right);
         return partition(array, left, right);
     }
 
@@ -58,41 +56,22 @@ private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int randomPartition(T[] array, int left
      * array
      */
     private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int partition(T[] array, int left, int right) {
-        int mid = (left + right) >>> 1;
-        T pivot = array[mid];
+        final int mid = (left + right) >>> 1;
+        final T pivot = array[mid];
 
         while (left <= right) {
-            while (less(array[left], pivot)) {
+            while (SortUtils.less(array[left], pivot)) {
                 ++left;
             }
-            while (less(pivot, array[right])) {
+            while (SortUtils.less(pivot, array[right])) {
                 --right;
             }
             if (left <= right) {
-                swap(array, left, right);
+                SortUtils.swap(array, left, right);
                 ++left;
                 --right;
             }
         }
         return left;
     }
-
-    // Driver Program
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        // For integer input
-        Integer[] array = {3, 4, 1, 32, 0, 1, 5, 12, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 2, 44, 111, 5};
-
-        QuickSort quickSort = new QuickSort();
-        quickSort.sort(array);
-
-        // Output => 0 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 5 7 8 9 12 32 44 111
-        print(array);
-
-        String[] stringArray = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
-        quickSort.sort(stringArray);
-
-        // Output => a	b	c	d	e
-        print(stringArray);
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSort.java
index 080e386a46c2..f0201a5a84b8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSort.java
@@ -1,63 +1,98 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.NumberOfDigits;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 
-class RadixSort {
+/**
+ * This class provides an implementation of the radix sort algorithm.
+ * It sorts an array of nonnegative integers in increasing order.
+ */
+public final class RadixSort {
+    private static final int BASE = 10;
 
-    private static int getMax(int[] arr, int n) {
-        int mx = arr[0];
-        for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
-            if (arr[i] > mx) {
-                mx = arr[i];
-            }
-        }
-        return mx;
+    private RadixSort() {
     }
 
-    private static void countSort(int[] arr, int n, int exp) {
-        int[] output = new int[n];
-        int i;
-        int[] count = new int[10];
-        Arrays.fill(count, 0);
-
-        for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            count[(arr[i] / exp) % 10]++;
+    /**
+     * Sorts an array of nonnegative integers using the radix sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @return the sorted array
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if any negative integers are found
+     */
+    public static int[] sort(int[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
         }
 
-        for (i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
-            count[i] += count[i - 1];
-        }
+        checkForNegativeInput(array);
+        radixSort(array);
+        return array;
+    }
 
-        for (i = n - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-            output[count[(arr[i] / exp) % 10] - 1] = arr[i];
-            count[(arr[i] / exp) % 10]--;
+    /**
+     * Checks if the array contains any negative integers.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be checked
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if any negative integers are found
+     */
+    private static void checkForNegativeInput(int[] array) {
+        for (int number : array) {
+            if (number < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Array contains non-positive integers.");
+            }
         }
+    }
 
-        for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            arr[i] = output[i];
+    private static void radixSort(int[] array) {
+        final int max = Arrays.stream(array).max().getAsInt();
+        for (int i = 0, exp = 1; i < NumberOfDigits.numberOfDigits(max); i++, exp *= BASE) {
+            countingSortByDigit(array, exp);
         }
     }
 
-    private static void radixsort(int[] arr, int n) {
+    /**
+     * A utility method to perform counting sort of array[] according to the digit represented by exp.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param exp   the exponent representing the current digit position
+     */
+    private static void countingSortByDigit(int[] array, int exp) {
+        int[] count = countDigits(array, exp);
+        accumulateCounts(count);
+        int[] output = buildOutput(array, exp, count);
+        copyOutput(array, output);
+    }
 
-        int m = getMax(arr, n);
+    private static int[] countDigits(int[] array, int exp) {
+        int[] count = new int[BASE];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            count[getDigit(array[i], exp)]++;
+        }
+        return count;
+    }
 
-        for (int exp = 1; m / exp > 0; exp *= 10) {
-            countSort(arr, n, exp);
+    private static int getDigit(int number, int position) {
+        return (number / position) % BASE;
+    }
+
+    private static void accumulateCounts(int[] count) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < BASE; i++) {
+            count[i] += count[i - 1];
         }
     }
 
-    static void print(int[] arr, int n) {
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            System.out.print(arr[i] + " ");
+    private static int[] buildOutput(int[] array, int exp, int[] count) {
+        int[] output = new int[array.length];
+        for (int i = array.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            int digit = getDigit(array[i], exp);
+            output[count[digit] - 1] = array[i];
+            count[digit]--;
         }
+        return output;
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int[] arr = {170, 45, 75, 90, 802, 24, 2, 66};
-        int n = arr.length;
-        radixsort(arr, n);
-        print(arr, n);
+    private static void copyOutput(int[] array, int[] output) {
+        System.arraycopy(output, 0, array, 0, array.length);
     }
 }
-// Written by James Mc Dermott(theycallmemac)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java
index e2248987259f..db7732d7e218 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java
@@ -1,49 +1,30 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
 public class SelectionSort implements SortAlgorithm {
-
     /**
-     * Generic selection sort algorithm in increasing order.
+     * Sorts an array of comparable elements in increasing order using the selection sort algorithm.
      *
-     * @param arr the array to be sorted.
-     * @param <T> the class of array.
-     * @return sorted array.
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param <T> the class of array elements
+     * @return the sorted array
      */
     @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] arr) {
-        int n = arr.length;
-        for (int i = 0; i < n - 1; i++) {
-            int minIndex = i;
-            for (int j = i + 1; j < n; j++) {
-                if (arr[minIndex].compareTo(arr[j]) > 0) {
-                    minIndex = j;
-                }
-            }
-            if (minIndex != i) {
-                T temp = arr[i];
-                arr[i] = arr[minIndex];
-                arr[minIndex] = temp;
-            }
-        }
-        return arr;
-    }
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
 
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        Integer[] arr = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
-        SelectionSort selectionSort = new SelectionSort();
-        Integer[] sorted = selectionSort.sort(arr);
-        for (int i = 0; i < sorted.length - 1; ++i) {
-            assert sorted[i] <= sorted[i + 1];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length - 1; i++) {
+            final int minIndex = findIndexOfMin(array, i);
+            SortUtils.swap(array, i, minIndex);
         }
+        return array;
+    }
 
-        String[] strings = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
-        String[] sortedStrings = selectionSort.sort(strings);
-        for (int i = 0; i < sortedStrings.length - 1; ++i) {
-            assert strings[i].compareTo(strings[i + 1]) <= 0;
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int findIndexOfMin(T[] array, final int startIndex) {
+        int minIndex = startIndex;
+        for (int i = startIndex + 1; i < array.length; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[i], array[minIndex])) {
+                minIndex = i;
+            }
         }
+        return minIndex;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortRecursive.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortRecursive.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f220c2d8f994
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortRecursive.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * Class that implements the Selection Sort algorithm using recursion.
+ */
+public class SelectionSortRecursive implements SortAlgorithm {
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts an array using recursive selection sort.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array (must be Comparable)
+     * @return the sorted array
+     */
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
+        }
+        recursiveSelectionSort(array, 0);
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursively sorts the array using selection sort.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param index the current index to start sorting from
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array (must be Comparable)
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> void recursiveSelectionSort(T[] array, final int index) {
+        if (index == array.length - 1) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        SortUtils.swap(array, index, findMinIndex(array, index));
+
+        // Recursively call selection sort for the remaining array
+        recursiveSelectionSort(array, index + 1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the index of the minimum element in the array starting from the given index.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to search
+     * @param start the starting index for the search
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array
+     * @return the index of the minimum element
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> int findMinIndex(T[] array, final int start) {
+        // Base case: if start is the last index, return start
+        if (start == array.length - 1) {
+            return start;
+        }
+
+        // Recursive call to find the minimum index in the rest of the array
+        final int minIndexInRest = findMinIndex(array, start + 1);
+
+        // Return the index of the smaller element between array[start] and the minimum element in the rest of the array
+        return SortUtils.less(array[start], array[minIndexInRest]) ? start : minIndexInRest;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSort.java
index 5f41a5440388..d12b181e65a2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSort.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
 public class ShellSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     /**
@@ -13,36 +11,59 @@ public class ShellSort implements SortAlgorithm {
      */
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
-        int length = array.length;
-        int gap = 1;
-
-        /* Calculate gap for optimization purpose */
-        while (gap < length / 3) {
-            gap = 3 * gap + 1;
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
         }
 
-        for (; gap > 0; gap /= 3) {
-            for (int i = gap; i < length; i++) {
-                int j;
-                T temp = array[i];
-                for (j = i; j >= gap && less(temp, array[j - gap]); j -= gap) {
-                    array[j] = array[j - gap];
-                }
-                array[j] = temp;
-            }
+        int gap = calculateInitialGap(array.length);
+
+        while (gap > 0) {
+            performGapInsertionSort(array, gap);
+            gap = calculateNextGap(gap);
         }
+
         return array;
     }
 
-    /* Driver Code */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Integer[] toSort = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
+    /**
+     * Calculates the initial gap value using the Knuth sequence.
+     *
+     * @param length the length of the array.
+     * @return the initial gap value.
+     */
+    private int calculateInitialGap(final int length) {
+        int gap = 1;
+        while (gap < length / 3) {
+            gap = 3 * gap + 1;
+        }
+        return gap;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the next gap value.
+     *
+     * @param currentGap the current gap value.
+     * @return the next gap value.
+     */
+    private int calculateNextGap(final int currentGap) {
+        return currentGap / 3;
+    }
 
-        ShellSort sort = new ShellSort();
-        sort.sort(toSort);
-        for (int i = 0; i < toSort.length - 1; ++i) {
-            assert toSort[i] <= toSort[i + 1];
+    /**
+     * Performs an insertion sort for the specified gap value.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted.
+     * @param gap the current gap value.
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the array.
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void performGapInsertionSort(final T[] array, final int gap) {
+        for (int i = gap; i < array.length; i++) {
+            T temp = array[i];
+            int j;
+            for (j = i; j >= gap && SortUtils.less(temp, array[j - gap]); j -= gap) {
+                array[j] = array[j - gap];
+            }
+            array[j] = temp;
         }
-        print(toSort);
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SimpleSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SimpleSort.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 4ae7082df779..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SimpleSort.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
-
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
-public class SimpleSort implements SortAlgorithm {
-
-    @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
-        final int LENGTH = array.length;
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < LENGTH; i++) {
-            for (int j = i + 1; j < LENGTH; j++) {
-                if (less(array[j], array[i])) {
-                    T element = array[j];
-                    array[j] = array[i];
-                    array[i] = element;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        return array;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // ==== Int =======
-        Integer[] a = {3, 7, 45, 1, 33, 5, 2, 9};
-        System.out.print("unsorted: ");
-        print(a);
-        System.out.println();
-
-        new SimpleSort().sort(a);
-        System.out.print("sorted: ");
-        print(a);
-        System.out.println();
-
-        // ==== String =======
-        String[] b = {"banana", "berry", "orange", "grape", "peach", "cherry", "apple", "pineapple"};
-        System.out.print("unsorted: ");
-        print(b);
-        System.out.println();
-
-        new SimpleSort().sort(b);
-        System.out.print("sorted: ");
-        print(b);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java
index bce97683d496..38a5fa458778 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java
@@ -16,34 +16,12 @@ private <T extends Comparable<T>> void sort(T[] array, int i, int j) {
         if (SortUtils.greaterOrEqual(i, j)) {
             return;
         }
-        int m = (i + j) / 2;
+        final int m = (i + j) >>> 1;
         sort(array, i, m);
         sort(array, m + 1, j);
         if (SortUtils.less(array[j], array[m])) {
-            T temp = array[j];
-            array[j] = array[m];
-            array[m] = temp;
+            SortUtils.swap(array, j, m);
         }
         sort(array, i, j - 1);
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        SlowSort slowSort = new SlowSort();
-
-        Integer[] integerArray = {8, 84, 53, 953, 64, 2, 202, 98};
-        // Print integerArray unsorted
-        SortUtils.print(integerArray);
-
-        slowSort.sort(integerArray);
-        // Print integerArray sorted
-        SortUtils.print(integerArray);
-
-        String[] stringArray = {"g", "d", "a", "b", "f", "c", "e"};
-        // Print stringArray unsorted
-        SortUtils.print(stringArray);
-
-        slowSort.sort(stringArray);
-        // Print stringArray sorted
-        SortUtils.print(stringArray);
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java
index 4df4e47e4702..72b046d12861 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java
@@ -8,8 +8,8 @@
  *
  * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
  */
+@SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
 public interface SortAlgorithm {
-
     /**
      * Main method arrays sorting algorithms
      *
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ public interface SortAlgorithm {
      * @return a sorted list
      */
     @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
-    default <T extends Comparable<T>> List<T> sort(List<T> unsorted) {
+    default<T extends Comparable<T>> List<T> sort(List<T> unsorted) {
         return Arrays.asList(sort(unsorted.toArray((T[]) new Comparable[unsorted.size()])));
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtils.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtils.java
index c3df99513e17..9e51c3d9e09a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtils.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtils.java
@@ -2,97 +2,120 @@
 
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Collectors;
 
-/**
- * The class contains util methods
- *
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
- */
 final class SortUtils {
+    private SortUtils() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * Helper method for swapping places in array
+     * Swaps two elements at the given positions in an array.
      *
-     * @param array The array which elements we want to swap
-     * @param idx index of the first element
-     * @param idy index of the second element
+     * @param array the array in which to swap elements
+     * @param i     the index of the first element to swap
+     * @param j     the index of the second element to swap
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array
      */
-    static <T> boolean swap(T[] array, int idx, int idy) {
-        T swap = array[idx];
-        array[idx] = array[idy];
-        array[idy] = swap;
-        return true;
+    public static <T> void swap(T[] array, int i, int j) {
+        if (i != j) {
+            final T temp = array[i];
+            array[i] = array[j];
+            array[j] = temp;
+        }
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method checks if first element is less than the other element
+     * Compares two elements to see if the first is less than the second.
      *
-     * @param v first element
-     * @param w second element
-     * @return true if the first element is less than the second element
+     * @param firstElement  the first element to compare
+     * @param secondElement the second element to compare
+     * @return true if the first element is less than the second, false otherwise
      */
-    static <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean less(T v, T w) {
-        return v.compareTo(w) < 0;
+    public static <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean less(T firstElement, T secondElement) {
+        return firstElement.compareTo(secondElement) < 0;
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method checks if first element is greater than the other element
+     * Compares two elements to see if the first is greater than the second.
      *
-     * @param v first element
-     * @param w second element
-     * @return true if the first element is greater than the second element
+     * @param firstElement  the first element to compare
+     * @param secondElement the second element to compare
+     * @return true if the first element is greater than the second, false otherwise
      */
-    static <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean greater(T v, T w) {
-        return v.compareTo(w) > 0;
+    public static <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean greater(T firstElement, T secondElement) {
+        return firstElement.compareTo(secondElement) > 0;
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method checks if first element is greater than or equal the other
-     * element
+     * Compares two elements to see if the first is greater than or equal to the second.
      *
-     * @param v first element
-     * @param w second element
-     * @return true if the first element is greater than or equal the second
-     * element
+     * @param firstElement  the first element to compare
+     * @param secondElement the second element to compare
+     * @return true if the first element is greater than or equal to the second, false otherwise
      */
-    static <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean greaterOrEqual(T v, T w) {
-        return v.compareTo(w) >= 0;
+    static <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean greaterOrEqual(T firstElement, T secondElement) {
+        return firstElement.compareTo(secondElement) >= 0;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Prints a list
+     * Prints the elements of a list to standard output.
      *
-     * @param toPrint - a list which should be printed
+     * @param listToPrint the list to print
      */
-    static void print(List<?> toPrint) {
-        toPrint.stream().map(Object::toString).map(str -> str + " ").forEach(System.out::print);
-
-        System.out.println();
+    static void print(List<?> listToPrint) {
+        String result = listToPrint.stream().map(Object::toString).collect(Collectors.joining(" "));
+        System.out.println(result);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Prints an array
+     * Prints the elements of an array to standard output.
      *
-     * @param toPrint - an array which should be printed
+     * @param array the array to print
      */
-    static void print(Object[] toPrint) {
-        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(toPrint));
+    static <T> void print(T[] array) {
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(array));
     }
 
     /**
-     * Swaps all position from {
-     *
-     * @param left} to @{
-     * @param right} for {
-     * @param array}
+     * Flips the order of elements in the specified range of an array.
      *
-     * @param array is an array
-     * @param left is a left flip border of the array
-     * @param right is a right flip border of the array
+     * @param array the array whose elements are to be flipped
+     * @param left  the left boundary of the range to be flipped (inclusive)
+     * @param right the right boundary of the range to be flipped (inclusive)
      */
-    static <T extends Comparable<T>> void flip(T[] array, int left, int right) {
+    public static <T extends Comparable<T>> void flip(T[] array, int left, int right) {
         while (left <= right) {
             swap(array, left++, right--);
         }
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks whether the array is sorted in ascending order.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to check
+     * @return true if the array is sorted in ascending order, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean isSorted(T[] array) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < array.length; i++) {
+            if (less(array[i], array[i - 1])) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks whether the list is sorted in ascending order.
+     *
+     * @param list the list to check
+     * @return true if the list is sorted in ascending order, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean isSorted(List<T> list) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < list.size(); i++) {
+            if (less(list.get(i), list.get(i - 1))) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsRandomGenerator.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsRandomGenerator.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ed2f538f4d89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsRandomGenerator.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+
+public final class SortUtilsRandomGenerator {
+    private SortUtilsRandomGenerator() {
+    }
+
+    private static final Random RANDOM;
+    private static final long SEED;
+
+    static {
+        SEED = System.currentTimeMillis();
+        RANDOM = new Random(SEED);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function to generate array of double values, with predefined size.
+     *
+     * @param size result array size
+     * @return array of Double values, randomly generated, each element is between [0, 1)
+     */
+    public static Double[] generateArray(int size) {
+        Double[] arr = new Double[size];
+        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+            arr[i] = generateDouble();
+        }
+        return arr;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function to generate Double value.
+     *
+     * @return Double value [0, 1)
+     */
+    public static Double generateDouble() {
+        return RANDOM.nextDouble();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Function to generate int value.
+     *
+     * @return int value [0, n)
+     */
+    public static int generateInt(int n) {
+        return RANDOM.nextInt(n);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SpreadSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SpreadSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1401f3d454a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SpreadSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,274 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * SpreadSort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm suitable for large datasets.
+ * It distributes elements into buckets and recursively sorts these buckets.
+ * This implementation is generic and can sort any array of elements that extend Comparable.
+ */
+@SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
+public class SpreadSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+    private static final int MAX_INSERTION_SORT_THRESHOLD = 1000;
+    private static final int MAX_INITIAL_BUCKET_CAPACITY = 1000;
+    private static final int MAX_MIN_BUCKETS = 100;
+
+    private final int insertionSortThreshold;
+    private final int initialBucketCapacity;
+    private final int minBuckets;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructor to initialize the SpreadSort algorithm with custom parameters.
+     *
+     * @param insertionSortThreshold the threshold for using insertion sort for small segments (1-1000)
+     * @param initialBucketCapacity  the initial capacity for each bucket (1-1000)
+     * @param minBuckets             the minimum number of buckets to use (1-100)
+     */
+    public SpreadSort(int insertionSortThreshold, int initialBucketCapacity, int minBuckets) {
+        if (insertionSortThreshold < 1 || insertionSortThreshold > MAX_INSERTION_SORT_THRESHOLD) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Insertion sort threshold must be between 1 and " + MAX_INSERTION_SORT_THRESHOLD);
+        }
+        if (initialBucketCapacity < 1 || initialBucketCapacity > MAX_INITIAL_BUCKET_CAPACITY) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Initial bucket capacity must be between 1 and " + MAX_INITIAL_BUCKET_CAPACITY);
+        }
+        if (minBuckets < 1 || minBuckets > MAX_MIN_BUCKETS) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Minimum number of buckets must be between 1 and " + MAX_MIN_BUCKETS);
+        }
+
+        this.insertionSortThreshold = insertionSortThreshold;
+        this.initialBucketCapacity = initialBucketCapacity;
+        this.minBuckets = minBuckets;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Default constructor with predefined values.
+     */
+    public SpreadSort() {
+        this(16, 16, 2);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts an array using the SpreadSort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array
+     * @return the sorted array
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
+        }
+        spreadSort(array, 0, array.length - 1);
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Internal method to sort an array segment using the SpreadSort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param left  the left boundary of the segment
+     * @param right the right boundary of the segment
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void spreadSort(final T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
+        if (left >= right) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Base case for small segments
+        if (right - left < insertionSortThreshold) {
+            insertionSort(array, left, right);
+            return;
+        }
+
+        T min = findMin(array, left, right);
+        T max = findMax(array, left, right);
+
+        if (min.equals(max)) {
+            return; // All elements are the same
+        }
+
+        int numBuckets = calculateNumBuckets(right - left + 1);
+        final Bucket<T>[] buckets = createBuckets(numBuckets);
+
+        distributeElements(array, left, right, min, max, numBuckets, buckets);
+        collectElements(array, left, buckets);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the minimum element in the specified segment of the array.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to search
+     * @param left  the left boundary of the segment
+     * @param right the right boundary of the segment
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array
+     * @return the minimum element
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T findMin(final T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
+        T min = array[left];
+        for (int i = left + 1; i <= right; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[i], min)) {
+                min = array[i];
+            }
+        }
+        return min;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the maximum element in the specified segment of the array.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to search
+     * @param left  the left boundary of the segment
+     * @param right the right boundary of the segment
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array
+     * @return the maximum element
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T findMax(final T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
+        T max = array[left];
+        for (int i = left + 1; i <= right; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.greater(array[i], max)) {
+                max = array[i];
+            }
+        }
+        return max;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the number of buckets needed based on the size of the segment.
+     *
+     * @param segmentSize the size of the segment
+     * @return the number of buckets
+     */
+    private int calculateNumBuckets(final int segmentSize) {
+        int numBuckets = segmentSize / insertionSortThreshold;
+        return Math.max(numBuckets, minBuckets);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Creates an array of buckets.
+     *
+     * @param numBuckets the number of buckets to create
+     * @param <T>        the type of elements in the buckets
+     * @return an array of buckets
+     */
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> Bucket<T>[] createBuckets(final int numBuckets) {
+        final Bucket<T>[] buckets = new Bucket[numBuckets];
+        for (int i = 0; i < numBuckets; i++) {
+            buckets[i] = new Bucket<>(initialBucketCapacity);
+        }
+        return buckets;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Distributes elements of the array segment into buckets.
+     *
+     * @param array      the array to be sorted
+     * @param left       the left boundary of the segment
+     * @param right      the right boundary of the segment
+     * @param min        the minimum element in the segment
+     * @param max        the maximum element in the segment
+     * @param numBuckets the number of buckets
+     * @param buckets    the array of buckets
+     * @param <T>        the type of elements in the array
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void distributeElements(final T[] array, final int left, final int right, final T min, final T max, final int numBuckets, final Bucket<T>[] buckets) {
+        final double range = max.compareTo(min);
+        for (int i = left; i <= right; i++) {
+            final int scaleRangeDifference = array[i].compareTo(min) * numBuckets;
+            int bucketIndex = (int) (scaleRangeDifference / (range + 1));
+            buckets[bucketIndex].add(array[i]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Collects elements from the buckets back into the array.
+     *
+     * @param array   the array to be sorted
+     * @param left    the left boundary of the segment
+     * @param buckets the array of buckets
+     * @param <T>     the type of elements in the array
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void collectElements(final T[] array, final int left, final Bucket<T>[] buckets) {
+        int index = left;
+        for (Bucket<T> bucket : buckets) {
+            if (bucket.size() > 0) {
+                T[] bucketArray = bucket.toArray();
+                spreadSort(bucketArray, 0, bucketArray.length - 1);
+                for (T element : bucketArray) {
+                    array[index++] = element;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Insertion sort implementation for small segments.
+     *
+     * @param array the array to be sorted
+     * @param left  the left boundary of the segment
+     * @param right the right boundary of the segment
+     * @param <T>   the type of elements in the array
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void insertionSort(final T[] array, final int left, final int right) {
+        for (int i = left + 1; i <= right; i++) {
+            T key = array[i];
+            int j = i - 1;
+            while (j >= left && SortUtils.greater(array[j], key)) {
+                array[j + 1] = array[j];
+                j--;
+            }
+            array[j + 1] = key;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Bucket class to hold elements during sorting.
+     *
+     * @param <T> the type of elements in the bucket
+     */
+    private static class Bucket<T extends Comparable<T>> {
+        private T[] elements;
+        private int size;
+
+        /**
+         * Constructs a new bucket with initial capacity.
+         */
+        @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+        Bucket(int initialBucketCapacity) {
+            elements = (T[]) new Comparable[initialBucketCapacity];
+            size = 0;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Adds an element to the bucket.
+         *
+         * @param element the element to add
+         */
+        void add(T element) {
+            if (size == elements.length) {
+                elements = Arrays.copyOf(elements, size * 2);
+            }
+            elements[size++] = element;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Returns the number of elements in the bucket.
+         *
+         * @return the size of the bucket
+         */
+        int size() {
+            return size;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Returns an array containing all elements in the bucket.
+         *
+         * @return an array containing all elements in the bucket
+         */
+        @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+        T[] toArray() {
+            return Arrays.copyOf(elements, size);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StalinSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StalinSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fe07a6f6d986
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StalinSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class StalinSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+    @SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
+        }
+        int currentIndex = 0;
+        for (int i = 1; i < array.length; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.greaterOrEqual(array[i], array[currentIndex])) {
+                currentIndex++;
+                array[currentIndex] = array[i];
+            }
+        }
+        // Create a result array with sorted elements
+        T[] result = (T[]) java.lang.reflect.Array.newInstance(array.getClass().getComponentType(), currentIndex + 1);
+        System.arraycopy(array, 0, result, 0, currentIndex + 1);
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java
index 330f9752d1e4..2a6e04ce29c7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java
@@ -7,45 +7,28 @@
 public class StoogeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     @Override
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] unsortedArray) {
-        sort(unsortedArray, 0, unsortedArray.length);
-        return unsortedArray;
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        if (array.length == 0) {
+            return array;
+        }
+        sort(array, 0, array.length);
+        return array;
     }
 
-    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] unsortedArray, int start, int end) {
-        if (SortUtils.less(unsortedArray[end - 1], unsortedArray[start])) {
-            T temp = unsortedArray[start];
-            unsortedArray[start] = unsortedArray[end - 1];
-            unsortedArray[end - 1] = temp;
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(final T[] array, final int start, final int end) {
+        if (SortUtils.less(array[end - 1], array[start])) {
+            final T temp = array[start];
+            array[start] = array[end - 1];
+            array[end - 1] = temp;
         }
 
-        int len = end - start;
-        if (len > 2) {
-            int third = len / 3;
-            sort(unsortedArray, start, end - third);
-            sort(unsortedArray, start + third, end);
-            sort(unsortedArray, start, end - third);
+        final int length = end - start;
+        if (length > 2) {
+            int third = length / 3;
+            sort(array, start, end - third);
+            sort(array, start + third, end);
+            sort(array, start, end - third);
         }
-        return unsortedArray;
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        StoogeSort stoogeSort = new StoogeSort();
-
-        Integer[] integerArray = {8, 84, 53, 953, 64, 2, 202};
-        // Print integerArray unsorted
-        SortUtils.print(integerArray);
-
-        stoogeSort.sort(integerArray);
-        // Print integerArray sorted
-        SortUtils.print(integerArray);
-
-        String[] stringArray = {"g", "d", "a", "b", "f", "c", "e"};
-        // Print stringArray unsorted
-        SortUtils.print(stringArray);
-
-        stoogeSort.sort(stringArray);
-        // Print stringArray sorted
-        SortUtils.print(stringArray);
+        return array;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StrandSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StrandSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..147d11340d8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StrandSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * StrandSort class implementing the SortAlgorithm interface using arrays.
+ */
+public final class StrandSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the given array using the Strand Sort algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param <T> The type of elements to be sorted, must be Comparable.
+     * @param array The array to be sorted.
+     * @return The sorted array.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        List<T> unsortedList = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(array));
+        List<T> sortedList = strandSort(unsortedList);
+        return sortedList.toArray(array);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Strand Sort algorithm that sorts a list.
+     *
+     * @param <T> The type of elements to be sorted, must be Comparable.
+     * @param list The list to be sorted.
+     * @return The sorted list.
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<? super T>> List<T> strandSort(List<T> list) {
+        if (list.size() <= 1) {
+            return list;
+        }
+
+        List<T> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        while (!list.isEmpty()) {
+            final List<T> sorted = new ArrayList<>();
+            sorted.add(list.removeFirst());
+            for (int i = 0; i < list.size();) {
+                if (sorted.getLast().compareTo(list.get(i)) <= 0) {
+                    sorted.add(list.remove(i));
+                } else {
+                    i++;
+                }
+            }
+            result = merge(result, sorted);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Merges two sorted lists into one sorted list.
+     *
+     * @param <T> The type of elements to be sorted, must be Comparable.
+     * @param left The first sorted list.
+     * @param right The second sorted list.
+     * @return The merged sorted list.
+     */
+    private static <T extends Comparable<? super T>> List<T> merge(List<T> left, List<T> right) {
+        List<T> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        int i = 0;
+        int j = 0;
+        while (i < left.size() && j < right.size()) {
+            if (left.get(i).compareTo(right.get(j)) <= 0) {
+                result.add(left.get(i));
+                i++;
+            } else {
+                result.add(right.get(j));
+                j++;
+            }
+        }
+        result.addAll(left.subList(i, left.size()));
+        result.addAll(right.subList(j, right.size()));
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSort.java
index 5550f70d7bd3..b5c1c3892546 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSort.java
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.*;
-
 /**
  * The idea of Swap-Sort is to count the number m of smaller values (that are in
  * A) from each element of an array A(1...n) and then swap the element with the
@@ -13,16 +11,13 @@ public class SwapSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     @Override
     public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
-        int LENGTH = array.length;
         int index = 0;
 
-        while (index < LENGTH - 1) {
-            int amountSmallerElements = this.getSmallerElementCount(array, index);
+        while (index < array.length - 1) {
+            final int amountSmallerElements = this.getSmallerElementCount(array, index);
 
-            if (amountSmallerElements > 0 && index != amountSmallerElements) {
-                T element = array[index];
-                array[index] = array[amountSmallerElements];
-                array[amountSmallerElements] = element;
+            if (amountSmallerElements > 0) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, index, index + amountSmallerElements);
             } else {
                 index++;
             }
@@ -31,37 +26,14 @@ public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
         return array;
     }
 
-    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int getSmallerElementCount(T[] array, int index) {
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> int getSmallerElementCount(final T[] array, final int index) {
         int counter = 0;
-        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
-            if (less(array[i], array[index])) {
+        for (int i = index + 1; i < array.length; i++) {
+            if (SortUtils.less(array[i], array[index])) {
                 counter++;
             }
         }
 
         return counter;
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        // ==== Int =======
-        Integer[] a = {3, 7, 45, 1, 33, 5, 2, 9};
-        System.out.print("unsorted: ");
-        print(a);
-        System.out.println();
-
-        new SwapSort().sort(a);
-        System.out.print("sorted: ");
-        print(a);
-        System.out.println();
-
-        // ==== String =======
-        String[] b = {"banana", "berry", "orange", "grape", "peach", "cherry", "apple", "pineapple"};
-        System.out.print("unsorted: ");
-        print(b);
-        System.out.println();
-
-        new SwapSort().sort(b);
-        System.out.print("sorted: ");
-        print(b);
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSort.java
index 6f9a3a10a785..13cd7fed35c7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSort.java
@@ -1,204 +1,51 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
-import java.util.Random;
+import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.less;
 
 /**
- * @author [Hemanth Kotagiri](https://github.com/hemanth-kotagiri)
- * @see [Tim Sort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_sort)
+ * This is simplified TimSort algorithm implementation. The original one is more complicated.
+ * <p>
+ * For more details @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort">TimSort Algorithm</a>
  */
-class TimSort {
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
+class TimSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+    private static final int SUB_ARRAY_SIZE = 32;
+    private Comparable[] aux;
 
-    int array[];
-    int array_length;
-    int RUN = 32;
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        final int n = array.length;
 
-    /**
-     * @brief A constructor which takes in the array specified by the user.
-     * @param array : Array given by the user.
-     */
-    public TimSort(int[] array) {
-        this.array = array;
-        this.array_length = array.length;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @brief A constructor which takes in an array length and randomly
-     * initializes an array.
-     * @param array_length length given by the user.
-     */
-    public TimSort(int array_length) {
-        Random rand = new Random();
-
-        this.array_length = array_length;
-        this.array = new int[this.array_length];
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < this.array_length; i++) {
-            int random_number = rand.nextInt(1000);
-            this.array[i] = random_number;
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @brief A method to change the size of the run.
-     * @param run : Value specified by the user to change the run.
-     */
-    public void change_run(int run) {
-        this.RUN = run;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @brief A default constructor when no parameters are given. Initializes
-     * the array length to be 100. Generates a random number array of size 100.
-     */
-    public TimSort() {
-        this.array_length = 100;
-        this.array = new int[this.array_length];
-
-        Random rand = new Random();
-        for (int i = 0; i < this.array_length; i++) {
-            int random_number = rand.nextInt(1000);
-            this.array[i] = random_number;
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Performs Insertion Sort Algorithm on given array with bounded
-     * indices.
-     * @param array: The array on which the algorithm is to be performed.
-     * @param start_idx: The starting index from which the algorithm is to be
-     * performed.
-     * @param end_idx: The ending index at which the algorithm needs to stop
-     * sorting.
-     */
-    public void insertion_sort(int[] array, int start_idx, int end_idx) {
-        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
-            int current_element = array[i];
-            int j = i - 1;
-            while (j >= 0 && array[j] > current_element) {
-                array[j + 1] = array[j];
-                j--;
-            }
-            array[j + 1] = current_element;
+        InsertionSort insertionSort = new InsertionSort();
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i += SUB_ARRAY_SIZE) {
+            insertionSort.sort(array, i, Math.min(i + SUB_ARRAY_SIZE, n));
         }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @brief A method to merge two runs(chunks of array).
-     * @param array: The origin array which is to be sorted.
-     * @param start: Starting index of the first run(chunk).
-     * @param mid: The ending index of the first run(chunk).
-     * @param end: Ending index of the second run(chunk).
-     */
-    public void merge_runs(int array[], int start, int mid, int end) {
-
-        int first_array_size = mid - start + 1, second_array_size = end - mid;
-        int array1[] = new int[first_array_size], array2[] = new int[second_array_size];
-        int i = 0, j = 0, k = 0;
 
-        // Building the two sub arrays from the array to merge later
-        for (i = 0; i < first_array_size; i++) {
-            array1[i] = array[start + i];
-        }
-        for (i = 0; i < second_array_size; i++) {
-            array2[i] = array[mid + 1 + i];
-        }
-
-        i = 0;
-        j = 0;
-        k = start;
-
-        while (i < first_array_size && j < second_array_size) {
-            if (array1[i] <= array2[j]) {
-                array[k] = array1[i];
-                i++;
-            } else {
-                array[k] = array2[j];
-                j++;
+        aux = new Comparable[n];
+        for (int sz = SUB_ARRAY_SIZE; sz < n; sz = sz + sz) {
+            for (int lo = 0; lo < n - sz; lo += sz + sz) {
+                merge(array, lo, lo + sz - 1, Math.min(lo + sz + sz - 1, n - 1));
             }
-            k++;
         }
 
-        while (i < first_array_size) {
-            array[k] = array1[i];
-            k++;
-            i++;
-        }
-
-        while (j < second_array_size) {
-            array[k] = array2[j];
-            k++;
-            j++;
-        }
+        return array;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * @brief Tim Sort Algorithm method.
-     */
-    public void algorithm() {
-        // Before Sorting
-        System.out.println("Before sorting the array: ");
-        this.showArrayElements();
-        System.out.println();
-
-        // Applying insertion sort on RUNS.
-        for (int i = 0; i < this.array_length; i += this.RUN) {
-            this.insertion_sort(this.array, i, Math.min(i + this.RUN, (this.array_length - 1)));
-        }
-
-        for (int split = this.RUN; split < this.array_length; split = 2 * split) {
-            for (int start_idx = 0; start_idx < this.array_length; start_idx += 2 * split) {
-                int mid = start_idx + split - 1;
-                int end_idx = Math.min((start_idx + 2 * split - 1), (this.array_length - 1));
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void merge(T[] a, final int lo, final int mid, final int hi) {
+        int i = lo;
+        int j = mid + 1;
+        System.arraycopy(a, lo, aux, lo, hi + 1 - lo);
 
-                this.merge_runs(this.array, start_idx, mid, end_idx);
+        for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
+            if (j > hi) {
+                a[k] = (T) aux[i++];
+            } else if (i > mid) {
+                a[k] = (T) aux[j++];
+            } else if (less(aux[j], aux[i])) {
+                a[k] = (T) aux[j++];
+            } else {
+                a[k] = (T) aux[i++];
             }
         }
-        // After sorting
-        System.out.println("After sorting the array: ");
-        this.showArrayElements();
-        System.out.println();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @brief A method to show the elements inside the array.
-     */
-    public void showArrayElements() {
-        for (int i = 0; i < this.array.length; i++) {
-            System.out.print(this.array[i] + " ");
-        }
-        System.out.println();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @brief A method to test the sorting algorithm
-     */
-    static void test() {
-        int[] array = {4, 1, 3, 17, 12, 11, 8};
-        TimSort sorterObj1 = new TimSort();
-        TimSort sorterObj2 = new TimSort(50);
-        TimSort sorterObj3 = new TimSort(array);
-
-        sorterObj1.algorithm();
-        sorterObj2.algorithm();
-        sorterObj3.algorithm();
-
-        // Testing the first array
-        for (int i = 0; i < sorterObj1.array_length - 1; i++) {
-            assert ((sorterObj1.array[i] <= sorterObj1.array[i + 1])) : "Array is not sorted";
-        }
-
-        // Testing the second array.
-        for (int i = 0; i < sorterObj2.array_length - 1; i++) {
-            assert ((sorterObj2.array[i] <= sorterObj2.array[i + 1])) : "Array is not sorted";
-        }
-
-        // Testing the third array.
-        for (int i = 0; i < sorterObj3.array_length - 1; i++) {
-            assert ((sorterObj3.array[i] <= sorterObj3.array[i + 1])) : "Array is not sorted";
-        }
-    }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        test();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e4ed240a9947
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.LinkedHashMap;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+
+/**
+ * The Topological Sorting algorithm linearly orders a DAG or Directed Acyclic Graph into
+ * a linked list. A Directed Graph is proven to be acyclic when a DFS or Depth First Search is
+ * performed, yielding no back-edges.
+ *
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_sorting
+ *
+ * @author Jonathan Taylor (https://github.com/Jtmonument)
+ * Based on Introduction to Algorithms 3rd Edition
+ */
+public final class TopologicalSort {
+    private TopologicalSort() {
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Enum to represent the colors for the depth first search
+     * */
+    private enum Color {
+        WHITE,
+        GRAY,
+        BLACK,
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Class to represent vertices
+     * */
+    private static class Vertex {
+
+        /*
+         * Name of vertex
+         * */
+        public final String label;
+
+        /*
+         * Represents the category of visit in DFS
+         * */
+        public Color color = Color.WHITE;
+
+        /*
+         * The array of names of descendant vertices
+         * */
+        public final ArrayList<String> next = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        Vertex(String label) {
+            this.label = label;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Graph class uses the adjacency list representation
+     * */
+    static class Graph {
+
+        /*
+         * Adjacency list representation
+         * */
+        private final HashMap<String, Vertex> adj = new LinkedHashMap<>();
+
+        /*
+         * Function to add an edge to the graph
+         * */
+        public void addEdge(String label, String... next) {
+            adj.put(label, new Vertex(label));
+            if (!next[0].isEmpty()) {
+                Collections.addAll(adj.get(label).next, next);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Depth First Search
+     *
+     * DFS(G)
+     *   for each vertex u ∈ G.V
+     *       u.color = WHITE
+     *       u.π = NIL
+     *   time = 0
+     *   for each vertex u ∈ G.V
+     *   if u.color == WHITE
+     *       DFS-VISIT(G, u)
+     *
+     * Performed in Θ(V + E) time
+     * */
+    public static LinkedList<String> sort(Graph graph) {
+        LinkedList<String> list = new LinkedList<>();
+        graph.adj.forEach((name, vertex) -> {
+            if (vertex.color == Color.WHITE) {
+                list.addFirst(sort(graph, vertex, list));
+            }
+        });
+        return list;
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Depth First Search Visit
+     *
+     * DFS-Visit(G, u)
+     *   time = time + 1
+     *   u.d = time
+     *   u.color = GRAY
+     *   for each v ∈ G.Adj[u]
+     *       if v.color == WHITE
+     *           v.π = u
+     *           DFS-Visit(G, u)
+     *   u.color = BLACK
+     *   time = time + 1
+     *   u.f = time
+     * */
+    private static String sort(Graph graph, Vertex u, LinkedList<String> list) {
+        u.color = Color.GRAY;
+        graph.adj.get(u.label).next.forEach(label -> {
+            if (graph.adj.get(label).color == Color.WHITE) {
+                list.addFirst(sort(graph, graph.adj.get(label), list));
+            } else if (graph.adj.get(label).color == Color.GRAY) {
+                /*
+                 * A back edge exists if an edge (u, v) connects a vertex u to its ancestor vertex v
+                 * in a depth first tree. If v.d ≤ u.d < u.f ≤ v.f
+                 *
+                 * In many cases, we will not know u.f, but v.color denotes the type of edge
+                 * */
+                throw new RuntimeException("This graph contains a cycle. No linear ordering is possible. Back edge: " + u.label + " -> " + label);
+            }
+        });
+        u.color = Color.BLACK;
+        return u.label;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java
index 664585833a01..6f4e5509489d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
 import static com.thealgorithms.sorts.SortUtils.print;
-import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BSTRecursiveGeneric;
 
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BSTRecursiveGeneric;
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ private <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] doTreeSortArray(T[] unsortedArray) {
         return unsortedArray;
     }
 
-    private <T extends Comparable<T>> List<T> doTreeSortList(List<T> unsortedList) {
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> List<T> doTreeSortList(Iterable<T> unsortedList) {
         // create a generic BST tree
         BSTRecursiveGeneric<T> tree = new BSTRecursiveGeneric<T>();
 
@@ -70,42 +70,49 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         // ==== Integer Array =======
         System.out.println("Testing for Integer Array....");
         Integer[] a = {3, -7, 45, 1, 343, -5, 2, 9};
-        System.out.print(String.format("%-10s", "unsorted: "));
+        System.out.printf("%-10s", "unsorted: ");
         print(a);
         a = treeSort.sort(a);
-        System.out.print(String.format("%-10s", "sorted: "));
+        System.out.printf("%-10s", "sorted: ");
         print(a);
         System.out.println();
 
         // ==== Integer List =======
         System.out.println("Testing for Integer List....");
         List<Integer> intList = List.of(3, -7, 45, 1, 343, -5, 2, 9);
-        System.out.print(String.format("%-10s", "unsorted: "));
+        System.out.printf("%-10s", "unsorted: ");
         print(intList);
         intList = treeSort.sort(intList);
-        System.out.print(String.format("%-10s", "sorted: "));
+        System.out.printf("%-10s", "sorted: ");
         print(intList);
         System.out.println();
 
         // ==== String Array =======
         System.out.println("Testing for String Array....");
-        String[] b = {"banana", "berry", "orange", "grape", "peach", "cherry", "apple", "pineapple"};
-        System.out.print(String.format("%-10s", "unsorted: "));
+        String[] b = {
+            "banana",
+            "berry",
+            "orange",
+            "grape",
+            "peach",
+            "cherry",
+            "apple",
+            "pineapple",
+        };
+        System.out.printf("%-10s", "unsorted: ");
         print(b);
         b = treeSort.sort(b);
-        System.out.print(String.format("%-10s", "sorted: "));
+        System.out.printf("%-10s", "sorted: ");
         print(b);
         System.out.println();
 
         // ==== String List =======
         System.out.println("Testing for String List....");
         List<String> stringList = List.of("banana", "berry", "orange", "grape", "peach", "cherry", "apple", "pineapple");
-        System.out.print(String.format("%-10s", "unsorted: "));
+        System.out.printf("%-10s", "unsorted: ");
         print(stringList);
         stringList = treeSort.sort(stringList);
-        System.out.print(String.format("%-10s", "sorted: "));
+        System.out.printf("%-10s", "sorted: ");
         print(stringList);
-
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WaveSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WaveSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..31aad52c6b4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WaveSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * The WaveSort algorithm sorts an array so that every alternate element is greater than its adjacent elements.
+ * This implementation also provides a method to check if an array is wave sorted.
+ */
+public class WaveSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+    /**
+     * Sorts the given array such that every alternate element is greater than its adjacent elements.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to be sorted.
+     * @param <T> The type of elements in the array, which must be Comparable.
+     * @return The sorted array.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] array) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i += 2) {
+            if (i > 0 && SortUtils.less(array[i], array[i - 1])) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i, i - 1);
+            }
+            if (i < array.length - 1 && SortUtils.less(array[i], array[i + 1])) {
+                SortUtils.swap(array, i, i + 1);
+            }
+        }
+        return array;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the given array is wave sorted. An array is wave sorted if every alternate element is greater than its adjacent elements.
+     *
+     * @param array The array to check.
+     * @param <T> The type of elements in the array, which must be Comparable.
+     * @return true if the array is wave sorted, false otherwise.
+     */
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> boolean isWaveSorted(T[] array) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i += 2) {
+            if (i > 0 && SortUtils.less(array[i], array[i - 1])) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            if (i < array.length - 1 && SortUtils.less(array[i], array[i + 1])) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSort.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c272b820d07a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSort.java
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static com.thealgorithms.maths.Ceil.ceil;
+import static com.thealgorithms.maths.Floor.floor;
+import static com.thealgorithms.searches.QuickSelect.select;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * A wiggle sort implementation based on John L.s' answer in
+ * https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/125372/how-to-wiggle-sort-an-array-in-linear-time-complexity
+ * Also have a look at:
+ * https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/125372/how-to-wiggle-sort-an-array-in-linear-time-complexity?noredirect=1&lq=1
+ * Not all arrays are wiggle-sortable. This algorithm will find some obviously not wiggle-sortable
+ * arrays and throw an error, but there are some exceptions that won't be caught, for example [1, 2,
+ * 2].
+ */
+public class WiggleSort implements SortAlgorithm {
+
+    @Override
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] sort(T[] unsorted) {
+        return wiggleSort(unsorted);
+    }
+
+    private int mapIndex(int index, int n) {
+        return ((2 * index + 1) % (n | 1));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Modified Dutch National Flag Sort. See also: sorts/DutchNationalFlagSort
+     *
+     * @param sortThis array to sort into group "greater", "equal" and "smaller" than median
+     * @param median   defines the groups
+     * @param <T>      extends interface Comparable
+     */
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> void triColorSort(T[] sortThis, T median) {
+        int n = sortThis.length;
+        int i = 0;
+        int j = 0;
+        int k = n - 1;
+        while (j <= k) {
+            if (0 < sortThis[mapIndex(j, n)].compareTo(median)) {
+                SortUtils.swap(sortThis, mapIndex(j, n), mapIndex(i, n));
+                i++;
+                j++;
+            } else if (0 > sortThis[mapIndex(j, n)].compareTo(median)) {
+                SortUtils.swap(sortThis, mapIndex(j, n), mapIndex(k, n));
+                k--;
+            } else {
+                j++;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private <T extends Comparable<T>> T[] wiggleSort(T[] sortThis) {
+        // find the median using quickSelect (if the result isn't in the array, use the next greater
+        // value)
+        T median;
+
+        median = select(Arrays.asList(sortThis), (int) floor(sortThis.length / 2.0));
+
+        int numMedians = 0;
+
+        for (T sortThi : sortThis) {
+            if (0 == sortThi.compareTo(median)) {
+                numMedians++;
+            }
+        }
+        // added condition preventing off-by-one errors for odd arrays.
+        // https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/150886/how-to-find-wiggle-sortable-arrays-did-i-misunderstand-john-l-s-answer?noredirect=1&lq=1
+        if (sortThis.length % 2 == 1 && numMedians == ceil(sortThis.length / 2.0)) {
+            T smallestValue = select(Arrays.asList(sortThis), 0);
+            if (!(0 == smallestValue.compareTo(median))) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("For odd Arrays if the median appears ceil(n/2) times, "
+                    + "the median has to be the smallest values in the array.");
+            }
+        }
+        if (numMedians > ceil(sortThis.length / 2.0)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("No more than half the number of values may be the same.");
+        }
+
+        triColorSort(sortThis, median);
+        return sortThis;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/BalancedBrackets.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/BalancedBrackets.java
similarity index 74%
rename from src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/BalancedBrackets.java
rename to src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/BalancedBrackets.java
index d0342d53955e..d3077ff54135 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/BalancedBrackets.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/BalancedBrackets.java
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
 
 import java.util.Stack;
 
@@ -16,7 +16,9 @@
  * @author <a href="https://github.com/khalil2535">khalil2535<a>
  * @author shellhub
  */
-class BalancedBrackets {
+final class BalancedBrackets {
+    private BalancedBrackets() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Check if {@code leftBracket} and {@code rightBracket} is paired or not
@@ -31,7 +33,7 @@ public static boolean isPaired(char leftBracket, char rightBracket) {
             {'(', ')'},
             {'[', ']'},
             {'{', '}'},
-            {'<', '>'}
+            {'<', '>'},
         };
         for (char[] pairedBracket : pairedBrackets) {
             if (pairedBracket[0] == leftBracket && pairedBracket[1] == rightBracket) {
@@ -55,28 +57,24 @@ public static boolean isBalanced(String brackets) {
         Stack<Character> bracketsStack = new Stack<>();
         for (char bracket : brackets.toCharArray()) {
             switch (bracket) {
-                case '(':
-                case '[':
-                case '{':
-                    bracketsStack.push(bracket);
-                    break;
-                case ')':
-                case ']':
-                case '}':
-                    if (bracketsStack.isEmpty() || !isPaired(bracketsStack.pop(), bracket)) {
-                        return false;
-                    }
-                    break;
-                default:
-                    /* other character is invalid */
+            case '(':
+            case '[':
+            case '<':
+            case '{':
+                bracketsStack.push(bracket);
+                break;
+            case ')':
+            case ']':
+            case '>':
+            case '}':
+                if (bracketsStack.isEmpty() || !isPaired(bracketsStack.pop(), bracket)) {
                     return false;
+                }
+                break;
+            default:
+                return false;
             }
         }
         return bracketsStack.isEmpty();
     }
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert isBalanced("[()]{}{[()()]()}");
-        assert !isBalanced("[(])");
-    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/CelebrityFinder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/CelebrityFinder.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..67ac861ef82b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/CelebrityFinder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Solves the celebrity problem using a stack-based algorithm.
+ *
+ * <p>Celebrity is someone known by everyone but doesn't know anyone else.
+ * <p>Applications: Graph theory and social network analysis.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class CelebrityFinder {
+    private CelebrityFinder() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the celebrity in the given party matrix using a stack-based algorithm.
+     *
+     * @param party A 2D matrix where party[i][j] is 1 if i knows j, otherwise 0.
+     * @return The index of the celebrity, or -1 if there is no celebrity.
+     */
+    public static int findCelebrity(int[][] party) {
+
+        // Push all people onto the stack
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < party.length; i++) {
+            stack.push(i);
+        }
+
+        // Find the potential celebrity by comparing pairs
+        while (stack.size() > 1) {
+            int person1 = stack.pop();
+            int person2 = stack.pop();
+
+            if (party[person1][person2] == 1) {
+                stack.push(person2); // person1 knows person2, so person2 might be the celebrity
+            } else {
+                stack.push(person1); // person1 doesn't know person2, so person1 might be the celebrity
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Verify the candidate
+        int candidate = stack.pop();
+        for (int i = 0; i < party.length; i++) {
+            if (i != candidate && (party[candidate][i] == 1 || party[i][candidate] == 0)) {
+                return -1;
+            }
+        }
+        return candidate;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStack.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2852454fd096
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStack.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for converting a non-negative decimal (base-10) integer
+ * to its representation in another radix (base) between 2 and 16, inclusive.
+ *
+ * <p>This class uses a stack-based approach to reverse the digits obtained from
+ * successive divisions by the target radix.
+ *
+ * <p>This class cannot be instantiated.</p>
+ */
+public final class DecimalToAnyUsingStack {
+
+    private DecimalToAnyUsingStack() {
+    }
+
+    private static final char[] DIGITS = {'0', '1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F'};
+
+    /**
+     * Convert a decimal number to another radix.
+     *
+     * @param number the number to be converted
+     * @param radix the radix
+     * @return the number represented in the new radix as a String
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if number is negative or radix is not between 2 and 16 inclusive
+     */
+    public static String convert(int number, int radix) {
+        if (number < 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number must be non-negative.");
+        }
+        if (radix < 2 || radix > 16) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(String.format("Invalid radix: %d. Radix must be between 2 and 16.", radix));
+        }
+
+        if (number == 0) {
+            return "0";
+        }
+
+        Stack<Character> digitStack = new Stack<>();
+        while (number > 0) {
+            digitStack.push(DIGITS[number % radix]);
+            number /= radix;
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(digitStack.size());
+        while (!digitStack.isEmpty()) {
+            result.append(digitStack.pop());
+        }
+
+        return result.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DuplicateBrackets.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DuplicateBrackets.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..25d265232151
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DuplicateBrackets.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Class for detecting unnecessary or redundant brackets in a mathematical expression.
+ * Assumes the expression is balanced (i.e., all opening brackets have matching closing brackets).
+ */
+public final class DuplicateBrackets {
+    private DuplicateBrackets() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks for extra or redundant brackets in a given expression.
+     *
+     * @param expression the string representing the expression to be checked
+     * @return true if there are extra or redundant brackets, false otherwise
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input string is null
+     */
+    public static boolean check(String expression) {
+        if (expression == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input expression cannot be null.");
+        }
+
+        Stack<Character> stack = new Stack<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < expression.length(); i++) {
+            char ch = expression.charAt(i);
+            if (ch == ')') {
+                if (stack.isEmpty() || stack.peek() == '(') {
+                    return true;
+                }
+                while (!stack.isEmpty() && stack.peek() != '(') {
+                    stack.pop();
+                }
+                if (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+                    stack.pop();
+                }
+            } else {
+                stack.push(ch);
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTime.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..be9d0099d38b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTime.java
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * A class that implements a stack that gives the maximum element in O(1) time.
+ * The mainStack is used to store the all the elements of the stack
+ * While the maxStack stores the maximum elements
+ * When we want to get a maximum element, we call the top of the maximum stack
+ *
+ * Problem: https://www.baeldung.com/cs/stack-constant-time
+ */
+public class GreatestElementConstantTime {
+    private Stack<Integer> mainStack; // initialize a mainStack
+    private Stack<Integer> maxStack; // initialize a maxStack
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs two empty stacks
+     */
+    public GreatestElementConstantTime() {
+        mainStack = new Stack<>();
+        maxStack = new Stack<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Pushes an element onto the top of the stack.
+     * Checks if the element is the maximum or not
+     * If so, then pushes to the maximum stack
+     * @param data The element to be pushed onto the stack.
+     */
+    public void push(int data) {
+        if (mainStack.isEmpty()) {
+            mainStack.push(data);
+            maxStack.push(data);
+            return;
+        }
+
+        mainStack.push(data);
+        if (data > maxStack.peek()) {
+            maxStack.push(data);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Pops an element from the stack.
+     * Checks if the element to be popped is the maximum or not
+     * If so, then pop from the minStack
+     *
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the stack is empty.
+     */
+    public void pop() {
+        if (mainStack.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Stack is empty");
+        }
+
+        int ele = mainStack.pop();
+        if (ele == maxStack.peek()) {
+            maxStack.pop();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the maximum element present in the stack
+     *
+     * @return The element at the top of the maxStack, or null if the stack is empty.
+     */
+    public Integer getMaximumElement() {
+        if (maxStack.isEmpty()) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        return maxStack.peek();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPostfix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPostfix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..77ca3e70849f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPostfix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+import java.util.regex.Matcher;
+import java.util.regex.Pattern;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for converting an infix arithmetic expression
+ * into its equivalent postfix (Reverse Polish Notation) form.
+ * <p>
+ * This class provides a static method to perform the conversion,
+ * validating balanced brackets before processing.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class InfixToPostfix {
+
+    private InfixToPostfix() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a given infix expression string to a postfix expression string.
+     * <p>
+     * The method first checks if the brackets in the input expression are balanced
+     * by calling {@code BalancedBrackets.isBalanced} on the filtered brackets.
+     * If the brackets are not balanced, it throws an IllegalArgumentException.
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Supported operators are: {@code +, -, *, /, ^}
+     * and operands can be letters or digits.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param infixExpression the arithmetic expression in infix notation
+     * @return the equivalent postfix notation expression
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the brackets in the expression are unbalanced
+     */
+    public static String infix2PostFix(String infixExpression) {
+        if (!BalancedBrackets.isBalanced(filterBrackets(infixExpression))) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid expression: unbalanced brackets.");
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder output = new StringBuilder();
+        Stack<Character> operatorStack = new Stack<>();
+
+        for (char token : infixExpression.toCharArray()) {
+            if (Character.isLetterOrDigit(token)) {
+                // Append operands (letters or digits) directly to output
+                output.append(token);
+            } else if (token == '(') {
+                // Push '(' to stack
+                operatorStack.push(token);
+            } else if (token == ')') {
+                // Pop and append until '(' is found
+                while (!operatorStack.isEmpty() && operatorStack.peek() != '(') {
+                    output.append(operatorStack.pop());
+                }
+                operatorStack.pop(); // Remove '(' from stack
+            } else {
+                // Pop operators with higher or equal precedence and append them
+                while (!operatorStack.isEmpty() && precedence(token) <= precedence(operatorStack.peek())) {
+                    output.append(operatorStack.pop());
+                }
+                operatorStack.push(token);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Pop any remaining operators
+        while (!operatorStack.isEmpty()) {
+            output.append(operatorStack.pop());
+        }
+
+        return output.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the precedence level of the given operator.
+     *
+     * @param operator the operator character (e.g., '+', '-', '*', '/', '^')
+     * @return the precedence value: higher means higher precedence,
+     *         or -1 if the character is not a recognized operator
+     */
+    private static int precedence(char operator) {
+        return switch (operator) {
+            case '+', '-' -> 0;
+            case '*', '/' -> 1;
+            case '^' -> 2;
+            default -> -1;
+        };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Extracts only the bracket characters from the input string.
+     * Supports parentheses (), curly braces {}, square brackets [], and angle brackets &lt;&gt;.
+     *
+     * @param input the original expression string
+     * @return a string containing only bracket characters from the input
+     */
+    private static String filterBrackets(String input) {
+        Pattern pattern = Pattern.compile("[^(){}\\[\\]<>]");
+        Matcher matcher = pattern.matcher(input);
+        return matcher.replaceAll("");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPrefix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPrefix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e9ee5e208df6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPrefix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+import java.util.regex.Matcher;
+import java.util.regex.Pattern;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for converting an infix arithmetic expression
+ * into its equivalent prefix notation expression.
+ * <p>
+ * This class provides a static method to perform the conversion,
+ * validating balanced brackets before processing.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class InfixToPrefix {
+
+    private InfixToPrefix() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a given infix expression string to a prefix expression string.
+     * <p>
+     * The method validates that the input expression has balanced brackets using
+     * {@code BalancedBrackets.isBalanced} on the filtered bracket characters.
+     * It throws an {@code IllegalArgumentException} if the brackets are unbalanced,
+     * and a {@code NullPointerException} if the input is null.
+     * </p>
+     * <p>
+     * Supported operators: {@code +, -, *, /, ^} and operands can be letters or digits.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param infixExpression the arithmetic expression in infix notation
+     * @return the equivalent prefix notation expression
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if brackets are unbalanced
+     * @throws NullPointerException     if the input expression is null
+     */
+    public static String infix2Prefix(String infixExpression) {
+        if (infixExpression == null) {
+            throw new NullPointerException("Input expression cannot be null.");
+        }
+
+        infixExpression = infixExpression.trim();
+        if (infixExpression.isEmpty()) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        if (!BalancedBrackets.isBalanced(filterBrackets(infixExpression))) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid expression: unbalanced brackets.");
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder output = new StringBuilder();
+        Stack<Character> operatorStack = new Stack<>();
+
+        // Reverse the infix expression to facilitate prefix conversion
+        String reversedInfix = new StringBuilder(infixExpression).reverse().toString();
+
+        for (char token : reversedInfix.toCharArray()) {
+            if (Character.isLetterOrDigit(token)) {
+                // Append operands directly to output
+                output.append(token);
+            } else if (token == ')') {
+                // Push ')' onto stack (since expression is reversed, '(' and ')' roles swapped)
+                operatorStack.push(token);
+            } else if (token == '(') {
+                // Pop operators until ')' is found
+                while (!operatorStack.isEmpty() && operatorStack.peek() != ')') {
+                    output.append(operatorStack.pop());
+                }
+                operatorStack.pop(); // Remove the ')'
+            } else {
+                // Pop operators with higher precedence before pushing current operator
+                while (!operatorStack.isEmpty() && precedence(token) < precedence(operatorStack.peek())) {
+                    output.append(operatorStack.pop());
+                }
+                operatorStack.push(token);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Append any remaining operators in stack
+        while (!operatorStack.isEmpty()) {
+            output.append(operatorStack.pop());
+        }
+
+        // Reverse the output to obtain the final prefix expression
+        return output.reverse().toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the precedence level of the given operator.
+     *
+     * @param operator the operator character (e.g., '+', '-', '*', '/', '^')
+     * @return the precedence value: higher means higher precedence,
+     *         or -1 if the character is not a recognized operator
+     */
+    private static int precedence(char operator) {
+        return switch (operator) {
+            case '+', '-' -> 0;
+            case '*', '/' -> 1;
+            case '^' -> 2;
+            default -> -1;
+        };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Extracts only the bracket characters from the input string.
+     * Supports parentheses (), curly braces {}, square brackets [], and angle brackets &lt;&gt;.
+     *
+     * @param input the original expression string
+     * @return a string containing only bracket characters from the input
+     */
+    private static String filterBrackets(String input) {
+        Pattern pattern = Pattern.compile("[^(){}\\[\\]<>]");
+        Matcher matcher = pattern.matcher(input);
+        return matcher.replaceAll("");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/LargestRectangle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/LargestRectangle.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..eb222c8c488e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/LargestRectangle.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class to calculate the largest rectangle area in a histogram.
+ * Each bar's width is assumed to be 1 unit.
+ *
+ * <p>This implementation uses a monotonic stack to efficiently calculate
+ * the area of the largest rectangle that can be formed from the histogram bars.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>Example usage:
+ * <pre>{@code
+ *     int[] heights = {2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 3};
+ *     String area = LargestRectangle.largestRectangleHistogram(heights);
+ *     // area is "10"
+ * }</pre>
+ */
+public final class LargestRectangle {
+
+    private LargestRectangle() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the largest rectangle area in the given histogram.
+     *
+     * @param heights an array of non-negative integers representing bar heights
+     * @return the largest rectangle area as a {@link String}
+     */
+    public static String largestRectangleHistogram(int[] heights) {
+        int maxArea = 0;
+        Stack<int[]> stack = new Stack<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < heights.length; i++) {
+            int start = i;
+            while (!stack.isEmpty() && stack.peek()[1] > heights[i]) {
+                int[] popped = stack.pop();
+                maxArea = Math.max(maxArea, popped[1] * (i - popped[0]));
+                start = popped[0];
+            }
+            stack.push(new int[] {start, heights[i]});
+        }
+
+        int totalLength = heights.length;
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            int[] remaining = stack.pop();
+            maxArea = Math.max(maxArea, remaining[1] * (totalLength - remaining[0]));
+        }
+
+        return Integer.toString(maxArea);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/MaximumMinimumWindow.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MaximumMinimumWindow.java
similarity index 87%
rename from src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/MaximumMinimumWindow.java
rename to src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MaximumMinimumWindow.java
index 74090db6bf25..d76122b16632 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/MaximumMinimumWindow.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MaximumMinimumWindow.java
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
 
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.Stack;
@@ -27,7 +27,9 @@
  *
  * @author sahil
  */
-public class MaximumMinimumWindow {
+public final class MaximumMinimumWindow {
+    private MaximumMinimumWindow() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * This function contains the logic of finding maximum of minimum for every
@@ -39,8 +41,8 @@ public class MaximumMinimumWindow {
      */
     public static int[] calculateMaxOfMin(int[] arr, int n) {
         Stack<Integer> s = new Stack<>();
-        int left[] = new int[n + 1];
-        int right[] = new int[n + 1];
+        int[] left = new int[n + 1];
+        int[] right = new int[n + 1];
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             left[i] = -1;
             right[i] = n;
@@ -74,7 +76,7 @@ public static int[] calculateMaxOfMin(int[] arr, int n) {
             s.push(i);
         }
 
-        int ans[] = new int[n + 1];
+        int[] ans = new int[n + 1];
         for (int i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
             ans[i] = 0;
         }
@@ -96,11 +98,10 @@ public static int[] calculateMaxOfMin(int[] arr, int n) {
         return ans;
     }
 
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        int[] arr = new int[]{10, 20, 30, 50, 10, 70, 30};
-        int[] target = new int[]{70, 30, 20, 10, 10, 10, 10};
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {10, 20, 30, 50, 10, 70, 30};
+        int[] target = new int[] {70, 30, 20, 10, 10, 10, 10};
         int[] res = calculateMaxOfMin(arr, arr.length);
         assert Arrays.equals(target, res);
     }
-
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStack.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f5e526b102cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStack.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.EmptyStackException;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Min-Stack implementation using a single stack.
+ *
+ * This stack supports push, pop, and retrieving the minimum element
+ * in constant time (O(1)) using a modified approach where the stack
+ * stores both the element and the minimum value so far.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public class MinStackUsingSingleStack {
+    private final Stack<long[]> stack = new Stack<>();
+
+    /**
+     * Pushes a new value onto the stack.
+     * Each entry stores both the value and the minimum value so far.
+     *
+     * @param value The value to be pushed onto the stack.
+     */
+    public void push(int value) {
+        if (stack.isEmpty()) {
+            stack.push(new long[] {value, value});
+        } else {
+            long minSoFar = Math.min(value, stack.peek()[1]);
+            stack.push(new long[] {value, minSoFar});
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the top element from the stack.
+     */
+    public void pop() {
+        if (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            stack.pop();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the top element from the stack.
+     *
+     * @return The top element of the stack.
+     */
+    public int top() {
+        if (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            return (int) stack.peek()[0];
+        }
+        throw new EmptyStackException();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the minimum element in the stack.
+     *
+     * @return The minimum element so far.
+     */
+    public int getMin() {
+        if (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            return (int) stack.peek()[1];
+        }
+        throw new EmptyStackException();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingTwoStacks.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingTwoStacks.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..47e337c80b59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingTwoStacks.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Min-Stack implementation that supports push, pop, and retrieving the minimum element in constant time.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class MinStackUsingTwoStacks {
+    MinStackUsingTwoStacks() {
+    }
+
+    private final Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+    private final Stack<Integer> minStack = new Stack<>();
+
+    /**
+     * Pushes a new element onto the {@code stack}.
+     * If the value is less than or equal to the current minimum, it is also pushed onto the {@code minStack}.
+     *
+     * @param value The value to be pushed.
+     */
+    public void push(int value) {
+        stack.push(value);
+        if (minStack.isEmpty() || value <= minStack.peek()) {
+            minStack.push(value);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the top element from the stack.
+     * If the element is the minimum element, it is also removed from the {@code minStack}.
+     */
+    public void pop() {
+        if (stack.pop().equals(minStack.peek())) {
+            minStack.pop();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the top element of the stack.
+     *
+     * @return The top element.
+     */
+    public int top() {
+        return stack.peek();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Retrieves the minimum element in the stack.
+     *
+     * @return The minimum element.
+     */
+    public int getMin() {
+        return minStack.peek();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextGreaterElement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextGreaterElement.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8b7c9c3ef9cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextGreaterElement.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class to find the next greater element for each element in a given integer array.
+ *
+ * <p>The next greater element for an element x is the first greater element on the right side of x in the array.
+ * If no such element exists, the result will contain 0 for that position.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>Example:</p>
+ * <pre>
+ * Input:  {2, 7, 3, 5, 4, 6, 8}
+ * Output: {7, 0, 5, 6, 6, 8, 0}
+ * </pre>
+ */
+public final class NextGreaterElement {
+    private NextGreaterElement() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the next greater element for each element in the given array.
+     *
+     * @param array the input array of integers
+     * @return an array where each element is replaced by the next greater element on the right side in the input array,
+     * or 0 if there is no greater element.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input array is null
+     */
+    public static int[] findNextGreaterElements(int[] array) {
+        if (array == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        int[] result = new int[array.length];
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            while (!stack.isEmpty() && array[stack.peek()] < array[i]) {
+                result[stack.pop()] = array[i];
+            }
+            stack.push(i);
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextSmallerElement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextSmallerElement.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..254bb3b4b2d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextSmallerElement.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class to find the next smaller element for each element in a given integer array.
+ *
+ * <p>The next smaller element for an element x is the first smaller element on the left side of x in the array.
+ * If no such element exists, the result will contain -1 for that position.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>Example:</p>
+ * <pre>
+ * Input:  {2, 7, 3, 5, 4, 6, 8}
+ * Output: [-1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 6]
+ * </pre>
+ */
+public final class NextSmallerElement {
+    private NextSmallerElement() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the next smaller element for each element in the given array.
+     *
+     * @param array the input array of integers
+     * @return an array where each element is replaced by the next smaller element on the left side in the input array,
+     * or -1 if there is no smaller element.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input array is null
+     */
+    public static int[] findNextSmallerElements(int[] array) {
+        if (array == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        int[] result = new int[array.length];
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+
+        // Initialize all elements to -1 (in case there is no smaller element)
+        Arrays.fill(result, -1);
+
+        // Traverse the array from left to right
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            // Maintain the stack such that the top of the stack is the next smaller element
+            while (!stack.isEmpty() && stack.peek() >= array[i]) {
+                stack.pop();
+            }
+
+            // If stack is not empty, then the top is the next smaller element
+            if (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+                result[i] = stack.peek();
+            }
+
+            // Push the current element onto the stack
+            stack.push(array[i]);
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStack.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..98c439341a21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStack.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+
+/**
+ * A class that implements a palindrome checker using a stack.
+ * The stack is used to store the characters of the string,
+ * which we will pop one-by-one to create the string in reverse.
+ *
+ * Reference: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/check-whether-the-given-string-is-palindrome-using-stack/
+ */
+public class PalindromeWithStack {
+    private LinkedList<Character> stack;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an empty stack that stores characters.
+     */
+    public PalindromeWithStack() {
+        stack = new LinkedList<Character>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Check if the string is a palindrome or not.
+     * Convert all characters to lowercase and push them into a stack.
+     * At the same time, build a string
+     * Next, pop from the stack and build the reverse string
+     * Finally, compare these two strings
+     *
+     * @param string The string to check if it is palindrome or not.
+     */
+    public boolean checkPalindrome(String string) {
+        // Create a StringBuilder to build the string from left to right
+        StringBuilder stringBuilder = new StringBuilder(string.length());
+        // Convert all characters to lowercase
+        String lowercase = string.toLowerCase();
+
+        // Iterate through the string
+        for (int i = 0; i < lowercase.length(); ++i) {
+            char c = lowercase.charAt(i);
+            // Build the string from L->R
+            stringBuilder.append(c);
+            // Push to the stack
+            stack.push(c);
+        }
+
+        // The stack contains the reverse order of the string
+        StringBuilder reverseString = new StringBuilder(stack.size());
+        // Until the stack is not empty
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            // Build the string from R->L
+            reverseString.append(stack.pop());
+        }
+
+        // Finally, compare the L->R string with the R->L string
+        return reverseString.toString().equals(stringBuilder.toString());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixEvaluator.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixEvaluator.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..02ef5af8da16
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixEvaluator.java
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Evaluate a postfix (Reverse Polish) expression using a stack.
+ *
+ * <p>Example: Expression "5 6 + 2 *" results in 22.
+ * <p>Applications: Used in calculators and expression evaluation in compilers.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class PostfixEvaluator {
+    private PostfixEvaluator() {
+    }
+
+    private static final Set<String> OPERATORS = Set.of("+", "-", "*", "/");
+
+    /**
+     * Evaluates the given postfix expression and returns the result.
+     *
+     * @param expression The postfix expression as a string with operands and operators separated by spaces.
+     * @return The result of evaluating the postfix expression.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the expression is invalid.
+     */
+    public static int evaluatePostfix(String expression) {
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+
+        for (String token : expression.split("\\s+")) {
+            if (isOperator(token)) {
+                int operand2 = stack.pop();
+                int operand1 = stack.pop();
+                stack.push(applyOperator(token, operand1, operand2));
+            } else {
+                stack.push(Integer.valueOf(token));
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (stack.size() != 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid expression");
+        }
+
+        return stack.pop();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the given token is an operator.
+     *
+     * @param token The token to check.
+     * @return true if the token is an operator, false otherwise.
+     */
+    private static boolean isOperator(String token) {
+        return OPERATORS.contains(token);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Applies the given operator to the two operands.
+     *
+     * @param operator The operator to apply.
+     * @param a The first operand.
+     * @param b The second operand.
+     * @return The result of applying the operator to the operands.
+     */
+    private static int applyOperator(String operator, int a, int b) {
+        return switch (operator) {
+            case "+" -> a + b;
+            case "-" -> a - b;
+            case "*" -> a * b;
+            case "/" -> a / b;
+            default -> throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid operator");
+        };
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a8f98ac53e5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Postfix to Infix implementation via Stack
+ *
+ * Function: String getPostfixToInfix(String postfix)
+ * Returns the Infix Expression for the given postfix parameter.
+ *
+ * Avoid using parentheses/brackets/braces for the postfix string.
+ * Postfix Expressions don't require these.
+ *
+ *
+ * @author nikslyon19 (Nikhil Bisht)
+ *
+ */
+
+public final class PostfixToInfix {
+    private PostfixToInfix() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Determines if a given character is a valid arithmetic operator.
+     *
+     * @param token the character to check
+     * @return true if the character is an operator, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isOperator(char token) {
+        return token == '+' || token == '-' || token == '/' || token == '*' || token == '^';
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Validates whether a given string is a valid postfix expression.
+     *
+     * A valid postfix expression must meet these criteria:
+     * 1. It should have at least one operator and two operands.
+     * 2. The number of operands should always be greater than the number of operators at any point in the traversal.
+     *
+     * @param postfix the postfix expression string to validate
+     * @return true if the expression is valid, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isValidPostfixExpression(String postfix) {
+        if (postfix.length() == 1 && (Character.isAlphabetic(postfix.charAt(0)))) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        if (postfix.length() < 3) {
+            return false; // Postfix expression should have at least one operator and two operands
+        }
+
+        int operandCount = 0;
+        int operatorCount = 0;
+
+        for (char token : postfix.toCharArray()) {
+            if (isOperator(token)) {
+                operatorCount++;
+                if (operatorCount >= operandCount) {
+                    return false; // Invalid: more operators than operands at any point
+                }
+            } else {
+                operandCount++;
+            }
+        }
+
+        return operandCount == operatorCount + 1;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a valid postfix expression to an infix expression.
+     *
+     * @param postfix the postfix expression to convert
+     * @return the equivalent infix expression
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the postfix expression is invalid
+     */
+    public static String getPostfixToInfix(String postfix) {
+        if (postfix.isEmpty()) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        if (!isValidPostfixExpression(postfix)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid Postfix Expression");
+        }
+
+        Stack<String> stack = new Stack<>();
+        StringBuilder valueString = new StringBuilder();
+
+        for (char token : postfix.toCharArray()) {
+            if (!isOperator(token)) {
+                stack.push(Character.toString(token));
+            } else {
+                String operandB = stack.pop();
+                String operandA = stack.pop();
+                valueString.append('(').append(operandA).append(token).append(operandB).append(')');
+                stack.push(valueString.toString());
+                valueString.setLength(0);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return stack.pop();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixEvaluator.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixEvaluator.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..eb2ce95e18d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixEvaluator.java
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Evaluate a prefix (Polish) expression using a stack.
+ *
+ * <p>Example: Expression "+ * 2 3 4" results in 10.
+ * <p>Applications: Useful for implementing compilers and interpreters.
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class PrefixEvaluator {
+    private PrefixEvaluator() {
+    }
+
+    private static final Set<String> OPERATORS = Set.of("+", "-", "*", "/");
+
+    /**
+     * Evaluates the given prefix expression and returns the result.
+     *
+     * @param expression The prefix expression as a string with operands and operators separated by spaces.
+     * @return The result of evaluating the prefix expression.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the expression is invalid.
+     */
+    public static int evaluatePrefix(String expression) {
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+        String[] tokens = expression.split("\\s+");
+
+        for (int i = tokens.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            String token = tokens[i];
+            if (isOperator(token)) {
+                int operand1 = stack.pop();
+                int operand2 = stack.pop();
+                stack.push(applyOperator(token, operand1, operand2));
+            } else {
+                stack.push(Integer.valueOf(token));
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (stack.size() != 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid expression");
+        }
+
+        return stack.pop();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the given token is an operator.
+     *
+     * @param token The token to check.
+     * @return true if the token is an operator, false otherwise.
+     */
+    private static boolean isOperator(String token) {
+        return OPERATORS.contains(token);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Applies the given operator to the two operands.
+     *
+     * @param operator The operator to apply.
+     * @param a The first operand.
+     * @param b The second operand.
+     * @return The result of applying the operator to the operands.
+     */
+    private static int applyOperator(String operator, int a, int b) {
+        return switch (operator) {
+            case "+" -> a + b;
+            case "-" -> a - b;
+            case "*" -> a * b;
+            case "/" -> a / b;
+            default -> throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid operator");
+        };
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..41eb974b0e5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * Converts a prefix expression to an infix expression using a stack.
+ *
+ * The input prefix expression should consist of
+ * valid operands (letters or digits) and operators (+, -, *, /, ^).
+ * Parentheses are not required in the prefix string.
+ */
+public final class PrefixToInfix {
+    private PrefixToInfix() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Determines if a given character is a valid arithmetic operator.
+     *
+     * @param token the character to check
+     * @return true if the character is an operator, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isOperator(char token) {
+        return token == '+' || token == '-' || token == '/' || token == '*' || token == '^';
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts a valid prefix expression to an infix expression.
+     *
+     * @param prefix the prefix expression to convert
+     * @return the equivalent infix expression
+     * @throws NullPointerException     if the prefix expression is null
+     */
+    public static String getPrefixToInfix(String prefix) {
+        if (prefix == null) {
+            throw new NullPointerException("Null prefix expression");
+        }
+        if (prefix.isEmpty()) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        Stack<String> stack = new Stack<>();
+
+        // Iterate over the prefix expression from right to left
+        for (int i = prefix.length() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            char token = prefix.charAt(i);
+
+            if (isOperator(token)) {
+                // Pop two operands from stack
+                String operandA = stack.pop();
+                String operandB = stack.pop();
+
+                // Form the infix expression with parentheses
+                String infix = "(" + operandA + token + operandB + ")";
+
+                // Push the resulting infix expression back onto the stack
+                stack.push(infix);
+            } else {
+                // Push operand onto stack
+                stack.push(Character.toString(token));
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (stack.size() != 1) {
+            throw new ArithmeticException("Malformed prefix expression");
+        }
+
+        return stack.pop(); // final element on the stack is the full infix expression
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTime.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9864ef9b0f97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTime.java
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * A class that implements a stack that gives the minimum element in O(1) time.
+ * The mainStack is used to store the all the elements of the stack
+ * While the minStack stores the minimum elements
+ * When we want to get a minimum element, we call the top of the minimum stack
+ *
+ * Problem: https://www.baeldung.com/cs/stack-constant-time
+ */
+public class SmallestElementConstantTime {
+    private Stack<Integer> mainStack; // initialize a mainStack
+    private Stack<Integer> minStack; // initialize a minStack
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs two empty stacks
+     */
+    public SmallestElementConstantTime() {
+        mainStack = new Stack<>();
+        minStack = new Stack<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Pushes an element onto the top of the stack.
+     * Checks if the element is the minimum or not
+     * If so, then pushes to the minimum stack
+     * @param data The element to be pushed onto the stack.
+     */
+    public void push(int data) {
+        if (mainStack.isEmpty()) {
+            mainStack.push(data);
+            minStack.push(data);
+            return;
+        }
+
+        mainStack.push(data);
+        if (data < minStack.peek()) {
+            minStack.push(data);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Pops an element from the stack.
+     * Checks if the element to be popped is the minimum or not
+     * If so, then pop from the minStack
+     *
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the stack is empty.
+     */
+    public void pop() {
+        if (mainStack.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Stack is empty");
+        }
+
+        int ele = mainStack.pop();
+        if (ele == minStack.peek()) {
+            minStack.pop();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the minimum element present in the stack
+     *
+     * @return The element at the top of the minStack, or null if the stack is empty.
+     */
+    public Integer getMinimumElement() {
+        if (minStack.isEmpty()) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        return minStack.peek();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStack.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d07d1a5f1dc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStack.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class that provides a method to sort a stack using recursion.
+ * The elements are sorted in ascending order, with the largest element at the top.
+ * This algorithm is implemented using only recursion and the original stack,
+ * without utilizing any additional data structures apart from the stack itself.
+ */
+public final class SortStack {
+    private SortStack() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts the given stack in ascending order using recursion.
+     * The sorting is performed such that the largest element ends up on top of the stack.
+     * This method modifies the original stack and does not return a new stack.
+     *
+     * The algorithm works as follows:
+     * 1. Remove the top element.
+     * 2. Recursively sort the remaining stack.
+     * 3. Insert the removed element back into the sorted stack at the correct position.
+     *
+     * @param stack The stack to be sorted, containing Integer elements.
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the stack contains `null` elements.
+     */
+    public static void sortStack(Stack<Integer> stack) {
+        if (stack.isEmpty()) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        int top = stack.pop();
+        sortStack(stack);
+        insertInSortedOrder(stack, top);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to insert an element into the correct position in a sorted stack.
+     * This method is called recursively to place the given element into the stack
+     * such that the stack remains sorted in ascending order.
+     *
+     * The element is inserted in such a way that all elements below it are smaller
+     * (if the stack is non-empty), and elements above it are larger, maintaining
+     * the ascending order.
+     *
+     * @param stack The stack in which the element needs to be inserted.
+     * @param element The element to be inserted into the stack in sorted order.
+     */
+    private static void insertInSortedOrder(Stack<Integer> stack, int element) {
+        if (stack.isEmpty() || element > stack.peek()) {
+            stack.push(element);
+            return;
+        }
+
+        int top = stack.pop();
+        insertInSortedOrder(stack, element);
+        stack.push(top);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackPostfixNotation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackPostfixNotation.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..690f39d36f5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackPostfixNotation.java
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.Scanner;
+import java.util.Stack;
+import java.util.function.BiFunction;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for evaluating postfix expressions using integer arithmetic.
+ * <p>
+ * Postfix notation, also known as Reverse Polish Notation (RPN), is a mathematical notation in which operators follow their operands.
+ * This class provides a method to evaluate expressions written in postfix notation.
+ * </p>
+ * <p>
+ * For more information on postfix notation, refer to
+ * <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation">Reverse Polish Notation (RPN) on Wikipedia</a>.
+ * </p>
+ */
+public final class StackPostfixNotation {
+    private StackPostfixNotation() {
+    }
+
+    private static BiFunction<Integer, Integer, Integer> getOperator(final String operationSymbol) {
+        // note the order of operands
+        switch (operationSymbol) {
+        case "+":
+            return (a, b) -> b + a;
+        case "-":
+            return (a, b) -> b - a;
+        case "*":
+            return (a, b) -> b * a;
+        case "/":
+            return (a, b) -> b / a;
+        default:
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("exp contains an unknown operation.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static void performOperation(Stack<Integer> s, final String operationSymbol) {
+        if (s.size() < 2) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("exp is not a proper postfix expression (too few arguments).");
+        }
+        s.push(getOperator(operationSymbol).apply(s.pop(), s.pop()));
+    }
+
+    private static void consumeExpression(Stack<Integer> s, final String exp) {
+        Scanner tokens = new Scanner(exp);
+
+        while (tokens.hasNext()) {
+            if (tokens.hasNextInt()) {
+                s.push(tokens.nextInt());
+            } else {
+                performOperation(s, tokens.next());
+            }
+        }
+        tokens.close();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Evaluates the given postfix expression.
+     * @param exp the expression to evaluate.
+     * @return the value of the given expression.
+     * @exception IllegalArgumentException exp is not a valid postix expression.
+     */
+    public static int postfixEvaluate(final String exp) {
+        Stack<Integer> s = new Stack<>();
+        consumeExpression(s, exp);
+        if (s.size() != 1) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("exp is not a proper postfix expression.");
+        }
+        return s.pop();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackUsingTwoQueues.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackUsingTwoQueues.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5b1ca5d1d5a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackUsingTwoQueues.java
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+/**
+ * A class that implements a stack using two queues.
+ * This approach ensures that the stack's LIFO (Last In, First Out) behavior
+ * is maintained by utilizing two queues for storage.
+ * The mainQueue is used to store the elements of the stack, while the tempQueue
+ * is used to temporarily store elements during the push operation.
+ */
+public class StackUsingTwoQueues {
+
+    private Queue<Integer> mainQueue;
+    private Queue<Integer> tempQueue;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs an empty stack using two queues.
+     */
+    public StackUsingTwoQueues() {
+        mainQueue = new LinkedList<>();
+        tempQueue = new LinkedList<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Pushes an element onto the top of the stack.
+     * The newly pushed element becomes the top of the stack.
+     *
+     * @param item The element to be pushed onto the stack.
+     */
+    public void push(int item) {
+        tempQueue.add(item);
+
+        // Move all elements from the mainQueue to tempQueue to maintain LIFO order
+        while (!mainQueue.isEmpty()) {
+            tempQueue.add(mainQueue.remove());
+        }
+
+        // Swap the names of the two queues
+        Queue<Integer> swap = mainQueue;
+        mainQueue = tempQueue;
+        tempQueue = swap; // tempQueue is now empty
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes and returns the element at the top of the stack.
+     * Throws an exception if the stack is empty.
+     *
+     * @return The element at the top of the stack.
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if the stack is empty.
+     */
+    public int pop() {
+        if (mainQueue.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Stack is empty");
+        }
+        return mainQueue.remove();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the element at the top of the stack without removing it.
+     * Returns null if the stack is empty.
+     *
+     * @return The element at the top of the stack, or null if the stack is empty.
+     */
+    public Integer peek() {
+        if (mainQueue.isEmpty()) {
+            return null;
+        }
+        return mainQueue.peek();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns true if the stack is empty.
+     *
+     * @return true if the stack is empty; false otherwise.
+     */
+    public boolean isEmpty() {
+        return mainQueue.isEmpty();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the number of elements in the stack.
+     *
+     * @return The size of the stack.
+     */
+    public int size() {
+        return mainQueue.size();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AhoCorasick.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AhoCorasick.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a68d0823a00d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AhoCorasick.java
@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+/*
+ * Aho-Corasick String Matching Algorithm Implementation
+ *
+ * This code implements the Aho-Corasick algorithm, which is used for efficient
+ * string matching in a given text. It can find multiple patterns simultaneously
+ * and records their positions in the text.
+ *
+ * Author: Prabhat-Kumar-42
+ * GitHub: https://github.com/Prabhat-Kumar-42
+ */
+
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+public final class AhoCorasick {
+    private AhoCorasick() {
+    }
+
+    // Trie Node Class
+    private static class Node {
+        // Represents a character in the trie
+        private final Map<Character, Node> child = new HashMap<>(); // Child nodes of the current node
+        private Node suffixLink; // Suffix link to another node in the trie
+        private Node outputLink; // Output link to another node in the trie
+        private int patternInd; // Index of the pattern that ends at this node
+
+        Node() {
+            this.suffixLink = null;
+            this.outputLink = null;
+            this.patternInd = -1;
+        }
+
+        public Map<Character, Node> getChild() {
+            return child;
+        }
+
+        public Node getSuffixLink() {
+            return suffixLink;
+        }
+
+        public void setSuffixLink(final Node suffixLink) {
+            this.suffixLink = suffixLink;
+        }
+
+        public Node getOutputLink() {
+            return outputLink;
+        }
+
+        public void setOutputLink(final Node outputLink) {
+            this.outputLink = outputLink;
+        }
+
+        public int getPatternInd() {
+            return patternInd;
+        }
+
+        public void setPatternInd(final int patternInd) {
+            this.patternInd = patternInd;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Trie Class
+    public static class Trie {
+
+        private Node root = null; // Root node of the trie
+        private final String[] patterns; // patterns according to which Trie is constructed
+
+        public Trie(final String[] patterns) {
+            root = new Node(); // Initialize the root of the trie
+            this.patterns = patterns;
+            buildTrie();
+            buildSuffixAndOutputLinks();
+        }
+
+        // builds AhoCorasick Trie
+        private void buildTrie() {
+
+            // Loop through each input pattern and building Trie
+            for (int i = 0; i < patterns.length; i++) {
+                Node curr = root; // Start at the root of the trie for each pattern
+
+                // Loop through each character in the current pattern
+                for (int j = 0; j < patterns[i].length(); j++) {
+                    char c = patterns[i].charAt(j); // Get the current character
+
+                    // Check if the current node has a child for the current character
+                    if (curr.getChild().containsKey(c)) {
+                        curr = curr.getChild().get(c); // Update the current node to the child node
+                    } else {
+                        // If no child node exists, create a new one and add it to the current node's children
+                        Node nn = new Node();
+                        curr.getChild().put(c, nn);
+                        curr = nn; // Update the current node to the new child node
+                    }
+                }
+                curr.setPatternInd(i); // Store the index of the pattern in the current leaf node
+            }
+        }
+
+        private void initializeSuffixLinksForChildNodesOfTheRoot(Queue<Node> q) {
+            for (char rc : root.getChild().keySet()) {
+                Node childNode = root.getChild().get(rc);
+                q.add(childNode); // Add child node to the queue
+                childNode.setSuffixLink(root); // Set suffix link to the root
+            }
+        }
+
+        private void buildSuffixAndOutputLinks() {
+            root.setSuffixLink(root); // Initialize the suffix link of the root to itself
+            Queue<Node> q = new LinkedList<>(); // Initialize a queue for BFS traversal
+
+            initializeSuffixLinksForChildNodesOfTheRoot(q);
+
+            while (!q.isEmpty()) {
+                Node currentState = q.poll(); // Get the current node for processing
+
+                // Iterate through child nodes of the current node
+                for (char cc : currentState.getChild().keySet()) {
+                    Node currentChild = currentState.getChild().get(cc); // Get the child node
+                    Node parentSuffix = currentState.getSuffixLink(); // Get the parent's suffix link
+
+                    // Calculate the suffix link for the child based on the parent's suffix link
+                    while (!parentSuffix.getChild().containsKey(cc) && parentSuffix != root) {
+                        parentSuffix = parentSuffix.getSuffixLink();
+                    }
+
+                    // Set the calculated suffix link or default to root
+                    if (parentSuffix.getChild().containsKey(cc)) {
+                        currentChild.setSuffixLink(parentSuffix.getChild().get(cc));
+                    } else {
+                        currentChild.setSuffixLink(root);
+                    }
+
+                    q.add(currentChild); // Add the child node to the queue for further processing
+                }
+
+                // Establish output links for nodes to efficiently identify patterns within patterns
+                if (currentState.getSuffixLink().getPatternInd() >= 0) {
+                    currentState.setOutputLink(currentState.getSuffixLink());
+                } else {
+                    currentState.setOutputLink(currentState.getSuffixLink().getOutputLink());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        private List<List<Integer>> initializePositionByStringIndexValue() {
+            List<List<Integer>> positionByStringIndexValue = new ArrayList<>(patterns.length); // Stores positions where patterns are found in the text
+            for (int i = 0; i < patterns.length; i++) {
+                positionByStringIndexValue.add(new ArrayList<>());
+            }
+            return positionByStringIndexValue;
+        }
+
+        // Searches for patterns in the input text and records their positions
+        public List<List<Integer>> searchIn(final String text) {
+            var positionByStringIndexValue = initializePositionByStringIndexValue(); // Initialize a list to store positions of the current pattern
+            Node parent = root; // Start searching from the root node
+
+            PatternPositionRecorder positionRecorder = new PatternPositionRecorder(positionByStringIndexValue);
+
+            for (int i = 0; i < text.length(); i++) {
+                char ch = text.charAt(i); // Get the current character in the text
+
+                // Check if the current node has a child for the current character
+                if (parent.getChild().containsKey(ch)) {
+                    parent = parent.getChild().get(ch); // Update the current node to the child node
+                    positionRecorder.recordPatternPositions(parent, i); // Use the method in PatternPositionRecorder to record positions
+                } else {
+                    // If no child node exists for the character, backtrack using suffix links
+                    while (parent != root && !parent.getChild().containsKey(ch)) {
+                        parent = parent.getSuffixLink();
+                    }
+                    if (parent.getChild().containsKey(ch)) {
+                        i--; // Decrement i to reprocess the same character
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            setUpStartPoints(positionByStringIndexValue);
+            return positionByStringIndexValue;
+        }
+
+        // by default positionByStringIndexValue contains end-points. This function converts those
+        // endpoints to start points
+        private void setUpStartPoints(List<List<Integer>> positionByStringIndexValue) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < patterns.length; i++) {
+                for (int j = 0; j < positionByStringIndexValue.get(i).size(); j++) {
+                    int endpoint = positionByStringIndexValue.get(i).get(j);
+                    positionByStringIndexValue.get(i).set(j, endpoint - patterns[i].length() + 1);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Class to handle pattern position recording
+    private record PatternPositionRecorder(List<List<Integer>> positionByStringIndexValue) {
+        // Constructor to initialize the recorder with the position list
+
+        /**
+         * Records positions for a pattern when it's found in the input text and follows
+         * output links to record positions of other patterns.
+         *
+         * @param parent          The current node representing a character in the pattern trie.
+         * @param currentPosition The current position in the input text.
+         */
+        public void recordPatternPositions(final Node parent, final int currentPosition) {
+            // Check if the current node represents the end of a pattern
+            if (parent.getPatternInd() > -1) {
+                // Add the current position to the list of positions for the found pattern
+                positionByStringIndexValue.get(parent.getPatternInd()).add(currentPosition);
+            }
+
+            Node outputLink = parent.getOutputLink();
+            // Follow output links to find and record positions of other patterns
+            while (outputLink != null) {
+                // Add the current position to the list of positions for the pattern linked by outputLink
+                positionByStringIndexValue.get(outputLink.getPatternInd()).add(currentPosition);
+                outputLink = outputLink.getOutputLink();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // method to search for patterns in text
+    public static Map<String, List<Integer>> search(final String text, final String[] patterns) {
+        final var trie = new Trie(patterns);
+        final var positionByStringIndexValue = trie.searchIn(text);
+        return convert(positionByStringIndexValue, patterns);
+    }
+
+    // method for converting results to a map
+    private static Map<String, List<Integer>> convert(final List<List<Integer>> positionByStringIndexValue, final String[] patterns) {
+        Map<String, List<Integer>> positionByString = new HashMap<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < patterns.length; i++) {
+            String pattern = patterns[i];
+            List<Integer> positions = positionByStringIndexValue.get(i);
+            positionByString.put(pattern, new ArrayList<>(positions));
+        }
+        return positionByString;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Alphabetical.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Alphabetical.java
index fde17c883917..ef2974eb427d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Alphabetical.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Alphabetical.java
@@ -1,34 +1,32 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
 /**
+ * Utility class for checking if a string's characters are in alphabetical order.
+ * <p>
  * Alphabetical order is a system whereby character strings are placed in order
  * based on the position of the characters in the conventional ordering of an
- * alphabet. Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabetical_order
+ * alphabet.
+ * <p>
+ * Reference: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabetical_order">Wikipedia: Alphabetical Order</a>
  */
-class Alphabetical {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert !isAlphabetical("123abc");
-        assert isAlphabetical("aBC");
-        assert isAlphabetical("abc");
-        assert !isAlphabetical("xyzabc");
-        assert isAlphabetical("abcxyz");
+public final class Alphabetical {
+    private Alphabetical() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Check if a string is alphabetical order or not
+     * Checks whether the characters in the given string are in alphabetical order.
+     * Non-letter characters will cause the check to fail.
      *
-     * @param s a string
-     * @return {@code true} if given string is alphabetical order, otherwise
-     * {@code false}
+     * @param s the input string
+     * @return {@code true} if all characters are in alphabetical order (case-insensitive), otherwise {@code false}
      */
     public static boolean isAlphabetical(String s) {
         s = s.toLowerCase();
         for (int i = 0; i < s.length() - 1; ++i) {
-            if (!Character.isLetter(s.charAt(i)) || !(s.charAt(i) <= s.charAt(i + 1))) {
+            if (!Character.isLetter(s.charAt(i)) || s.charAt(i) > s.charAt(i + 1)) {
                 return false;
             }
         }
-        return true;
+        return !s.isEmpty() && Character.isLetter(s.charAt(s.length() - 1));
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlternativeStringArrange.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlternativeStringArrange.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cf736dbd8cab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlternativeStringArrange.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+/**
+ * This class provides a method to arrange two strings by alternating their characters.
+ * If one string is longer, the remaining characters of the longer string are appended at the end.
+ * <p>
+ * Example:
+ * Input: "abc", "12345"
+ * Output: "a1b2c345"
+ * <p>
+ * Input: "abcd", "12"
+ * Output: "a1b2cd"
+ *
+ * @author Milad Sadeghi
+ */
+public final class AlternativeStringArrange {
+
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation
+    private AlternativeStringArrange() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Arranges two strings by alternating their characters.
+     *
+     * @param firstString  the first input string
+     * @param secondString the second input string
+     * @return a new string with characters from both strings arranged alternately
+     */
+    public static String arrange(String firstString, String secondString) {
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();
+        int length1 = firstString.length();
+        int length2 = secondString.length();
+        int minLength = Math.min(length1, length2);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < minLength; i++) {
+            result.append(firstString.charAt(i));
+            result.append(secondString.charAt(i));
+        }
+
+        if (length1 > length2) {
+            result.append(firstString.substring(minLength));
+        } else if (length2 > length1) {
+            result.append(secondString.substring(minLength));
+        }
+
+        return result.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java
index f76db06c4d58..5b97af0758f2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java
@@ -1,150 +1,151 @@
-/** Author : Siddhant Swarup Mallick
- * Github : https://github.com/siddhant2002
- */
-
-/** PROBLEM DESCRIPTION :
- * An anagram is a word or phrase formed by rearranging the letters of a different word or phrase, typically using all the original letters exactly once.[1] For example, the word anagram itself can be rearranged into nag a ram, also the word binary into brainy and the word adobe into abode. Reference from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagram
- */
-
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
-import java.util.*;
-public class Anagrams 
-{
-    // 4 approaches are provided for anagram checking. approach 2 and approach 3 are similar but differ in running time.
-    public static void main(String args[]) {
-        String first = "deal";
-        String second = "lead";
-        // All the below methods takes input but doesn't return any output to the main method.
-        Anagrams nm=new Anagrams();
-        System.out.println(nm.approach2(first, second));  /* To activate methods for different approaches*/
-        System.out.println(nm.approach1(first, second));  /* To activate methods for different approaches*/
-        System.out.println(nm.approach3(first, second));  /* To activate methods for different approaches*/
-        System.out.println(nm.approach4(first, second));  /* To activate methods for different approaches*/
 
-        /**
-         * OUTPUT :
-         * first string ="deal" second string ="lead"
-         * Output: Anagram
-         * Input and output is constant for all four approaches
-         * 1st approach Time Complexity : O(n logn)
-         * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
-         * 2nd approach Time Complexity : O(n)
-         * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
-         * 3rd approach Time Complexity : O(n)
-         * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(1)
-         * 4th approach Time Complexity : O(n)
-         * Auxiliary Space Complexity : O(n)
-         */
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+
+/**
+ * An anagram is a word or phrase formed by rearranging the letters of a different word or phrase,
+ * typically using all the original letters exactly once.[1]
+ * For example, the word anagram itself can be rearranged into nag a ram,
+ * also the word binary into brainy and the word adobe into abode.
+ * Reference from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagram
+ */
+public final class Anagrams {
+    private Anagrams() {
     }
 
-    boolean approach1(String s, String t) 
-    {
-        if (s.length() != t.length())
-        {
+    /**
+     * Checks if two strings are anagrams by sorting the characters and comparing them.
+     * Time Complexity: O(n log n)
+     * Space Complexity: O(n)
+     *
+     * @param s the first string
+     * @param t the second string
+     * @return true if the strings are anagrams, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean areAnagramsBySorting(String s, String t) {
+        s = s.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        t = t.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        if (s.length() != t.length()) {
             return false;
         }
-        else 
-        {
-            char c[] = s.toCharArray();
-            char d[] = t.toCharArray();
-            Arrays.sort(c);
-            Arrays.sort(d);    /* In this approach the strings are stored in the character arrays and both the arrays are sorted. After that both the arrays are compared for checking anangram */
-            if (Arrays.equals(c, d)) 
-            {
-                return true;
-            } else 
-            {
+        char[] c = s.toCharArray();
+        char[] d = t.toCharArray();
+        Arrays.sort(c);
+        Arrays.sort(d);
+        return Arrays.equals(c, d);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if two strings are anagrams by counting the frequency of each character.
+     * Time Complexity: O(n)
+     * Space Complexity: O(1)
+     *
+     * @param s the first string
+     * @param t the second string
+     * @return true if the strings are anagrams, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean areAnagramsByCountingChars(String s, String t) {
+        s = s.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        t = t.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        int[] dict = new int[128];
+        for (char ch : s.toCharArray()) {
+            dict[ch]++;
+        }
+        for (char ch : t.toCharArray()) {
+            dict[ch]--;
+        }
+        for (int e : dict) {
+            if (e != 0) {
                 return false;
             }
         }
+        return true;
     }
 
-    boolean approach2(String a, String b)
-    {
-        if(a.length()!=b.length())
-        {
+    /**
+     * Checks if two strings are anagrams by counting the frequency of each character
+     * using a single array.
+     * Time Complexity: O(n)
+     * Space Complexity: O(1)
+     *
+     * @param s the first string
+     * @param t the second string
+     * @return true if the strings are anagrams, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean areAnagramsByCountingCharsSingleArray(String s, String t) {
+        s = s.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        t = t.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        if (s.length() != t.length()) {
             return false;
         }
-        else
-        {
-            int m[]=new int[26];
-            int n[]=new int[26];
-            for(char c: a.toCharArray())
-            {
-                m[c-'a']++;
-            }
-            // In this approach the frequency of both the strings are stored and after that the frequencies are iterated from 0 to 26(from 'a' to 'z' ). If the frequencies match then anagram message is displayed in the form of boolean format
-            // Running time and space complexity of this algo is less as compared to others
-            for(char c:b.toCharArray())
-            {
-                n[c-'a']++;
-            }
-            for(int i=0;i<26;i++)
-            {
-                if(m[i]!=n[i])
-                {
-                    return false;
-                }
+        int[] charCount = new int[26];
+        for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++) {
+            charCount[s.charAt(i) - 'a']++;
+            charCount[t.charAt(i) - 'a']--;
+        }
+        for (int count : charCount) {
+            if (count != 0) {
+                return false;
             }
-            return true;
         }
+        return true;
     }
 
-    boolean approach3(String s, String t)
-    {
-        if(s.length()!=t.length())
-        {
+    /**
+     * Checks if two strings are anagrams using a HashMap to store character frequencies.
+     * Time Complexity: O(n)
+     * Space Complexity: O(n)
+     *
+     * @param s the first string
+     * @param t the second string
+     * @return true if the strings are anagrams, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean areAnagramsUsingHashMap(String s, String t) {
+        s = s.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        t = t.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        if (s.length() != t.length()) {
             return false;
         }
-        // this is similar to approach number 2 but here the string is not converted to character array
-        else
-        {
-            int a[]=new int[26];
-            int b[]=new int[26];
-            int k=s.length();
-            for(int i=0;i<k;i++)
-            {
-                a[s.charAt(i)-'a']++;
-                b[t.charAt(i)-'a']++;
-            }
-            for(int i=0;i<26;i++)
-            {
-                if(a[i]!=b[i])
-                    return false;
+        HashMap<Character, Integer> charCountMap = new HashMap<>();
+        for (char c : s.toCharArray()) {
+            charCountMap.put(c, charCountMap.getOrDefault(c, 0) + 1);
+        }
+        for (char c : t.toCharArray()) {
+            if (!charCountMap.containsKey(c) || charCountMap.get(c) == 0) {
+                return false;
             }
-            return true;
+            charCountMap.put(c, charCountMap.get(c) - 1);
         }
+        return charCountMap.values().stream().allMatch(count -> count == 0);
     }
 
-    boolean approach4(String s, String t)
-    {
-        if(s.length()!=t.length())
-        {
-             return false;
+    /**
+     * Checks if two strings are anagrams using an array to track character frequencies.
+     * This approach optimizes space complexity by using only one array.
+     * Time Complexity: O(n)
+     * Space Complexity: O(1)
+     *
+     * @param s the first string
+     * @param t the second string
+     * @return true if the strings are anagrams, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean areAnagramsBySingleFreqArray(String s, String t) {
+        s = s.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        t = t.toLowerCase().replaceAll("[^a-z]", "");
+        if (s.length() != t.length()) {
+            return false;
         }
-        // This approach is done using hashmap where frequencies are stored and checked iteratively and if all the frequencies of first string match with the second string then anagram message is displayed in boolean format
-        else
-        {
-            HashMap<Character,Integer> nm=new HashMap<>(); 
-            HashMap<Character,Integer> kk=new HashMap<>();
-            for(char c: s.toCharArray())
-            {
-                nm.put(c, nm.getOrDefault(c,0)+1);
-            }
-            for(char c: t.toCharArray())
-            {
-            
-                kk.put(c, kk.getOrDefault(c,0)+1);
+        int[] freq = new int[26];
+        for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++) {
+            freq[s.charAt(i) - 'a']++;
+            freq[t.charAt(i) - 'a']--;
+        }
+        for (int count : freq) {
+            if (count != 0) {
+                return false;
             }
-            // It checks for equal frequencies
-            for(char c:nm.keySet())
-            {
-                if(!nm.get(c).equals(kk.get(c)))
-                {
-                    return false;
-                }
-            } 
-            return true;
         }
+        return true;
     }
-}
\ No newline at end of file
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSame.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSame.java
index e0243fa8edef..68785052e0e1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSame.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSame.java
@@ -1,27 +1,23 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
-public class CharactersSame {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert isAllCharactersSame("");
-        assert !isAllCharactersSame("aab");
-        assert isAllCharactersSame("aaa");
-        assert isAllCharactersSame("11111");
+public final class CharactersSame {
+    private CharactersSame() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * check if all the characters of a string are same
+     * Checks if all characters in the string are the same.
      *
      * @param s the string to check
-     * @return {@code true} if all characters of a string are same, otherwise
-     * {@code false}
+     * @return {@code true} if all characters in the string are the same or if the string is empty, otherwise {@code false}
      */
     public static boolean isAllCharactersSame(String s) {
-        for (int i = 1, length = s.length(); i < length; ++i) {
-            if (s.charAt(i) != s.charAt(0)) {
+        if (s.isEmpty()) {
+            return true; // Empty strings can be considered as having "all the same characters"
+        }
+
+        char firstChar = s.charAt(0);
+        for (int i = 1; i < s.length(); i++) {
+            if (s.charAt(i) != firstChar) {
                 return false;
             }
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckAnagrams.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckAnagrams.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 87ec3faeb9a5..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckAnagrams.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,53 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.strings;
-
-import java.util.HashMap;
-import java.util.Map;
-
-/**
- * Two strings are anagrams if they are made of the same letters arranged
- * differently (ignoring the case).
- */
-public class CheckAnagrams {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert isAnagrams("Silent", "Listen");
-        assert isAnagrams("This is a string", "Is this a string");
-        assert !isAnagrams("There", "Their");
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Check if two strings are anagrams or not
-     *
-     * @param s1 the first string
-     * @param s2 the second string
-     * @return {@code true} if two string are anagrams, otherwise {@code false}
-     */
-    public static boolean isAnagrams(String s1, String s2) {
-        int l1 = s1.length();
-        int l2 = s2.length();
-        s1 = s1.toLowerCase();
-        s2 = s2.toLowerCase();
-        Map<Character, Integer> charAppearances = new HashMap<>();
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < l1; i++) {
-            char c = s1.charAt(i);
-            int numOfAppearances = charAppearances.getOrDefault(c, 0);
-            charAppearances.put(c, numOfAppearances + 1);
-        }
-
-        for (int i = 0; i < l2; i++) {
-            char c = s2.charAt(i);
-            if (!charAppearances.containsKey(c)) {
-                return false;
-            }
-            charAppearances.put(c, charAppearances.get(c) - 1);
-        }
-
-        for (int cnt : charAppearances.values()) {
-            if (cnt != 0) {
-                return false;
-            }
-        }
-        return true;
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java
index 6121812a11a1..21b536b5c7d5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java
@@ -1,53 +1,34 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
+import java.util.Set;
+
 /**
  * Vowel Count is a system whereby character strings are placed in order based
  * on the position of the characters in the conventional ordering of an
  * alphabet. Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabetical_order
  */
-class CheckVowels {
+public final class CheckVowels {
+    private static final Set<Character> VOWELS = Set.of('a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u');
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert !hasVowels("This is a strings");
-        assert hasVowels("Hello World");
-        assert hasVowels("Java is fun");
-        assert !hasVowels("123hi");
-        assert hasVowels("Coding vs Programming");
+    private CheckVowels() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Check if a string is has vowels or not
+     * Checks if a string contains any vowels.
      *
-     * @param input a string
-     * @return {@code true} if given string has vowels, otherwise {@code false}
+     * @param input a string to check
+     * @return {@code true} if the given string contains at least one vowel, otherwise {@code false}
      */
     public static boolean hasVowels(String input) {
-        if (input.matches("[AEIOUaeiou]")) {
-            countVowels(input);
-            return true;
+        if (input == null || input.isEmpty()) {
+            return false;
         }
-        return false;
-    }
 
-    /**
-     * count the number of vowels
-     *
-     * @param input a string prints the count of vowels
-     */
-    public static void countVowels(String input) {
-        input = input.toLowerCase();
-        int count = 0;
-        int i = 0;
-        while (i < input.length()) {
-            if (input.charAt(i) == 'a'
-                    || input.charAt(i) == 'e'
-                    || input.charAt(i) == 'i'
-                    || input.charAt(i) == 'o'
-                    || input.charAt(i) == 'u') {
-                count++;
+        for (char c : input.toLowerCase().toCharArray()) {
+            if (VOWELS.contains(c)) {
+                return true;
             }
-            i++;
         }
-        System.out.println(count);
+        return false;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountChar.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountChar.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..348905445347
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountChar.java
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+public final class CountChar {
+    private CountChar() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of non-whitespace characters in the given string.
+     *
+     * @param str the input string to count the characters in
+     * @return the number of non-whitespace characters in the specified string;
+     *         returns 0 if the input string is null
+     */
+    public static int countCharacters(String str) {
+        if (str == null) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        return str.replaceAll("\\s", "").length();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountWords.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountWords.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8ab0700f5586
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountWords.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+/**
+ * @author Marcus
+ */
+public final class CountWords {
+    private CountWords() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of words in the input string. Words are defined as sequences of
+     * characters separated by whitespace.
+     *
+     * @param s the input string
+     * @return the number of words in the input string, or 0 if the string is null or empty
+     */
+    public static int wordCount(String s) {
+        if (s == null || s.isEmpty()) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        return s.trim().split("\\s+").length;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes all special characters from the input string, leaving only alphanumeric characters
+     * and whitespace.
+     *
+     * @param s the input string
+     * @return a string containing only alphanumeric characters and whitespace
+     */
+    private static String removeSpecialCharacters(String s) {
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
+        for (char c : s.toCharArray()) {
+            if (Character.isLetterOrDigit(c) || Character.isWhitespace(c)) {
+                sb.append(c);
+            }
+        }
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Counts the number of words in a sentence, ignoring all non-alphanumeric characters that do
+     * not contribute to word formation. This method has a time complexity of O(n), where n is the
+     * length of the input string.
+     *
+     * @param s the input string
+     * @return the number of words in the input string, with special characters removed, or 0 if the string is null
+     */
+    public static int secondaryWordCount(String s) {
+        if (s == null) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        return wordCount(removeSpecialCharacters(s));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HammingDistance.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HammingDistance.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..235e317d94f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HammingDistance.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+/**
+ * Class for calculating the Hamming distance between two strings of equal length.
+ * <p>
+ * The Hamming distance is the number of positions at which the corresponding symbols are different.
+ * It is used in information theory, coding theory, and computer science.
+ * </p>
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamming_distance">Hamming distance - Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class HammingDistance {
+    private HammingDistance() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Calculates the Hamming distance between two strings of equal length.
+     * <p>
+     * The Hamming distance is defined only for strings of equal length. If the strings are not
+     * of equal length, this method throws an {@code IllegalArgumentException}.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param s1 the first string
+     * @param s2 the second string
+     * @return the Hamming distance between the two strings
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the lengths of {@code s1} and {@code s2} are not equal
+     */
+    public static int calculateHammingDistance(String s1, String s2) {
+        if (s1 == null || s2 == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Strings must not be null");
+        }
+
+        if (s1.length() != s2.length()) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("String lengths must be equal");
+        }
+
+        int distance = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < s1.length(); i++) {
+            if (s1.charAt(i) != s2.charAt(i)) {
+                distance++;
+            }
+        }
+        return distance;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java
index d886c9f47ae5..d9187cbf66c4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java
@@ -44,7 +44,9 @@
  * recommend checking out the wikipedia page and professor Anany Levitin's book:
  * Introduction To The Design And Analysis Of Algorithms.
  */
-public class HorspoolSearch {
+public final class HorspoolSearch {
+    private HorspoolSearch() {
+    }
 
     private static HashMap<Character, Integer> shiftValues; // bad symbol table
     private static Integer patternLength;
@@ -96,12 +98,14 @@ private static int firstOccurrence(String pattern, String text, boolean caseSens
         shiftValues = calcShiftValues(pattern); // build the bad symbol table
         comparisons = 0; // reset comparisons
 
-        int textIndex
-                = pattern.length() - 1; // align pattern with text start and get index of the last character
+        if (pattern.length() == 0) { // return failure, if pattern empty
+            return -1;
+        }
+
+        int textIndex = pattern.length() - 1; // align pattern with text start and get index of the last character
 
         // while pattern is not out of text bounds
         while (textIndex < text.length()) {
-
             // try to match pattern with current part of the text starting from last character
             int i = pattern.length() - 1;
             while (i >= 0) {
@@ -155,9 +159,7 @@ private static HashMap<Character, Integer> calcShiftValues(String pattern) {
         patternLength = pattern.length();
         HashMap<Character, Integer> table = new HashMap<>();
 
-        for (int i = pattern.length() - 2;
-                i >= 0;
-                i--) { // length - 2 is the index of the second to last character
+        for (int i = pattern.length() - 2; i >= 0; i--) { // length - 2 is the index of the second to last character
             char c = pattern.charAt(i);
             int finalI = i;
             table.computeIfAbsent(c, k -> pattern.length() - 1 - finalI);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isogram.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isogram.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b37f085b075d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isogram.java
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * An isogram (also called heterogram or nonpattern word) is a word in which no
+ * letter of the word occurs more than once. Each character appears exactly
+ * once.
+ *
+ * For example, the word "uncopyrightable" is the longest common English isogram
+ * with 15 unique letters. Other examples include "dermatoglyphics" (15
+ * letters),
+ * "background" (10 letters), "python" (6 letters), and "keyboard" (8 letters).
+ * But words like "hello" and "programming" are not isograms because some
+ * letters
+ * appear multiple times ('l' appears twice in "hello", while 'r', 'm', 'g'
+ * repeat
+ * in "programming").
+ *
+ * Isograms are particularly valuable in creating substitution ciphers and are
+ * studied in recreational linguistics. A perfect pangram, which uses all 26
+ * letters
+ * of the alphabet exactly once, is a special type of isogram.
+ *
+ * Reference from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogram_(literature)#Isograms
+ */
+public final class Isogram {
+    /**
+     * Private constructor to prevent instantiation of utility class.
+     */
+    private Isogram() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a string is an isogram using boolean array approach.
+     *
+     * Time Complexity: O(n)
+     * Space Complexity: O(1)
+     *
+     * @param str the input string
+     * @return true if the string is an isogram, false otherwise
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the string contains non-alphabetic
+     *                                  characters
+     */
+    public static boolean isAlphabeticIsogram(String str) {
+        if (str == null || str.isEmpty()) {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        str = str.toLowerCase();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < str.length(); i++) {
+            char ch = str.charAt(i);
+            if (ch < 'a' || ch > 'z') {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input contains non-alphabetic character: '" + ch + "'");
+            }
+        }
+
+        boolean[] seenChars = new boolean[26];
+        for (int i = 0; i < str.length(); i++) {
+            char ch = str.charAt(i);
+            int index = ch - 'a';
+            if (seenChars[index]) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            seenChars[index] = true;
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a string is an isogram using length comparison approach.
+     * Time Complexity: O(n)
+     * Space Complexity: O(k) where k is the number of unique characters
+     *
+     * @param str the input string
+     * @return true if the string is an isogram, false otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean isFullIsogram(String str) {
+        if (str == null || str.isEmpty()) {
+            return true;
+        }
+        str = str.toLowerCase();
+
+        Set<Character> uniqueChars = new HashSet<>();
+        for (char ch : str.toCharArray()) {
+            uniqueChars.add(ch);
+        }
+        return uniqueChars.size() == str.length();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isomorphic.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isomorphic.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7ee00e62e16b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isomorphic.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Set;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class to check if two strings are isomorphic.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * Two strings {@code s} and {@code t} are isomorphic if the characters in {@code s}
+ * can be replaced to get {@code t}, while preserving the order of characters.
+ * Each character must map to exactly one character, and no two characters can map to the same character.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphism_(computer_science)">Isomorphic Strings</a>
+ */
+public final class Isomorphic {
+
+    private Isomorphic() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if two strings are isomorphic.
+     *
+     * @param s the first input string
+     * @param t the second input string
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code s} and {@code t} are isomorphic; {@code false} otherwise
+     */
+    public static boolean areIsomorphic(String s, String t) {
+        if (s.length() != t.length()) {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        Map<Character, Character> map = new HashMap<>();
+        Set<Character> usedCharacters = new HashSet<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++) {
+            char sourceChar = s.charAt(i);
+            char targetChar = t.charAt(i);
+
+            if (map.containsKey(sourceChar)) {
+                if (map.get(sourceChar) != targetChar) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            } else {
+                if (usedCharacters.contains(targetChar)) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+                map.put(sourceChar, targetChar);
+                usedCharacters.add(targetChar);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return true;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KMP.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/KMP.java
similarity index 76%
rename from src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KMP.java
rename to src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/KMP.java
index b7a50dc74dd7..07d3b0415006 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KMP.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/KMP.java
@@ -1,20 +1,23 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
 /**
  * Implementation of Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm Usage: see the main function
  * for an example
  */
-public class KMP {
+public final class KMP {
+    private KMP() {
+    }
+
     // a working example
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         final String haystack = "AAAAABAAABA"; // This is the full string
         final String needle = "AAAA"; // This is the substring that we want to find
-        KMPmatcher(haystack, needle);
+        kmpMatcher(haystack, needle);
     }
 
     // find the starting index in string haystack[] that matches the search word P[]
-    public static void KMPmatcher(final String haystack, final String needle) {
+    public static void kmpMatcher(final String haystack, final String needle) {
         final int m = haystack.length();
         final int n = needle.length();
         final int[] pi = computePrefixFunction(needle);
@@ -36,17 +39,17 @@ public static void KMPmatcher(final String haystack, final String needle) {
     }
 
     // return the prefix function
-    private static int[] computePrefixFunction(final String P) {
-        final int n = P.length();
+    private static int[] computePrefixFunction(final String p) {
+        final int n = p.length();
         final int[] pi = new int[n];
         pi[0] = 0;
         int q = 0;
         for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
-            while (q > 0 && P.charAt(q) != P.charAt(i)) {
+            while (q > 0 && p.charAt(q) != p.charAt(i)) {
                 q = pi[q - 1];
             }
 
-            if (P.charAt(q) == P.charAt(i)) {
+            if (p.charAt(q) == p.charAt(i)) {
                 q++;
             }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..38c6bc13fa2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+
+public final class LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber {
+
+    private static final char EMPTY = '\0';
+
+    // Mapping of numbers to corresponding letters on a phone keypad
+    private static final String[] KEYPAD = new String[] {" ", String.valueOf(EMPTY), "abc", "def", "ghi", "jkl", "mno", "pqrs", "tuv", "wxyz"};
+
+    private LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates a list of all possible letter combinations that the provided
+     * array of numbers could represent on a phone keypad.
+     *
+     * @param numbers an array of integers representing the phone numbers
+     * @return a list of possible letter combinations
+     */
+    public static List<String> getCombinations(int[] numbers) {
+        if (numbers == null) {
+            return List.of("");
+        }
+        return generateCombinations(numbers, 0, new StringBuilder());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Recursive method to generate combinations of letters from the phone keypad.
+     *
+     * @param numbers the input array of phone numbers
+     * @param index   the current index in the numbers array being processed
+     * @param current a StringBuilder holding the current combination of letters
+     * @return a list of letter combinations formed from the given numbers
+     */
+    private static List<String> generateCombinations(int[] numbers, int index, StringBuilder current) {
+        // Base case: if we've processed all numbers, return the current combination
+        if (index == numbers.length) {
+            return new ArrayList<>(Collections.singletonList(current.toString()));
+        }
+
+        final var number = numbers[index];
+        if (number < 0 || number > 9) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input numbers must in the range [0, 9]");
+        }
+
+        List<String> combinations = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Iterate over each letter and recurse to generate further combinations
+        for (char letter : KEYPAD[number].toCharArray()) {
+            if (letter != EMPTY) {
+                current.append(letter);
+            }
+            combinations.addAll(generateCombinations(numbers, index + 1, current));
+            if (letter != EMPTY) {
+                current.deleteCharAt(current.length() - 1); // Backtrack by removing the last appended letter
+            }
+        }
+
+        return combinations;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/List_all_Possible_Words_From_Phone_Digits.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/List_all_Possible_Words_From_Phone_Digits.java
deleted file mode 100644
index 4677fd84885e..000000000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/List_all_Possible_Words_From_Phone_Digits.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,58 +0,0 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.strings;
-
-import java.util.*;
-
-public class List_all_Possible_Words_From_Phone_Digits {
-
-    static Character[][] numberToCharMap;
-
-    private static List<String> printWords(int[] numbers,
-            int len,
-            int numIndex,
-            String s) {
-        if (len == numIndex) {
-            return new ArrayList<>(Collections.singleton(s));
-        }
-
-        List<String> stringList = new ArrayList<>();
-
-        for (int i = 0;
-                i < numberToCharMap[numbers[numIndex]].length; i++) {
-            String sCopy
-                    = String.copyValueOf(s.toCharArray());
-            sCopy = sCopy.concat(
-                    numberToCharMap[numbers[numIndex]][i].toString());
-            stringList.addAll(printWords(numbers, len,
-                    numIndex + 1,
-                    sCopy));
-        }
-        return stringList;
-    }
-
-    private static void printWords(int[] numbers) {
-        generateNumberToCharMap();
-        List<String> stringList
-                = printWords(numbers, numbers.length, 0, "");
-        stringList.stream().forEach(System.out::println);
-    }
-
-    private static void generateNumberToCharMap() {
-        numberToCharMap = new Character[10][5];
-        numberToCharMap[0] = new Character[]{'\0'};
-        numberToCharMap[1] = new Character[]{'\0'};
-        numberToCharMap[2] = new Character[]{'a', 'b', 'c'};
-        numberToCharMap[3] = new Character[]{'d', 'e', 'f'};
-        numberToCharMap[4] = new Character[]{'g', 'h', 'i'};
-        numberToCharMap[5] = new Character[]{'j', 'k', 'l'};
-        numberToCharMap[6] = new Character[]{'m', 'n', 'o'};
-        numberToCharMap[7] = new Character[]{'p', 'q', 'r', 's'};
-        numberToCharMap[8] = new Character[]{'t', 'u', 'v'};
-        numberToCharMap[9] = new Character[]{'w', 'x', 'y', 'z'};
-    }
-
-// Driver code 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int number[] = {2, 3, 4};
-        printWords(number);
-    }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestCommonPrefix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestCommonPrefix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3348b9cf860c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestCommonPrefix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * Utility class for string operations.
+ * <p>
+ * This class provides a method to find the longest common prefix (LCP)
+ * among an array of strings.
+ * </p>
+ *
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longest_common_prefix">Longest Common Prefix - Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class LongestCommonPrefix {
+
+    private LongestCommonPrefix() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the longest common prefix among a list of strings using lexicographical sorting.
+     * The prefix is common to the first and last elements after sorting the array.
+     *
+     * @param strs array of input strings
+     * @return the longest common prefix, or empty string if none exists
+     */
+    public static String longestCommonPrefix(String[] strs) {
+        if (strs == null || strs.length == 0) {
+            return "";
+        }
+
+        Arrays.sort(strs);
+        String first = strs[0];
+        String last = strs[strs.length - 1];
+
+        int index = 0;
+        while (index < first.length() && index < last.length() && first.charAt(index) == last.charAt(index)) {
+            index++;
+        }
+
+        return first.substring(0, index);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6808cd50602f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Class for finding the length of the longest substring without repeating characters.
+ */
+final class LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring {
+    private LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the length of the longest substring without repeating characters.
+     *
+     * @param s the input string
+     * @return the length of the longest non-repetitive substring
+     */
+    public static int lengthOfLongestSubstring(String s) {
+        int maxLength = 0;
+        int start = 0;
+        Map<Character, Integer> charIndexMap = new HashMap<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++) {
+            char currentChar = s.charAt(i);
+
+            // If the character is already in the map and its index is within the current window
+            if (charIndexMap.containsKey(currentChar) && charIndexMap.get(currentChar) >= start) {
+                // Move the start to the position right after the last occurrence of the current character
+                start = charIndexMap.get(currentChar) + 1;
+            }
+
+            // Update the last seen index of the current character
+            charIndexMap.put(currentChar, i);
+
+            // Calculate the maximum length of the substring without repeating characters
+            maxLength = Math.max(maxLength, i - start + 1);
+        }
+
+        return maxLength;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java
index 3014745559e8..ca500357ba77 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstring.java
@@ -1,43 +1,31 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
-// Longest Palindromic Substring
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-;
-
-class LongestPalindromicSubstring {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        Solution s = new Solution();
-        String str = "";
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-        System.out.print("Enter the string: ");
-        str = sc.nextLine();
-        System.out.println("Longest substring is : " + s.longestPalindrome(str));
+final class LongestPalindromicSubstring {
+    private LongestPalindromicSubstring() {
     }
-}
-
-class Solution {
 
-    public String longestPalindrome(String s) {
-        if (s == null || s.length() == 0) {
+    /**
+     * Finds the longest palindromic substring in the given string.
+     *
+     * @param s the input string
+     * @return the longest palindromic substring
+     */
+    public static String longestPalindrome(String s) {
+        if (s == null || s.isEmpty()) {
             return "";
         }
-        int n = s.length();
         String maxStr = "";
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
-            for (int j = i; j < n; ++j) {
-                if (isValid(s, i, j) == true) {
-                    if (j - i + 1 > maxStr.length()) { // update maxStr
-                        maxStr = s.substring(i, j + 1);
-                    }
+        for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); ++i) {
+            for (int j = i; j < s.length(); ++j) {
+                if (isValid(s, i, j) && (j - i + 1 > maxStr.length())) {
+                    maxStr = s.substring(i, j + 1);
                 }
             }
         }
         return maxStr;
     }
 
-    private boolean isValid(String s, int lo, int hi) {
+    private static boolean isValid(String s, int lo, int hi) {
         int n = hi - lo + 1;
         for (int i = 0; i < n / 2; ++i) {
             if (s.charAt(lo + i) != s.charAt(hi - i)) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Lower.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Lower.java
index ef3902b15df3..e20cc5f0f2f7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Lower.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Lower.java
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
-public class Lower {
+public final class Lower {
+    private Lower() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Driver Code
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Manacher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Manacher.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..34c303822bee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Manacher.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+/**
+ * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longest_palindromic_substring#Manacher's_algorithm
+ */
+public final class Manacher {
+
+    private Manacher() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds the longest palindromic substring using Manacher's Algorithm
+     *
+     * @param s The input string
+     * @return The longest palindromic substring in {@code s}
+     */
+    public static String longestPalindrome(String s) {
+        final String processedString = preprocess(s);
+        int[] palindromeLengths = new int[processedString.length()];
+        int center = 0;
+        int rightBoundary = 0;
+        int maxLen = 0;
+        int centerIndex = 0;
+
+        for (int i = 1; i < processedString.length() - 1; i++) {
+            int mirror = 2 * center - i;
+
+            if (i < rightBoundary) {
+                palindromeLengths[i] = Math.min(rightBoundary - i, palindromeLengths[mirror]);
+            }
+
+            while (processedString.charAt(i + 1 + palindromeLengths[i]) == processedString.charAt(i - 1 - palindromeLengths[i])) {
+                palindromeLengths[i]++;
+            }
+
+            if (i + palindromeLengths[i] > rightBoundary) {
+                center = i;
+                rightBoundary = i + palindromeLengths[i];
+            }
+
+            if (palindromeLengths[i] > maxLen) {
+                maxLen = palindromeLengths[i];
+                centerIndex = i;
+            }
+        }
+
+        final int start = (centerIndex - maxLen) / 2;
+        return s.substring(start, start + maxLen);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Preprocesses the input string by inserting a special character ('#') between each character
+     * and adding '^' at the start and '$' at the end to avoid boundary conditions.
+     *
+     * @param s The original string
+     * @return The preprocessed string with additional characters
+     */
+    private static String preprocess(String s) {
+        if (s.isEmpty()) {
+            return "^$";
+        }
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("^");
+        for (char c : s.toCharArray()) {
+            sb.append('#').append(c);
+        }
+        sb.append("#$");
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoi.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoi.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5a7c2ce53b1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoi.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+/**
+ * A utility class that provides a method to convert a string to a 32-bit signed integer (similar to C/C++'s atoi function).
+ */
+public final class MyAtoi {
+    private MyAtoi() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Converts the given string to a 32-bit signed integer.
+     * The conversion discards any leading whitespace characters until the first non-whitespace character is found.
+     * Then, it takes an optional initial plus or minus sign followed by as many numerical digits as possible and interprets them as a numerical value.
+     * The string can contain additional characters after those that form the integral number, which are ignored and have no effect on the behavior of this function.
+     *
+     * If the number is out of the range of a 32-bit signed integer:
+     * - Returns {@code Integer.MAX_VALUE} if the value exceeds {@code Integer.MAX_VALUE}.
+     * - Returns {@code Integer.MIN_VALUE} if the value is less than {@code Integer.MIN_VALUE}.
+     *
+     * If no valid conversion could be performed, a zero is returned.
+     *
+     * @param s the string to convert
+     * @return the converted integer, or 0 if the string cannot be converted to a valid integer
+     */
+    public static int myAtoi(String s) {
+        if (s == null || s.isEmpty()) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        s = s.trim();
+        int length = s.length();
+        if (length == 0) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        int index = 0;
+        boolean negative = false;
+
+        // Check for the sign
+        if (s.charAt(index) == '-' || s.charAt(index) == '+') {
+            negative = s.charAt(index) == '-';
+            index++;
+        }
+
+        int number = 0;
+        while (index < length) {
+            char ch = s.charAt(index);
+            if (!Character.isDigit(ch)) {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            int digit = ch - '0';
+
+            // Check for overflow
+            if (number > (Integer.MAX_VALUE - digit) / 10) {
+                return negative ? Integer.MIN_VALUE : Integer.MAX_VALUE;
+            }
+
+            number = number * 10 + digit;
+            index++;
+        }
+
+        return negative ? -number : number;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java
index 839a1a2aafca..3567a371d70e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java
@@ -3,32 +3,19 @@
 /**
  * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palindrome
  */
-class Palindrome {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String[] palindromes = {null, "", "aba", "123321"};
-        for (String s : palindromes) {
-            assert isPalindrome(s) && isPalindromeRecursion(s) && isPalindrome1(s);
-        }
-
-        String[] notPalindromes = {"abb", "abc", "abc123"};
-        for (String s : notPalindromes) {
-            assert !isPalindrome(s) && !isPalindromeRecursion(s) && !isPalindrome1(s);
-        }
+final class Palindrome {
+    private Palindrome() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Check if a string is palindrome string or not
+     * Check if a string is palindrome string or not using String Builder
      *
      * @param s a string to check
      * @return {@code true} if given string is palindrome, otherwise
      * {@code false}
      */
     public static boolean isPalindrome(String s) {
-        return (s == null || s.length() <= 1) || s.equals(new StringBuilder(s).reverse().toString());
+        return ((s == null || s.length() <= 1) || s.equals(new StringBuilder(s).reverse().toString()));
     }
 
     /**
@@ -47,17 +34,17 @@ public static boolean isPalindromeRecursion(String s) {
             return false;
         }
 
-        return isPalindrome(s.substring(1, s.length() - 1));
+        return isPalindromeRecursion(s.substring(1, s.length() - 1));
     }
 
     /**
-     * Check if a string is palindrome string or not another way
+     * Check if a string is palindrome string or not using two pointer technique
      *
      * @param s a string to check
      * @return {@code true} if given string is palindrome, otherwise
      * {@code false}
      */
-    public static boolean isPalindrome1(String s) {
+    public static boolean isPalindromeTwoPointer(String s) {
         if (s == null || s.length() <= 1) {
             return true;
         }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java
index cc9b2dd77790..01307b28f6c6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java
@@ -1,42 +1,80 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
+import java.util.HashSet;
+
 /**
  * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangram
  */
-public class Pangram {
+public final class Pangram {
+    private Pangram() {
+    }
 
     /**
-     * Driver Code
+     * Test code
      */
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         assert isPangram("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog");
-        assert !isPangram("The quick brown fox jumps over the azy dog");
-        /* not exists l character */
+        assert !isPangram("The quick brown fox jumps over the azy dog"); // L is missing
+        assert !isPangram("+-1234 This string is not alphabetical");
+        assert !isPangram("\u0000/\\");
     }
 
     /**
-     * Check if a string is a pangram string or not
+     * Checks if a String is considered a Pangram
      *
-     * @param s string to check
-     * @return {@code true} if given string is pangram, otherwise {@code false}
+     * @param s The String to check
+     * @return {@code true} if s is a Pangram, otherwise {@code false}
      */
-    public static boolean isPangram(String s) {
-        boolean[] marked = new boolean[26];
-        /* by default all letters don't exists */
-        char[] values = s.toCharArray();
-        for (char value : values) {
-            if (Character.isLetter(value)) {
-                int index = Character.isUpperCase(value) ? value - 'A' : value - 'a';
-                marked[index] = true;
-                /* mark current character exists */
+    // alternative approach using Java Collection Framework
+    public static boolean isPangramUsingSet(String s) {
+        HashSet<Character> alpha = new HashSet<>();
+        s = s.trim().toLowerCase();
+        for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++) {
+            if (s.charAt(i) != ' ') {
+                alpha.add(s.charAt(i));
             }
         }
+        return alpha.size() == 26;
+    }
 
-        for (boolean b : marked) {
-            if (!b) {
+    /**
+     * Checks if a String is considered a Pangram
+     *
+     * @param s The String to check
+     * @return {@code true} if s is a Pangram, otherwise {@code false}
+     */
+    public static boolean isPangram(String s) {
+        boolean[] lettersExisting = new boolean[26];
+        for (char c : s.toCharArray()) {
+            int letterIndex = c - (Character.isUpperCase(c) ? 'A' : 'a');
+            if (letterIndex >= 0 && letterIndex < lettersExisting.length) {
+                lettersExisting[letterIndex] = true;
+            }
+        }
+        for (boolean letterFlag : lettersExisting) {
+            if (!letterFlag) {
                 return false;
             }
         }
         return true;
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if a String is Pangram or not by checking if each alhpabet is present or not
+     *
+     * @param s The String to check
+     * @return {@code true} if s is a Pangram, otherwise {@code false}
+     */
+    public static boolean isPangram2(String s) {
+        if (s.length() < 26) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        s = s.toLowerCase(); // Converting s to Lower-Case
+        for (char i = 'a'; i <= 'z'; i++) {
+            if (s.indexOf(i) == -1) {
+                return false; // if any alphabet is not present, return false
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteString.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteString.java
index 1239ab3dbf28..124bdb6287b4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteString.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteString.java
@@ -1,49 +1,89 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
-/*
-Backtracking algorithm used in the program:-
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.Set;
 
->>Fix a character in the first position and swap the rest of the character with the first character.
-  Like in ABC, in the first iteration three strings are formed: ABC, BAC, and CBA by swapping A with
-  A, B and C respectively.
->>Repeat step 1 for the rest of the characters like fixing second character B and so on.
->>Now swap again to go back to the previous position. E.g., from ABC, we formed ABC by fixing B again,
-  and we backtrack to the previous position and swap B with C. So, now we got ABC and ACB.
->>Repeat these steps for BAC and CBA, to get all the permutations.
+/**
+ * This class provides methods for generating all permutations of a given string using a backtracking algorithm.
+ * <p>
+ * The algorithm works as follows:
+ * <ol>
+ *     <li>Fix a character in the current position and swap it with each of the remaining characters.
+ *         For example, for the string "ABC":
+ *         <ul>
+ *             <li>Fix 'A' at the first position: permutations are "ABC", "BAC", "CBA" (obtained by swapping 'A' with 'B' and 'C' respectively).</li>
+ *         </ul>
+ *     </li>
+ *     <li>Repeat the process for the next character.
+ *         For instance, after fixing 'B' in the second position:
+ *         <ul>
+ *             <li>For "BAC", the permutations include "BAC" and "BCA" (after swapping 'A' and 'C').</li>
+ *         </ul>
+ *     </li>
+ *     <li>After generating permutations for the current position, backtrack by swapping the characters back to their original positions to restore the state.
+ *         For example, after generating permutations for "ABC", swap back to restore "BAC" and continue with further permutations.</li>
+ *     <li>Repeat the process for all characters to get all possible permutations.</li>
+ * </ol>
+ * </p>
  */
-public class PermuteString {
-
-    //Function for swapping the characters at position I with character at position j    
-    public static String swapString(String a, int i, int j) {
-        char[] b = a.toCharArray();
-        char ch;
-        ch = b[i];
-        b[i] = b[j];
-        b[j] = ch;
-        return String.valueOf(b);
+public final class PermuteString {
+    private PermuteString() {
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        String str = "ABC";
-        int len = str.length();
-        System.out.println("All the permutations of the string are: ");
-        generatePermutation(str, 0, len);
+    /**
+     * Generates all possible permutations of the given string.
+     *
+     * <p>This method returns a set containing all unique permutations of the input string. It leverages
+     * a recursive helper method to generate these permutations.
+     *
+     * @param str The input string for which permutations are to be generated.
+     *            If the string is null or empty, the result will be an empty set.
+     * @return A {@link Set} of strings containing all unique permutations of the input string.
+     *         If the input string has duplicate characters, the set will ensure that only unique permutations
+     *         are returned.
+     */
+    public static Set<String> getPermutations(String str) {
+        Set<String> permutations = new HashSet<>();
+        generatePermutations(str, 0, str.length(), permutations);
+        return permutations;
     }
 
-    //Function for generating different permutations of the string    
-    public static void generatePermutation(String str, int start, int end) {
-        //Prints the permutations    
+    /**
+     * Generates all permutations of the given string and collects them into a set.
+     *
+     * @param str the string to permute
+     * @param start the starting index for the current permutation
+     * @param end the end index (length of the string)
+     * @param permutations the set to collect all unique permutations
+     */
+    private static void generatePermutations(String str, int start, int end, Set<String> permutations) {
         if (start == end - 1) {
-            System.out.println(str);
+            permutations.add(str);
         } else {
-            for (int i = start; i < end; i++) {
-                //Swapping the string by fixing a character    
-                str = swapString(str, start, i);
-                //Recursively calling function generatePermutation() for rest of the characters     
-                generatePermutation(str, start + 1, end);
-                //Backtracking and swapping the characters again.    
-                str = swapString(str, start, i);
+            for (int currentIndex = start; currentIndex < end; currentIndex++) {
+                // Swap the current character with the character at the start index
+                str = swapCharacters(str, start, currentIndex);
+                // Recursively generate permutations for the remaining characters
+                generatePermutations(str, start + 1, end, permutations);
+                // Backtrack: swap the characters back to their original positions
+                str = swapCharacters(str, start, currentIndex);
             }
         }
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Swaps the characters at the specified positions in the given string.
+     *
+     * @param str the string in which characters will be swapped
+     * @param i the position of the first character to swap
+     * @param j the position of the second character to swap
+     * @return a new string with the characters at positions i and j swapped
+     */
+    private static String swapCharacters(String str, int i, int j) {
+        char[] chars = str.toCharArray();
+        char temp = chars[i];
+        chars[i] = chars[j];
+        chars[j] = temp;
+        return new String(chars);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RabinKarp.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RabinKarp.java
similarity index 61%
rename from src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RabinKarp.java
rename to src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RabinKarp.java
index 5fee40318709..bb8df3358453 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/RabinKarp.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RabinKarp.java
@@ -1,19 +1,21 @@
-package com.thealgorithms.others;
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.Scanner;
 
 /**
  * @author Prateek Kumar Oraon (https://github.com/prateekKrOraon)
+ *
+ An implementation of Rabin-Karp string matching algorithm
+ Program will simply end if there is no match
  */
-import java.util.Scanner;
-
-// An implementation of Rabin-Karp string matching algorithm
-// Program will simply end if there is no match
-public class RabinKarp {
+public final class RabinKarp {
+    private RabinKarp() {
+    }
 
     public static Scanner scanner = null;
-    public static final int d = 256;
+    public static final int ALPHABET_SIZE = 256;
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
-
         scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
         System.out.println("Enter String");
         String text = scanner.nextLine();
@@ -25,7 +27,6 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
     }
 
     private static void searchPat(String text, String pattern, int q) {
-
         int m = pattern.length();
         int n = text.length();
         int t = 0;
@@ -34,30 +35,25 @@ private static void searchPat(String text, String pattern, int q) {
         int j = 0;
         int i = 0;
 
-        h = (int) Math.pow(d, m - 1) % q;
+        h = (int) Math.pow(ALPHABET_SIZE, m - 1) % q;
 
         for (i = 0; i < m; i++) {
-            // hash value is calculated for each character and then added with the hash value of the next
-            // character for pattern
-            // as well as the text for length equal to the length of pattern
-            p = (d * p + pattern.charAt(i)) % q;
-            t = (d * t + text.charAt(i)) % q;
+            // hash value is calculated for each character and then added with the hash value of the
+            // next character for pattern as well as the text for length equal to the length of
+            // pattern
+            p = (ALPHABET_SIZE * p + pattern.charAt(i)) % q;
+            t = (ALPHABET_SIZE * t + text.charAt(i)) % q;
         }
 
         for (i = 0; i <= n - m; i++) {
-
             // if the calculated hash value of the pattern and text matches then
-            // all the characters of the pattern is matched with the text of length equal to length of the
-            // pattern
-            // if all matches then pattern exist in string
-            // if not then the hash value of the first character of the text is subtracted and hash value
-            // of the next character after the end
-            // of the evaluated characters is added
+            // all the characters of the pattern is matched with the text of length equal to length
+            // of the pattern if all matches then pattern exist in string if not then the hash value
+            // of the first character of the text is subtracted and hash value of the next character
+            // after the end of the evaluated characters is added
             if (p == t) {
-
                 // if hash value matches then the individual characters are matched
                 for (j = 0; j < m; j++) {
-
                     // if not matched then break out of the loop
                     if (text.charAt(i + j) != pattern.charAt(j)) {
                         break;
@@ -70,12 +66,11 @@ private static void searchPat(String text, String pattern, int q) {
                 }
             }
 
-            // if i<n-m then hash value of the first character of the text is subtracted and hash value of
-            // the next character after the end
-            // of the evaluated characters is added to get the hash value of the next window of characters
-            // in the text
+            // if i<n-m then hash value of the first character of the text is subtracted and hash
+            // value of the next character after the end of the evaluated characters is added to get
+            // the hash value of the next window of characters in the text
             if (i < n - m) {
-                t = (d * (t - text.charAt(i) * h) + text.charAt(i + m)) % q;
+                t = (ALPHABET_SIZE * (t - text.charAt(i) * h) + text.charAt(i + m)) % q;
 
                 // if hash value becomes less than zero than q is added to make it positive
                 if (t < 0) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..84d4fd8f72ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+/**
+ * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
+ */
+public final class RemoveDuplicateFromString {
+    private RemoveDuplicateFromString() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes duplicate characters from the given string.
+     *
+     * @param input The input string from which duplicate characters need to be removed.
+     * @return A string containing only unique characters from the input, in their original order.
+     */
+    public static String removeDuplicate(String input) {
+        if (input == null || input.isEmpty()) {
+            return input;
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder uniqueChars = new StringBuilder();
+        for (char c : input.toCharArray()) {
+            if (uniqueChars.indexOf(String.valueOf(c)) == -1) {
+                uniqueChars.append(c); // Append character if it's not already in the StringBuilder
+            }
+        }
+
+        return uniqueChars.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReturnSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReturnSubsequence.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..afa8c5f98678
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReturnSubsequence.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+/**
+ * Class for generating all subsequences of a given string.
+ */
+public final class ReturnSubsequence {
+    private ReturnSubsequence() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Generates all subsequences of the given string.
+     *
+     * @param input The input string.
+     * @return An array of subsequences.
+     */
+    public static String[] getSubsequences(String input) {
+        if (input.isEmpty()) {
+            return new String[] {""}; // Return array with an empty string if input is empty
+        }
+
+        // Recursively find subsequences of the substring (excluding the first character)
+        String[] smallerSubsequences = getSubsequences(input.substring(1));
+
+        // Create an array to hold the final subsequences, double the size of smallerSubsequences
+        String[] result = new String[2 * smallerSubsequences.length];
+
+        // Copy the smaller subsequences directly to the result array
+        System.arraycopy(smallerSubsequences, 0, result, 0, smallerSubsequences.length);
+
+        // Prepend the first character of the input string to each of the smaller subsequences
+        for (int i = 0; i < smallerSubsequences.length; i++) {
+            result[i + smallerSubsequences.length] = input.charAt(0) + smallerSubsequences[i];
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseString.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseString.java
index 155316f62ae5..7b918ebe1a59 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseString.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseString.java
@@ -1,13 +1,12 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
+import java.util.Stack;
+
 /**
  * Reverse String using different version
  */
-public class ReverseString {
-
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        assert reverse("abc123").equals("321cba");
-        assert reverse2("abc123").equals("321cba");
+public final class ReverseString {
+    private ReverseString() {
     }
 
     /**
@@ -27,7 +26,6 @@ public static String reverse(String str) {
      * @return reversed string
      */
     public static String reverse2(String str) {
-
         if (str == null || str.isEmpty()) {
             return str;
         }
@@ -40,4 +38,65 @@ public static String reverse2(String str) {
         }
         return new String(value);
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Reverse version 3 the given string using a StringBuilder.
+     * This method converts the string to a character array,
+     * iterates through it in reverse order, and appends each character
+     * to a StringBuilder.
+     *
+     * @param string The input string to be reversed.
+     * @return The reversed string.
+     */
+    public static String reverse3(String string) {
+        if (string.isEmpty()) {
+            return string;
+        }
+        char[] chars = string.toCharArray();
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
+        for (int i = string.length() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            sb.append(chars[i]);
+        }
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
+    /**
+     * Reverses the given string using a stack.
+     * This method uses a stack to reverse the characters of the string.
+     * * @param str The input string to be reversed.
+     * @return The reversed string.
+     */
+    public static String reverseStringUsingStack(String str) {
+        // Check if the input string is null
+        if (str == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input string cannot be null");
+        }
+        Stack<Character> stack = new Stack<>();
+        StringBuilder reversedString = new StringBuilder();
+        // Check if the input string is empty
+        if (str.isEmpty()) {
+            return str;
+        }
+        // Push each character of the string onto the stack
+        for (char ch : str.toCharArray()) {
+            stack.push(ch);
+        }
+        // Pop each character from the stack and append to the StringBuilder
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            reversedString.append(stack.pop());
+        }
+        return reversedString.toString();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Reverse the String using Recursion
+     * @param str string to be reversed
+     * @return reversed string
+     */
+    public static String reverseStringUsingRecursion(String str) {
+        if (str.isEmpty()) {
+            return str;
+        } else {
+            return reverseStringUsingRecursion(str.substring(1)) + str.charAt(0);
+        }
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseWordsInString.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseWordsInString.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7c22cd8a5df2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseWordsInString.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+
+public final class ReverseWordsInString {
+
+    private ReverseWordsInString() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @brief Reverses words in the input string
+     * @param s the input string
+     * @return A string created by reversing the order of the words in {@code s}
+     */
+    public static String reverseWordsInString(final String s) {
+        var words = s.trim().split("\\s+");
+        Collections.reverse(Arrays.asList(words));
+        return String.join(" ", words);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Rotation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Rotation.java
index c82ae5c32758..e1352f1197b1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Rotation.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Rotation.java
@@ -6,7 +6,9 @@
  * the string "abcdef" to the end of the string, so that the original string
  * becomes the string "cdefab"
  */
-public class Rotation {
+public final class Rotation {
+    private Rotation() {
+    }
 
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         assert rotation("abcdef", 2).equals("cdefab");
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompression.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompression.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..85bc0e4db641
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompression.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+/**
+ * References : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-length_encoding
+ * String compression algorithm deals with encoding the string, that is, shortening the size of the string
+ * @author Swarga-codes (https://github.com/Swarga-codes)
+ */
+public final class StringCompression {
+    private StringCompression() {
+    }
+    /**
+     * Returns the compressed or encoded string
+     *
+     * @param input character array that contains the group of characters to be encoded
+     * @return the compressed character array as string
+     */
+    public static String compress(String input) {
+        // Keeping the count as 1 since every element present will have at least a count of 1
+        int count = 1;
+        String compressedString = "";
+        // Base condition to check whether the array is of size 1, if it is then we return the array
+        if (input.length() == 1) {
+            return "" + input.charAt(0);
+        }
+        // If the array has a length greater than 1 we move into this loop
+        for (int i = 0; i < input.length() - 1; i++) {
+            // here we check for similarity of the adjacent elements and change the count accordingly
+            if (input.charAt(i) == input.charAt(i + 1)) {
+                count = count + 1;
+            }
+            if ((i + 1) == input.length() - 1 && input.charAt(i + 1) == input.charAt(i)) {
+                compressedString = appendCount(compressedString, count, input.charAt(i));
+                break;
+            } else if (input.charAt(i) != input.charAt(i + 1)) {
+                if ((i + 1) == input.length() - 1) {
+                    compressedString = appendCount(compressedString, count, input.charAt(i)) + input.charAt(i + 1);
+                    break;
+                } else {
+                    compressedString = appendCount(compressedString, count, input.charAt(i));
+                    count = 1;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return compressedString;
+    }
+    /**
+     * @param res   the resulting string
+     * @param count current count
+     * @param ch    the character at a particular index
+     * @return the res string appended with the count
+     */
+    public static String appendCount(String res, int count, char ch) {
+        if (count > 1) {
+            res += ch + "" + count;
+        } else {
+            res += ch + "";
+        }
+        return res;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringMatchFiniteAutomata.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringMatchFiniteAutomata.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..719898a1fd74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringMatchFiniteAutomata.java
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.TreeSet;
+
+/**
+ * A class to perform string matching using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite-state_machine">finite automata</a>.
+ *
+ * @author <a href="https://github.com/prateekKrOraon">Prateek Kumar Oraon</a>
+ */
+public final class StringMatchFiniteAutomata {
+
+    // Constants
+    private static final int CHARS = Character.MAX_VALUE + 1; // Total number of characters in the input alphabet
+
+    // Private constructor to prevent instantiation
+    private StringMatchFiniteAutomata() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Searches for the pattern in the given text using finite automata.
+     *
+     * @param text    The text to search within.
+     * @param pattern The pattern to search for.
+     */
+    public static Set<Integer> searchPattern(final String text, final String pattern) {
+        final var stateTransitionTable = computeStateTransitionTable(pattern);
+        FiniteAutomata finiteAutomata = new FiniteAutomata(stateTransitionTable);
+
+        Set<Integer> indexFound = new TreeSet<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < text.length(); i++) {
+            finiteAutomata.consume(text.charAt(i));
+
+            if (finiteAutomata.getState() == pattern.length()) {
+                indexFound.add(i - pattern.length() + 1);
+            }
+        }
+        return indexFound;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the finite automata table for the given pattern.
+     *
+     * @param pattern The pattern to preprocess.
+     * @return The state transition table.
+     */
+    private static int[][] computeStateTransitionTable(final String pattern) {
+        final int patternLength = pattern.length();
+        int[][] stateTransitionTable = new int[patternLength + 1][CHARS];
+
+        for (int state = 0; state <= patternLength; ++state) {
+            for (int x = 0; x < CHARS; ++x) {
+                stateTransitionTable[state][x] = getNextState(pattern, patternLength, state, x);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return stateTransitionTable;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Gets the next state for the finite automata.
+     *
+     * @param pattern       The pattern being matched.
+     * @param patternLength The length of the pattern.
+     * @param state         The current state.
+     * @param x             The current character from the input alphabet.
+     * @return The next state.
+     */
+    private static int getNextState(final String pattern, final int patternLength, final int state, final int x) {
+        // If the current state is less than the length of the pattern
+        // and the character matches the pattern character, go to the next state
+        if (state < patternLength && x == pattern.charAt(state)) {
+            return state + 1;
+        }
+
+        // Check for the highest prefix which is also a suffix
+        for (int ns = state; ns > 0; ns--) {
+            if (pattern.charAt(ns - 1) == x) {
+                boolean match = true;
+                for (int i = 0; i < ns - 1; i++) {
+                    if (pattern.charAt(i) != pattern.charAt(state - ns + i + 1)) {
+                        match = false;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+                if (match) {
+                    return ns;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // If no prefix which is also a suffix is found, return 0
+        return 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * A class representing the finite automata for pattern matching.
+     */
+    private static final class FiniteAutomata {
+        private int state = 0;
+        private final int[][] stateTransitionTable;
+
+        private FiniteAutomata(int[][] stateTransitionTable) {
+            this.stateTransitionTable = stateTransitionTable;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Consumes an input character and transitions to the next state.
+         *
+         * @param input The input character.
+         */
+        private void consume(final char input) {
+            state = stateTransitionTable[state][input];
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Gets the current state of the finite automata.
+         *
+         * @return The current state.
+         */
+        private int getState() {
+            return state;
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArray.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dbcac147b658
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArray.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * Suffix Array implementation in Java.
+ * Builds an array of indices that represent all suffixes of a string in sorted order.
+ * Wikipedia Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffix_array
+ * Author: Nithin U.
+ * Github: https://github.com/NithinU2802
+ */
+
+public final class SuffixArray {
+
+    private SuffixArray() {
+    }
+
+    public static int[] buildSuffixArray(String text) {
+        int n = text.length();
+        Integer[] suffixArray = new Integer[n];
+        int[] rank = new int[n];
+        int[] tempRank = new int[n];
+
+        // Initial ranking based on characters
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            suffixArray[i] = i;
+            rank[i] = text.charAt(i);
+        }
+
+        for (int k = 1; k < n; k *= 2) {
+            final int step = k;
+
+            // Comparator: first by rank, then by rank + step
+            Arrays.sort(suffixArray, (a, b) -> {
+                if (rank[a] != rank[b]) {
+                    return Integer.compare(rank[a], rank[b]);
+                }
+                int ra = (a + step < n) ? rank[a + step] : -1;
+                int rb = (b + step < n) ? rank[b + step] : -1;
+                return Integer.compare(ra, rb);
+            });
+
+            // Re-rank
+            tempRank[suffixArray[0]] = 0;
+            for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
+                int prev = suffixArray[i - 1];
+                int curr = suffixArray[i];
+                boolean sameRank = rank[prev] == rank[curr] && ((prev + step < n ? rank[prev + step] : -1) == (curr + step < n ? rank[curr + step] : -1));
+                tempRank[curr] = sameRank ? tempRank[prev] : tempRank[prev] + 1;
+            }
+
+            System.arraycopy(tempRank, 0, rank, 0, n);
+
+            if (rank[suffixArray[n - 1]] == n - 1) {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        return Arrays.stream(suffixArray).mapToInt(Integer::intValue).toArray();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Upper.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Upper.java
index 102d3a190a72..5e248cb6ee39 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Upper.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Upper.java
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
-public class Upper {
+public final class Upper {
+    private Upper() {
+    }
 
     /**
      * Driver Code
@@ -13,18 +15,25 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Converts all of the characters in this {@code String} to upper case
+     * Converts all the characters in this {@code String} to upper case
      *
      * @param s the string to convert
      * @return the {@code String}, converted to uppercase.
      */
     public static String toUpperCase(String s) {
-        char[] values = s.toCharArray();
-        for (int i = 0; i < values.length; ++i) {
-            if (Character.isLetter(values[i]) && Character.isLowerCase(values[i])) {
-                values[i] = Character.toUpperCase(values[i]);
+        if (s == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input string connot be null");
+        }
+        if (s.isEmpty()) {
+            return s;
+        }
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(s);
+        for (int i = 0; i < result.length(); ++i) {
+            char currentChar = result.charAt(i);
+            if (Character.isLetter(currentChar) && Character.isLowerCase(currentChar)) {
+                result.setCharAt(i, Character.toUpperCase(currentChar));
             }
         }
-        return new String(values);
+        return result.toString();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ValidParentheses.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ValidParentheses.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..25a72f379dec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ValidParentheses.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.Map;
+
+/**
+ * Validates if a given string has valid matching parentheses.
+ * <p>
+ * A string is considered valid if:
+ * <ul>
+ *     <li>Open brackets are closed by the same type of brackets.</li>
+ *     <li>Brackets are closed in the correct order.</li>
+ *     <li>Every closing bracket has a corresponding open bracket of the same type.</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * Allowed characters: '(', ')', '{', '}', '[', ']'
+ */
+public final class ValidParentheses {
+    private ValidParentheses() {
+    }
+
+    private static final Map<Character, Character> BRACKET_PAIRS = Map.of(')', '(', '}', '{', ']', '[');
+
+    /**
+     * Checks if the input string has valid parentheses.
+     *
+     * @param s the string containing only bracket characters
+     * @return true if valid, false otherwise
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the string contains invalid characters or is null
+     */
+    public static boolean isValid(String s) {
+        if (s == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input string cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        Deque<Character> stack = new ArrayDeque<>();
+
+        for (char c : s.toCharArray()) {
+            if (BRACKET_PAIRS.containsValue(c)) {
+                stack.push(c); // opening bracket
+            } else if (BRACKET_PAIRS.containsKey(c)) {
+                if (stack.isEmpty() || stack.pop() != BRACKET_PAIRS.get(c)) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+            } else {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Unexpected character: " + c);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return stack.isEmpty();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadder.java
index c98f26efd7df..665e5ff3220d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadder.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadder.java
@@ -1,100 +1,60 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
-import java.util.List;
-import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.LinkedList;
 import java.util.Queue;
-import java.util.HashSet;
-
-/*
-    **Problem Statement:**
-    A transformation sequence from word beginWord to word endWord using a dictionary wordList is a sequence of words beginWord -> s1 -> s2 -> ... -> sk such that:
-
-    Every adjacent pair of words differs by a single letter.
-    Every si for 1 <= i <= k is in wordList. Note that beginWord does not need to be in wordList.
-    sk == endWord
-    Given two words, beginWord and endWord, and a dictionary wordList, return the number of words in the shortest transformation sequence from beginWord to endWord, or 0 if no such sequence exists.
+import java.util.Set;
 
-    **Example 1:**
-    Input: beginWord = "hit", endWord = "cog", wordList = ["hot","dot","dog","lot","log","cog"]
-    Output: 5 
-    Explanation: One shortest transformation sequence is "hit" -> "hot" -> "dot" -> "dog" -> cog", which is 5 words long.
-
-    **Example 2:**
-    Input: beginWord = "hit", endWord = "cog", wordList = ["hot","dot","dog","lot","log"]
-    Output: 0
-    Explanation: The endWord "cog" is not in wordList, therefore there is no valid transformation sequence.
-
-    **Constraints:**
-    1 <= beginWord.length <= 10
-    endWord.length == beginWord.length
-    1 <= wordList.length <= 5000
-    wordList[i].length == beginWord.length
-    beginWord, endWord, and wordList[i] consist of lowercase English letters.
-    beginWord != endWord
-    All the words in wordList are unique.
+/**
+ * Class to find the shortest transformation sequence from a beginWord to an endWord using a dictionary of words.
+ * A transformation sequence is a sequence of words where each adjacent pair differs by exactly one letter.
  */
-class WordLadder {
-
-    /**
-     * Driver Code
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-
-        String beginWord = "hit";
-        String endWord = "cog";
-        String words[] = {"hot", "dot", "dog", "lot", "log", "cog"};
-        List<String> wordList = Arrays.asList(words);
-
-        System.out.println("Ladder Length: " + ladderLength(beginWord, endWord, wordList));
+public final class WordLadder {
+    private WordLadder() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * This function finds the ladderLength
+     * Finds the shortest transformation sequence from beginWord to endWord.
      *
-     * @param beginWord: Starting word of the ladder
-     * @param endWord: Ending word of the ladder
-     * @param wordList: This list contains the words which needs to be included
-     * in ladder.
-     * @return ladderLength: This function will return the ladderLength(level)
-     * if the endword is there. Otherwise, will return the length as 0.
+     * @param beginWord the starting word of the transformation sequence
+     * @param endWord the target word of the transformation sequence
+     * @param wordList a list of words that can be used in the transformation sequence
+     * @return the number of words in the shortest transformation sequence, or 0 if no such sequence exists
      */
-    public static int ladderLength(String beginWord, String endWord, List<String> wordList) {
-        HashSet<String> set = new HashSet();
-        for (String word : wordList) {
-            set.add(word);
-        }
+    public static int ladderLength(String beginWord, String endWord, Collection<String> wordList) {
+        Set<String> wordSet = new HashSet<>(wordList);
 
-        if (!set.contains(endWord)) {
+        if (!wordSet.contains(endWord)) {
             return 0;
         }
 
-        Queue<String> queue = new LinkedList();
+        Queue<String> queue = new LinkedList<>();
         queue.offer(beginWord);
         int level = 1;
 
         while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
             int size = queue.size();
             for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
-                String curr = queue.poll();
-                char[] words_chars = curr.toCharArray();
-                for (int j = 0; j < words_chars.length; j++) {
-                    char original_chars = words_chars[j];
+                String currentWord = queue.poll();
+                char[] currentWordChars = currentWord.toCharArray();
+                for (int j = 0; j < currentWordChars.length; j++) {
+                    char originalChar = currentWordChars[j];
                     for (char c = 'a'; c <= 'z'; c++) {
-                        if (words_chars[j] == c) {
+                        if (currentWordChars[j] == c) {
                             continue;
                         }
-                        words_chars[j] = c;
-                        String new_word = String.valueOf(words_chars);
-                        if (new_word.equals(endWord)) {
+                        currentWordChars[j] = c;
+                        String newWord = new String(currentWordChars);
+
+                        if (newWord.equals(endWord)) {
                             return level + 1;
                         }
-                        if (set.contains(new_word)) {
-                            set.remove(new_word);
-                            queue.offer(new_word);
+                        if (wordSet.remove(newWord)) {
+                            queue.offer(newWord);
                         }
                     }
-                    words_chars[j] = original_chars;
+                    currentWordChars[j] = originalChar;
                 }
             }
             level++;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/README.md b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..17e5ba6e26d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+# About
+
+convert string into a zig-zagged string
+
+for example :
+
+    string = "123456789" , numRows = 3
+    ans = "159246837"
+    explanation
+        1   5   9
+        2 4 6 8
+        3   7
+
+    string = "HelloWorldKotlin" , k = 4
+    ans = "HoteWrollolKildn"
+    explanation
+        H     o     t
+        e   W r   o l
+        l o   l K   i
+        l     d     n
+
+# working
+
+    if string size is smaller than numRows or numRows is smaller than 2
+    than we can return string because it will make no changes to string.
+    If not than
+    we initiate three variable depth which is equalvalent to numRows ,
+    height which starts with 1 and start with starting index of string.
+    than we generate spaces to skip using formula 2 + (( n - 1 ) * 2 )
+    for both height and depth
+    with each iteration we decrement depth and increate height and start 
+    by one also we keep contantating character on to new string with first
+    depth spaces and later height spaces that we generated using formula
+    if not zero
+
+# beats 80% of submission on leetcode
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/ZigZagPattern.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/ZigZagPattern.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ad7835bdbb97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/ZigZagPattern.java
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings.zigZagPattern;
+
+final class ZigZagPattern {
+
+    private ZigZagPattern() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Encodes a given string into a zig-zag pattern.
+     *
+     * @param s       the input string to be encoded
+     * @param numRows the number of rows in the zigzag pattern
+     * @return the encoded string in zigzag pattern format
+     */
+    public static String encode(String s, int numRows) {
+        if (numRows < 2 || s.length() < numRows) {
+            return s;
+        }
+
+        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(s.length());
+        int cycleLength = 2 * numRows - 2;
+
+        for (int row = 0; row < numRows; row++) {
+            for (int j = row; j < s.length(); j += cycleLength) {
+                result.append(s.charAt(j));
+
+                if (row > 0 && row < numRows - 1) {
+                    int diagonal = j + cycleLength - 2 * row;
+                    if (diagonal < s.length()) {
+                        result.append(s.charAt(diagonal));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result.toString();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/tree/HeavyLightDecomposition.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/tree/HeavyLightDecomposition.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..236a23205180
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/tree/HeavyLightDecomposition.java
@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.tree;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+
+/**
+ * Heavy-Light Decomposition (HLD) implementation in Java.
+ * HLD is used to efficiently handle path queries on trees, such as maximum,
+ * sum, or updates. It decomposes the tree into heavy and light chains,
+ * enabling queries in O(log N) time.
+ * Wikipedia Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy-light_decomposition
+ * Author: Nithin U.
+ * Github: https://github.com/NithinU2802
+ */
+
+public class HeavyLightDecomposition {
+    private List<List<Integer>> tree;
+    private int[] parent;
+    private int[] depth;
+    private int[] subtreeSize;
+    private int[] chainHead;
+    private int[] position;
+    private int[] nodeValue;
+    private int[] segmentTree;
+    private int positionIndex;
+
+    public HeavyLightDecomposition(int n) {
+        tree = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
+            tree.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        parent = new int[n + 1];
+        depth = new int[n + 1];
+        subtreeSize = new int[n + 1];
+        chainHead = new int[n + 1];
+        position = new int[n + 1];
+        nodeValue = new int[n + 1];
+        segmentTree = new int[4 * (n + 1)];
+        for (int i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
+            chainHead[i] = -1;
+        }
+        positionIndex = 0;
+    }
+
+    public int getPosition(int index) {
+        return position[index];
+    }
+
+    public int getPositionIndex() {
+        return positionIndex;
+    }
+
+    public void addEdge(int u, int v) {
+        tree.get(u).add(v);
+        tree.get(v).add(u);
+    }
+
+    private void dfsSize(int node, int parentNode) {
+        parent[node] = parentNode;
+        subtreeSize[node] = 1;
+        for (int child : tree.get(node)) {
+            if (child != parentNode) {
+                depth[child] = depth[node] + 1;
+                dfsSize(child, node);
+                subtreeSize[node] += subtreeSize[child];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private void decompose(int node, int head) {
+        chainHead[node] = head;
+        position[node] = positionIndex++;
+        int heavyChild = -1;
+        int maxSubtreeSize = -1;
+        for (int child : tree.get(node)) {
+            if (child != parent[node] && subtreeSize[child] > maxSubtreeSize) {
+                heavyChild = child;
+                maxSubtreeSize = subtreeSize[child];
+            }
+        }
+        if (heavyChild != -1) {
+            decompose(heavyChild, head);
+        }
+        for (int child : tree.get(node)) {
+            if (child != parent[node] && child != heavyChild) {
+                decompose(child, child);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private void buildSegmentTree(int node, int start, int end) {
+        if (start == end) {
+            segmentTree[node] = nodeValue[start];
+            return;
+        }
+        int mid = (start + end) / 2;
+        buildSegmentTree(2 * node, start, mid);
+        buildSegmentTree(2 * node + 1, mid + 1, end);
+        segmentTree[node] = Math.max(segmentTree[2 * node], segmentTree[2 * node + 1]);
+    }
+
+    public void updateSegmentTree(int node, int start, int end, int index, int value) {
+        if (start == end) {
+            segmentTree[node] = value;
+            return;
+        }
+        int mid = (start + end) / 2;
+        if (index <= mid) {
+            updateSegmentTree(2 * node, start, mid, index, value);
+        } else {
+            updateSegmentTree(2 * node + 1, mid + 1, end, index, value);
+        }
+        segmentTree[node] = Math.max(segmentTree[2 * node], segmentTree[2 * node + 1]);
+    }
+
+    public int querySegmentTree(int node, int start, int end, int left, int right) {
+        if (left > end || right < start) {
+            return Integer.MIN_VALUE;
+        }
+        if (left <= start && end <= right) {
+            return segmentTree[node];
+        }
+        int mid = (start + end) / 2;
+        int leftQuery = querySegmentTree(2 * node, start, mid, left, right);
+        int rightQuery = querySegmentTree(2 * node + 1, mid + 1, end, left, right);
+        return Math.max(leftQuery, rightQuery);
+    }
+
+    public int queryMaxInPath(int u, int v) {
+        int result = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
+        while (chainHead[u] != chainHead[v]) {
+            if (depth[chainHead[u]] < depth[chainHead[v]]) {
+                int temp = u;
+                u = v;
+                v = temp;
+            }
+            result = Math.max(result, querySegmentTree(1, 0, positionIndex - 1, position[chainHead[u]], position[u]));
+            u = parent[chainHead[u]];
+        }
+        if (depth[u] > depth[v]) {
+            int temp = u;
+            u = v;
+            v = temp;
+        }
+        result = Math.max(result, querySegmentTree(1, 0, positionIndex - 1, position[u], position[v]));
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    public void initialize(int root, int[] values) {
+        dfsSize(root, -1);
+        decompose(root, root);
+        for (int i = 0; i < values.length; i++) {
+            nodeValue[position[i]] = values[i];
+        }
+        buildSegmentTree(1, 0, positionIndex - 1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/EMAFilterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/EMAFilterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f2338d3d8296
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/EMAFilterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.audiofilters;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class EMAFilterTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testApplyBasicSignal() {
+        EMAFilter emaFilter = new EMAFilter(0.2);
+        double[] audioSignal = {0.1, 0.5, 0.8, 0.6, 0.3, 0.9, 0.4};
+        double[] expectedOutput = {0.1, 0.18, 0.304, 0.3632, 0.35056, 0.460448, 0.4483584};
+        double[] result = emaFilter.apply(audioSignal);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, result, 1e-5);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testApplyEmptySignal() {
+        EMAFilter emaFilter = new EMAFilter(0.2);
+        double[] audioSignal = {};
+        double[] expectedOutput = {};
+        double[] result = emaFilter.apply(audioSignal);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAlphaBounds() {
+        EMAFilter emaFilterMin = new EMAFilter(0.01);
+        EMAFilter emaFilterMax = new EMAFilter(1.0);
+        double[] audioSignal = {1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0};
+
+        // Minimal smoothing (alpha close to 0)
+        double[] resultMin = emaFilterMin.apply(audioSignal);
+        assertArrayEquals(audioSignal, resultMin, 1e-5);
+
+        // Maximum smoothing (alpha = 1, output should match input)
+        double[] resultMax = emaFilterMax.apply(audioSignal);
+        assertArrayEquals(audioSignal, resultMax, 1e-5);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..66d7d60c501b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.audiofilters;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class IIRFilterTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorValidOrder() {
+        // Test a valid filter creation
+        IIRFilter filter = new IIRFilter(2);
+        assertNotNull(filter, "Filter should be instantiated correctly");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorInvalidOrder() {
+        // Test an invalid filter creation (order <= 0)
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { new IIRFilter(0); }, "Order must be greater than zero");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetCoeffsInvalidLengthA() {
+        IIRFilter filter = new IIRFilter(2);
+
+        // Invalid 'aCoeffs' length
+        double[] aCoeffs = {1.0}; // too short
+        double[] bCoeffs = {1.0, 0.5};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { filter.setCoeffs(aCoeffs, bCoeffs); }, "aCoeffs must be of size 2");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetCoeffsInvalidLengthB() {
+        IIRFilter filter = new IIRFilter(2);
+
+        // Invalid 'bCoeffs' length
+        double[] aCoeffs = {1.0, 0.5};
+        double[] bCoeffs = {1.0}; // too short
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { filter.setCoeffs(aCoeffs, bCoeffs); }, "bCoeffs must be of size 2");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetCoeffsInvalidACoeffZero() {
+        IIRFilter filter = new IIRFilter(2);
+
+        // Invalid 'aCoeffs' where aCoeffs[0] == 0.0
+        double[] aCoeffs = {0.0, 0.5}; // aCoeffs[0] must not be zero
+        double[] bCoeffs = {1.0, 0.5};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { filter.setCoeffs(aCoeffs, bCoeffs); }, "aCoeffs[0] must not be zero");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testProcessWithNoCoeffsSet() {
+        // Test process method with default coefficients (sane defaults)
+        IIRFilter filter = new IIRFilter(2);
+        double inputSample = 0.5;
+        double result = filter.process(inputSample);
+
+        // Since default coeffsA[0] and coeffsB[0] are 1.0, expect output = input
+        assertEquals(inputSample, result, 1e-6, "Process should return the same value as input with default coefficients");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testProcessWithCoeffsSet() {
+        // Test process method with set coefficients
+        IIRFilter filter = new IIRFilter(2);
+
+        double[] aCoeffs = {1.0, 0.5};
+        double[] bCoeffs = {1.0, 0.5};
+        filter.setCoeffs(aCoeffs, bCoeffs);
+
+        // Process a sample
+        double inputSample = 0.5;
+        double result = filter.process(inputSample);
+
+        // Expected output can be complex to calculate in advance;
+        // check if the method runs and returns a result within reasonable bounds
+        assertTrue(result >= -1.0 && result <= 1.0, "Processed result should be in the range [-1, 1]");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..177163b09ca1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertIterableEquals;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFirstCase() {
+        int vertices = 4;
+        int[][] a = {{0, 1}, {0, 2}, {0, 3}, {2, 0}, {2, 1}, {1, 3}};
+        int source = 2;
+        int destination = 3;
+        List<List<Integer>> list2 = List.of(List.of(2, 0, 1, 3), List.of(2, 0, 3), List.of(2, 1, 3));
+        List<List<Integer>> list1 = AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.allPathsFromSourceToTarget(vertices, a, source, destination);
+        list2 = list1;
+        assertIterableEquals(list1, list2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSecondCase() {
+        int vertices = 5;
+        int[][] a = {{0, 1}, {0, 2}, {0, 3}, {2, 0}, {2, 1}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {3, 4}, {2, 4}};
+        int source = 0;
+        int destination = 4;
+        List<List<Integer>> list2 = List.of(List.of(0, 1, 3, 4), List.of(0, 1, 4), List.of(0, 2, 1, 3, 4), List.of(0, 2, 1, 4), List.of(0, 2, 4), List.of(0, 3, 4));
+        List<List<Integer>> list1 = AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.allPathsFromSourceToTarget(vertices, a, source, destination);
+        list2 = list1;
+        assertIterableEquals(list1, list2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForThirdCase() {
+        int vertices = 6;
+        int[][] a = {{1, 0}, {2, 3}, {0, 4}, {1, 5}, {4, 3}, {0, 2}, {0, 3}, {1, 2}, {0, 5}, {3, 4}, {2, 5}, {2, 4}};
+        int source = 1;
+        int destination = 5;
+        List<List<Integer>> list2 = List.of(List.of(1, 0, 2, 5), List.of(1, 0, 5), List.of(1, 5), List.of(1, 2, 5));
+        List<List<Integer>> list1 = AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.allPathsFromSourceToTarget(vertices, a, source, destination);
+        list2 = list1;
+        assertIterableEquals(list1, list2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFourthcase() {
+        int vertices = 3;
+        int[][] a = {{0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}};
+        int source = 0;
+        int destination = 2;
+        List<List<Integer>> list2 = List.of(List.of(0, 1, 2), List.of(0, 2));
+        List<List<Integer>> list1 = AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.allPathsFromSourceToTarget(vertices, a, source, destination);
+        list2 = list1;
+        assertIterableEquals(list1, list2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ArrayCombinationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ArrayCombinationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a6a3714cb594
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ArrayCombinationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.BinomialCoefficient;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class ArrayCombinationTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("regularInputs")
+    void testCombination(int n, int k, List<List<Integer>> expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected.size(), BinomialCoefficient.binomialCoefficient(n, k));
+        assertEquals(expected, ArrayCombination.combination(n, k));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("wrongInputs")
+    void testCombinationThrows(int n, int k) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayCombination.combination(n, k));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> regularInputs() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, 0, List.of(new ArrayList<Integer>())), Arguments.of(1, 0, List.of(new ArrayList<Integer>())), Arguments.of(1, 1, List.of(List.of(0))), Arguments.of(3, 0, List.of(new ArrayList<Integer>())), Arguments.of(3, 1, List.of(List.of(0), List.of(1), List.of(2))),
+            Arguments.of(4, 2, List.of(List.of(0, 1), List.of(0, 2), List.of(0, 3), List.of(1, 2), List.of(1, 3), List.of(2, 3))),
+            Arguments.of(5, 3, List.of(List.of(0, 1, 2), List.of(0, 1, 3), List.of(0, 1, 4), List.of(0, 2, 3), List.of(0, 2, 4), List.of(0, 3, 4), List.of(1, 2, 3), List.of(1, 2, 4), List.of(1, 3, 4), List.of(2, 3, 4))),
+            Arguments.of(6, 4,
+                List.of(List.of(0, 1, 2, 3), List.of(0, 1, 2, 4), List.of(0, 1, 2, 5), List.of(0, 1, 3, 4), List.of(0, 1, 3, 5), List.of(0, 1, 4, 5), List.of(0, 2, 3, 4), List.of(0, 2, 3, 5), List.of(0, 2, 4, 5), List.of(0, 3, 4, 5), List.of(1, 2, 3, 4), List.of(1, 2, 3, 5), List.of(1, 2, 4, 5),
+                    List.of(1, 3, 4, 5), List.of(2, 3, 4, 5))));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> wrongInputs() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(-1, 0), Arguments.of(0, -1), Arguments.of(2, 100), Arguments.of(3, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CombinationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CombinationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a9d1163f3ecd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CombinationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.TreeSet;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CombinationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeElement() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Combination.combination(array, -1); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoElement() {
+        List<TreeSet<Integer>> result = Combination.combination(new Integer[] {1, 2}, 0);
+        assertNotNull(result);
+        assertEquals(0, result.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLengthOne() {
+        List<TreeSet<Integer>> result = Combination.combination(new Integer[] {1, 2}, 1);
+        assertTrue(result.get(0).iterator().next() == 1);
+        assertTrue(result.get(1).iterator().next() == 2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLengthTwo() {
+        List<TreeSet<Integer>> result = Combination.combination(new Integer[] {1, 2}, 2);
+        Integer[] arr = result.get(0).toArray(new Integer[2]);
+        assertTrue(arr[0] == 1);
+        assertTrue(arr[1] == 2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCombinationsWithStrings() {
+        List<TreeSet<String>> result = Combination.combination(new String[] {"a", "b", "c"}, 2);
+        assertEquals(3, result.size());
+        assertTrue(result.contains(new TreeSet<>(Set.of("a", "b"))));
+        assertTrue(result.contains(new TreeSet<>(Set.of("a", "c"))));
+        assertTrue(result.contains(new TreeSet<>(Set.of("b", "c"))));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolverTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolverTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..542fd53fe5ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolverTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CrosswordSolverTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testValidPlacement() {
+        char[][] puzzle = {{' ', ' ', ' '}, {' ', ' ', ' '}, {' ', ' ', ' '}};
+        assertTrue(CrosswordSolver.isValid(puzzle, "cat", 0, 0, true));
+        assertTrue(CrosswordSolver.isValid(puzzle, "dog", 0, 0, false));
+        assertFalse(CrosswordSolver.isValid(puzzle, "cat", 1, 2, false));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPlaceAndRemoveWord() {
+        char[][] puzzle = {{' ', ' ', ' '}, {' ', ' ', ' '}, {' ', ' ', ' '}};
+        CrosswordSolver.placeWord(puzzle, "cat", 0, 0, true);
+        assertEquals('c', puzzle[0][0]);
+        assertEquals('a', puzzle[1][0]);
+        assertEquals('t', puzzle[2][0]);
+
+        CrosswordSolver.removeWord(puzzle, "cat", 0, 0, true);
+        assertEquals(' ', puzzle[0][0]);
+        assertEquals(' ', puzzle[1][0]);
+        assertEquals(' ', puzzle[2][0]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSolveCrossword() {
+        char[][] puzzle = {{' ', ' ', ' '}, {' ', ' ', ' '}, {' ', ' ', ' '}};
+        List<String> words = Arrays.asList("cat", "dog", "car");
+        assertTrue(CrosswordSolver.solveCrossword(puzzle, words));
+
+        /* Solved crossword:
+         * c d c
+         * a o a
+         * t g r
+         */
+
+        assertEquals('c', puzzle[0][0]);
+        assertEquals('a', puzzle[1][0]);
+        assertEquals('t', puzzle[2][0]);
+
+        assertEquals('d', puzzle[0][1]);
+        assertEquals('o', puzzle[1][1]);
+        assertEquals('g', puzzle[2][1]);
+
+        assertEquals('c', puzzle[0][2]);
+        assertEquals('a', puzzle[1][2]);
+        assertEquals('r', puzzle[2][2]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNoSolution() {
+        char[][] puzzle = {{' ', ' ', ' '}, {' ', ' ', ' '}, {' ', ' ', ' '}};
+        List<String> words = Arrays.asList("cat", "dog", "elephant"); // 'elephant' is too long for the grid
+        assertFalse(CrosswordSolver.solveCrossword(puzzle, words));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/FloodFillTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/FloodFillTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8b860b5b46b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/FloodFillTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class FloodFillTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEmptyImage() {
+        int[][] image = {};
+        int[][] expected = {};
+
+        FloodFill.floodFill(image, 4, 5, 3, 2);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSingleElementImage() {
+        int[][] image = {{1}};
+        int[][] expected = {{3}};
+
+        FloodFill.floodFill(image, 0, 0, 3, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForImageOne() {
+        int[][] image = {
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 1, 1, 5, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 1, 1, 5, 5, 3},
+            {0, 3, 5, 5, 1, 1, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 5, 1, 1, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3, 3},
+        };
+
+        int[][] expected = {
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 2, 2, 5, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 2, 2, 5, 5, 3},
+            {0, 3, 5, 5, 2, 2, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 5, 2, 2, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3, 3},
+        };
+
+        FloodFill.floodFill(image, 2, 2, 2, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForImageTwo() {
+        int[][] image = {
+            {0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0},
+            {1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0},
+            {1, 3, 1, 1, 5, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 1, 1, 5, 5, 3},
+            {0, 3, 5, 5, 1, 1, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 5, 1, 1, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 1, 3, 1, 3},
+        };
+
+        int[][] expected = {
+            {0, 0, 2, 2, 0, 0, 0},
+            {2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0},
+            {2, 3, 2, 2, 5, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 2, 2, 5, 5, 3},
+            {0, 3, 5, 5, 2, 2, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 5, 2, 2, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 2, 3, 2, 3},
+        };
+
+        FloodFill.floodFill(image, 2, 2, 2, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForImageThree() {
+        int[][] image = {
+            {1, 1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1},
+            {1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1},
+            {1, 1, 1, 0, 3, 1, 2},
+        };
+
+        int[][] expected = {
+            {4, 4, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4},
+            {4, 0, 0, 4, 0, 0, 4},
+            {4, 4, 4, 0, 3, 4, 2},
+        };
+
+        FloodFill.floodFill(image, 0, 1, 4, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSameNewAndOldColor() {
+        int[][] image = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        FloodFill.floodFill(image, 0, 1, 1, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTourTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTourTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..306dbf4c2ec7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTourTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KnightsTourTest {
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        // Call the reset method in the KnightsTour class
+        KnightsTour.resetBoard();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGridInitialization() {
+        for (int r = 0; r < 12; r++) {
+            for (int c = 0; c < 12; c++) {
+                if (r < 2 || r > 12 - 3 || c < 2 || c > 12 - 3) {
+                    assertEquals(-1, KnightsTour.grid[r][c], "Border cells should be -1");
+                } else {
+                    assertEquals(0, KnightsTour.grid[r][c], "Internal cells should be 0");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCountNeighbors() {
+        // Manually place a knight at (3, 3) and mark nearby cells to test counting
+        KnightsTour.grid[3][3] = 1; // Knight is here
+        KnightsTour.grid[5][4] = -1; // Block one potential move
+
+        int neighborCount = KnightsTour.countNeighbors(3, 3);
+        assertEquals(3, neighborCount, "Knight at (3, 3) should have 3 neighbors (one blocked)");
+
+        KnightsTour.grid[4][1] = -1; // Block another move
+        neighborCount = KnightsTour.countNeighbors(3, 3);
+        assertEquals(3, neighborCount, "Knight at (3, 3) should have 3 neighbors (two blocked)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNeighbors() {
+        // Test the list of valid neighbors for a given cell (3, 3)
+        List<int[]> neighbors = KnightsTour.neighbors(3, 3);
+        assertEquals(4, neighbors.size(), "Knight at (3, 3) should have 8 valid neighbors");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSolveSuccessful() {
+        // Test if the solve method works for a successful knight's tour
+        KnightsTour.grid[2][2] = 1; // Start the knight at (2, 2)
+        boolean result = KnightsTour.solve(2, 2, 2);
+        assertTrue(result, "solve() should successfully complete a Knight's tour");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoringTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f3f25933b7a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoringTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+class MColoringTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphColoring1() {
+        int n = 4;
+        int[][] graph = {{0, 1, 1, 1}, {1, 0, 1, 0}, {1, 1, 0, 1}, {1, 0, 1, 0}};
+        int m = 3; // Number of colors
+
+        assertTrue(MColoring.isColoringPossible(createGraph(graph), n, m));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphColoring2() {
+        int n = 5;
+        int[][] graph = {{0, 1, 1, 1, 0}, {1, 0, 0, 1, 0}, {1, 0, 0, 1, 1}, {1, 1, 1, 0, 1}, {0, 0, 1, 1, 0}};
+        int m = 2; // Number of colors
+
+        assertFalse(MColoring.isColoringPossible(createGraph(graph), n, m));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphColoring3() {
+        int n = 3;
+        int[][] graph = {{0, 1, 1}, {1, 0, 1}, {1, 1, 0}};
+        int m = 2; // Number of colors
+
+        assertFalse(MColoring.isColoringPossible(createGraph(graph), n, m));
+    }
+
+    private ArrayList<Node> createGraph(int[][] graph) {
+        int n = graph.length;
+        ArrayList<Node> nodes = new ArrayList<>(n + 1);
+        for (int i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
+            nodes.add(new Node());
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            for (int j = i + 1; j < n; j++) { // Use j = i + 1 to avoid setting edges twice
+                if (graph[i][j] > 0) {
+                    nodes.get(i + 1).edges.add(j + 1);
+                    nodes.get(j + 1).edges.add(i + 1);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return nodes;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b8e77fb38bad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author onglipwei
+ * @create 2022-08-03 5:17 AM
+ */
+public class MazeRecursionTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSolveMazeUsingFirstAndSecondStrategy() {
+        int[][] map = new int[8][7];
+        int[][] map2 = new int[8][7];
+
+        // We use 1 to indicate walls
+        // Set the ceiling and floor to 1
+        for (int i = 0; i < 7; i++) {
+            map[0][i] = 1;
+            map[7][i] = 1;
+        }
+        // Set the left and right wall to 1
+        for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++) {
+            map[i][0] = 1;
+            map[i][6] = 1;
+        }
+        // Set obstacles
+        map[3][1] = 1;
+        map[3][2] = 1;
+
+        // Clone the original map for the second pathfinding strategy
+        for (int i = 0; i < map.length; i++) {
+            System.arraycopy(map[i], 0, map2[i], 0, map[i].length);
+        }
+
+        // Solve the maze using the first strategy
+        int[][] solvedMap1 = MazeRecursion.solveMazeUsingFirstStrategy(map);
+        // Solve the maze using the second strategy
+        int[][] solvedMap2 = MazeRecursion.solveMazeUsingSecondStrategy(map2);
+        int[][] expectedMap1 = new int[][] {
+            {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1},
+            {1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1},
+            {1, 2, 2, 2, 0, 0, 1},
+            {1, 1, 1, 2, 0, 0, 1},
+            {1, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 1},
+            {1, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 1},
+            {1, 0, 0, 2, 2, 2, 1},
+            {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1},
+        };
+        int[][] expectedMap2 = new int[][] {
+            {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1},
+            {1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1},
+            {1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1},
+            {1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 2, 1},
+            {1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1},
+            {1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1},
+            {1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1},
+            {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1},
+        };
+
+        // Assert the results
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedMap1, solvedMap1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedMap2, solvedMap2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueensTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueensTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..243133848ee2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueensTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class NQueensTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNQueens1() {
+        List<List<String>> expected = singletonList(singletonList("Q"));
+        assertEquals(expected, NQueens.getNQueensArrangements(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNQueens2() {
+        List<List<String>> expected = new ArrayList<>(); // No solution exists
+        assertEquals(expected, NQueens.getNQueensArrangements(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNQueens3() {
+        List<List<String>> expected = new ArrayList<>(); // No solution exists
+        assertEquals(expected, NQueens.getNQueensArrangements(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNQueens4() {
+        List<List<String>> expected = Arrays.asList(Arrays.asList(".Q..", "...Q", "Q...", "..Q."), Arrays.asList("..Q.", "Q...", "...Q", ".Q.."));
+        assertEquals(expected, NQueens.getNQueensArrangements(4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNQueens5() {
+        // Only the number of solutions is tested for larger N due to the complexity of checking each board configuration
+        List<List<String>> result = NQueens.getNQueensArrangements(5);
+        assertEquals(10, result.size()); // 5x5 board has 10 solutions
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNQueens6() {
+        List<List<String>> result = NQueens.getNQueensArrangements(6);
+        assertEquals(4, result.size()); // 6x6 board has 4 solutions
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ParenthesesGeneratorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ParenthesesGeneratorTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9da16061d8f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/ParenthesesGeneratorTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class ParenthesesGeneratorTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("regularInputStream")
+    void regularInputTests(int input, List<String> expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, ParenthesesGenerator.generateParentheses(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("negativeInputStream")
+    void throwsForNegativeInputTests(int input) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ParenthesesGenerator.generateParentheses(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> regularInputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, List.of("")), Arguments.of(1, List.of("()")), Arguments.of(2, List.of("(())", "()()")), Arguments.of(3, List.of("((()))", "(()())", "(())()", "()(())", "()()()")),
+            Arguments.of(4, List.of("(((())))", "((()()))", "((())())", "((()))()", "(()(()))", "(()()())", "(()())()", "(())(())", "(())()()", "()((()))", "()(()())", "()(())()", "()()(())", "()()()()")));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> negativeInputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(-1), Arguments.of(-5), Arguments.of(-10));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PermutationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PermutationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..76a714829109
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PermutationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PermutationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoElement() {
+        List<Integer[]> result = Permutation.permutation(new Integer[] {});
+        assertEquals(result.get(0).length, 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElement() {
+        List<Integer[]> result = Permutation.permutation(new Integer[] {1});
+        assertEquals(result.get(0)[0], 1);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleElements() {
+        List<Integer[]> result = Permutation.permutation(new Integer[] {1, 2});
+        assertTrue(Arrays.equals(result.get(0), new Integer[] {1, 2}));
+        assertTrue(Arrays.equals(result.get(1), new Integer[] {2, 1}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSumTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSumTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b14bce2b1920
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSumTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PowerSumTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNumberZeroAndPowerZero() {
+        PowerSum powerSum = new PowerSum();
+        int result = powerSum.powSum(0, 0);
+        assertEquals(1, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNumberHundredAndPowerTwo() {
+        PowerSum powerSum = new PowerSum();
+        int result = powerSum.powSum(100, 2);
+        assertEquals(3, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNumberHundredAndPowerThree() {
+        PowerSum powerSum = new PowerSum();
+        int result = powerSum.powSum(100, 3);
+        assertEquals(1, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/SubsequenceFinderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/SubsequenceFinderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dac2e2675674
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/SubsequenceFinderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertIterableEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class SubsequenceFinderTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("getTestCases")
+    void testGenerateAll(TestCase testData) {
+        final var actual = SubsequenceFinder.generateAll(testData.input());
+        assertIterableEquals(testData.expected(), actual);
+    }
+
+    static Stream<TestCase> getTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new TestCase(new ArrayList<>(), List.of(List.of())), new TestCase(List.of(1, 2), List.of(List.of(), List.of(2), List.of(1), List.of(1, 2))),
+            new TestCase(List.of("A", "B", "C"), List.of(List.of(), List.of("C"), List.of("B"), List.of("B", "C"), List.of("A"), List.of("A", "C"), List.of("A", "B"), List.of("A", "B", "C"))),
+            new TestCase(List.of(1, 2, 3), List.of(List.of(), List.of(3), List.of(2), List.of(2, 3), List.of(1), List.of(1, 3), List.of(1, 2), List.of(1, 2, 3))), new TestCase(List.of(2, 2), List.of(List.of(), List.of(2), List.of(2), List.of(2, 2))));
+    }
+
+    record TestCase(List<Object> input, List<List<Object>> expected) {
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4d56be566035
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class WordPatternMatcherTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPatternMatchingSuccess() {
+        assertTrue(WordPatternMatcher.matchWordPattern("aba", "GraphTreesGraph"));
+        assertTrue(WordPatternMatcher.matchWordPattern("xyx", "PythonRubyPython"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPatternMatchingFailure() {
+        assertFalse(WordPatternMatcher.matchWordPattern("GG", "PythonJavaPython"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyPatternAndString() {
+        assertTrue(WordPatternMatcher.matchWordPattern("", ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyPattern() {
+        assertFalse(WordPatternMatcher.matchWordPattern("", "nonempty"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyString() {
+        assertFalse(WordPatternMatcher.matchWordPattern("abc", ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLongerPatternThanString() {
+        assertFalse(WordPatternMatcher.matchWordPattern("abcd", "abc"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..46f199747322
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class WordSearchTest {
+    @Test
+    void test1() {
+        WordSearch ws = new WordSearch();
+        char[][] board = {{'A', 'B', 'C', 'E'}, {'S', 'F', 'C', 'S'}, {'A', 'D', 'E', 'E'}};
+        String word = "ABCCED";
+        assertTrue(ws.exist(board, word));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test2() {
+        WordSearch ws = new WordSearch();
+        char[][] board = {{'A', 'B', 'C', 'E'}, {'S', 'F', 'C', 'S'}, {'A', 'D', 'E', 'E'}};
+        String word = "SEE";
+        assertTrue(ws.exist(board, word));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test3() {
+        WordSearch ws = new WordSearch();
+        char[][] board = {{'A', 'B', 'C', 'E'}, {'S', 'F', 'C', 'S'}, {'A', 'D', 'E', 'E'}};
+        String word = "ABCB";
+        Assertions.assertFalse(ws.exist(board, word));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..727b07eb9065
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BcdConversionTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBcdToDecimal() {
+        int decimal = BcdConversion.bcdToDecimal(0x1234);
+        assertEquals(1234, decimal); // BCD 0x1234 should convert to decimal 1234
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecimalToBcd() {
+        int bcd = BcdConversion.decimalToBcd(1234);
+        assertEquals(0x1234, bcd); // Decimal 1234 should convert to BCD 0x1234
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBcdToDecimalZero() {
+        int decimal = BcdConversion.bcdToDecimal(0x0);
+        assertEquals(0, decimal); // BCD 0x0 should convert to decimal 0
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecimalToBcdZero() {
+        int bcd = BcdConversion.decimalToBcd(0);
+        assertEquals(0x0, bcd); // Decimal 0 should convert to BCD 0x0
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBcdToDecimalSingleDigit() {
+        int decimal = BcdConversion.bcdToDecimal(0x7);
+        assertEquals(7, decimal); // BCD 0x7 should convert to decimal 7
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecimalToBcdSingleDigit() {
+        int bcd = BcdConversion.decimalToBcd(7);
+        assertEquals(0x7, bcd); // Decimal 7 should convert to BCD 0x7
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBcdToDecimalMaxValue() {
+        int decimal = BcdConversion.bcdToDecimal(0x9999);
+        assertEquals(9999, decimal); // BCD 0x9999 should convert to decimal 9999
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecimalToBcdMaxValue() {
+        int bcd = BcdConversion.decimalToBcd(9999);
+        assertEquals(0x9999, bcd); // Decimal 9999 should convert to BCD 0x9999
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBcdToDecimalInvalidHighDigit() {
+        // Testing invalid BCD input where one of the digits is > 9
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
+            BcdConversion.bcdToDecimal(0x123A); // Invalid BCD, 'A' is not a valid digit
+        });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecimalToBcdInvalidValue() {
+        // Testing conversion for numbers greater than 9999, which cannot be represented in BCD
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
+            BcdConversion.decimalToBcd(10000); // 10000 is too large for BCD representation
+        });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBcdToDecimalLeadingZeroes() {
+        int decimal = BcdConversion.bcdToDecimal(0x0234);
+        assertEquals(234, decimal); // BCD 0x0234 should convert to decimal 234, ignoring leading zero
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecimalToBcdLeadingZeroes() {
+        int bcd = BcdConversion.decimalToBcd(234);
+        assertEquals(0x0234, bcd); // Decimal 234 should convert to BCD 0x0234
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BinaryPalindromeCheckTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BinaryPalindromeCheckTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ff41344266e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BinaryPalindromeCheckTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BinaryPalindromeCheckTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIsBinaryPalindrome() {
+        assertTrue(BinaryPalindromeCheck.isBinaryPalindrome(9)); // 1001 is a palindrome
+        assertFalse(BinaryPalindromeCheck.isBinaryPalindrome(10)); // 1010 is not a palindrome
+        assertTrue(BinaryPalindromeCheck.isBinaryPalindrome(0)); // 0 is a palindrome
+        assertTrue(BinaryPalindromeCheck.isBinaryPalindrome(1)); // 1 is a palindrome
+        assertFalse(BinaryPalindromeCheck.isBinaryPalindrome(12)); // 1100 is not a palindrome
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitSwapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitSwapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9d888d056453
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitSwapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class BitSwapTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Additional cases: data={0}, posA={1}, posB={2} -> expected={3}")
+    @MethodSource("provideAdditionalCases")
+    void testAdditionalCases(int data, int posA, int posB, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, BitSwap.bitSwap(data, posA, posB));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Swap different bits: data={0}, posA={1}, posB={2} -> expected={3}")
+    @MethodSource("provideDifferentBitsCases")
+    void swapDifferentBits(int data, int posA, int posB, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, BitSwap.bitSwap(data, posA, posB));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Swap same bits: data={0}, posA={1}, posB={2} should not change")
+    @MethodSource("provideSameBitsCases")
+    void swapSameBits(int data, int posA, int posB) {
+        assertEquals(data, BitSwap.bitSwap(data, posA, posB));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Edge cases: data={0}, posA={1}, posB={2} -> expected={3}")
+    @MethodSource("provideEdgeCases")
+    void testEdgeCases(int data, int posA, int posB, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, BitSwap.bitSwap(data, posA, posB));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Invalid positions: data={0}, posA={1}, posB={2} should throw")
+    @MethodSource("provideInvalidPositions")
+    void invalidPositionThrowsException(int data, int posA, int posB) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BitSwap.bitSwap(data, posA, posB));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideAdditionalCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(3, 0, 1, 3), Arguments.of(6, 0, 1, 5), Arguments.of(7, 1, 1, 7));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideDifferentBitsCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0b01, 0, 1, 0b10));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideSameBitsCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0b111, 0, 2), Arguments.of(0b0, 1, 3), Arguments.of(0b1010, 1, 3), Arguments.of(-1, 5, 5));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideEdgeCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(Integer.MIN_VALUE, 31, 0, 1), Arguments.of(0, 0, 31, 0));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideInvalidPositions() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, -1, 0), Arguments.of(0, 0, 32), Arguments.of(0, -5, 33), Arguments.of(0, Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitwiseGCDTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitwiseGCDTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..207fdc1e57a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BitwiseGCDTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BitwiseGCDTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdBasic() {
+        assertEquals(6L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(48L, 18L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdZeroAndNonZero() {
+        assertEquals(5L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(0L, 5L));
+        assertEquals(5L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(5L, 0L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdBothZero() {
+        assertEquals(0L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(0L, 0L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdNegativeInputs() {
+        assertEquals(6L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(-48L, 18L));
+        assertEquals(6L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(48L, -18L));
+        assertEquals(6L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(-48L, -18L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdIntOverload() {
+        assertEquals(6, BitwiseGCD.gcd(48, 18));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdArray() {
+        long[] values = {48L, 18L, 6L};
+        assertEquals(6L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(values));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdEmptyArray() {
+        long[] empty = {};
+        assertEquals(0L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(empty));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdCoprime() {
+        assertEquals(1L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(17L, 13L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdPowersOfTwo() {
+        assertEquals(1024L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(1L << 20, 1L << 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdLargeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(6L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(270L, 192L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdEarlyExitArray() {
+        long[] manyCoprimes = {7L, 11L, 13L, 17L, 19L, 23L, 29L};
+        assertEquals(1L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(manyCoprimes));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdSameNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(42L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(42L, 42L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdLongMinValueBigInteger() {
+        // gcd(Long.MIN_VALUE, 0) = |Long.MIN_VALUE| = 2^63; must use BigInteger to represent it
+        BigInteger expected = BigInteger.ONE.shiftLeft(63); // 2^63
+        assertEquals(expected, BitwiseGCD.gcdBig(Long.MIN_VALUE, 0L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdLongMinValueLongOverloadThrows() {
+        // The long overload cannot return 2^63 as a positive signed long, so it must throw
+        assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> BitwiseGCD.gcd(Long.MIN_VALUE, 0L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdWithLongMinAndOther() {
+        // gcd(Long.MIN_VALUE, 2^10) should be 2^10
+        long p = 1L << 10;
+        BigInteger expected = BigInteger.valueOf(p);
+        assertEquals(expected, BitwiseGCD.gcdBig(Long.MIN_VALUE, p));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdWithBothLongMin() {
+        // gcd(Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MIN_VALUE) = 2^63
+        BigInteger expected = BigInteger.ONE.shiftLeft(63);
+        assertEquals(expected, BitwiseGCD.gcdBig(Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MIN_VALUE));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGcdEdgeCasesMixed() {
+        assertEquals(1L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(1L, Long.MAX_VALUE));
+        assertEquals(1L, BitwiseGCD.gcd(Long.MAX_VALUE, 1L));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BooleanAlgebraGatesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BooleanAlgebraGatesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8737d05ec459
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BooleanAlgebraGatesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation.BooleanAlgebraGates.ANDGate;
+import com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation.BooleanAlgebraGates.BooleanGate;
+import com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation.BooleanAlgebraGates.NANDGate;
+import com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation.BooleanAlgebraGates.NORGate;
+import com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation.BooleanAlgebraGates.NOTGate;
+import com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation.BooleanAlgebraGates.ORGate;
+import com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation.BooleanAlgebraGates.XORGate;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class BooleanAlgebraGatesTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "ANDGate Test Case {index}: inputs={0} -> expected={1}")
+    @MethodSource("provideAndGateTestCases")
+    void testANDGate(List<Boolean> inputs, boolean expected) {
+        BooleanGate gate = new ANDGate();
+        assertEquals(expected, gate.evaluate(inputs));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "ORGate Test Case {index}: inputs={0} -> expected={1}")
+    @MethodSource("provideOrGateTestCases")
+    void testORGate(List<Boolean> inputs, boolean expected) {
+        BooleanGate gate = new ORGate();
+        assertEquals(expected, gate.evaluate(inputs));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "NOTGate Test Case {index}: input={0} -> expected={1}")
+    @CsvSource({"true, false", "false, true"})
+    void testNOTGate(boolean input, boolean expected) {
+        NOTGate gate = new NOTGate();
+        assertEquals(expected, gate.evaluate(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "XORGate Test Case {index}: inputs={0} -> expected={1}")
+    @MethodSource("provideXorGateTestCases")
+    void testXORGate(List<Boolean> inputs, boolean expected) {
+        BooleanGate gate = new XORGate();
+        assertEquals(expected, gate.evaluate(inputs));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "NANDGate Test Case {index}: inputs={0} -> expected={1}")
+    @MethodSource("provideNandGateTestCases")
+    void testNANDGate(List<Boolean> inputs, boolean expected) {
+        BooleanGate gate = new NANDGate();
+        assertEquals(expected, gate.evaluate(inputs));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "NORGate Test Case {index}: inputs={0} -> expected={1}")
+    @MethodSource("provideNorGateTestCases")
+    void testNORGate(List<Boolean> inputs, boolean expected) {
+        BooleanGate gate = new NORGate();
+        assertEquals(expected, gate.evaluate(inputs));
+    }
+
+    // Helper methods to provide test data for each gate
+
+    static Stream<Object[]> provideAndGateTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.TRUE), Boolean.TRUE}, new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.TRUE), Boolean.FALSE}, new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE), Boolean.FALSE},
+            new Object[] {Collections.emptyList(), Boolean.TRUE} // AND over no inputs is true
+        );
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Object[]> provideOrGateTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE), Boolean.TRUE}, new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE), Boolean.FALSE}, new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.TRUE), Boolean.TRUE},
+            new Object[] {Collections.emptyList(), Boolean.FALSE} // OR over no inputs is false
+        );
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Object[]> provideXorGateTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.TRUE), Boolean.FALSE}, // XOR over odd true
+            new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE), Boolean.TRUE}, // XOR over single true
+            new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE), Boolean.FALSE}, // XOR over all false
+            new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.TRUE), Boolean.FALSE} // XOR over even true
+        );
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Object[]> provideNandGateTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.TRUE), Boolean.FALSE}, // NAND of all true is false
+            new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE), Boolean.TRUE}, // NAND with one false is true
+            new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE), Boolean.TRUE}, // NAND of all false is true
+            new Object[] {Collections.emptyList(), Boolean.FALSE} // NAND over no inputs is false (negation of AND)
+        );
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Object[]> provideNorGateTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.FALSE), Boolean.TRUE}, // NOR of all false is true
+            new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.TRUE), Boolean.FALSE}, // NOR with one true is false
+            new Object[] {Arrays.asList(Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.TRUE), Boolean.FALSE}, // NOR of all true is false
+            new Object[] {Collections.emptyList(), Boolean.TRUE} // NOR over no inputs is true (negation of OR)
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBitTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e77889fb7b0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBitTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ClearLeftmostSetBitTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testClearLeftmostSetBit() {
+        assertEquals(10, ClearLeftmostSetBit.clearLeftmostSetBit(26)); // 11010 -> 01010
+        assertEquals(0, ClearLeftmostSetBit.clearLeftmostSetBit(1)); // 1 -> 0
+        assertEquals(3, ClearLeftmostSetBit.clearLeftmostSetBit(7)); // 111 -> 011
+        assertEquals(2, ClearLeftmostSetBit.clearLeftmostSetBit(6)); // 0110 -> 0010
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlipTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlipTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f33fa0fefbc0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlipTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for CountBitsFlip.
+ * Covers:
+ *  - simple examples
+ *  - zeros and identical values
+ *  - negative numbers and two's complement edge cases
+ *  - Long.MIN_VALUE / Long.MAX_VALUE
+ *  - randomized consistency checks between two implementations
+ */
+@DisplayName("CountBitsFlip Tests")
+class CountBitsFlipTest {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Example: A=10, B=20 => 4 bits")
+    void exampleTenTwenty() {
+        long a = 10L;
+        long b = 20L;
+        long expected = 4L;
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlip(a, b), "Brian Kernighan implementation should return 4");
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlipAlternative(a, b), "Long.bitCount implementation should return 4");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Identical values => 0 bits")
+    void identicalValues() {
+        long a = 123456789L;
+        long b = 123456789L;
+        long expected = 0L;
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlip(a, b));
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlipAlternative(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Both zeros => 0 bits")
+    void bothZeros() {
+        assertEquals(0L, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlip(0L, 0L));
+        assertEquals(0L, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlipAlternative(0L, 0L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Small example: A=15 (1111), B=8 (1000) => 3 bits")
+    void smallExample() {
+        long a = 15L; // 1111
+        long b = 8L; // 1000
+        long expected = 3L; // differs in three low bits
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlip(a, b));
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlipAlternative(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Negative values: -1 vs 0 => 64 bits (two's complement all ones)")
+    void negativeVsZero() {
+        long a = -1L;
+        long b = 0L;
+        long expected = 64L; // all 64 bits differ
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlip(a, b));
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlipAlternative(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Long.MIN_VALUE vs Long.MAX_VALUE => 64 bits")
+    void minMaxLongs() {
+        long a = Long.MIN_VALUE;
+        long b = Long.MAX_VALUE;
+        long expected = 64L; // MAX ^ MIN yields all ones on 64-bit long
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlip(a, b));
+        assertEquals(expected, CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlipAlternative(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Randomized consistency: both implementations agree across many pairs")
+    void randomizedConsistency() {
+        final int iterations = 1000;
+        final Random rnd = new Random(12345L); // deterministic seed for reproducibility
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < iterations; i++) {
+            long a = rnd.nextLong();
+            long b = rnd.nextLong();
+
+            long res1 = CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlip(a, b);
+            long res2 = CountBitsFlip.countBitsFlipAlternative(a, b);
+
+            assertEquals(res2, res1, () -> String.format("Mismatch for a=%d, b=%d: impl1=%d, impl2=%d", a, b, res1, res2));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountLeadingZerosTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountLeadingZerosTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6ab15fd2ab5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountLeadingZerosTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CountLeadingZerosTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCountLeadingZeros() {
+        assertEquals(29, CountLeadingZeros.countLeadingZeros(5)); // 000...0101 has 29 leading zeros
+        assertEquals(32, CountLeadingZeros.countLeadingZeros(0)); // 000...0000 has 32 leading zeros
+        assertEquals(31, CountLeadingZeros.countLeadingZeros(1)); // 000...0001 has 31 leading zeros
+        assertEquals(0, CountLeadingZeros.countLeadingZeros(-1)); // No leading zeros in negative number (-1)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountSetBitsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountSetBitsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..61e0757f9c12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountSetBitsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CountSetBitsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetBits() {
+        CountSetBits csb = new CountSetBits();
+        assertEquals(1L, csb.countSetBits(16));
+        assertEquals(4, csb.countSetBits(15));
+        assertEquals(5, csb.countSetBits(10000));
+        assertEquals(5, csb.countSetBits(31));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetBitsLookupApproach() {
+        CountSetBits csb = new CountSetBits();
+        assertEquals(1L, csb.lookupApproach(16));
+        assertEquals(4, csb.lookupApproach(15));
+        assertEquals(5, csb.lookupApproach(10000));
+        assertEquals(5, csb.lookupApproach(31));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FindNthBitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FindNthBitTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..978003d21358
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FindNthBitTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public final class FindNthBitTest {
+
+    /**
+     * A parameterized test that checks the value of the Nth bit for different inputs.
+     *
+     * @param num     the number whose Nth bit is being tested
+     * @param n       the bit position
+     * @param expected the expected value of the Nth bit (0 or 1)
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void findNthBitParameterizedTest(int num, int n, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, FindNthBit.findNthBit(num, n));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Provides the test cases as a stream of arguments for the parameterized test.
+     *
+     * @return a stream of test cases where each case consists of a number, the bit position,
+     * and the expected result.
+     */
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(13, 2, 0), // binary: 1101, 2nd bit is 0
+            Arguments.of(13, 3, 1), // binary: 1101, 3rd bit is 1
+            Arguments.of(4, 2, 0), // binary: 100, 2nd bit is 0
+            Arguments.of(4, 3, 1), // binary: 100, 3rd bit is 1
+            Arguments.of(1, 1, 1) // binary: 1, 1st bit is 1
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBitTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ae7bad9a666a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBitTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class FirstDifferentBitTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"10, 8, 1", "7, 5, 1", "15, 14, 0", "1, 2, 0"})
+    void testFirstDifferentBit(int x, int y, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, FirstDifferentBit.firstDifferentBit(x, y));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GenerateSubsetsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GenerateSubsetsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..912d7e729ade
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GenerateSubsetsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class GenerateSubsetsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenerateSubsetsWithTwoElements() {
+        int[] set = {1, 2};
+        List<List<Integer>> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        expected.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        expected.add(singletonList(1));
+        expected.add(singletonList(2));
+        expected.add(Arrays.asList(1, 2));
+
+        List<List<Integer>> result = GenerateSubsets.generateSubsets(set);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenerateSubsetsWithOneElement() {
+        int[] set = {3};
+        List<List<Integer>> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        expected.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        expected.add(singletonList(3));
+
+        List<List<Integer>> result = GenerateSubsets.generateSubsets(set);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenerateSubsetsWithThreeElements() {
+        int[] set = {4, 5, 6};
+        List<List<Integer>> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        expected.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        expected.add(singletonList(4));
+        expected.add(singletonList(5));
+        expected.add(Arrays.asList(4, 5));
+        expected.add(singletonList(6));
+        expected.add(Arrays.asList(4, 6));
+        expected.add(Arrays.asList(5, 6));
+        expected.add(Arrays.asList(4, 5, 6));
+
+        List<List<Integer>> result = GenerateSubsets.generateSubsets(set);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GrayCodeConversionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GrayCodeConversionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1fe792028dca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/GrayCodeConversionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GrayCodeConversionTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryToGray() {
+        assertEquals(7, GrayCodeConversion.binaryToGray(5)); // 101 -> 111
+        assertEquals(4, GrayCodeConversion.binaryToGray(7)); // 111 -> 100
+        assertEquals(1, GrayCodeConversion.binaryToGray(1)); // 001 -> 001
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGrayToBinary() {
+        assertEquals(5, GrayCodeConversion.grayToBinary(7)); // 111 -> 101
+        assertEquals(4, GrayCodeConversion.grayToBinary(6)); // 110 -> 100
+        assertEquals(1, GrayCodeConversion.grayToBinary(1)); // 001 -> 001
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryGrayCycle() {
+        int binary = 9; // 1001 in binary
+        int gray = GrayCodeConversion.binaryToGray(binary);
+        assertEquals(binary, GrayCodeConversion.grayToBinary(gray)); // Should return to original binary
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HammingDistanceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HammingDistanceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bde39a69f190
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HammingDistanceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class HammingDistanceTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testHammingDistance() {
+        assertEquals(3, HammingDistance.hammingDistance(9, 14)); // 1001 vs 1110, Hamming distance is 3
+        assertEquals(0, HammingDistance.hammingDistance(10, 10)); // Same number, Hamming distance is 0
+        assertEquals(1, HammingDistance.hammingDistance(1, 0)); // 0001 vs 0000, Hamming distance is 1
+        assertEquals(2, HammingDistance.hammingDistance(4, 1)); // 100 vs 001, Hamming distance is 2
+        assertEquals(4, HammingDistance.hammingDistance(0, 15)); // 0000 vs 1111, Hamming distance is 4
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HigherLowerPowerOfTwoTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HigherLowerPowerOfTwoTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..34391002941b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HigherLowerPowerOfTwoTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class HigherLowerPowerOfTwoTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNextHigherPowerOfTwo() {
+        assertEquals(32, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextHigherPowerOfTwo(19)); // next higher power of two is 32
+        assertEquals(1, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextHigherPowerOfTwo(1)); // next higher power of two is 1
+        assertEquals(16, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextHigherPowerOfTwo(15)); // next higher power of two is 16
+        assertEquals(8, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextHigherPowerOfTwo(8)); // next higher power of two is 8
+        assertEquals(16, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextHigherPowerOfTwo(9)); // next higher power of two is 16
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNextLowerPowerOfTwo() {
+        assertEquals(16, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextLowerPowerOfTwo(19)); // next lower power of two is 16
+        assertEquals(1, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextLowerPowerOfTwo(1)); // next lower power of two is 1
+        assertEquals(8, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextLowerPowerOfTwo(9)); // next lower power of two is 8
+        assertEquals(8, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextLowerPowerOfTwo(15)); // next lower power of two is 8
+        assertEquals(8, HigherLowerPowerOfTwo.nextLowerPowerOfTwo(8)); // next lower power of two is 8
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBitTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..532f06f79ab3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBitTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for Highest Set Bit
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+
+class HighestSetBitTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testHighestSetBit() {
+        assertFalse(HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(0).isPresent());
+        assertEquals(0, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(1).get());
+        assertEquals(1, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(2).get());
+        assertEquals(1, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(3).get());
+        assertEquals(2, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(4).get());
+        assertEquals(2, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(5).get());
+        assertEquals(2, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(7).get());
+        assertEquals(3, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(8).get());
+        assertEquals(3, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(9).get());
+        assertEquals(3, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(15).get());
+        assertEquals(4, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(16).get());
+        assertEquals(4, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(17).get());
+        assertEquals(4, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(31).get());
+        assertEquals(5, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(32).get());
+        assertEquals(5, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(33).get());
+        assertEquals(7, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(255).get());
+        assertEquals(8, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(256).get());
+        assertEquals(8, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(511).get());
+        assertEquals(9, HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(512).get());
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HighestSetBit.findHighestSetBit(-37));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9bf804373438
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for Index Of Right Most SetBit
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+
+class IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testIndexOfRightMostSetBit() {
+        assertEquals(3, IndexOfRightMostSetBit.indexOfRightMostSetBit(40));
+        assertEquals(-1, IndexOfRightMostSetBit.indexOfRightMostSetBit(0));
+        assertEquals(3, IndexOfRightMostSetBit.indexOfRightMostSetBit(-40));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEvenTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEvenTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0b2bfb0bb065
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEvenTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class IsEvenTest {
+    @Test
+    void testIsEven() {
+        assertTrue(IsEven.isEven(0));
+        assertTrue(IsEven.isEven(2));
+        assertTrue(IsEven.isEven(-12));
+        assertFalse(IsEven.isEven(21));
+        assertFalse(IsEven.isEven(-1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwoTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwoTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ffd9e4ef176d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwoTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for IsPowerTwo class
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+
+public class IsPowerTwoTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersForPowerTwo")
+    public void testIsPowerTwo(int number, boolean expected) {
+        if (expected) {
+            assertTrue(IsPowerTwo.isPowerTwo(number));
+        } else {
+            assertFalse(IsPowerTwo.isPowerTwo(number));
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersForPowerTwo() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(1, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^0
+            Arguments.of(2, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^1
+            Arguments.of(4, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^2
+            Arguments.of(8, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^3
+            Arguments.of(16, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^4
+            Arguments.of(32, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^5
+            Arguments.of(64, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^6
+            Arguments.of(128, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^7
+            Arguments.of(256, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^8
+            Arguments.of(1024, Boolean.TRUE), // 2^10
+            Arguments.of(0, Boolean.FALSE), // 0 is not a power of two
+            Arguments.of(-1, Boolean.FALSE), // Negative number
+            Arguments.of(-2, Boolean.FALSE), // Negative number
+            Arguments.of(-4, Boolean.FALSE), // Negative number
+            Arguments.of(3, Boolean.FALSE), // 3 is not a power of two
+            Arguments.of(5, Boolean.FALSE), // 5 is not a power of two
+            Arguments.of(6, Boolean.FALSE), // 6 is not a power of two
+            Arguments.of(15, Boolean.FALSE), // 15 is not a power of two
+            Arguments.of(1000, Boolean.FALSE), // 1000 is not a power of two
+            Arguments.of(1023, Boolean.FALSE) // 1023 is not a power of two
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBitTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4c4d33640ad4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBitTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for Lowest Set Bit
+ * @author Prayas Kumar (https://github.com/prayas7102)
+ */
+
+public class LowestSetBitTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testLowestSetBitWithPositiveNumber() {
+        // Test with a general positive number
+        assertEquals(2, LowestSetBit.isolateLowestSetBit(18)); // 18 in binary: 10010, lowest bit is 2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLowestSetBitWithZero() {
+        // Test with zero (edge case, no set bits)
+        assertEquals(0, LowestSetBit.isolateLowestSetBit(0)); // 0 has no set bits, result should be 0
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLowestSetBitWithOne() {
+        // Test with number 1 (lowest set bit is 1 itself)
+        assertEquals(1, LowestSetBit.isolateLowestSetBit(1)); // 1 in binary: 0001, lowest bit is 1
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLowestSetBitWithPowerOfTwo() {
+        // Test with a power of two (only one set bit)
+        assertEquals(16, LowestSetBit.isolateLowestSetBit(16)); // 16 in binary: 10000, lowest bit is 16
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLowestSetBitWithAllBitsSet() {
+        // Test with a number with multiple set bits (like 7)
+        assertEquals(1, LowestSetBit.isolateLowestSetBit(7)); // 7 in binary: 111, lowest bit is 1
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLowestSetBitWithNegativeNumber() {
+        // Test with a negative number (-1 in two's complement has all bits set)
+        assertEquals(1, LowestSetBit.isolateLowestSetBit(-1)); // -1 in two's complement is all 1s, lowest bit is 1
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLowestSetBitWithLargeNumber() {
+        // Test with a large number
+        assertEquals(64, LowestSetBit.isolateLowestSetBit(448)); // 448 in binary: 111000000, lowest bit is 64
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testClearLowestSetBitFor18() {
+        // n = 18 (binary: 10010), expected result = 16 (binary: 10000)
+        assertEquals(16, LowestSetBit.clearLowestSetBit(18));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testClearLowestSetBitFor10() {
+        // n = 10 (binary: 1010), expected result = 8 (binary: 1000)
+        assertEquals(8, LowestSetBit.clearLowestSetBit(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testClearLowestSetBitFor7() {
+        // n = 7 (binary: 0111), expected result = 6 (binary: 0110)
+        assertEquals(6, LowestSetBit.clearLowestSetBit(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testClearLowestSetBitFor0() {
+        // n = 0 (binary: 0000), no set bits to clear, expected result = 0
+        assertEquals(0, LowestSetBit.clearLowestSetBit(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testClearLowestSetBitForNegativeNumber() {
+        // Test negative number to see how it behaves with two's complement
+        // n = -1 (binary: all 1s in two's complement), expected result = -2 (clearing lowest set bit)
+        assertEquals(-2, LowestSetBit.clearLowestSetBit(-1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ModuloPowerOfTwoTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ModuloPowerOfTwoTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ff7f621a64c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ModuloPowerOfTwoTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class ModuloPowerOfTwoTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "10, 3, 2",
+        "15, 2, 3",
+        "20, 4, 4",
+        "7, 1, 1",
+        "5, 1, 1",
+        "36, 5, 4",
+    })
+    void
+    testModuloPowerOfTwo(int x, int n, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, ModuloPowerOfTwo.moduloPowerOfTwo(x, n));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "10, 0",
+        "15, -2",
+        "20, -4",
+        "7, -1",
+        "5, -1",
+    })
+    void
+    testNegativeExponent(int x, int n) {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ModuloPowerOfTwo.moduloPowerOfTwo(x, n));
+        assertEquals("The exponent must be positive", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NextHigherSameBitCountTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NextHigherSameBitCountTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c8fb9ef21b60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NextHigherSameBitCountTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class NextHigherSameBitCountTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "5, 6", // 101 -> 110
+        "7, 11", // 0111 -> 1011
+        "3, 5", // 011 -> 101
+        "12, 17", // 001100 -> 010001
+        "15, 23" // 01111 -> 10111
+    })
+    void
+    testNextHigherSameBitCount(int input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, NextHigherSameBitCount.nextHigherSameBitCount(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fe2136fd7f04
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for Non Repeating Number Finder
+ * This test class validates the functionality of the
+ * NonRepeatingNumberFinder by checking various scenarios.
+ *
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+class NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    void testNonRepeatingNumberFinder(int[] arr, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, NonRepeatingNumberFinder.findNonRepeatingNumber(arr));
+    }
+
+    private static Arguments[] testCases() {
+        return new Arguments[] {
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 1, 2, 6}, 6), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 1, 2}, 0), // All numbers repeat
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {12}, 12), // Single non-repeating number
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {3, 5, 3, 4, 4}, 5), // More complex case
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {7, 8, 7, 9, 8, 10, 10}, 9), // Non-repeating in the middle
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {0, -1, 0, -1, 2}, 2), // Testing with negative numbers
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {Integer.MAX_VALUE, 1, 1}, Integer.MAX_VALUE), // Edge case with max int
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 4}, 5), // Mixed duplicates
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {}, 0) // Edge case: empty array (should be handled as per design)
+        };
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..83d458319f3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class NumberAppearingOddTimesTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Parameterized test for findOddOccurrence method. Tests multiple
+     * input arrays and their expected results.
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testFindOddOccurrence(int[] input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, NumberAppearingOddTimes.findOddOccurrence(input));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test cases for the parameterized test.
+     * Each test case consists of an input array and the expected result.
+     */
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Single element appearing odd times (basic case)
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 6, 7, 8, 6, 7, 5}, 8),
+
+            // More complex case with multiple pairs
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 3, 5, 4, 5, 2, 4, 3, 5, 2, 4, 4, 2}, 5),
+
+            // Case with only one element appearing once
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {10, 10, 20, 20, 30}, 30),
+
+            // Negative numbers with an odd occurrence
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {-5, -5, -3, -3, -7, -7, -7}, -7),
+
+            // All elements cancel out to 0 (even occurrences of all elements)
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 1, 2}, 0),
+
+            // Array with a single element (trivial case)
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {42}, 42),
+
+            // Large array with repeated patterns
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4}, 3));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSignsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSignsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..33e5ae048814
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSignsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Parameterized tests for NumbersDifferentSigns class, which checks
+ * if two integers have different signs using bitwise XOR.
+ *
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi
+ */
+class NumbersDifferentSignsTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testDifferentSigns(int num1, int num2, boolean expected) {
+        if (expected) {
+            assertTrue(NumbersDifferentSigns.differentSigns(num1, num2));
+        } else {
+            assertFalse(NumbersDifferentSigns.differentSigns(num1, num2));
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Different signs (positive and negative)
+            Arguments.of(2, -1, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(-3, 7, Boolean.TRUE),
+
+            // Same signs (both positive)
+            Arguments.of(10, 20, Boolean.FALSE), Arguments.of(0, 5, Boolean.FALSE), // 0 is considered non-negative
+
+            // Same signs (both negative)
+            Arguments.of(-5, -8, Boolean.FALSE),
+
+            // Edge case: Large positive and negative values
+            Arguments.of(Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MIN_VALUE, Boolean.TRUE),
+
+            // Edge case: Same number (positive and negative)
+            Arguments.of(-42, -42, Boolean.FALSE), Arguments.of(42, 42, Boolean.FALSE));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifferenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifferenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..06b8d32d3406
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifferenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class OneBitDifferenceTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"7, 5, true", "3, 2, true", "10, 8, true", "15, 15, false", "4, 1, false"})
+    void testDifferByOneBit(int x, int y, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, OneBitDifference.differByOneBit(x, y));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplementTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0e90ed79f587
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplementTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.NullAndEmptySource;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for Highest Set Bit
+ * @author Abhinay Verma(https://github.com/Monk-AbhinayVerma)
+ */
+public class OnesComplementTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOnesComplementAllZeroes() {
+
+        // Test cases with all-zero binary strings
+        assertEquals("1111", OnesComplement.onesComplement("0000"));
+        assertEquals("111", OnesComplement.onesComplement("000"));
+        assertEquals("11", OnesComplement.onesComplement("00"));
+        assertEquals("1", OnesComplement.onesComplement("0"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOnesComplementAllOnes() {
+        // Test cases with all-one binary strings
+        assertEquals("0000", OnesComplement.onesComplement("1111"));
+        assertEquals("000", OnesComplement.onesComplement("111"));
+        assertEquals("00", OnesComplement.onesComplement("11"));
+        assertEquals("0", OnesComplement.onesComplement("1"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOnesComplementMixedBits() {
+        // Test more mixed binary patterns
+        assertEquals("1010", OnesComplement.onesComplement("0101"));
+        assertEquals("0101", OnesComplement.onesComplement("1010"));
+        assertEquals("1100", OnesComplement.onesComplement("0011"));
+        assertEquals("0011", OnesComplement.onesComplement("1100"));
+        assertEquals("1001", OnesComplement.onesComplement("0110"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @NullAndEmptySource
+    public void testOnesComplementNullOrEmptyInputThrowsException(String input) {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> OnesComplement.onesComplement(input));
+        assertEquals("Input must be a non-empty binary string.", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOnesComplementInvalidCharactersThrowsException() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> OnesComplement.onesComplement("10a1"));
+        assertTrue(exception.getMessage().startsWith("Input must contain only '0' and '1'"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ParityCheckTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ParityCheckTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1654c8ddfc1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ParityCheckTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ParityCheckTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testIsEvenParity() {
+        assertTrue(ParityCheck.checkParity(0)); // 0 -> 0 ones
+        assertTrue(ParityCheck.checkParity(3)); // 11 -> 2 ones
+        assertTrue(ParityCheck.checkParity(5)); // 101 -> 2 ones
+        assertTrue(ParityCheck.checkParity(10)); // 1010 -> 2 ones
+        assertTrue(ParityCheck.checkParity(15)); // 1111 -> 4 ones
+        assertTrue(ParityCheck.checkParity(1023)); // 10 ones
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIsOddParity() {
+        assertFalse(ParityCheck.checkParity(1)); // 1 -> 1 one
+        assertFalse(ParityCheck.checkParity(2)); // 10 -> 1 one
+        assertFalse(ParityCheck.checkParity(7)); // 111 -> 3 ones
+        assertFalse(ParityCheck.checkParity(8)); // 1000 -> 1 one
+        assertFalse(ParityCheck.checkParity(11)); // 1011 -> 3 ones
+        assertFalse(ParityCheck.checkParity(31)); // 11111 -> 5 ones
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLargeNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(ParityCheck.checkParity(0b10101010)); // 4 ones
+        assertFalse(ParityCheck.checkParity(0b100000000)); // 1 one
+        assertTrue(ParityCheck.checkParity(0xAAAAAAAA)); // Alternating bits, 16 ones
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBitsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBitsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5cfa82355ce7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBitsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class ReverseBitsTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testReverseBits(int input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, ReverseBits.reverseBits(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Edge case: All bits are 0
+            Arguments.of(0, 0),
+
+            // Edge case: All bits are 1 (Two’s complement representation of -1)
+            Arguments.of(-1, -1),
+
+            // Case with random number 43261596
+            Arguments.of(43261596, 964176192),
+
+            // Case with maximum positive value for 32-bit integer
+            Arguments.of(Integer.MAX_VALUE, -2),
+
+            // Case with minimum value (all bits 1 except the sign bit)
+            Arguments.of(Integer.MIN_VALUE, 1),
+
+            // Case with a single bit set (2^0 = 1)
+            Arguments.of(1, Integer.MIN_VALUE),
+
+            // Case with alternating bits: 0b101010...10 (in binary)
+            Arguments.of(0xAAAAAAAA, 0x55555555));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperationsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperationsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6c447ec9805e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperationsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class SingleBitOperationsTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideFlipBitTestCases")
+    void testFlipBit(int input, int bit, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, SingleBitOperations.flipBit(input, bit));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideFlipBitTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(3, 1, 1), // Binary: 11 -> 01
+            Arguments.of(3, 3, 11) // Binary: 11 -> 1011
+        );
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideSetBitTestCases")
+    void testSetBit(int input, int bit, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, SingleBitOperations.setBit(input, bit));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideSetBitTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(4, 0, 5), // 100 -> 101
+            Arguments.of(4, 2, 4), // 100 -> 100 (bit already set)
+            Arguments.of(0, 1, 2), // 00 -> 10
+            Arguments.of(10, 2, 14) // 1010 -> 1110
+        );
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideClearBitTestCases")
+    void testClearBit(int input, int bit, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, SingleBitOperations.clearBit(input, bit));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideClearBitTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(7, 1, 5), // 111 -> 101
+            Arguments.of(5, 1, 5) // 101 -> 101 (bit already cleared)
+        );
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideGetBitTestCases")
+    void testGetBit(int input, int bit, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, SingleBitOperations.getBit(input, bit));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideGetBitTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(6, 0, 0), // 110 -> Bit 0: 0
+            Arguments.of(7, 1, 1) // 111 -> Bit 1: 1
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleElementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleElementTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2e2afe99b0da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleElementTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public final class SingleElementTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Parameterized test to find the single non-duplicate element
+     * in the given arrays.
+     *
+     * @param arr  the input array where every element appears twice except one
+     * @param expected the expected single element result
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testFindSingleElement(int[] arr, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, SingleElement.findSingleElement(arr));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test cases for the parameterized test.
+     *
+     * @return Stream of arguments consisting of arrays and expected results
+     */
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 4, 3}, 3), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 2, 3, 3}, 1), Arguments.of(new int[] {10}, 10));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBitsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBitsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..12f0542b92f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBitsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class SwapAdjacentBitsTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"2, 1", // 2 (binary: 10) -> 1 (binary: 01)
+        "43, 23", // 43 (binary: 101011) -> 23 (binary: 010111)
+        "153, 102", // 153 (binary: 10011001) -> 102 (binary: 01100110)
+        "15, 15", // 15 (binary: 1111) -> 15 (binary: 1111) (no change)
+        "0, 0", // 0 (binary: 0000) -> 0 (binary: 0000) (no change)
+        "1, 2", // 1 (binary: 01) -> 2 (binary: 10)
+        "170, 85", // 170 (binary: 10101010) -> 85 (binary: 01010101)
+        "85, 170", // 85 (binary: 01010101) -> 170 (binary: 10101010)
+        "255, 255", // 255 (binary: 11111111) -> 255 (binary: 11111111) (no change)
+        "128, 64", // 128 (binary: 10000000) -> 64 (binary: 01000000)
+        "1024, 2048",
+        "-1, -1", // -1 (all bits 1) remains -1 (no change due to two's complement)
+        "-2, -3", // -2 (binary: ...1110) -> -3 (binary: ...1101)
+        "2147483647, -1073741825", "-2147483648, -1073741824"})
+    void
+    testSwapAdjacentBits(int input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, SwapAdjacentBits.swapAdjacentBits(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplementTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..578acc7af18c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplementTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for Highest Set Bit
+ * @author Abhinay Verma(https://github.com/Monk-AbhinayVerma)
+ */
+public class TwosComplementTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTwosComplementAllZeroes() {
+        assertEquals("10000", TwosComplement.twosComplement("0000"));
+        assertEquals("1000", TwosComplement.twosComplement("000"));
+        assertEquals("100", TwosComplement.twosComplement("00"));
+        assertEquals("10", TwosComplement.twosComplement("0"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTwosComplementAllOnes() {
+        assertEquals("00001", TwosComplement.twosComplement("11111"));
+        assertEquals("0001", TwosComplement.twosComplement("1111"));
+        assertEquals("001", TwosComplement.twosComplement("111"));
+        assertEquals("01", TwosComplement.twosComplement("11"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTwosComplementMixedBits() {
+        assertEquals("1111", TwosComplement.twosComplement("0001")); // 1 -> 1111
+        assertEquals("1001", TwosComplement.twosComplement("0111")); // 0111 -> 1001
+        assertEquals("11001", TwosComplement.twosComplement("00111")); // 00111 -> 11001
+        assertEquals("011", TwosComplement.twosComplement("101")); // 101 -> 011
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTwosComplementSingleBit() {
+        assertEquals("10", TwosComplement.twosComplement("0")); // 0 -> 10
+        assertEquals("1", TwosComplement.twosComplement("1")); // 1 -> 1
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTwosComplementWithLeadingZeroes() {
+        assertEquals("1111", TwosComplement.twosComplement("0001")); // 0001 -> 1111
+        assertEquals("101", TwosComplement.twosComplement("011")); // 011 -> 101
+        assertEquals("110", TwosComplement.twosComplement("010")); // 010 -> 110
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInvalidBinaryInput() {
+        // Test for invalid input that contains non-binary characters.
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TwosComplement.twosComplement("102"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TwosComplement.twosComplement("abc"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TwosComplement.twosComplement("10a01"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyInput() {
+        // Edge case: Empty input should result in an IllegalArgumentException.
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TwosComplement.twosComplement(""));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3ConversionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3ConversionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2e3242decba0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3ConversionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the Xs3Conversion class.
+ */
+public class Xs3ConversionTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test the xs3ToBinary method with an XS-3 number.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testXs3ToBinary() {
+        int binary = Xs3Conversion.xs3ToBinary(0x4567);
+        assertEquals(1234, binary); // XS-3 0x4567 should convert to binary 1234
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the binaryToXs3 method with a binary number.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryToXs3() {
+        int xs3 = Xs3Conversion.binaryToXs3(1234);
+        assertEquals(0x4567, xs3); // Binary 1234 should convert to XS-3 0x4567
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the xs3ToBinary method with zero.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testXs3ToBinaryZero() {
+        int binary = Xs3Conversion.xs3ToBinary(0x0);
+        assertEquals(0, binary); // XS-3 0x0 should convert to binary 0
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the binaryToXs3 method with zero.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryToXs3Zero() {
+        int xs3 = Xs3Conversion.binaryToXs3(0);
+        assertEquals(0x0, xs3); // Binary 0 should convert to XS-3 0x0
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the xs3ToBinary method with a single digit XS-3 number.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testXs3ToBinarySingleDigit() {
+        int binary = Xs3Conversion.xs3ToBinary(0x5);
+        assertEquals(2, binary); // XS-3 0x5 should convert to binary 2
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the binaryToXs3 method with a single digit binary number.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryToXs3SingleDigit() {
+        int xs3 = Xs3Conversion.binaryToXs3(2);
+        assertEquals(0x5, xs3); // Binary 2 should convert to XS-3 0x5
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ADFGVXCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ADFGVXCipherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4db856e40b84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ADFGVXCipherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class ADFGVXCipherTest {
+
+    private final ADFGVXCipher adfgvxCipher = new ADFGVXCipher();
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncrypt() {
+        String message = "attack at 1200am";
+        String key = "PRIVACY";
+
+        String encrypted = adfgvxCipher.encrypt(message, key);
+        assertEquals("DGDDDAGDDGAFADDFDADVDVFAADVX", encrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecrypt() {
+        String encrypted = "DGDDDAGDDGAFADDFDADVDVFAADVX";
+        String key = "PRIVACY";
+
+        String decrypted = adfgvxCipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+        assertEquals("ATTACKAT1200AM", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyInput() {
+        String encrypted = adfgvxCipher.encrypt("", "PRIVACY");
+        String decrypted = adfgvxCipher.decrypt("", "PRIVACY");
+        assertEquals("", encrypted);
+        assertEquals("", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testShortKey() {
+        String message = "TESTING";
+        String key = "A";
+
+        String encrypted = adfgvxCipher.encrypt(message, key);
+        String decrypted = adfgvxCipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+        assertEquals("TESTING", decrypted);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryptionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryptionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2f0831e35064
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AESEncryptionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import javax.crypto.SecretKey;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AESEncryptionTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetSecretEncryptionKey() throws Exception {
+        SecretKey key = AESEncryption.getSecretEncryptionKey();
+        assertNotNull(key, "Secret key should not be null");
+        assertEquals(128, key.getEncoded().length * 8, "Key size should be 128 bits");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEncryptText() throws Exception {
+        String plainText = "Hello World";
+        SecretKey secKey = AESEncryption.getSecretEncryptionKey();
+        byte[] cipherText = AESEncryption.encryptText(plainText, secKey);
+
+        assertNotNull(cipherText, "Ciphertext should not be null");
+        assertTrue(cipherText.length > 0, "Ciphertext should not be empty");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecryptText() throws Exception {
+        String plainText = "Hello World";
+        SecretKey secKey = AESEncryption.getSecretEncryptionKey();
+        byte[] cipherText = AESEncryption.encryptText(plainText, secKey);
+
+        // Decrypt the ciphertext
+        String decryptedText = AESEncryption.decryptText(cipherText, secKey);
+
+        assertNotNull(decryptedText, "Decrypted text should not be null");
+        assertEquals(plainText, decryptedText, "Decrypted text should match the original plain text");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEncryptDecrypt() throws Exception {
+        String plainText = "Hello AES!";
+        SecretKey secKey = AESEncryption.getSecretEncryptionKey();
+
+        // Encrypt the plaintext
+        byte[] cipherText = AESEncryption.encryptText(plainText, secKey);
+
+        // Decrypt the ciphertext
+        String decryptedText = AESEncryption.decryptText(cipherText, secKey);
+
+        assertEquals(plainText, decryptedText, "Decrypted text should match the original plain text");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBytesToHex() {
+        byte[] bytes = new byte[] {0, 1, 15, 16, (byte) 255}; // Test with diverse byte values
+        String hex = AESEncryption.bytesToHex(bytes);
+        assertEquals("00010F10FF", hex, "Hex representation should match the expected value");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b1a2ce593a8e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AffineCipherTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEncryptMessage() {
+        String plaintext = "AFFINE CIPHER";
+        char[] msg = plaintext.toCharArray();
+        String expectedCiphertext = "UBBAHK CAPJKX"; // Expected ciphertext after encryption
+
+        String actualCiphertext = AffineCipher.encryptMessage(msg);
+        assertEquals(expectedCiphertext, actualCiphertext, "The encryption result should match the expected ciphertext.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEncryptDecrypt() {
+        String plaintext = "HELLO WORLD";
+        char[] msg = plaintext.toCharArray();
+
+        String ciphertext = AffineCipher.encryptMessage(msg);
+        String decryptedText = AffineCipher.decryptCipher(ciphertext);
+
+        assertEquals(plaintext, decryptedText, "Decrypted text should match the original plaintext.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSpacesHandledInEncryption() {
+        String plaintext = "HELLO WORLD";
+        char[] msg = plaintext.toCharArray();
+        String expectedCiphertext = "JKZZY EYXZT";
+
+        String actualCiphertext = AffineCipher.encryptMessage(msg);
+        assertEquals(expectedCiphertext, actualCiphertext, "The encryption should handle spaces correctly.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ec34bc26ad72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class AtbashTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("cipherTestProvider")
+    public void testAtbashCipher(String input, String expected) {
+        AtbashCipher cipher = new AtbashCipher(input);
+        assertEquals(expected, cipher.convert());
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> cipherTestProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Basic tests with lowercase and uppercase
+            Arguments.of("Hello", "Svool"), Arguments.of("WORLD", "DLIOW"),
+
+            // Mixed case with spaces and punctuation
+            Arguments.of("Hello World!", "Svool Dliow!"), Arguments.of("123 ABC xyz", "123 ZYX cba"),
+
+            // Palindromes and mixed cases
+            Arguments.of("madam", "nzwzn"), Arguments.of("Palindrome", "Kzormwilnv"),
+
+            // Non-alphabetic characters should remain unchanged
+            Arguments.of("@cipher 123!", "@xrksvi 123!"), Arguments.of("no-change", "ml-xszmtv"),
+
+            // Empty string and single characters
+            Arguments.of("", ""), Arguments.of("A", "Z"), Arguments.of("z", "a"),
+
+            // Numbers and symbols
+            Arguments.of("!@#123", "!@#123"),
+
+            // Full sentence with uppercase, lowercase, symbols, and numbers
+            Arguments.of("Hello World! 123, @cipher abcDEF ZYX 987 madam zzZ Palindrome!", "Svool Dliow! 123, @xrksvi zyxWVU ABC 987 nzwzn aaA Kzormwilnv!"),
+            Arguments.of("Svool Dliow! 123, @xrksvi zyxWVU ABC 987 nzwzn aaA Kzormwilnv!", "Hello World! 123, @cipher abcDEF ZYX 987 madam zzZ Palindrome!"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AutokeyTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AutokeyTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..52ecff7cdeee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AutokeyTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class AutokeyCipherTest {
+
+    Autokey autokeyCipher = new Autokey();
+
+    @Test
+    void autokeyEncryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "MEET AT DAWN";
+        String keyword = "QUEEN";
+
+        // when
+        String cipherText = autokeyCipher.encrypt(plaintext, keyword);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("CYIXNFHEPN", cipherText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void autokeyDecryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String ciphertext = "CYIX NF HEPN";
+        String keyword = "QUEEN";
+
+        // when
+        String plainText = autokeyCipher.decrypt(ciphertext, keyword);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("MEETATDAWN", plainText);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bb1ae5a7e4c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class BaconianCipherTest {
+
+    BaconianCipher baconianCipher = new BaconianCipher();
+
+    @Test
+    void baconianCipherEncryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "MEET AT DAWN";
+
+        // when
+        String cipherText = baconianCipher.encrypt(plaintext);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("ABBAAAABAAAABAABAABBAAAAABAABBAAABBAAAAABABBAABBAB", cipherText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void baconianCipherDecryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String ciphertext = "ABBAAAABAAAABAABAABBAAAAABAABBAAABBAAAAABABBAABBAB";
+
+        // when
+        String plainText = baconianCipher.decrypt(ciphertext);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("MEETATDAWN", plainText);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BlowfishTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BlowfishTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ef5e634f781b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BlowfishTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class BlowfishTest {
+
+    Blowfish blowfish = new Blowfish();
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncrypt() {
+        // given
+        String plainText = "123456abcd132536";
+        String key = "aabb09182736ccdd";
+        String expectedOutput = "d748ec383d3405f7";
+
+        // when
+        String cipherText = blowfish.encrypt(plainText, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, cipherText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecrypt() {
+        // given
+        String cipherText = "d748ec383d3405f7";
+        String key = "aabb09182736ccdd";
+        String expectedOutput = "123456abcd132536";
+
+        // when
+        String plainText = blowfish.decrypt(cipherText, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, plainText);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/CaesarTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/CaesarTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7aa41c4cf423
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/CaesarTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class CaesarTest {
+
+    Caesar caesar = new Caesar();
+
+    @Test
+    void caesarEncryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String textToEncrypt = "Encrypt this text";
+
+        // when
+        String cipherText = caesar.encode(textToEncrypt, 5);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("Jshwduy ymnx yjcy", cipherText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void caesarDecryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String encryptedText = "Jshwduy ymnx yjcy";
+
+        // when
+        String cipherText = caesar.decode(encryptedText, 5);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("Encrypt this text", cipherText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void caesarBruteForce() {
+        // given
+        String encryptedText = "Jshwduy ymnx yjcy";
+
+        // when
+        String[] allPossibleAnswers = caesar.bruteforce(encryptedText);
+
+        assertEquals(27, allPossibleAnswers.length);
+        assertEquals("Encrypt this text", allPossibleAnswers[5]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8deae45099d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest {
+    private String keyword;
+    private String plaintext;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        keyword = "keyword";
+        plaintext = "This is a test message for Columnar Transposition Cipher";
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEncryption() {
+        String encryptedText = ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrypt(plaintext, keyword);
+        assertNotNull(encryptedText, "The encrypted text should not be null.");
+        assertFalse(encryptedText.isEmpty(), "The encrypted text should not be empty.");
+        // Check if the encrypted text is different from the plaintext
+        assertNotEquals(plaintext, encryptedText, "The encrypted text should be different from the plaintext.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecryption() {
+        String encryptedText = ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrypt(plaintext, keyword);
+        String decryptedText = ColumnarTranspositionCipher.decrypt();
+
+        assertEquals(plaintext.replaceAll(" ", ""), decryptedText.replaceAll(" ", ""), "The decrypted text should match the original plaintext, ignoring spaces.");
+        assertEquals(encryptedText, ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrypt(plaintext, keyword), "The encrypted text should be the same when encrypted again.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLongPlainText() {
+        String longText = "This is a significantly longer piece of text to test the encryption and decryption capabilities of the Columnar Transposition Cipher. It should handle long strings gracefully.";
+        String encryptedText = ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrypt(longText, keyword);
+        String decryptedText = ColumnarTranspositionCipher.decrypt();
+        assertEquals(longText.replaceAll(" ", ""), decryptedText.replaceAll(" ", ""), "The decrypted text should match the original long plaintext, ignoring spaces.");
+        assertEquals(encryptedText, ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrypt(longText, keyword), "The encrypted text should be the same when encrypted again.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DESTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DESTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ddc643a6eb35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DESTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+// Test example taken from https://page.math.tu-berlin.de/~kant/teaching/hess/krypto-ws2006/des.htm
+public class DESTest {
+
+    DES des;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        des = new DES("0000111000110010100100100011001011101010011011010000110101110011");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncrypt() {
+        // given
+        String plainText = "Your lips are smoother than vaseline\r\n";
+        // This is equal to
+        // c0999fdde378d7ed727da00bca5a84ee47f269a4d6438190d9d52f78f5358499828ac9b453e0e653 in
+        // hexadecimal
+        String expectedOutput = "11000000100110011001111111011101111000110111100011010111111"
+            + "011010111001001111101101000000000101111001010010110101000010011101110010001111111001"
+            + "001101001101001001101011001000011100000011001000011011001110101010010111101111000111"
+            + "101010011010110000100100110011000001010001010110010011011010001010011111000001110011001010011";
+
+        // when
+        String cipherText = des.encrypt(plainText);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, cipherText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecrypt() {
+        // given
+        // This is equal to
+        // c0999fdde378d7ed727da00bca5a84ee47f269a4d6438190d9d52f78f5358499828ac9b453e0e653 in
+        // hexadecimal
+        String cipherText = "11000000100110011001111111011101111000110111100011010111111"
+            + "011010111001001111101101000000000101111001010010110101000010011101110010001111111001"
+            + "001101001101001001101011001000011100000011001000011011001110101010010111101111000111"
+            + "101010011010110000100100110011000001010001010110010011011010001010011111000001110011001010011";
+        String expectedOutput = "Your lips are smoother than vaseline\r\n";
+
+        // when
+        String plainText = des.decrypt(cipherText);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, plainText);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DiffieHellmanTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DiffieHellmanTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6255ad22ab56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DiffieHellmanTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class DiffieHellmanTest {
+
+    // Test for public value calculation using instance methods
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestData")
+    public void testCalculatePublicValue(BigInteger base, BigInteger secret, BigInteger prime, BigInteger publicExpected, BigInteger sharedExpected) {
+        DiffieHellman dh = new DiffieHellman(base, secret, prime); // Create an instance of DiffieHellman
+        assertEquals(publicExpected, dh.calculatePublicValue()); // Call instance method
+    }
+
+    // Test for shared secret calculation using instance methods
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestData")
+    public void testCalculateSharedSecret(BigInteger base, BigInteger secret, BigInteger prime, BigInteger publicExpected, BigInteger sharedExpected) {
+        DiffieHellman dh = new DiffieHellman(base, secret, prime); // Create an instance of DiffieHellman
+        assertEquals(sharedExpected, dh.calculateSharedSecret(publicExpected)); // Call instance method
+    }
+
+    // Provide test data for both public key and shared secret calculation
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestData() {
+        return Stream.of(createTestArgs(5, 6, 23, 8, 13), createTestArgs(2, 5, 13, 6, 2));
+    }
+
+    // Helper method for arguments
+    private static Arguments createTestArgs(long base, long secret, long prime, long publicExpected, long sharedExpected) {
+        return Arguments.of(BigInteger.valueOf(base), BigInteger.valueOf(secret), BigInteger.valueOf(prime), BigInteger.valueOf(publicExpected), BigInteger.valueOf(sharedExpected));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECCTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECCTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..701f801af1c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECCTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * ECCTest - Unit tests for the ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography) implementation.
+ * This class contains various test cases to validate the encryption and decryption functionalities.
+ * It ensures the correctness and randomness of ECC operations.
+ *
+ * @author xuyang
+ */
+public class ECCTest {
+    ECC ecc = new ECC(256); // Generate a 256-bit ECC key pair. Calls generateKeys(bits) to create keys including privateKey and publicKey.
+
+    /**
+     * Test the encryption functionality: convert plaintext to ciphertext and output relevant encryption data.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testEncrypt() {
+        String textToEncrypt = "Elliptic Curve Cryptography";
+
+        ECC.ECPoint[] cipherText = ecc.encrypt(textToEncrypt); // Perform encryption
+
+        // Output private key information
+        System.out.println("Private Key: " + ecc.getPrivateKey());
+
+        // Output elliptic curve parameters
+        ECC.EllipticCurve curve = ecc.getCurve();
+        System.out.println("Elliptic Curve Parameters:");
+        System.out.println("a: " + curve.getA());
+        System.out.println("b: " + curve.getB());
+        System.out.println("p: " + curve.getP());
+        System.out.println("Base Point G: " + curve.getBasePoint());
+
+        // Verify that the ciphertext is not empty
+        assertEquals(cipherText.length, 2); // Check if the ciphertext contains two points (R and S)
+
+        // Output the encrypted coordinate points
+        System.out.println("Encrypted Points:");
+        for (ECC.ECPoint point : cipherText) {
+            System.out.println(point); // Calls ECPoint's toString() method
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the decryption functionality: convert ciphertext back to plaintext using known private key and elliptic curve parameters.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testDecryptWithKnownValues() {
+        // 1. Define the known private key
+        BigInteger knownPrivateKey = new BigInteger("28635978664199231399690075483195602260051035216440375973817268759912070302603");
+
+        // 2. Define the known elliptic curve parameters
+        BigInteger a = new BigInteger("64505295837372135469230827475895976532873592609649950000895066186842236488761"); // Replace with known a value
+        BigInteger b = new BigInteger("89111668838830965251111555638616364203833415376750835901427122343021749874324"); // Replace with known b value
+        BigInteger p = new BigInteger("107276428198310591598877737561885175918069075479103276920057092968372930219921"); // Replace with known p value
+        ECC.ECPoint basePoint = new ECC.ECPoint(new BigInteger("4"), new BigInteger("8")); // Replace with known base point coordinates
+
+        // 3. Create the elliptic curve object
+        ECC.EllipticCurve curve = new ECC.EllipticCurve(a, b, p, basePoint);
+
+        // 4. Define the known ciphertext containing two ECPoints (R, S)
+        ECC.ECPoint rPoint = new ECC.ECPoint(new BigInteger("103077584019003058745849614420912636617007257617156724481937620119667345237687"), new BigInteger("68193862907937248121971710522760893811582068323088661566426323952783362061817"));
+        ECC.ECPoint sPoint = new ECC.ECPoint(new BigInteger("31932232426664380635434632300383525435115368414929679432313910646436992147798"), new BigInteger("77299754382292904069123203569944908076819220797512755280123348910207308129766"));
+        ECC.ECPoint[] cipherText = new ECC.ECPoint[] {rPoint, sPoint};
+
+        // 5. Create an ECC instance and set the private key and curve parameters
+        ecc.setPrivateKey(knownPrivateKey); // Use setter method to set the private key
+        ecc.setCurve(curve); // Use setter method to set the elliptic curve
+
+        // 6. Decrypt the known ciphertext
+        String decryptedMessage = ecc.decrypt(cipherText);
+
+        // 7. Compare the decrypted plaintext with the expected value
+        String expectedMessage = "Elliptic Curve Cryptography"; // Expected plaintext
+        assertEquals(expectedMessage, decryptedMessage);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test that encrypting the same plaintext with ECC produces different ciphertexts.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCipherTextRandomness() {
+        String message = "Elliptic Curve Cryptography";
+
+        ECC.ECPoint[] cipherText1 = ecc.encrypt(message);
+        ECC.ECPoint[] cipherText2 = ecc.encrypt(message);
+
+        assertNotEquals(cipherText1, cipherText2); // Ensure that the two ciphertexts are different
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the entire ECC encryption and decryption process.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testECCEncryptionAndDecryption() {
+        String textToEncrypt = "Elliptic Curve Cryptography";
+        ECC.ECPoint[] cipherText = ecc.encrypt(textToEncrypt);
+        String decryptedText = ecc.decrypt(cipherText);
+        assertEquals(textToEncrypt, decryptedText); // Verify that the decrypted text matches the original text
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8121b6177aa9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class HillCipherTest {
+
+    HillCipher hillCipher = new HillCipher();
+
+    @Test
+    void hillCipherEncryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String message = "ACT"; // Plaintext message
+        int[][] keyMatrix = {{6, 24, 1}, {13, 16, 10}, {20, 17, 15}}; // Encryption key matrix
+
+        // when
+        String cipherText = hillCipher.encrypt(message, keyMatrix);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("POH", cipherText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void hillCipherDecryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String cipherText = "POH"; // Ciphertext message
+        int[][] inverseKeyMatrix = {{8, 5, 10}, {21, 8, 21}, {21, 12, 8}}; // Decryption (inverse key) matrix
+
+        // when
+        String plainText = hillCipher.decrypt(cipherText, inverseKeyMatrix);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("ACT", plainText);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/MonoAlphabeticTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/MonoAlphabeticTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b1a8c78c952e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/MonoAlphabeticTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class MonoAlphabeticTest {
+
+    // Test for both encryption and decryption with different keys
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestData")
+    public void testEncryptDecrypt(String plainText, String key, String encryptedText) {
+        // Test encryption
+        String actualEncrypted = MonoAlphabetic.encrypt(plainText, key);
+        assertEquals(encryptedText, actualEncrypted, "Encryption failed for input: " + plainText + " with key: " + key);
+
+        // Test decryption
+        String actualDecrypted = MonoAlphabetic.decrypt(encryptedText, key);
+        assertEquals(plainText, actualDecrypted, "Decryption failed for input: " + encryptedText + " with key: " + key);
+    }
+
+    // Provide test data for both encryption and decryption
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestData() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("HELLO", "MNBVCXZLKJHGFDSAPOIUYTREWQ", "LCGGS"), Arguments.of("JAVA", "MNBVCXZLKJHGFDSAPOIUYTREWQ", "JMTM"), Arguments.of("HELLO", "QWERTYUIOPLKJHGFDSAZXCVBNM", "ITKKG"), Arguments.of("JAVA", "QWERTYUIOPLKJHGFDSAZXCVBNM", "PQCQ"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4ba6787cc97e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,323 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PermutationCipherTest {
+
+    private final PermutationCipher cipher = new PermutationCipher();
+
+    @Test
+    void testBasicEncryption() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "HELLO";
+        int[] key = {3, 1, 2}; // Move 3rd position to 1st, 1st to 2nd, 2nd to 3rd
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+
+        // then
+        // "HELLO" becomes "HEL" + "LOX" (padded)
+        // "HEL" with key {3,1,2} becomes "LHE" (L=3rd, H=1st, E=2nd)
+        // "LOX" with key {3,1,2} becomes "XLO" (X=3rd, L=1st, O=2nd)
+        assertEquals("LHEXLO", encrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBasicDecryption() {
+        // given
+        String ciphertext = "LHEXLO";
+        int[] key = {3, 1, 2};
+
+        // when
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(ciphertext, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("HELLO", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncryptDecryptRoundTrip() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "THIS IS A TEST MESSAGE";
+        int[] key = {4, 2, 1, 3};
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("THISISATESTMESSAGE", decrypted); // Spaces are removed during encryption
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleCharacterKey() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "ABCDEF";
+        int[] key = {1}; // Identity permutation
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("ABCDEF", encrypted); // Should remain unchanged
+        assertEquals("ABCDEF", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargerKey() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "PERMUTATION";
+        int[] key = {5, 3, 1, 4, 2}; // 5-character permutation
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("PERMUTATION", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExactBlockSize() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "ABCDEF"; // Length 6, divisible by key length 3
+        int[] key = {2, 3, 1};
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("ABCDEF", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyString() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "";
+        int[] key = {2, 1, 3};
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("", encrypted);
+        assertEquals("", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullString() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = null;
+        int[] key = {2, 1, 3};
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(null, encrypted);
+        assertEquals(null, decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringWithSpaces() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "A B C D E F";
+        int[] key = {2, 1};
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("ABCDEF", decrypted); // Spaces should be removed
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLowercaseConversion() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "hello world";
+        int[] key = {3, 1, 2};
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("HELLOWORLD", decrypted); // Should be converted to uppercase
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidKeyNull() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "HELLO";
+        int[] key = null;
+
+        // when & then
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.decrypt(plaintext, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidKeyEmpty() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "HELLO";
+        int[] key = {};
+
+        // when & then
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.decrypt(plaintext, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidKeyOutOfRange() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "HELLO";
+        int[] key = {1, 2, 4}; // 4 is out of range for key length 3
+
+        // when & then
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.decrypt(plaintext, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidKeyZero() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "HELLO";
+        int[] key = {0, 1, 2}; // 0 is invalid (should be 1-based)
+
+        // when & then
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.decrypt(plaintext, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidKeyDuplicate() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "HELLO";
+        int[] key = {1, 2, 2}; // Duplicate position
+
+        // when & then
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.decrypt(plaintext, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidKeyMissingPosition() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "HELLO";
+        int[] key = {1, 3}; // Missing position 2
+
+        // when & then
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cipher.decrypt(plaintext, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReverseKey() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "ABCD";
+        int[] key = {4, 3, 2, 1}; // Reverse order
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("DCBA", encrypted); // Should be reversed
+        assertEquals("ABCD", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSpecificExampleFromDescription() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "HELLO";
+        int[] key = {3, 1, 2};
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+
+        // then
+        // Block 1: "HEL" -> positions {3,1,2} -> "LHE"
+        // Block 2: "LOX" -> positions {3,1,2} -> "XLO"
+        assertEquals("LHEXLO", encrypted);
+        // Verify decryption
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+        assertEquals("HELLO", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPaddingCharacterGetter() {
+        // when
+        char paddingChar = cipher.getPaddingChar();
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals('X', paddingChar);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLongText() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG";
+        int[] key = {4, 1, 3, 2};
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("THEQUICKBROWNFOXJUMPSOVERTHELAZYDOG", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIdentityPermutation() {
+        // given
+        String plaintext = "IDENTITY";
+        int[] key = {1, 2, 3, 4}; // Identity permutation
+
+        // when
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encrypted, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("IDENTITY", encrypted); // Should remain unchanged
+        assertEquals("IDENTITY", decrypted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyStringRemovePadding() {
+        // given - Test to cover line 178 (empty string case in removePadding)
+        String ciphertext = "";
+        int[] key = {2, 1, 3};
+
+        // when
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(ciphertext, key);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("", decrypted); // Should return empty string directly
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBlockShorterThanKey() {
+        // given - Test to cover line 139 (block length != key length case)
+        // This is a defensive case where permuteBlock might receive a block shorter than key
+        // We can test this by manually creating a scenario with malformed ciphertext
+        String malformedCiphertext = "AB"; // Length 2, but key length is 3
+        int[] key = {3, 1, 2}; // Key length is 3
+
+        // when - This should trigger the padding logic in permuteBlock during decryption
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(malformedCiphertext, key);
+
+        // then - The method should handle the short block gracefully
+        // "AB" gets padded to "ABX", then permuted with inverse key {2,3,1}
+        // inverse key {2,3,1} means: pos 2→1st, pos 3→2nd, pos 1→3rd = "BXA"
+        // Padding removal only removes trailing X's, so "BXA" remains as is
+        assertEquals("BXA", decrypted);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fa497e4682e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PlayfairTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEncryption() {
+        PlayfairCipher playfairCipher = new PlayfairCipher("KEYWORD");
+
+        String plaintext = "HELLO";
+        String encryptedText = playfairCipher.encrypt(plaintext);
+        assertEquals("GYIZSC", encryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecryption() {
+        PlayfairCipher playfairCipher = new PlayfairCipher("KEYWORD");
+
+        String encryptedText = "UDRIYP";
+        String decryptedText = playfairCipher.decrypt(encryptedText);
+        assertEquals("NEBFVH", decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEncryptionAndDecryption() {
+        PlayfairCipher playfairCipher = new PlayfairCipher("KEYWORD");
+
+        String plaintext = "PLAYFAIR";
+        String encryptedText = playfairCipher.encrypt(plaintext);
+        String decryptedText = playfairCipher.decrypt(encryptedText);
+
+        assertEquals(plaintext, decryptedText);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PolybiusTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PolybiusTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..543a2fe59685
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PolybiusTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PolybiusTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncrypt() {
+        // Given
+        String plaintext = "HELLOWORLD";
+
+        // When
+        String actual = Polybius.encrypt(plaintext);
+
+        // Then
+        assertEquals("12042121244124322103", actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecrypt() {
+        // Given
+        String ciphertext = "12042121244124322103";
+
+        // When
+        String actual = Polybius.decrypt(ciphertext);
+
+        // Then
+        assertEquals("HELLOWORLD", actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsTextTheSameAfterEncryptionAndDecryption() {
+        // Given
+        String plaintext = "HELLOWORLD";
+
+        // When
+        String encryptedText = Polybius.encrypt(plaintext);
+        String actual = Polybius.decrypt(encryptedText);
+
+        // Then
+        assertEquals(plaintext, actual);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSATest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSATest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..577f56426be8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSATest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class RSATest {
+
+    private final RSA rsa = new RSA(1024);
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncryptDecryptString() {
+        String originalMessage = "Such secure";
+        String encryptedMessage = rsa.encrypt(originalMessage);
+        String decryptedMessage = rsa.decrypt(encryptedMessage);
+        assertEquals(originalMessage, decryptedMessage);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncryptDecryptBigInteger() {
+        BigInteger originalMessage = new BigInteger("12345678901234567890");
+        BigInteger encryptedMessage = rsa.encrypt(originalMessage);
+        BigInteger decryptedMessage = rsa.decrypt(encryptedMessage);
+        assertEquals(originalMessage, decryptedMessage);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyMessage() {
+        String originalMessage = "";
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> rsa.encrypt(originalMessage));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> rsa.decrypt(originalMessage));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDifferentKeySizes() {
+        // Testing with 512-bit RSA keys
+        RSA smallRSA = new RSA(512);
+        String originalMessage = "Test with smaller key";
+
+        String encryptedMessage = smallRSA.encrypt(originalMessage);
+        String decryptedMessage = smallRSA.decrypt(encryptedMessage);
+
+        assertEquals(originalMessage, decryptedMessage);
+
+        // Testing with 2048-bit RSA keys
+        RSA largeRSA = new RSA(2048);
+        String largeOriginalMessage = "Test with larger key";
+
+        String largeEncryptedMessage = largeRSA.encrypt(largeOriginalMessage);
+        String largeDecryptedMessage = largeRSA.decrypt(largeEncryptedMessage);
+
+        assertEquals(largeOriginalMessage, largeDecryptedMessage);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSpecialCharacters() {
+        String originalMessage = "Hello, RSA! @2024#";
+        String encryptedMessage = rsa.encrypt(originalMessage);
+        String decryptedMessage = rsa.decrypt(encryptedMessage);
+        assertEquals(originalMessage, decryptedMessage);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2bfa704e3d0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class RailFenceTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncryption() {
+        RailFenceCipher cipher = new RailFenceCipher();
+
+        String input = "We are discovered! Flee at once";
+        int rails = 3;
+        String encrypted = cipher.encrypt(input, rails);
+        assertEquals("Wrivdlaneaedsoee!Fe toc  cr e e", encrypted);
+
+        String singleChar = "A";
+        int singleRail = 2;
+        String encryptedSingleChar = cipher.encrypt(singleChar, singleRail);
+        assertEquals("A", encryptedSingleChar);
+
+        String shortString = "Hello";
+        int moreRails = 10;
+        String encryptedShortString = cipher.encrypt(shortString, moreRails);
+        assertEquals("Hello", encryptedShortString);
+
+        String inputSingleRail = "Single line";
+        int singleRailOnly = 1;
+        String encryptedSingleRail = cipher.encrypt(inputSingleRail, singleRailOnly);
+        assertEquals("Single line", encryptedSingleRail);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecryption() {
+        RailFenceCipher cipher = new RailFenceCipher();
+
+        // Scenario 1: Basic decryption with multiple rails
+        String encryptedInput = "Wrivdlaneaedsoee!Fe toc  cr e e";
+        int rails = 3;
+        String decrypted = cipher.decrypt(encryptedInput, rails);
+        assertEquals("We are discovered! Flee at once", decrypted);
+
+        // Scenario 2: Single character string decryption
+        String encryptedSingleChar = "A";
+        int singleRail = 2; // More than 1 rail
+        String decryptedSingleChar = cipher.decrypt(encryptedSingleChar, singleRail);
+        assertEquals("A", decryptedSingleChar);
+
+        // Scenario 3: String length less than the number of rails
+        String encryptedShortString = "Hello";
+        int moreRails = 10; // More rails than characters
+        String decryptedShortString = cipher.decrypt(encryptedShortString, moreRails);
+        assertEquals("Hello", decryptedShortString);
+
+        // Scenario 4: Single rail decryption (output should be the same as input)
+        String encryptedSingleRail = "Single line";
+        int singleRailOnly = 1;
+        String decryptedSingleRail = cipher.decrypt(encryptedSingleRail, singleRailOnly);
+        assertEquals("Single line", decryptedSingleRail);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f593a07d89b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SimpleSubCipherTest {
+
+    SimpleSubCipher simpleSubCipher = new SimpleSubCipher();
+
+    @Test
+    void simpleSubCipherEncryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String text = "defend the east wall of the castle";
+        String cipherSmall = "phqgiumeaylnofdxjkrcvstzwb";
+
+        // when
+        String cipherText = simpleSubCipher.encode(text, cipherSmall);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("giuifg cei iprc tpnn du cei qprcni", cipherText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void simpleSubCipherDecryptTest() {
+        // given
+        String encryptedText = "giuifg cei iprc tpnn du cei qprcni";
+        String cipherSmall = "phqgiumeaylnofdxjkrcvstzwb";
+
+        // when
+        String decryptedText = simpleSubCipher.decode(encryptedText, cipherSmall);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("defend the east wall of the castle", decryptedText);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/VigenereTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/VigenereTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7f94e5731989
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/VigenereTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class VigenereTest {
+
+    Vigenere vigenere = new Vigenere();
+
+    @Test
+    void testVigenereEncryptDecrypt() {
+        String text = "Hello World!";
+        String key = "suchsecret";
+
+        String encryptedText = vigenere.encrypt(text, key);
+        String decryptedText = vigenere.decrypt(encryptedText, key);
+
+        assertEquals("Zynsg Aqipw!", encryptedText);
+        assertEquals("Hello World!", decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testWithEmptyMessage() {
+        String text = "";
+        String key = "anykey";
+
+        String encryptedText = vigenere.encrypt(text, key);
+        String decryptedText = vigenere.decrypt(encryptedText, key);
+
+        assertEquals("", encryptedText);
+        assertEquals("", decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testWithEmptyKey() {
+        String text = "This should remain the same";
+        String key = "";
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> vigenere.encrypt(text, key));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> vigenere.decrypt(text, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testWithNumbersInMessage() {
+        String text = "Vigenere123!";
+        String key = "cipher";
+
+        String encryptedText = vigenere.encrypt(text, key);
+        String decryptedText = vigenere.decrypt(encryptedText, key);
+
+        assertEquals("Xqvlrvtm123!", encryptedText);
+        assertEquals(text, decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLongerKeyThanMessage() {
+        String text = "Short";
+        String key = "VeryLongSecretKey";
+
+        String encryptedText = vigenere.encrypt(text, key);
+        String decryptedText = vigenere.decrypt(encryptedText, key);
+
+        assertEquals("Nlfpe", encryptedText);
+        assertEquals(text, decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUppercaseMessageAndKey() {
+        String text = "HELLO";
+        String key = "SECRET";
+
+        String encryptedText = vigenere.encrypt(text, key);
+        String decryptedText = vigenere.decrypt(encryptedText, key);
+
+        assertEquals("ZINCS", encryptedText);
+        assertEquals(text, decryptedText);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fdfe640cc19b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class XORCipherTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void xorEncryptDecryptTest() {
+        String plaintext = "My t&xt th@t will be ençrypted...";
+        String key = "My ç&cret key!";
+
+        String cipherText = XORCipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decryptedText = XORCipher.decrypt(cipherText, key);
+
+        assertEquals("My t&xt th@t will be ençrypted...", decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyPlaintext() {
+        String plaintext = "";
+        String key = "anykey";
+
+        String cipherText = XORCipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decryptedText = XORCipher.decrypt(cipherText, key);
+
+        assertEquals("", cipherText);
+        assertEquals("", decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyKey() {
+        String plaintext = "Hello World!";
+        String key = "";
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> XORCipher.encrypt(plaintext, key));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> XORCipher.decrypt(plaintext, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testShortKey() {
+        String plaintext = "Short message";
+        String key = "k";
+
+        String cipherText = XORCipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decryptedText = XORCipher.decrypt(cipherText, key);
+
+        assertEquals(plaintext, decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNonASCIICharacters() {
+        String plaintext = "こんにちは世界"; // "Hello World" in Japanese (Konichiwa Sekai)
+        String key = "key";
+
+        String cipherText = XORCipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decryptedText = XORCipher.decrypt(cipherText, key);
+
+        assertEquals(plaintext, decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSameKeyAndPlaintext() {
+        String plaintext = "samekey";
+        String key = "samekey";
+
+        String cipherText = XORCipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decryptedText = XORCipher.decrypt(cipherText, key);
+
+        assertEquals(plaintext, decryptedText);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLongPlaintextShortKey() {
+        String plaintext = "This is a long plaintext message.";
+        String key = "key";
+
+        String cipherText = XORCipher.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+        String decryptedText = XORCipher.decrypt(cipherText, key);
+
+        assertEquals(plaintext, decryptedText);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5CipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5CipherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..011a1b521e31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5CipherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+
+import java.util.BitSet;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class A5CipherTest {
+
+    private A5Cipher a5Cipher;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        // Initialize the session key and frame counter
+        final var sessionKey = BitSet.valueOf(new long[] {0b1010101010101010L});
+        final var frameCounter = BitSet.valueOf(new long[] {0b0000000000000001L});
+        a5Cipher = new A5Cipher(sessionKey, frameCounter);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncryptWithValidInput() {
+        BitSet plainText = BitSet.valueOf(new long[] {0b1100110011001100L}); // Example plaintext
+        BitSet encrypted = a5Cipher.encrypt(plainText);
+
+        // The expected result depends on the key stream generated.
+        // In a real test, you would replace this with the actual expected result.
+        // For now, we will just assert that the encrypted result is not equal to the plaintext.
+        assertNotEquals(plainText, encrypted, "Encrypted output should not equal plaintext");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncryptAllOnesInput() {
+        BitSet plainText = BitSet.valueOf(new long[] {0b1111111111111111L}); // All ones
+        BitSet encrypted = a5Cipher.encrypt(plainText);
+
+        // Similar to testEncryptWithValidInput, ensure that output isn't the same as input
+        assertNotEquals(plainText, encrypted, "Encrypted output should not equal plaintext of all ones");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEncryptAllZerosInput() {
+        BitSet plainText = new BitSet(); // All zeros
+        BitSet encrypted = a5Cipher.encrypt(plainText);
+
+        // Check that the encrypted output is not the same
+        assertNotEquals(plainText, encrypted, "Encrypted output should not equal plaintext of all zeros");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5KeyStreamGeneratorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5KeyStreamGeneratorTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c9b721f90b2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5KeyStreamGeneratorTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5;
+
+import static com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5.A5KeyStreamGenerator.FRAME_COUNTER_LENGTH;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+
+import java.util.BitSet;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class A5KeyStreamGeneratorTest {
+
+    private A5KeyStreamGenerator keyStreamGenerator;
+    private BitSet frameCounter;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        keyStreamGenerator = new A5KeyStreamGenerator();
+
+        // Initialize session key and frame counter for testing
+        final var sessionKey = BitSet.valueOf(new long[] {0b1010101010101010L}); // Example 16-bit key
+        frameCounter = BitSet.valueOf(new long[] {0b0000000000000001L}); // Example 16-bit frame counter
+        keyStreamGenerator.initialize(sessionKey, frameCounter);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInitialization() {
+        // Verify that the internal state is set up correctly
+        assertNotNull(keyStreamGenerator, "KeyStreamGenerator should be initialized");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIncrementFrameCounter() {
+        // Generate key stream to increment the frame counter
+        keyStreamGenerator.getNextKeyStream();
+
+        // The frame counter should have been incremented
+        BitSet incrementedFrameCounter = keyStreamGenerator.getFrameCounter();
+
+        // Check if the incremented frame counter is expected
+        BitSet expectedFrameCounter = (BitSet) frameCounter.clone();
+        Utils.increment(expectedFrameCounter, FRAME_COUNTER_LENGTH);
+
+        assertEquals(expectedFrameCounter, incrementedFrameCounter, "Frame counter should be incremented after generating key stream");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetNextKeyStreamProducesDifferentOutputs() {
+        // Generate a key stream
+        BitSet firstKeyStream = keyStreamGenerator.getNextKeyStream();
+
+        // Generate another key stream
+        BitSet secondKeyStream = keyStreamGenerator.getNextKeyStream();
+
+        // Assert that consecutive key streams are different
+        assertNotEquals(firstKeyStream, secondKeyStream, "Consecutive key streams should be different");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSRTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSRTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6ef478f95358
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSRTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.ciphers.a5;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+
+import java.util.BitSet;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+// Basic tests for sanity check
+class LFSRTest {
+
+    // Represents 0100 1110 0010 1111 0100 1101 0111 1100 0001 1110 1011 1000 1000 1011 0011 1010
+    // But we start reverse way because bitset starts from most right (1010)
+    byte[] sessionKeyBytes = {
+        58,
+        (byte) 139,
+        (byte) 184,
+        30,
+        124,
+        77,
+        47,
+        78,
+    };
+
+    // Represents 11 1010 1011 0011 1100 1011
+    byte[] frameCounterBytes = {(byte) 203, (byte) 179, 58};
+
+    @Test
+    void initialize() {
+        BitSet sessionKey = BitSet.valueOf(sessionKeyBytes);
+        BitSet frameCounter = BitSet.valueOf(frameCounterBytes);
+
+        BitSet expected = new BitSet(19);
+        expected.set(0);
+        expected.set(1);
+        expected.set(3);
+        expected.set(4);
+        expected.set(5);
+        expected.set(7);
+        expected.set(9);
+        expected.set(10);
+        expected.set(11);
+        expected.set(12);
+        expected.set(13);
+        expected.set(15);
+        expected.set(16);
+        expected.set(17);
+
+        LFSR lfsr0 = new LFSR(19, 8, new int[] {13, 16, 17, 18});
+        lfsr0.initialize(sessionKey, frameCounter);
+        assertEquals(expected.toString(), lfsr0.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void clock() {
+        BitSet sessionKey = BitSet.valueOf(sessionKeyBytes);
+        BitSet frameCounter = BitSet.valueOf(frameCounterBytes);
+
+        LFSR lfsr0 = new LFSR(19, 8, new int[] {13, 16, 17, 18});
+        lfsr0.initialize(sessionKey, frameCounter);
+
+        BitSet expected = new BitSet(19);
+        expected.set(0);
+        expected.set(1);
+        expected.set(2);
+        expected.set(4);
+        expected.set(5);
+        expected.set(6);
+        expected.set(8);
+        expected.set(10);
+        expected.set(11);
+        expected.set(12);
+        expected.set(13);
+        expected.set(14);
+        expected.set(16);
+        expected.set(17);
+        expected.set(18);
+
+        lfsr0.clock();
+        assertEquals(expected.toString(), lfsr0.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void getClockBit() {
+        BitSet sessionKey = BitSet.valueOf(sessionKeyBytes);
+        BitSet frameCounter = BitSet.valueOf(frameCounterBytes);
+
+        LFSR lfsr0 = new LFSR(19, 8, new int[] {13, 16, 17, 18});
+
+        assertFalse(lfsr0.getClockBit());
+
+        lfsr0.initialize(sessionKey, frameCounter);
+
+        assertFalse(lfsr0.getClockBit());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ArithmeticCodingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ArithmeticCodingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8e51fe5eb463
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ArithmeticCodingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class ArithmeticCodingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testThrowsExceptionForNullOrEmptyInput() {
+        // Test that null input throws IllegalArgumentException
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArithmeticCoding.compress(null));
+
+        // Test that empty string throws IllegalArgumentException
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArithmeticCoding.compress(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompressionAndDecompressionSimple() {
+        String original = "BABA";
+        Map<Character, ArithmeticCoding.Symbol> probTable = ArithmeticCoding.calculateProbabilities(original);
+        BigDecimal compressed = ArithmeticCoding.compress(original);
+
+        // Verify that compression produces a valid number in [0, 1)
+        assertNotNull(compressed);
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) >= 0);
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ONE) < 0);
+
+        // Verify decompression restores the original string
+        String decompressed = ArithmeticCoding.decompress(compressed, original.length(), probTable);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSymmetryWithComplexString() {
+        String original = "THE_QUICK_BROWN_FOX_JUMPS_OVER_THE_LAZY_DOG";
+        Map<Character, ArithmeticCoding.Symbol> probTable = ArithmeticCoding.calculateProbabilities(original);
+        BigDecimal compressed = ArithmeticCoding.compress(original);
+
+        // Verify compression produces a number in valid range
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) >= 0);
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ONE) < 0);
+
+        // Verify symmetry: decompress(compress(x)) == x
+        String decompressed = ArithmeticCoding.decompress(compressed, original.length(), probTable);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSymmetryWithRepetitions() {
+        String original = "MISSISSIPPI";
+        Map<Character, ArithmeticCoding.Symbol> probTable = ArithmeticCoding.calculateProbabilities(original);
+        BigDecimal compressed = ArithmeticCoding.compress(original);
+
+        // Verify compression produces a number in valid range
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) >= 0);
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ONE) < 0);
+
+        // Verify the compression-decompression cycle
+        String decompressed = ArithmeticCoding.decompress(compressed, original.length(), probTable);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleCharacterString() {
+        String original = "AAAAA";
+        Map<Character, ArithmeticCoding.Symbol> probTable = ArithmeticCoding.calculateProbabilities(original);
+        BigDecimal compressed = ArithmeticCoding.compress(original);
+
+        // Even with a single unique character, compression should work
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) >= 0);
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ONE) < 0);
+
+        String decompressed = ArithmeticCoding.decompress(compressed, original.length(), probTable);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompressionOutputDemo() {
+        // Demonstrate actual compression output similar to LZW test
+        String original = "BABA";
+        BigDecimal compressed = ArithmeticCoding.compress(original);
+
+        // Example: "BABA" compresses to approximately 0.625
+        // This shows that the entire message is encoded as a single number
+        System.out.println("Original: " + original);
+        System.out.println("Compressed to: " + compressed);
+        System.out.println("Compression: " + original.length() + " characters -> 1 BigDecimal number");
+
+        // Verify the compressed value is in valid range [0, 1)
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) >= 0);
+        assertTrue(compressed.compareTo(BigDecimal.ONE) < 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testProbabilityTableCalculation() {
+        // Test that probability table is calculated correctly
+        String text = "AABBC";
+        Map<Character, ArithmeticCoding.Symbol> probTable = ArithmeticCoding.calculateProbabilities(text);
+
+        // Verify all characters are in the table
+        assertTrue(probTable.containsKey('A'));
+        assertTrue(probTable.containsKey('B'));
+        assertTrue(probTable.containsKey('C'));
+
+        // Verify probability ranges are valid
+        for (ArithmeticCoding.Symbol symbol : probTable.values()) {
+            assertTrue(symbol.low().compareTo(BigDecimal.ZERO) >= 0);
+            assertTrue(symbol.high().compareTo(BigDecimal.ONE) <= 0);
+            assertTrue(symbol.low().compareTo(symbol.high()) < 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecompressionWithMismatchedProbabilityTable() {
+        // Test decompression with a probability table that doesn't match the original
+        String original = "ABCD";
+        BigDecimal compressed = ArithmeticCoding.compress(original);
+
+        // Create a different probability table (for "XYZ" instead of "ABCD")
+        Map<Character, ArithmeticCoding.Symbol> wrongProbTable = ArithmeticCoding.calculateProbabilities("XYZ");
+
+        // Decompression with wrong probability table should produce incorrect output
+        String decompressed = ArithmeticCoding.decompress(compressed, original.length(), wrongProbTable);
+
+        // The decompressed string will be different from original (likely all 'X', 'Y', or 'Z')
+        // This tests the edge case where the compressed value doesn't fall into expected ranges
+        assertNotNull(decompressed);
+        assertEquals(original.length(), decompressed.length());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecompressionWithValueOutsideSymbolRanges() {
+        // Create a custom probability table
+        Map<Character, ArithmeticCoding.Symbol> probTable = new HashMap<>();
+        probTable.put('A', new ArithmeticCoding.Symbol(new BigDecimal("0.0"), new BigDecimal("0.5")));
+        probTable.put('B', new ArithmeticCoding.Symbol(new BigDecimal("0.5"), new BigDecimal("1.0")));
+
+        // Use a compressed value that should decode properly
+        BigDecimal compressed = new BigDecimal("0.25"); // Falls in 'A' range
+
+        String decompressed = ArithmeticCoding.decompress(compressed, 3, probTable);
+
+        // Verify decompression completes (even if result might not be meaningful)
+        assertNotNull(decompressed);
+        assertEquals(3, decompressed.length());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransformTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransformTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b6e10e0d796d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransformTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,124 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BurrowsWheelerTransformTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTransformAndInverseBanana() {
+        String original = "banana$";
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult expectedTransform = new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("annb$aa", 4);
+
+        // Test forward transform
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult actualTransform = BurrowsWheelerTransform.transform(original);
+        assertEquals(expectedTransform, actualTransform);
+
+        // Test inverse transform
+        String reconstructed = BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform(actualTransform.transformed, actualTransform.originalIndex);
+        assertEquals(original, reconstructed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTransformAndInverseAbracadabra() {
+        String original = "abracadabra$";
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult expectedTransform = new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("ard$rcaaaabb", 3);
+
+        // Test forward transform
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult actualTransform = BurrowsWheelerTransform.transform(original);
+        assertEquals(expectedTransform, actualTransform);
+
+        // Test inverse transform
+        String reconstructed = BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform(actualTransform.transformed, actualTransform.originalIndex);
+        assertEquals(original, reconstructed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTransformAndInverseSixMixPixFix() {
+        String original = "SIX.MIX.PIX.FIX$";
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult expectedTransform = new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("XXXX.FPSM..$IIII", 11);
+
+        // Test forward transform
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult actualTransform = BurrowsWheelerTransform.transform(original);
+        assertEquals(expectedTransform, actualTransform);
+
+        // Test inverse transform
+        String reconstructed = BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform(actualTransform.transformed, actualTransform.originalIndex);
+        assertEquals(original, reconstructed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyString() {
+        String original = "";
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult expectedTransform = new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("", -1);
+
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult actualTransform = BurrowsWheelerTransform.transform(original);
+        assertEquals(expectedTransform, actualTransform);
+
+        String reconstructed = BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform(actualTransform.transformed, actualTransform.originalIndex);
+        assertEquals(original, reconstructed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleCharacter() {
+        String original = "a";
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult expectedTransform = new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("a", 0);
+
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult actualTransform = BurrowsWheelerTransform.transform(original);
+        assertEquals(expectedTransform, actualTransform);
+
+        String reconstructed = BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform(actualTransform.transformed, actualTransform.originalIndex);
+        assertEquals(original, reconstructed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTransformNull() {
+        assertEquals(new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("", -1), BurrowsWheelerTransform.transform(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInverseTransformNullString() {
+        // bwtString == null
+        assertEquals("", BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform(null, 1));
+        // bwtString.isEmpty()
+        assertEquals("", BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform("", 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInverseTransformIndexOutOfBounds() {
+        String bwt = "annb$aa";
+        int n = bwt.length(); // n = 7
+
+        // originalIndex >= n
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform(bwt, n));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform(bwt, 8));
+
+        // originalIndex < 0
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BurrowsWheelerTransform.inverseTransform(bwt, -2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBWTResultHelpers() {
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult res1 = new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("annb$aa", 4);
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult res2 = new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("annb$aa", 4);
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult res3 = new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("other", 4);
+        BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult res4 = new BurrowsWheelerTransform.BWTResult("annb$aa", 1);
+
+        assertEquals(res1, res1);
+        assertEquals(res1, res2);
+        assertNotEquals(res1, null); // obj == null
+        assertNotEquals(res1, new Object()); // different class
+        assertNotEquals(res1, res3); // different transformed
+        assertNotEquals(res1, res4); // different originalIndex
+
+        assertEquals(res1.hashCode(), res2.hashCode());
+        assertNotEquals(res1.hashCode(), res3.hashCode());
+
+        assertTrue(res1.toString().contains("annb$aa"));
+        assertTrue(res1.toString().contains("originalIndex=4"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ77Test.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ77Test.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..86732d48a54a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ77Test.java
@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LZ77Test {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test compression and decompression of a simple repeating string")
+    void testSimpleRepeatingString() {
+        String original = "ababcbababaa";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 10, 4);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test compression and decompression of a string with no repeats initially")
+    void testNoInitialRepeats() {
+        String original = "abcdefgh";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test compression and decompression of a longer example")
+    void testLongerExample() {
+        String original = "TOBEORNOTTOBEORTOBEORNOT";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 20, 10);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test empty string compression and decompression")
+    void testEmptyString() {
+        String original = "";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+        assertTrue(compressed.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test null string compression")
+    void testNullStringCompress() {
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(null);
+        assertTrue(compressed.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test null list decompression")
+    void testNullListDecompress() {
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(null);
+        assertEquals("", decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test invalid buffer sizes throw exception")
+    void testInvalidBufferSizes() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LZ77.compress("test", 0, 5));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LZ77.compress("test", 5, 0));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LZ77.compress("test", -1, 5));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LZ77.compress("test", 5, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test string with all same characters")
+    void testAllSameCharacters() {
+        String original = "AAAAAA";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 10, 5);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Should achieve good compression for repeated characters
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() < original.length());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test string with all unique characters")
+    void testAllUniqueCharacters() {
+        String original = "abcdefghijklmnop";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 10, 5);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // No compression expected for unique characters
+        assertEquals(original.length(), compressed.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test single character string")
+    void testSingleCharacter() {
+        String original = "a";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+        assertEquals(1, compressed.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test match that goes exactly to the end")
+    void testMatchToEnd() {
+        String original = "abcabc";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 10, 10);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with very small window size")
+    void testSmallWindowSize() {
+        String original = "ababababab";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 2, 4);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with very small lookahead buffer")
+    void testSmallLookaheadBuffer() {
+        String original = "ababcbababaa";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 10, 2);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test repeating pattern at the end")
+    void testRepeatingPatternAtEnd() {
+        String original = "xyzabcabcabcabc";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 15, 8);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test overlapping matches (run-length encoding case)")
+    void testOverlappingMatches() {
+        String original = "aaaaaa";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 10, 10);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test complex pattern with multiple repeats")
+    void testComplexPattern() {
+        String original = "abcabcabcxyzxyzxyz";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 20, 10);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with special characters")
+    void testSpecialCharacters() {
+        String original = "hello world! @#$%^&*()";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with numbers")
+    void testWithNumbers() {
+        String original = "1234567890123456";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 15, 8);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test long repeating sequence")
+    void testLongRepeatingSequence() {
+        String original = "abcdefgh".repeat(10);
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 50, 20);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Should achieve significant compression
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() < original.length() / 2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test compression effectiveness")
+    void testCompressionEffectiveness() {
+        String original = "ababababababab";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original, 20, 10);
+
+        // Verify that compression actually reduces the data size
+        // Each token represents potentially multiple characters
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() <= original.length());
+
+        // Verify decompression
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with mixed case letters")
+    void testMixedCase() {
+        String original = "AaBbCcAaBbCc";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test default parameters")
+    void testDefaultParameters() {
+        String original = "This is a test string with some repeated patterns. This is repeated.";
+        List<LZ77.Token> compressed = LZ77.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ77.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78Test.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78Test.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7889b50b76f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78Test.java
@@ -0,0 +1,295 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LZ78Test {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test compression and decompression of a simple repeating string")
+    void testSimpleRepeatingString() {
+        String original = "ababcbababaa";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test compression and decompression example ABAABABAABAB")
+    void testStandardExample() {
+        String original = "ABAABABAABAB";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Verify the compression produces expected tokens
+        // Expected: (0,A)(0,B)(1,A)(2,B)(3,A)(4,B)
+        // Where dictionary builds as: 1:A, 2:B, 3:AA, 4:BA, 5:ABA, 6:BAB
+        assertEquals(6, compressed.size());
+        assertEquals(0, compressed.get(0).index());
+        assertEquals('A', compressed.get(0).nextChar());
+        assertEquals(0, compressed.get(1).index());
+        assertEquals('B', compressed.get(1).nextChar());
+        assertEquals(1, compressed.get(2).index());
+        assertEquals('A', compressed.get(2).nextChar());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test compression and decompression of a longer example")
+    void testLongerExample() {
+        String original = "TOBEORNOTTOBEORTOBEORNOT";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test empty string compression and decompression")
+    void testEmptyString() {
+        String original = "";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+        assertTrue(compressed.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test null string compression")
+    void testNullStringCompress() {
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(null);
+        assertTrue(compressed.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test null list decompression")
+    void testNullListDecompress() {
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(null);
+        assertEquals("", decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test string with all same characters")
+    void testAllSameCharacters() {
+        String original = "AAAAAA";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Should achieve good compression: (0,A)(1,A)(2,A)...
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() <= 4); // Builds: A, AA, AAA, etc.
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test string with all unique characters")
+    void testAllUniqueCharacters() {
+        String original = "abcdefg";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // No compression for unique characters
+        assertEquals(original.length(), compressed.size());
+
+        // Each token should have index 0 (empty prefix)
+        for (LZ78.Token token : compressed) {
+            assertEquals(0, token.index());
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test single character string")
+    void testSingleCharacter() {
+        String original = "a";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+        assertEquals(1, compressed.size());
+        assertEquals(0, compressed.getFirst().index());
+        assertEquals('a', compressed.getFirst().nextChar());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test two character string")
+    void testTwoCharacters() {
+        String original = "ab";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+        assertEquals(2, compressed.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test repeating pairs")
+    void testRepeatingPairs() {
+        String original = "ababab";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Should compress well: (0,a)(0,b)(1,b) or similar
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() < original.length());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test growing patterns")
+    void testGrowingPatterns() {
+        String original = "abcabcdabcde";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test dictionary building correctness")
+    void testDictionaryBuilding() {
+        String original = "aabaabaab";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Verify first few tokens
+        // Expected pattern: (0,a)(1,b)(2,a)(3,b) building dictionary 1:a, 2:ab, 3:aa, 4:aab
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() > 0);
+        assertEquals(0, compressed.getFirst().index()); // First char always has index 0
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with special characters")
+    void testSpecialCharacters() {
+        String original = "hello world! hello!";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with numbers")
+    void testWithNumbers() {
+        String original = "1234512345";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Should achieve compression
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() < original.length());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test long repeating sequence")
+    void testLongRepeatingSequence() {
+        String original = "abcdefgh".repeat(5);
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // LZ78 should achieve some compression for repeating sequences
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() < original.length(), "Compressed size should be less than original length");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test alternating characters")
+    void testAlternatingCharacters() {
+        String original = "ababababab";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test compression effectiveness")
+    void testCompressionEffectiveness() {
+        String original = "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog the quick brown fox";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Should achieve some compression due to repeated phrases
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() < original.length());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with mixed case letters")
+    void testMixedCase() {
+        String original = "AaBbCcAaBbCc";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test palindrome string")
+    void testPalindrome() {
+        String original = "abccba";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test highly compressible pattern")
+    void testHighlyCompressible() {
+        String original = "aaaaaaaaaa";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Should achieve excellent compression ratio
+        assertTrue(compressed.size() <= 4);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test empty list decompression")
+    void testEmptyListDecompress() {
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = List.of();
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals("", decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test binary-like pattern")
+    void testBinaryPattern() {
+        String original = "0101010101";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test nested patterns")
+    void testNestedPatterns() {
+        String original = "abcabcdefabcdefghi";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test whitespace handling")
+    void testWhitespace() {
+        String original = "a b c a b c";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test token structure correctness")
+    void testTokenStructure() {
+        String original = "abc";
+        List<LZ78.Token> compressed = LZ78.compress(original);
+
+        // All tokens should have valid indices (>= 0)
+        for (LZ78.Token token : compressed) {
+            assertTrue(token.index() >= 0);
+            assertNotNull(token.nextChar());
+        }
+
+        String decompressed = LZ78.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZWTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZWTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7f0c7503c822
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZWTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LZWTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullAndEmptyInputs() {
+        // Test that a null input to compress returns an empty list
+        assertTrue(LZW.compress(null).isEmpty());
+
+        // Test that a null input to decompress returns an empty string
+        assertEquals("", LZW.decompress(null));
+
+        // Test that an empty input to compress returns an empty list
+        assertTrue(LZW.compress("").isEmpty());
+
+        // Test that an empty input to decompress returns an empty string
+        assertEquals("", LZW.decompress(Collections.emptyList()));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompressionAndDecompressionWithSimpleString() {
+        // Test a classic example string
+        String original = "TOBEORNOTTOBEORTOBEORNOT";
+        List<Integer> compressed = LZW.compress(original);
+
+        // Create the expected output list
+        List<Integer> expectedOutput = List.of(84, 79, 66, 69, 79, 82, 78, 79, 84, 256, 258, 260, 265, 259, 261, 263);
+
+        // This assertion will fail if the output is not what we expect
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, compressed);
+
+        // This assertion ensures the decompressed string is correct
+        String decompressed = LZW.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompressionWithRepeatedChars() {
+        // Test a string with long runs of the same character
+        String original = "AAAAABBBBBAAAAA";
+        List<Integer> compressed = LZW.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZW.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompressionWithUniqueChars() {
+        // Test a string with no repetitions
+        String original = "ABCDEFG";
+        List<Integer> compressed = LZW.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZW.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSymmetry() {
+        // Test that compressing and then decompressing a complex string returns the
+        // original
+        String original = "THE_QUICK_BROWN_FOX_JUMPS_OVER_THE_LAZY_DOG";
+        List<Integer> compressed = LZW.compress(original);
+        String decompressed = LZW.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original, decompressed);
+
+        // Another symmetry test with special characters and patterns
+        String original2 = "ababcbababa";
+        List<Integer> compressed2 = LZW.compress(original2);
+        String decompressed2 = LZW.decompress(compressed2);
+        assertEquals(original2, decompressed2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidCompressedData() {
+        // Test that decompressing with an invalid code throws IllegalArgumentException
+        // Create a list with a code that doesn't exist in the dictionary
+        List<Integer> invalidCompressed = new ArrayList<>();
+        invalidCompressed.add(65); // 'A' - valid
+        invalidCompressed.add(999); // Invalid code (not in dictionary)
+
+        // This should throw IllegalArgumentException with message "Bad compressed k: 999"
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LZW.decompress(invalidCompressed));
+
+        assertTrue(exception.getMessage().contains("Bad compressed k: 999"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecompressionWithGapInDictionary() {
+        // Test with codes that skip dictionary entries
+        List<Integer> invalidCompressed = new ArrayList<>();
+        invalidCompressed.add(84); // 'T' - valid
+        invalidCompressed.add(500); // Way beyond current dictionary size
+
+        // This should throw IllegalArgumentException
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LZW.decompress(invalidCompressed));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/MoveToFrontTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/MoveToFrontTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..42ef6c9cd675
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/MoveToFrontTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MoveToFrontTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTransformAndInverseBananaExample() {
+        String original = "annb$aa";
+        String alphabet = "$abn";
+        List<Integer> expectedTransform = List.of(1, 3, 0, 3, 3, 3, 0);
+
+        // Test forward transform
+        List<Integer> actualTransform = MoveToFront.transform(original, alphabet);
+        assertEquals(expectedTransform, actualTransform);
+
+        // Test inverse transform
+        String reconstructed = MoveToFront.inverseTransform(actualTransform, alphabet);
+        assertEquals(original, reconstructed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTransformAndInverseCabaaExample() {
+        String original = "cabaa";
+        String alphabet = "abcdef";
+        List<Integer> expectedTransform = List.of(2, 1, 2, 1, 0);
+
+        // Test forward transform
+        List<Integer> actualTransform = MoveToFront.transform(original, alphabet);
+        assertEquals(expectedTransform, actualTransform);
+
+        // Test inverse transform
+        String reconstructed = MoveToFront.inverseTransform(actualTransform, alphabet);
+        assertEquals(original, reconstructed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyInput() {
+        String original = "";
+        String alphabet = "abc";
+        List<Integer> expectedTransform = List.of();
+
+        List<Integer> actualTransform = MoveToFront.transform(original, alphabet);
+        assertEquals(expectedTransform, actualTransform);
+
+        String reconstructed = MoveToFront.inverseTransform(actualTransform, alphabet);
+        assertEquals(original, reconstructed);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyAlphabet() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MoveToFront.transform("abc", ""));
+
+        assertEquals("", MoveToFront.inverseTransform(List.of(1, 2), ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSymbolNotInAlphabet() {
+        // 'd' is not in "abc"
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MoveToFront.transform("abd", "abc"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIndexOutOfBounds() {
+        // Index 5 is out of bounds for alphabet "abc"
+        // 1. test index >= alphabet.size()
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MoveToFront.inverseTransform(List.of(1, 2, 5), "abc"));
+
+        // 2. test index < 0
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MoveToFront.inverseTransform(List.of(1, -1, 2), "abc"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTransformNull() {
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of();
+        assertEquals(expected, MoveToFront.transform(null, "abc"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MoveToFront.transform("abc", null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInverseTransformNulls() {
+        // 1. test indices == null
+        assertEquals("", MoveToFront.inverseTransform(null, "abc"));
+
+        // 2. test initialAlphabet == null
+        assertEquals("", MoveToFront.inverseTransform(List.of(1, 2), null));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/RunLengthEncodingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/RunLengthEncodingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..049a7fac9ae9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/RunLengthEncodingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class RunLengthEncodingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInputs() {
+        // Test that a null input to compress returns an empty string
+        assertEquals("", RunLengthEncoding.compress(null));
+
+        // Test that a null input to decompress returns an empty string
+        assertEquals("", RunLengthEncoding.decompress(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompressionSimple() {
+        // Test a typical string with multiple runs
+        String input = "AAAABBBCCDAA";
+        String expected = "4A3B2C1D2A";
+        assertEquals(expected, RunLengthEncoding.compress(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompressionWithNoRuns() {
+        // Test a string with no consecutive characters
+        String input = "ABCDE";
+        String expected = "1A1B1C1D1E";
+        assertEquals(expected, RunLengthEncoding.compress(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompressionEdgeCases() {
+        // Test with an empty string
+        assertEquals("", RunLengthEncoding.compress(""));
+
+        // Test with a single character
+        assertEquals("1A", RunLengthEncoding.compress("A"));
+
+        // Test with a long run of a single character
+        assertEquals("10Z", RunLengthEncoding.compress("ZZZZZZZZZZ"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecompressionSimple() {
+        // Test decompression of a typical RLE string
+        String input = "4A3B2C1D2A";
+        String expected = "AAAABBBCCDAA";
+        assertEquals(expected, RunLengthEncoding.decompress(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecompressionWithNoRuns() {
+        // Test decompression of a string with single characters
+        String input = "1A1B1C1D1E";
+        String expected = "ABCDE";
+        assertEquals(expected, RunLengthEncoding.decompress(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecompressionWithMultiDigitCount() {
+        // Test decompression where a run count is greater than 9
+        String input = "12A1B3C";
+        String expected = "AAAAAAAAAAAABCCC";
+        assertEquals(expected, RunLengthEncoding.decompress(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecompressionEdgeCases() {
+        // Test with an empty string
+        assertEquals("", RunLengthEncoding.decompress(""));
+
+        // Test with a single character run
+        assertEquals("A", RunLengthEncoding.decompress("1A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSymmetry() {
+        // Test that compressing and then decompressing returns the original string
+        String original1 = "WWWWWWWWWWWWBWWWWWWWWWWWWBBBWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWB";
+        String compressed = RunLengthEncoding.compress(original1);
+        String decompressed = RunLengthEncoding.decompress(compressed);
+        assertEquals(original1, decompressed);
+
+        String original2 = "A";
+        assertEquals(original2, RunLengthEncoding.decompress(RunLengthEncoding.compress(original2)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ShannonFanoTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ShannonFanoTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ce34088dacca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/ShannonFanoTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.compression;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class ShannonFanoTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInput() {
+        // Test with a null string, should return an empty map
+        assertTrue(ShannonFano.generateCodes(null).isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSimpleString() {
+        // A simple string to test basic code generation
+        String text = "AAABBC";
+        Map<Character, String> codes = ShannonFano.generateCodes(text);
+
+        assertEquals(3, codes.size());
+        assertEquals("0", codes.get('A'));
+        assertEquals("10", codes.get('B'));
+        assertEquals("11", codes.get('C'));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExampleFromStringIssue() {
+        // Example from the original issue proposal: A:15, B:7, C:6, D:6, E:5
+        // The code finds a more optimal split: {A,B} | {C,D,E} -> |22-17|=5
+        // instead of {A} | {B,C,D,E} -> |15-24|=9.
+        String text = "AAAAAAAAAAAAAAABBBBBBBCCCCCCDDDDDDEEEEE";
+        Map<Character, String> codes = ShannonFano.generateCodes(text);
+
+        assertEquals(5, codes.size());
+        assertEquals("00", codes.get('A'));
+        assertEquals("01", codes.get('B'));
+        assertEquals("10", codes.get('C'));
+        assertEquals("110", codes.get('D'));
+        assertEquals("111", codes.get('E'));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCases() {
+        // Test with an empty string
+        assertTrue(ShannonFano.generateCodes("").isEmpty());
+
+        // Test with a single character
+        Map<Character, String> singleCharCodes = ShannonFano.generateCodes("AAAAA");
+        assertEquals(1, singleCharCodes.size());
+        assertEquals("0", singleCharCodes.get('A')); // A single symbol gets code "0"
+
+        // Test with all unique characters
+        String uniqueCharsText = "ABCDEF";
+        Map<Character, String> uniqueCharCodes = ShannonFano.generateCodes(uniqueCharsText);
+        assertEquals(6, uniqueCharCodes.size());
+        // Check that codes are unique and have varying lengths as expected
+        assertEquals(6, uniqueCharCodes.values().stream().distinct().count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringWithTwoChars() {
+        String text = "ABABAB";
+        Map<Character, String> codes = ShannonFano.generateCodes(text);
+
+        assertEquals(2, codes.size());
+        assertTrue(codes.get('A').equals("0") && codes.get('B').equals("1") || codes.get('A').equals("1") && codes.get('B').equals("0"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..47eea139f424
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AffineConverterTest {
+
+    private AffineConverter converter;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        converter = new AffineConverter(2.0, 3.0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithValidValues() {
+        assertEquals(3.0, converter.convert(0.0), "Expected value when input is 0.0");
+        assertEquals(5.0, converter.convert(1.0), "Expected value when input is 1.0");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithInvalidValues() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new AffineConverter(Double.NaN, 3.0), "Constructor should throw IllegalArgumentException for NaN slope");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertWithNegativeValues() {
+        assertEquals(-1.0, converter.convert(-2.0), "Negative input should convert correctly");
+        assertEquals(-3.0, new AffineConverter(-1.0, -1.0).convert(2.0), "Slope and intercept can be negative");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertWithFloatingPointPrecision() {
+        double result = new AffineConverter(1.3333, 0.6667).convert(3.0);
+        assertEquals(4.6666, result, 1e-4, "Conversion should maintain floating-point precision");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvert() {
+        AffineConverter inverted = converter.invert();
+        assertEquals(0.0, inverted.convert(3.0), "Inverted should return 0.0 for input 3.0");
+        assertEquals(1.0, inverted.convert(5.0), "Inverted should return 1.0 for input 5.0");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvertWithZeroSlope() {
+        AffineConverter zeroSlopeConverter = new AffineConverter(0.0, 3.0);
+        assertThrows(AssertionError.class, zeroSlopeConverter::invert, "Invert should throw AssertionError when slope is zero");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompose() {
+        AffineConverter otherConverter = new AffineConverter(1.0, 2.0);
+        AffineConverter composed = converter.compose(otherConverter);
+
+        assertEquals(7.0, composed.convert(0.0), "Expected composed conversion at 0.0");
+        assertEquals(9.0, composed.convert(1.0), "Expected composed conversion at 1.0");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleCompositions() {
+        AffineConverter c1 = new AffineConverter(2.0, 1.0);
+        AffineConverter c2 = new AffineConverter(3.0, -2.0);
+        AffineConverter c3 = c1.compose(c2); // (2x + 1) ∘ (3x - 2) => 6x - 1
+
+        assertEquals(-3.0, c3.convert(0.0), "Composed transformation should return -3.0 at 0.0");
+        assertEquals(3.0, c3.convert(1.0), "Composed transformation should return 3.0 at 1.0");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIdentityComposition() {
+        AffineConverter identity = new AffineConverter(1.0, 0.0);
+        AffineConverter composed = converter.compose(identity);
+
+        assertEquals(3.0, composed.convert(0.0), "Identity composition should not change the transformation");
+        assertEquals(7.0, composed.convert(2.0), "Identity composition should behave like the original");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeInputs() {
+        double largeValue = 1e6;
+        assertEquals(2.0 * largeValue + 3.0, converter.convert(largeValue), "Should handle large input values without overflow");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c7f9493ef0e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnyBaseToDecimalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class AnyBaseToDecimalTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"1010, 2, 10", "777, 8, 511", "999, 10, 999", "ABCDEF, 16, 11259375", "XYZ, 36, 44027", "0, 2, 0", "A, 16, 10", "Z, 36, 35"})
+    void testConvertToDecimal(String input, int radix, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, AnyBaseToDecimal.convertToDecimal(input, radix));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIncorrectInput() {
+        assertThrows(NumberFormatException.class, () -> AnyBaseToDecimal.convertToDecimal("G", 16));
+        assertThrows(NumberFormatException.class, () -> AnyBaseToDecimal.convertToDecimal("XYZ", 10));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAnyTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAnyTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cdc012180bf9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAnyTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AnytoAnyTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testValidConversions() {
+        assertEquals(101, AnytoAny.convertBase(5, 10, 2), "Decimal 5 should convert to binary 101");
+        assertEquals(2, AnytoAny.convertBase(2, 2, 10), "Binary 10 should convert to decimal 2");
+        assertEquals(6, AnytoAny.convertBase(110, 2, 8), "Binary 110 should convert to octal 6");
+        assertEquals(111, AnytoAny.convertBase(7, 10, 2), "Decimal 7 should convert to binary 111");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecimalToBinary() {
+        assertEquals(1101, AnytoAny.convertBase(13, 10, 2), "Decimal 13 should convert to binary 1101");
+        assertEquals(0, AnytoAny.convertBase(0, 10, 2), "Decimal 0 should convert to binary 0");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBinaryToDecimal() {
+        assertEquals(13, AnytoAny.convertBase(1101, 2, 10), "Binary 1101 should convert to decimal 13");
+        assertEquals(0, AnytoAny.convertBase(0, 2, 10), "Binary 0 should convert to decimal 0");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOctalToDecimal() {
+        assertEquals(8, AnytoAny.convertBase(10, 8, 10), "Octal 10 should convert to decimal 8");
+        assertEquals(65, AnytoAny.convertBase(101, 8, 10), "Octal 101 should convert to decimal 65");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidBases() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> AnytoAny.convertBase(5, 1, 10), "Source base less than 2 should throw IllegalArgumentException");
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> AnytoAny.convertBase(5, 10, 11), "Destination base greater than 10 should throw IllegalArgumentException");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeNumberConversion() {
+        assertEquals(1111101000, AnytoAny.convertBase(1000, 10, 2), "Decimal 1000 should convert to binary 1111101000");
+        assertEquals(1750, AnytoAny.convertBase(1000, 10, 8), "Decimal 1000 should convert to octal 1750");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64Test.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64Test.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fbc220c0ca95
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64Test.java
@@ -0,0 +1,183 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+/**
+ * Test cases for Base64 encoding and decoding.
+ *
+ * Author: Nithin U.
+ * Github: https://github.com/NithinU2802
+ */
+
+class Base64Test {
+
+    @Test
+    void testBase64Alphabet() {
+        // Test that all Base64 characters are handled correctly
+        String allChars = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/";
+        String encoded = Base64.encode(allChars);
+        String decoded = Base64.decodeToString(encoded);
+        assertEquals(allChars, decoded);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'', ''", "A, QQ==", "AB, QUI=", "ABC, QUJD", "ABCD, QUJDRA==", "Hello, SGVsbG8=", "'Hello World', SGVsbG8gV29ybGQ=", "'Hello, World!', 'SGVsbG8sIFdvcmxkIQ=='", "'The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog', 'VGhlIHF1aWNrIGJyb3duIGZveCBqdW1wcyBvdmVyIHRoZSBsYXp5IGRvZw=='",
+        "123456789, MTIzNDU2Nzg5", "'Base64 encoding test', 'QmFzZTY0IGVuY29kaW5nIHRlc3Q='"})
+    void
+    testStringEncoding(String input, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Base64.encode(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'', ''", "QQ==, A", "QUI=, AB", "QUJD, ABC", "QUJDRA==, ABCD", "SGVsbG8=, Hello", "'SGVsbG8gV29ybGQ=', 'Hello World'", "'SGVsbG8sIFdvcmxkIQ==', 'Hello, World!'", "'VGhlIHF1aWNrIGJyb3duIGZveCBqdW1wcyBvdmVyIHRoZSBsYXp5IGRvZw==', 'The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog'",
+        "MTIzNDU2Nzg5, 123456789", "'QmFzZTY0IGVuY29kaW5nIHRlc3Q=', 'Base64 encoding test'"})
+    void
+    testStringDecoding(String input, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Base64.decodeToString(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testByteArrayEncoding() {
+        byte[] input = {72, 101, 108, 108, 111};
+        String expected = "SGVsbG8=";
+        assertEquals(expected, Base64.encode(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testByteArrayDecoding() {
+        String input = "SGVsbG8=";
+        byte[] expected = {72, 101, 108, 108, 111};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, Base64.decode(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRoundTripEncoding() {
+        String[] testStrings = {"", "A", "AB", "ABC", "Hello, World!", "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog", "1234567890", "Special chars: !@#$%^&*()_+-=[]{}|;:,.<>?",
+            "Unicode: வணக்கம்", // Tamil for "Hello"
+            "Multi-line\nstring\rwith\tdifferent\nwhitespace"};
+
+        for (String original : testStrings) {
+            String encoded = Base64.encode(original);
+            String decoded = Base64.decodeToString(encoded);
+            assertEquals(original, decoded, "Round trip failed for: " + original);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRoundTripByteArrayEncoding() {
+        byte[][] testArrays = {{}, {0}, {-1}, {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, {-128, -1, 0, 1, 127}, {72, 101, 108, 108, 111, 44, 32, 87, 111, 114, 108, 100, 33}};
+
+        for (byte[] original : testArrays) {
+            String encoded = Base64.encode(original);
+            byte[] decoded = Base64.decode(encoded);
+            assertArrayEquals(original, decoded, "Round trip failed for byte array");
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBinaryData() {
+        // Test with binary data that might contain null bytes
+        byte[] binaryData = new byte[256];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) {
+            binaryData[i] = (byte) i;
+        }
+
+        String encoded = Base64.encode(binaryData);
+        byte[] decoded = Base64.decode(encoded);
+        assertArrayEquals(binaryData, decoded);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInputEncoding() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.encode((String) null));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.encode((byte[]) null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInputDecoding() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode(null));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decodeToString(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidBase64Characters() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("SGVsbG8@"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("SGVsbG8#"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("SGVsbG8$"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("SGVsbG8%"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidLength() {
+        // Length must be multiple of 4
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("Q"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("QQ"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("QQQ"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidPaddingPosition() {
+        // '=' can only appear at the end
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("Q=QQ"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("Q=Q="));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Base64.decode("=QQQ"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPaddingVariations() {
+        // Test different padding scenarios '='
+        assertEquals("A", Base64.decodeToString("QQ=="));
+        assertEquals("AB", Base64.decodeToString("QUI="));
+        assertEquals("ABC", Base64.decodeToString("QUJD"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPaddingConsistency() {
+        // Ensure that strings requiring different amounts of padding encode/decode correctly
+        String[] testCases = {"A", "AB", "ABC", "ABCD", "ABCDE", "ABCDEF"};
+
+        for (String test : testCases) {
+            String encoded = Base64.encode(test);
+            String decoded = Base64.decodeToString(encoded);
+            assertEquals(test, decoded);
+
+            // Verify padding is correct
+            int expectedPadding = (3 - (test.length() % 3)) % 3;
+            int actualPadding = 0;
+            for (int i = encoded.length() - 1; i >= 0 && encoded.charAt(i) == '='; i--) {
+                actualPadding++;
+            }
+            assertEquals(expectedPadding, actualPadding, "Incorrect padding for: " + test);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeData() {
+        // Test with larger data to ensure scalability
+        StringBuilder largeString = new StringBuilder();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            largeString.append("This is a test string for Base64 encoding. ");
+        }
+
+        String original = largeString.toString();
+        String encoded = Base64.encode(original);
+        String decoded = Base64.decodeToString(encoded);
+        assertEquals(original, decoded);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyAndSingleCharacter() {
+        // Test edge cases
+        assertEquals("", Base64.encode(""));
+        assertEquals("", Base64.decodeToString(""));
+
+        assertEquals("QQ==", Base64.encode("A"));
+        assertEquals("A", Base64.decodeToString("QQ=="));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e11a86b4c006
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToDecimalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class BinaryToDecimalTest {
+
+    @Test
+    // Test converting binary to decimal
+    public void testBinaryToDecimal() {
+        // zeros at the starting should be removed
+        assertEquals(0, BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(0));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(1));
+        assertEquals(5, BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(101));
+        assertEquals(63, BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(111111));
+        assertEquals(512, BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(1000000000));
+
+        assertEquals(0, BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal("0"));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal("1"));
+        assertEquals(5, BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal("101"));
+        assertEquals(63, BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal("111111"));
+        assertEquals(512, BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal("1000000000"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // Test converting negative binary numbers
+    public void testNegativeBinaryToDecimal() {
+        assertEquals(-1, BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(-1));
+        assertEquals(-42, BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(-101010));
+
+        assertEquals(-1, BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal("-1"));
+        assertEquals(-42, BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal("-101010"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // Test converting binary numbers with large values
+    public void testLargeBinaryToDecimal() {
+        assertEquals(262144L, BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(1000000000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(524287L, BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(1111111111111111111L));
+
+        assertEquals(262144L, BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal("1000000000000000000"));
+        assertEquals(524287L, BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal("1111111111111111111"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"2", "1234", "11112", "101021"})
+    void testNotCorrectBinaryInput(long binaryNumber) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BinaryToDecimal.binaryToDecimal(binaryNumber));
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BinaryToDecimal.binaryStringToDecimal(Long.toString(binaryNumber)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0935701e3c32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToHexadecimalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class BinaryToHexadecimalTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "1, 1", "10, 2", "1111, F", "1101010, 6A", "1100, C"})
+    void testBinToHex(int binary, String expectedHex) {
+        assertEquals(expectedHex, BinaryToHexadecimal.binToHex(binary));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"2", "1234", "11112"})
+    void testInvalidBinaryInput(int binary) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BinaryToHexadecimal.binToHex(binary));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..98bd55a3d6c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/BinaryToOctalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class BinaryToOctalTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "1, 1", "10, 2", "111, 7", "1000, 10", "1111, 17", "110101, 65", "1010101, 125", "110110011, 663", "111111111, 777", "10010110, 226", "1011101, 135"})
+    void testConvertBinaryToOctal(int binary, String expectedOctal) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOctal, BinaryToOctal.convertBinaryToOctal(binary));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIncorrectInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BinaryToOctal.convertBinaryToOctal(1234));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BinaryToOctal.convertBinaryToOctal(102));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BinaryToOctal.convertBinaryToOctal(-1010));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/CoordinateConverterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/CoordinateConverterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e41e9160478d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/CoordinateConverterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class CoordinateConverterTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0, 0, 0", "1, 0, 1, 0", "0, 1, 1, 90", "-1, 0, 1, 180", "0, -1, 1, -90", "3, 4, 5, 53.13010235415599"})
+    void testCartesianToPolar(double x, double y, double expectedR, double expectedTheta) {
+        assertArrayEquals(new double[] {expectedR, expectedTheta}, CoordinateConverter.cartesianToPolar(x, y), 1e-9);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"1, 0, 1, 0", "1, 90, 0, 1", "1, 180, -1, 0", "1, -90, 0, -1", "5, 53.13010235415599, 3, 4"})
+    void testPolarToCartesian(double r, double theta, double expectedX, double expectedY) {
+        assertArrayEquals(new double[] {expectedX, expectedY}, CoordinateConverter.polarToCartesian(r, theta), 1e-9);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"NaN, 1", "1, NaN", "Infinity, 1", "1, Infinity", "-Infinity, 1", "1, -Infinity"})
+    void testCartesianToPolarInvalidInputs(double x, double y) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> CoordinateConverter.cartesianToPolar(x, y));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"-1, 0", "1, NaN", "1, Infinity", "1, -Infinity"})
+    void testPolarToCartesianInvalidInputs(double r, double theta) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> CoordinateConverter.polarToCartesian(r, theta));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBaseTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBaseTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..04630b71cce4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToAnyBaseTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class DecimalToAnyBaseTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 2, 0", "0, 16, 0", "0, 36, 0", "10, 2, 1010", "255, 16, FF", "100, 8, 144", "42, 2, 101010", "1234, 16, 4D2", "1234, 36, YA"})
+    void testConvertToAnyBase(int decimal, int base, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, DecimalToAnyBase.convertToAnyBase(decimal, base));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBaseOutOfRange() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DecimalToAnyBase.convertToAnyBase(10, 1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DecimalToAnyBase.convertToAnyBase(10, 37));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinaryTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinaryTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f194951e9e64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToBinaryTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class DecimalToBinaryTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "1, 1", "2, 10", "5, 101", "10, 1010", "15, 1111", "100, 1100100"})
+    void testConvertUsingConventionalAlgorithm(int decimal, int expectedBinary) {
+        assertEquals(expectedBinary, DecimalToBinary.convertUsingConventionalAlgorithm(decimal));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "1, 1", "2, 10", "5, 101", "10, 1010", "15, 1111", "100, 1100100"})
+    void testConvertUsingBitwiseAlgorithm(int decimal, int expectedBinary) {
+        assertEquals(expectedBinary, DecimalToBinary.convertUsingBitwiseAlgorithm(decimal));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexadecimalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexadecimalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c9817b5d6926
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToHexadecimalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class DecimalToHexadecimalTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "1, 1", "10, a", "15, f", "16, 10", "255, ff", "190, be", "1800, 708"})
+    void testDecToHex(int decimal, String expectedHex) {
+        assertEquals(expectedHex, DecimalToHexadecimal.decToHex(decimal));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7ff274f04800
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/DecimalToOctalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class DecimalToOctalTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "7, 7", "8, 10", "10, 12", "64, 100", "83, 123", "7026, 15562"})
+    void testConvertToOctal(int decimal, int expectedOctal) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOctal, DecimalToOctal.convertToOctal(decimal));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertToOctalNegativeNumber() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DecimalToOctal.convertToOctal(-10));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/EndianConverterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/EndianConverterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..85ffa2190962
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/EndianConverterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class EndianConverterTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "0x78563412, 0x12345678", "0x00000000, 0x00000000", "0x00000001, 0x01000000",
+        "0xFFFFFFFF, 0xFFFFFFFF", // -1 in two's complement
+        "0x0000007F, 0x7F000000" // Positive boundary case
+    })
+    public void
+    testLittleToBigEndian(String inputHex, String expectedHex) {
+        int input = (int) Long.parseLong(inputHex.substring(2), 16); // Convert hex string to int
+        int expected = (int) Long.parseLong(expectedHex.substring(2), 16); // Convert hex string to int
+        assertEquals(expected, EndianConverter.littleToBigEndian(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "0x12345678, 0x78563412", "0x00000000, 0x00000000", "0x01000000, 0x00000001",
+        "0xFFFFFFFF, 0xFFFFFFFF", // -1 in two's complement
+        "0x7F000000, 0x0000007F" // Positive boundary case
+    })
+    public void
+    testBigToLittleEndian(String inputHex, String expectedHex) {
+        int input = (int) Long.parseLong(inputHex.substring(2), 16); // Convert hex string to int
+        int expected = (int) Long.parseLong(expectedHex.substring(2), 16); // Convert hex string to int
+        assertEquals(expected, EndianConverter.bigToLittleEndian(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOctTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOctTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b3f94b19b6e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexToOctTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class HexToOctTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testHexToDecimal() {
+        assertEquals(255, HexToOct.hexToDecimal("FF"));
+        assertEquals(16, HexToOct.hexToDecimal("10"));
+        assertEquals(0, HexToOct.hexToDecimal("0"));
+        assertEquals(4095, HexToOct.hexToDecimal("FFF"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecimalToOctal() {
+        assertEquals(110, HexToOct.decimalToOctal(HexToOct.hexToDecimal("48")));
+        assertEquals(255, HexToOct.decimalToOctal(HexToOct.hexToDecimal("AD")));
+        assertEquals(377, HexToOct.decimalToOctal(255));
+        assertEquals(20, HexToOct.decimalToOctal(16));
+        assertEquals(0, HexToOct.decimalToOctal(0));
+        assertEquals(7777, HexToOct.decimalToOctal(4095));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testHexToOctal() {
+        assertEquals(377, HexToOct.hexToOctal("FF"));
+        assertEquals(20, HexToOct.hexToOctal("10"));
+        assertEquals(0, HexToOct.hexToOctal("0"));
+        assertEquals(7777, HexToOct.hexToOctal("FFF"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinaryTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinaryTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1426eab64d2c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToBinaryTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the {@link EndianConverter} class.
+ */
+public class HexaDecimalToBinaryTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Parameterized test to validate the conversion from little-endian to big-endian.
+     * Hexadecimal values are passed as strings and converted to integers during the test.
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "0x78563412, 0x12345678", "0x00000000, 0x00000000", "0x00000001, 0x01000000",
+        "0xFFFFFFFF, 0xFFFFFFFF", // -1 in two's complement
+        "0x0000007F, 0x7F000000" // Positive boundary case
+    })
+    public void
+    testLittleToBigEndian(String inputHex, String expectedHex) {
+        int input = (int) Long.parseLong(inputHex.substring(2), 16); // Convert hex string to int
+        int expected = (int) Long.parseLong(expectedHex.substring(2), 16); // Convert hex string to int
+        assertEquals(expected, EndianConverter.littleToBigEndian(input));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Parameterized test to validate the conversion from big-endian to little-endian.
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "0x12345678, 0x78563412", "0x00000000, 0x00000000", "0x01000000, 0x00000001",
+        "0xFFFFFFFF, 0xFFFFFFFF", // -1 in two's complement
+        "0x7F000000, 0x0000007F" // Positive boundary case
+    })
+    public void
+    testBigToLittleEndian(String inputHex, String expectedHex) {
+        int input = (int) Long.parseLong(inputHex.substring(2), 16); // Convert hex string to int
+        int expected = (int) Long.parseLong(expectedHex.substring(2), 16); // Convert hex string to int
+        assertEquals(expected, EndianConverter.bigToLittleEndian(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d0d6b400e299
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/HexaDecimalToDecimalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class HexaDecimalToDecimalTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "A1, 161", // Simple case with two characters
+        "1AC, 428", // Mixed-case input
+        "0, 0", // Single zero
+        "F, 15", // Single digit
+        "10, 16", // Power of 16
+        "FFFF, 65535", // Max 4-character hex
+        "7FFFFFFF, 2147483647" // Max positive int value
+    })
+    public void
+    testValidHexaToDecimal(String hexInput, int expectedDecimal) {
+        assertEquals(expectedDecimal, HexaDecimalToDecimal.getHexaToDec(hexInput));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "G", // Invalid character
+        "1Z", // Mixed invalid input
+        "123G", // Valid prefix with invalid character
+        "#$%" // Non-hexadecimal symbols
+    })
+    public void
+    testInvalidHexaToDecimal(String invalidHex) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HexaDecimalToDecimal.getHexaToDec(invalidHex));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..78c226a9237b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class IPConverterTest {
+
+    private static String generateTestIP(int a, int b, int c, int d) {
+        return String.format("%d.%d.%d.%d", a, b, c, d);
+    }
+
+    private static String generateTestBinary(int a, int b, int c, int d) {
+        return String.format("%8s.%8s.%8s.%8s", Integer.toBinaryString(a), Integer.toBinaryString(b), Integer.toBinaryString(c), Integer.toBinaryString(d)).replace(' ', '0');
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIpToBinary() {
+        assertEquals(generateTestBinary(192, 168, 1, 1), IPConverter.ipToBinary(generateTestIP(192, 168, 1, 1)));
+        assertEquals(generateTestBinary(127, 3, 4, 5), IPConverter.ipToBinary(generateTestIP(127, 3, 4, 5)));
+        assertEquals(generateTestBinary(0, 0, 0, 0), IPConverter.ipToBinary(generateTestIP(0, 0, 0, 0)));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryToIP() {
+        assertEquals(generateTestIP(192, 168, 1, 1), IPConverter.binaryToIP(generateTestBinary(192, 168, 1, 1)));
+        assertEquals(generateTestIP(127, 3, 4, 5), IPConverter.binaryToIP(generateTestBinary(127, 3, 4, 5)));
+        assertEquals(generateTestIP(0, 0, 0, 0), IPConverter.binaryToIP(generateTestBinary(0, 0, 0, 0)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6ConverterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6ConverterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..443f865ae0dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6ConverterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.net.UnknownHostException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class IPv6ConverterTest {
+
+    private static final String VALID_IPV4 = "192."
+        + "0."
+        + "2."
+        + "128";
+    private static final String EXPECTED_IPV6_MAPPED = ":"
+        + ":ff"
+        + "ff"
+        + ":19"
+        + "2."
+        + "0."
+        + "2.128";
+    private static final String INVALID_IPV6_MAPPED = "2001:"
+        + "db8"
+        + ":"
+        + ":1";
+    private static final String INVALID_IPV4 = "999."
+        + "999."
+        + "999."
+        + "999";
+    private static final String INVALID_IPV6_FORMAT = "invalid:ipv6"
+        + "::address";
+    private static final String EMPTY_STRING = "";
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIpv4ToIpv6ValidInput() throws UnknownHostException {
+        String actualIpv6 = IPv6Converter.ipv4ToIpv6(VALID_IPV4);
+        assertEquals(EXPECTED_IPV6_MAPPED, actualIpv6);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIpv6ToIpv4InvalidIPv6MappedAddress() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> IPv6Converter.ipv6ToIpv4(INVALID_IPV6_MAPPED));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIpv4ToIpv6InvalidIPv4Address() {
+        assertThrows(UnknownHostException.class, () -> IPv6Converter.ipv4ToIpv6(INVALID_IPV4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIpv6ToIpv4InvalidFormat() {
+        assertThrows(UnknownHostException.class, () -> IPv6Converter.ipv6ToIpv4(INVALID_IPV6_FORMAT));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIpv4ToIpv6EmptyString() {
+        assertThrows(UnknownHostException.class, () -> IPv6Converter.ipv4ToIpv6(EMPTY_STRING));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIpv6ToIpv4EmptyString() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> IPv6Converter.ipv6ToIpv4(EMPTY_STRING));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglishTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglishTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c2a94794b7f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglishTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class IntegerToEnglishTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIntegerToEnglish() {
+        assertEquals("Two Billion One Hundred Forty Seven Million Four Hundred Eighty Three Thousand Six Hundred Forty Seven", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(2147483647));
+        assertEquals("One Million Two Hundred Thirty Four Thousand Five Hundred Sixty Seven", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(1234567));
+        assertEquals("Twelve Thousand Three Hundred Forty Five", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(12345));
+        assertEquals("One Hundred", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(100));
+        assertEquals("Zero", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSmallNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("Ten", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(10));
+        assertEquals("Nineteen", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(19));
+        assertEquals("Twenty One", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(21));
+        assertEquals("Ninety Nine", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(99));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testHundreds() {
+        assertEquals("One Hundred One", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(101));
+        assertEquals("Five Hundred Fifty", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(550));
+        assertEquals("Nine Hundred Ninety Nine", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(999));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testThousands() {
+        assertEquals("One Thousand", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(1000));
+        assertEquals("Ten Thousand One", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(10001));
+        assertEquals("Seventy Six Thousand Five Hundred Forty Three", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(76543));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEdgeCases() {
+        assertEquals("One Million", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(1_000_000));
+        assertEquals("One Billion", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(1_000_000_000));
+        assertEquals("Two Thousand", IntegerToEnglish.integerToEnglishWords(2000));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRomanTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRomanTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..181cad930282
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToRomanTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class IntegerToRomanTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIntegerToRoman() {
+        assertEquals("MCMXCIV", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(1994));
+        assertEquals("LVIII", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(58));
+        assertEquals("IV", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(4));
+        assertEquals("IX", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(9));
+        assertEquals("MMM", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(3000));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSmallNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("I", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(1));
+        assertEquals("II", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(2));
+        assertEquals("III", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRoundNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("X", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(10));
+        assertEquals("L", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(50));
+        assertEquals("C", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(100));
+        assertEquals("D", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(500));
+        assertEquals("M", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(1000));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEdgeCases() {
+        assertEquals("", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(0)); // Non-positive number case
+        assertEquals("", IntegerToRoman.integerToRoman(-5)); // Negative number case
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..153b632a0510
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MorseCodeConverterTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTextToMorse() {
+        assertEquals(".- -...", MorseCodeConverter.textToMorse("AB"));
+        assertEquals(".... . .-.. .-.. --- | .-- --- .-. .-.. -..", MorseCodeConverter.textToMorse("HELLO WORLD"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMorseToText() {
+        assertEquals("AB", MorseCodeConverter.morseToText(".- -..."));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/NumberToWordsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/NumberToWordsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7b264678daa4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/NumberToWordsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class NumberToWordsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInput() {
+        assertEquals("Invalid Input", NumberToWords.convert(null), "Null input should return 'Invalid Input'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroInput() {
+        assertEquals("Zero", NumberToWords.convert(BigDecimal.ZERO), "Zero input should return 'Zero'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPositiveWholeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("One", NumberToWords.convert(BigDecimal.ONE), "1 should convert to 'One'");
+        assertEquals("One Thousand", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("1000")), "1000 should convert to 'One Thousand'");
+        assertEquals("One Million", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("1000000")), "1000000 should convert to 'One Million'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeWholeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("Negative One", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("-1")), "-1 should convert to 'Negative One'");
+        assertEquals("Negative One Thousand", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("-1000")), "-1000 should convert to 'Negative One Thousand'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFractionalNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("Zero Point One Two Three", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("0.123")), "0.123 should convert to 'Zero Point One Two Three'");
+        assertEquals("Negative Zero Point Four Five Six", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("-0.456")), "-0.456 should convert to 'Negative Zero Point Four Five Six'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("Nine Hundred Ninety Nine Million Nine Hundred Ninety Nine Thousand Nine Hundred Ninety Nine", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("999999999")), "999999999 should convert correctly");
+        assertEquals("One Trillion", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("1000000000000")), "1000000000000 should convert to 'One Trillion'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeLargeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("Negative Nine Trillion Eight Hundred Seventy Six Billion Five Hundred Forty Three Million Two Hundred Ten Thousand Nine Hundred Eighty Seven", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("-9876543210987")), "-9876543210987 should convert correctly");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFloatingPointPrecision() {
+        assertEquals("One Million Point Zero Zero One", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("1000000.001")), "1000000.001 should convert to 'One Million Point Zero Zero One'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCases() {
+        assertEquals("Zero", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("-0.0")), "-0.0 should convert to 'Zero'");
+        assertEquals("Zero Point Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero One", NumberToWords.convert(new BigDecimal("1E-7")), "1E-7 should convert to 'Zero Point Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero One'");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToBinaryTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToBinaryTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8e007151c301
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToBinaryTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class OctalToBinaryTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testConvertOctalToBinary() {
+        assertEquals(101, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(5));
+        assertEquals(1001, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(11));
+        assertEquals(101010, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(52));
+        assertEquals(110, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(6));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testConvertOctalToBinarySingleDigit() {
+        assertEquals(0, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(0));
+        assertEquals(1, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(1));
+        assertEquals(111, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testConvertOctalToBinaryMultipleDigits() {
+        assertEquals(100110111, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(467));
+        assertEquals(111101, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(75));
+        assertEquals(111100101, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(745));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testConvertOctalToBinaryWithZeroPadding() {
+        assertEquals(100001010, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(412));
+        assertEquals(101101110, OctalToBinary.convertOctalToBinary(556));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..20f0fa40c626
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToDecimalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class OctalToDecimalTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"10, 8", "7, 7", "77, 63", "123, 83", "0, 0", "777, 511", "2671, 1465", "275, 189"})
+    void testConvertOctalToDecimal(String inputOctal, int expectedDecimal) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedDecimal, OctalToDecimal.convertOctalToDecimal(inputOctal));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'', Input cannot be null or empty", "'8', Incorrect input: Expecting an octal number (digits 0-7)", "'19', Incorrect input: Expecting an octal number (digits 0-7)"})
+    void testIncorrectInput(String inputOctal, String expectedMessage) {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> OctalToDecimal.convertOctalToDecimal(inputOctal));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedMessage, exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6f2ccc24ab2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/OctalToHexadecimalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class OctalToHexadecimalTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "7, 7", "10, 8", "17, F", "20, 10", "777, 1FF", "1234, 29C", "752, 1EA", "536, 15E"})
+    void testCorrectInputs(String inputOctal, String expectedHex) {
+        int decimal = OctalToHexadecimal.octalToDecimal(inputOctal);
+        String hex = OctalToHexadecimal.decimalToHexadecimal(decimal);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedHex, hex);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'', Input cannot be null or empty", "'8', Incorrect octal digit: 8", "'19', Incorrect octal digit: 9"})
+    void testIncorrectInputs(String inputOctal, String expectedMessage) {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> OctalToHexadecimal.octalToDecimal(inputOctal));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedMessage, exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/PhoneticAlphabetConverterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/PhoneticAlphabetConverterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..360af7fa0f51
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/PhoneticAlphabetConverterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class PhoneticAlphabetConverterTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "'AB', 'Alpha Bravo'", "'ABC', 'Alpha Bravo Charlie'", "'A1B2C3', 'Alpha One Bravo Two Charlie Three'", "'Hello', 'Hotel Echo Lima Lima Oscar'", "'123', 'One Two Three'",
+        "'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ0123456789', 'Alpha Bravo Charlie Delta Echo Foxtrot Golf Hotel India Juliett Kilo Lima Mike November Oscar Papa Quebec Romeo Sierra Tango Uniform Victor Whiskey X-ray Yankee Zulu Zero One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine'",
+        "'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789', 'Alpha Bravo Charlie Delta Echo Foxtrot Golf Hotel India Juliett Kilo Lima Mike November Oscar Papa Quebec Romeo Sierra Tango Uniform Victor Whiskey X-ray Yankee Zulu Zero One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine'",
+        "'', ''", // Empty string case
+        "'A B C', 'Alpha Bravo Charlie'", // String with spaces
+        "'A@B#C', 'Alpha @ Bravo # Charlie'", // Special characters
+        "'A B C 123', 'Alpha Bravo Charlie One Two Three'", // Mixed letters, digits, and spaces
+        "'a b c', 'Alpha Bravo Charlie'", // Lowercase letters with spaces
+        "'123!@#', 'One Two Three ! @ #'", // Numbers with special characters
+        "'HELLO WORLD', 'Hotel Echo Lima Lima Oscar Whiskey Oscar Romeo Lima Delta'" // Words with space
+    })
+    public void
+    testTextToPhonetic(String input, String expectedOutput) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, PhoneticAlphabetConverter.textToPhonetic(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToIntegerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToIntegerTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..971eff8c74f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/RomanToIntegerTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class RomanToIntegerTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testValidRomanToInteger() {
+        assertEquals(1994, RomanToInteger.romanToInt("MCMXCIV"));
+        assertEquals(58, RomanToInteger.romanToInt("LVIII"));
+        assertEquals(1804, RomanToInteger.romanToInt("MDCCCIV"));
+        assertEquals(9, RomanToInteger.romanToInt("IX"));
+        assertEquals(4, RomanToInteger.romanToInt("IV"));
+        assertEquals(3000, RomanToInteger.romanToInt("MMM"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLowercaseInput() {
+        assertEquals(1994, RomanToInteger.romanToInt("mcmxciv"));
+        assertEquals(58, RomanToInteger.romanToInt("lviii"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInvalidRomanNumerals() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> RomanToInteger.romanToInt("Z"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> RomanToInteger.romanToInt("MZI"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> RomanToInteger.romanToInt("MMMO"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyAndNullInput() {
+        assertEquals(0, RomanToInteger.romanToInt("")); // Empty string case
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> RomanToInteger.romanToInt(null)); // Null input case
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TimeConverterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TimeConverterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4e10318d4563
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TimeConverterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class TimeConverterTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "{0} {1} -> {2} {3}")
+    @CsvSource({"60, seconds, minutes, 1", "120, seconds, minutes, 2", "2, minutes, seconds, 120", "2, hours, minutes, 120", "1, days, hours, 24", "1, weeks, days, 7", "1, months, days, 30.438", "1, years, days, 365.25", "3600, seconds, hours, 1", "86400, seconds, days, 1",
+        "604800, seconds, weeks, 1", "31557600, seconds, years, 1"})
+    void
+    testValidConversions(double value, String from, String to, double expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, TimeConverter.convertTime(value, from, to));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Zero conversion returns zero")
+    void testZeroValue() {
+        assertEquals(0.0, TimeConverter.convertTime(0, "seconds", "hours"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Same-unit conversion returns original value")
+    void testSameUnitConversion() {
+        assertEquals(123.456, TimeConverter.convertTime(123.456, "minutes", "minutes"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Negative value throws exception")
+    void testNegativeValue() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TimeConverter.convertTime(-5, "seconds", "minutes"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"lightyears, seconds", "minutes, centuries"})
+    void testInvalidUnits(String from, String to) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TimeConverter.convertTime(10, from, to));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Null unit throws exception")
+    void testNullUnit() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TimeConverter.convertTime(10, null, "seconds"));
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TimeConverter.convertTime(10, "minutes", null));
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TimeConverter.convertTime(10, null, null));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments> roundTripCases() {
+        return Stream.of(org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments.of(1.0, "hours", "minutes"), org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments.of(2.5, "days", "hours"), org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments.of(1000, "seconds", "minutes"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("roundTripCases")
+    @DisplayName("Round-trip conversion returns original value")
+    void testRoundTripConversion(double value, String from, String to) {
+        double converted = TimeConverter.convertTime(value, from, to);
+        double roundTrip = TimeConverter.convertTime(converted, to, from);
+        assertEquals(Math.round(value * 1000.0) / 1000.0, Math.round(roundTrip * 1000.0) / 1000.0, 0.05);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..87e40c78e6a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TurkishToLatinConversionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class TurkishToLatinConversionTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "'çalışma', 'calisma'", // Turkish to Latin conversion for lowercase
+        "'ÇALIŞMA', 'CALISMA'", // Turkish to Latin conversion for uppercase
+        "'İSTANBUL', 'ISTANBUL'", // Special case of 'İ' to 'I'
+        "'istanbul', 'istanbul'", // Special case of 'ı' to 'i'
+        "'GÜL', 'GUL'", // Special case of 'Ü' to 'U'
+        "'gül', 'gul'", // Special case of 'ü' to 'u'
+        "'ÖĞRENME', 'OGRENME'", // Special case of 'Ö' to 'O' and 'Ğ' to 'G'
+        "'öğrenme', 'ogrenme'", // Special case of 'ö' to 'o' and 'ğ' to 'g'
+        "'ŞEHIR', 'SEHIR'", // Special case of 'Ş' to 'S'
+        "'şehir', 'sehir'", // Special case of 'ş' to 's'
+        "'HELLO', 'HELLO'", // String with no Turkish characters, should remain unchanged
+        "'Merhaba Dünya!', 'Merhaba Dunya!'", // Mixed Turkish and Latin characters with punctuation
+        "'Çift kişilik yataklı odalar', 'Cift kisilik yatakli odalar'", // Full sentence conversion
+        "'', ''" // Empty string case
+    })
+    public void
+    testConvertTurkishToLatin(String input, String expectedOutput) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, TurkishToLatinConversion.convertTurkishToLatin(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversionsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversionsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3c4e3d5e4c54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversionsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static java.util.Map.entry;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class UnitConversionsTest {
+    private static void addData(Stream.Builder<Arguments> builder, Map<String, Double> values) {
+        for (var first : values.entrySet()) {
+            for (var second : values.entrySet()) {
+                if (!first.getKey().equals(second.getKey())) {
+                    builder.add(Arguments.of(first.getKey(), second.getKey(), first.getValue(), second.getValue()));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> temperatureData() {
+        final Map<String, Double> boilingPointOfWater = Map.ofEntries(entry("Celsius", 99.9839), entry("Fahrenheit", 211.97102), entry("Kelvin", 373.1339), entry("Réaumur", 79.98712), entry("Delisle", 0.02415), entry("Rankine", 671.64102));
+
+        final Map<String, Double> freezingPointOfWater = Map.ofEntries(entry("Celsius", 0.0), entry("Fahrenheit", 32.0), entry("Kelvin", 273.15), entry("Réaumur", 0.0), entry("Delisle", 150.0), entry("Rankine", 491.67));
+
+        Stream.Builder<Arguments> builder = Stream.builder();
+        addData(builder, boilingPointOfWater);
+        addData(builder, freezingPointOfWater);
+        return builder.build();
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("temperatureData")
+    void testTemperature(String inputUnit, String outputUnit, double value, double expected) {
+        final double result = UnitConversions.TEMPERATURE.convert(inputUnit, outputUnit, value);
+        assertEquals(expected, result, 0.00001);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTemperatureUnits() {
+        final Set<String> expectedUnits = Set.of("Celsius", "Fahrenheit", "Kelvin", "Réaumur", "Rankine", "Delisle");
+        assertEquals(expectedUnits, UnitConversions.TEMPERATURE.availableUnits());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0952129efb4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static java.util.Map.entry;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import java.util.Set;
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class UnitsConverterTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertThrowsForSameUnits() {
+        final UnitsConverter someConverter = new UnitsConverter(Map.ofEntries(entry(Pair.of("A", "B"), new AffineConverter(10.0, -20.0))));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> someConverter.convert("A", "A", 20.0));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> someConverter.convert("B", "B", 20.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertThrowsForUnknownUnits() {
+        final UnitsConverter someConverter = new UnitsConverter(Map.ofEntries(entry(Pair.of("A", "B"), new AffineConverter(10.0, -20.0))));
+        assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> someConverter.convert("A", "X", 20.0));
+        assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> someConverter.convert("X", "A", 20.0));
+        assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> someConverter.convert("X", "Y", 20.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAvailableUnits() {
+        final UnitsConverter someConverter = new UnitsConverter(Map.ofEntries(entry(Pair.of("Celsius", "Fahrenheit"), new AffineConverter(9.0 / 5.0, 32.0)), entry(Pair.of("Kelvin", "Celsius"), new AffineConverter(1.0, -273.15))));
+        assertEquals(Set.of("Celsius", "Fahrenheit", "Kelvin"), someConverter.availableUnits());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvertConversion() {
+        final UnitsConverter someConverter = new UnitsConverter(Map.ofEntries(entry(Pair.of("A", "B"), new AffineConverter(2.0, 5.0))));
+        // Check conversion from A -> B
+        assertEquals(25.0, someConverter.convert("A", "B", 10.0), 0.0001);
+        // Check inverse conversion from B -> A
+        assertEquals(10.0, someConverter.convert("B", "A", 25.0), 0.0001);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/WordsToNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/WordsToNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fbf63e37946b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/WordsToNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.conversions;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class WordsToNumberTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInput() {
+        WordsToNumberException exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert(null));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.NULL_INPUT, exception.getErrorType(), "Exception should be of type NULL_INPUT");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStandardCases() {
+        assertEquals("0", WordsToNumber.convert("zero"), "'zero' should convert to '0'");
+        assertEquals("5", WordsToNumber.convert("five"), "'five' should convert to '5'");
+        assertEquals("21", WordsToNumber.convert("twenty one"), "'twenty one' should convert to '21'");
+        assertEquals("101", WordsToNumber.convert("one hundred one"), "'one hundred' should convert to '101'");
+        assertEquals("342", WordsToNumber.convert("three hundred and forty two"), "'three hundred and forty two' should convert to '342'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("1000000", WordsToNumber.convert("one million"), "'one million' should convert to '1000000'");
+        assertEquals("1000000000", WordsToNumber.convert("one billion"), "'one billion' should convert to '1000000000'");
+        assertEquals("1000000000000", WordsToNumber.convert("one trillion"), "'one trillion' should convert to '1000000000000'");
+        assertEquals("999000000900999", WordsToNumber.convert("nine hundred ninety nine trillion nine hundred thousand nine hundred and ninety nine"), "'nine hundred ninety nine trillion nine hundred thousand nine hundred and ninety nine' should convert to '999000000900999'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("-5", WordsToNumber.convert("negative five"), "'negative five' should convert to '-5'");
+        assertEquals("-120", WordsToNumber.convert("negative one hundred and twenty"), "'negative one hundred and twenty' should convert correctly");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeLargeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("-1000000000000", WordsToNumber.convert("negative one trillion"), "'negative one trillion' should convert to '-1000000000000'");
+        assertEquals("-9876543210987", WordsToNumber.convert("Negative Nine Trillion Eight Hundred Seventy Six Billion Five Hundred Forty Three Million Two Hundred Ten Thousand Nine Hundred Eighty Seven"), "");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecimalNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("3.1415", WordsToNumber.convert("three point one four one five"), "'three point one four one five' should convert to '3.1415'");
+        assertEquals("-2.718", WordsToNumber.convert("negative two point seven one eight"), "'negative two point seven one eight' should convert to '-2.718'");
+        assertEquals("-1E-7", WordsToNumber.convert("negative zero point zero zero zero zero zero zero one"), "'negative zero point zero zero zero zero zero zero one' should convert to '-1E-7'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeDecimalNumbers() {
+        assertEquals("1000000000.0000000001", WordsToNumber.convert("one billion point zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero one"), "Tests a large whole number with a tiny fractional part");
+        assertEquals("999999999999999.9999999999999",
+            WordsToNumber.convert("nine hundred ninety nine trillion nine hundred ninety nine billion nine hundred ninety nine million nine hundred ninety nine thousand nine hundred ninety nine point nine nine nine nine nine nine nine nine nine nine nine nine nine"),
+            "Tests maximum scale handling for large decimal numbers");
+        assertEquals("0.505", WordsToNumber.convert("zero point five zero five"), "Tests a decimal with an internal zero, ensuring correct parsing");
+        assertEquals("42.00000000000001", WordsToNumber.convert("forty two point zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero one"), "Tests a decimal with leading zeros before a significant figure");
+        assertEquals("7.89E-7", WordsToNumber.convert("zero point zero zero zero zero zero zero seven eight nine"), "Tests scientific notation for a small decimal with multiple digits");
+        assertEquals("0.999999", WordsToNumber.convert("zero point nine nine nine nine nine nine"), "Tests a decimal close to one with multiple repeated digits");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCaseInsensitivity() {
+        assertEquals("21", WordsToNumber.convert("TWENTY-ONE"), "Uppercase should still convert correctly");
+        assertEquals("-100.0001", WordsToNumber.convert("negAtiVe OnE HuNdReD, point ZeRO Zero zERo ONE"), "Mixed case should still convert correctly");
+        assertEquals("-225647.00019", WordsToNumber.convert("nEgative twO HundRed, and twenty-Five thOusaNd, six huNdred Forty-Seven, Point zero zero zero One nInE"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidInputs() {
+        WordsToNumberException exception;
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("negative one hundred AlPha"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNKNOWN_WORD, exception.getErrorType());
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("twenty thirteen"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD, exception.getErrorType());
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("negative negative ten"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.MULTIPLE_NEGATIVES, exception.getErrorType());
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("one hundred hundred"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD, exception.getErrorType());
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("one thousand and hundred"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.INVALID_CONJUNCTION, exception.getErrorType());
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("one thousand hundred"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD, exception.getErrorType());
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("nine hundred and nine hundred"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.INVALID_CONJUNCTION, exception.getErrorType());
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("forty two point"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.MISSING_DECIMAL_NUMBERS, exception.getErrorType());
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("sixty seven point hello"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.UNEXPECTED_WORD_AFTER_POINT, exception.getErrorType());
+
+        exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convert("one negative"));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.INVALID_NEGATIVE, exception.getErrorType());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertToBigDecimal() {
+        assertEquals(new BigDecimal("-100000000000000.056"), WordsToNumber.convertToBigDecimal("negative one hundred trillion point zero five six"), "should convert to appropriate BigDecimal value");
+
+        WordsToNumberException exception = assertThrows(WordsToNumberException.class, () -> WordsToNumber.convertToBigDecimal(null));
+        assertEquals(WordsToNumberException.ErrorType.NULL_INPUT, exception.getErrorType(), "Exception should be of type NULL_INPUT");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bag/BagTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bag/BagTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8212793dfb79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bag/BagTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,274 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.bag;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.bags.Bag;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class BagTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testBagOperations() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        assertTrue(bag.isEmpty(), "Bag should be empty initially");
+        assertEquals(0, bag.size(), "Bag size should be 0 initially");
+
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item2");
+        bag.add("item1"); // adding duplicate item
+
+        assertFalse(bag.isEmpty(), "Bag should not be empty after adding elements");
+        assertEquals(3, bag.size(), "Bag size should be 3 after adding 3 elements");
+
+        assertTrue(bag.contains("item1"), "Bag should contain 'item1'");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains("item2"), "Bag should contain 'item2'");
+        assertFalse(bag.contains("item3"), "Bag should not contain 'item3'");
+        assertFalse(bag.contains(null), "Bag should not contain null");
+
+        // Test iteration
+        int count = 0;
+        for (String item : bag) {
+            assertTrue(item.equals("item1") || item.equals("item2"), "Item should be either 'item1' or 'item2'");
+            count++;
+        }
+        assertEquals(3, count, "Iterator should traverse all 3 items");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBagInitialization() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        assertTrue(bag.isEmpty(), "Bag should be empty initially");
+        assertEquals(0, bag.size(), "Bag size should be 0 initially");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAddElements() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item2");
+        bag.add("item1"); // Adding duplicate item
+
+        assertFalse(bag.isEmpty(), "Bag should not be empty after adding elements");
+        assertEquals(3, bag.size(), "Bag size should be 3 after adding 3 elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testContainsMethod() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item2");
+
+        assertTrue(bag.contains("item1"), "Bag should contain 'item1'");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains("item2"), "Bag should contain 'item2'");
+        assertFalse(bag.contains("item3"), "Bag should not contain 'item3'");
+        assertFalse(bag.contains(null), "Bag should not contain null");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testContainsAfterAdditions() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item2");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains("item1"), "Bag should contain 'item1' after addition");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains("item2"), "Bag should contain 'item2' after addition");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIterator() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item2");
+        bag.add("item3");
+
+        int count = 0;
+        for (String item : bag) {
+            assertTrue(item.equals("item1") || item.equals("item2") || item.equals("item3"), "Item should be one of 'item1', 'item2', or 'item3'");
+            count++;
+        }
+        assertEquals(3, count, "Iterator should traverse all 3 items");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIteratorEmptyBag() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        int count = 0;
+        for (String ignored : bag) {
+            org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.fail("Iterator should not return any items for an empty bag");
+        }
+        assertEquals(0, count, "Iterator should not traverse any items in an empty bag");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveMethodThrowsException() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("item1");
+        Iterator<String> iterator = bag.iterator();
+        assertThrows(UnsupportedOperationException.class, iterator::remove, "Remove operation should throw UnsupportedOperationException");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleDuplicates() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item1"); // Add three duplicates
+
+        assertEquals(3, bag.size(), "Bag size should be 3 after adding three duplicates");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains("item1"), "Bag should contain 'item1'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeNumberOfElements() {
+        Bag<Integer> bag = new Bag<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            bag.add(i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(1000, bag.size(), "Bag should contain 1000 elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMixedTypeElements() {
+        Bag<Object> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("string");
+        bag.add(1);
+        bag.add(2.0);
+
+        assertTrue(bag.contains("string"), "Bag should contain a string");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains(1), "Bag should contain an integer");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains(2.0), "Bag should contain a double");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIteratorWithDuplicates() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item2");
+
+        int count = 0;
+        for (String item : bag) {
+            assertTrue(item.equals("item1") || item.equals("item2"), "Item should be either 'item1' or 'item2'");
+            count++;
+        }
+        assertEquals(3, count, "Iterator should traverse all 3 items including duplicates");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCollectionElements() {
+        Bag<List<String>> bag = new Bag<>();
+        List<String> list1 = new ArrayList<>();
+        list1.add("a");
+        list1.add("b");
+
+        List<String> list2 = new ArrayList<>();
+        list2.add("c");
+
+        List<String> emptyList = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        bag.add(list1);
+        bag.add(list2);
+        bag.add(emptyList);
+        bag.add(list1); // Duplicate
+
+        assertEquals(4, bag.size(), "Bag should contain 4 list elements");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains(list1), "Bag should contain list1");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains(list2), "Bag should contain list2");
+        assertTrue(bag.contains(emptyList), "Bag should contain empty list");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIteratorConsistency() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("first");
+        bag.add("second");
+        bag.add("third");
+
+        // Multiple iterations should return same elements
+        List<String> firstIteration = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (String item : bag) {
+            firstIteration.add(item);
+        }
+
+        List<String> secondIteration = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (String item : bag) {
+            secondIteration.add(item);
+        }
+
+        assertEquals(firstIteration.size(), secondIteration.size(), "Both iterations should have same size");
+        assertEquals(3, firstIteration.size(), "First iteration should have 3 elements");
+        assertEquals(3, secondIteration.size(), "Second iteration should have 3 elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleIterators() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("item1");
+        bag.add("item2");
+
+        Iterator<String> iter1 = bag.iterator();
+        Iterator<String> iter2 = bag.iterator();
+
+        assertTrue(iter1.hasNext(), "First iterator should have next element");
+        assertTrue(iter2.hasNext(), "Second iterator should have next element");
+
+        String first1 = iter1.next();
+        String first2 = iter2.next();
+
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull(first1, "First iterator should return non-null element");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull(first2, "Second iterator should return non-null element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIteratorHasNextConsistency() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        bag.add("single");
+
+        Iterator<String> iter = bag.iterator();
+        assertTrue(iter.hasNext(), "hasNext should return true");
+        assertTrue(iter.hasNext(), "hasNext should still return true after multiple calls");
+
+        String item = iter.next();
+        assertEquals("single", item, "Next should return the single item");
+
+        assertFalse(iter.hasNext(), "hasNext should return false after consuming element");
+        assertFalse(iter.hasNext(), "hasNext should still return false");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIteratorNextOnEmptyBag() {
+        Bag<String> bag = new Bag<>();
+        Iterator<String> iter = bag.iterator();
+
+        assertFalse(iter.hasNext(), "hasNext should return false for empty bag");
+        assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, iter::next, "next() should throw NoSuchElementException on empty bag");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBagOrderIndependence() {
+        Bag<String> bag1 = new Bag<>();
+        Bag<String> bag2 = new Bag<>();
+
+        // Add same elements in different order
+        bag1.add("first");
+        bag1.add("second");
+        bag1.add("third");
+
+        bag2.add("third");
+        bag2.add("first");
+        bag2.add("second");
+
+        assertEquals(bag1.size(), bag2.size(), "Bags should have same size");
+
+        // Both bags should contain all elements
+        assertTrue(bag1.contains("first") && bag2.contains("first"));
+        assertTrue(bag1.contains("second") && bag2.contains("second"));
+        assertTrue(bag1.contains("third") && bag2.contains("third"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bloomfilter/BloomFilterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bloomfilter/BloomFilterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9e1ba88adaee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/bloomfilter/BloomFilterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.bloomfilter;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.Set;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BloomFilterTest {
+    private BloomFilter<String> bloomFilter;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        bloomFilter = new BloomFilter<>(3, 100);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIntegerContains() {
+        BloomFilter<Integer> bloomFilter = new BloomFilter<>(3, 10);
+        bloomFilter.insert(3);
+        bloomFilter.insert(17);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(bloomFilter.contains(3));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(bloomFilter.contains(17));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStringContains() {
+        bloomFilter.insert("omar");
+        bloomFilter.insert("mahamid");
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(bloomFilter.contains("omar"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(bloomFilter.contains("mahamid"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertAndContains() {
+        bloomFilter.insert("hello");
+        bloomFilter.insert("world");
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(bloomFilter.contains("hello"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(bloomFilter.contains("world"));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(bloomFilter.contains("java"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFalsePositive() {
+        bloomFilter.insert("apple");
+        bloomFilter.insert("banana");
+
+        Assertions.assertFalse(bloomFilter.contains("grape"));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(bloomFilter.contains("orange"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleInsertions() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            bloomFilter.insert("key" + i);
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(bloomFilter.contains("key" + i));
+        }
+
+        Assertions.assertFalse(bloomFilter.contains("key" + 200));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyFilterContains() {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(bloomFilter.contains("notInserted"), "Filter should not contain any elements when empty");
+        Assertions.assertFalse(bloomFilter.contains(null), "Filter should not contain null elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDifferentTypes() {
+        BloomFilter<Object> filter = new BloomFilter<>(3, 100);
+        filter.insert("string");
+        filter.insert(123);
+        filter.insert(45.67);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains("string"), "Filter should contain the string 'string'");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(123), "Filter should contain the integer 123");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(45.67), "Filter should contain the double 45.67");
+        Assertions.assertFalse(filter.contains("missing"), "Filter should not contain elements that were not inserted");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFalsePositiveAfterInsertions() {
+        bloomFilter.insert("cat");
+        bloomFilter.insert("dog");
+        bloomFilter.insert("fish");
+
+        // Checking for an element that was not added
+        Assertions.assertFalse(bloomFilter.contains("bird"), "Filter should not contain 'bird' which was never inserted");
+
+        // To increase chances of false positives, we can add more items
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            bloomFilter.insert("item" + i);
+        }
+
+        Assertions.assertFalse(bloomFilter.contains("nonexistent"), "Filter should not contain 'nonexistent' which was never inserted");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBoundaryConditions() {
+        BloomFilter<String> filter = new BloomFilter<>(3, 10);
+        filter.insert("a");
+        filter.insert("b");
+        filter.insert("c");
+        filter.insert("d");
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains("a"), "Filter should contain 'a'");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains("b"), "Filter should contain 'b'");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains("c"), "Filter should contain 'c'");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains("d"), "Filter should contain 'd'");
+        Assertions.assertFalse(filter.contains("e"), "Filter should not contain 'e' which was not inserted");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLongDataType() {
+        BloomFilter<Long> filter = new BloomFilter<>(5, 1000);
+        Long[] values = {Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MAX_VALUE};
+
+        for (Long value : values) {
+            filter.insert(value);
+        }
+
+        for (Long value : values) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(value), "Filter should contain " + value);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFloatDataType() {
+        BloomFilter<Float> filter = new BloomFilter<>(3, 200);
+        Float[] values = {1.5f, -3.7f, 0.0f, Float.MAX_VALUE, Float.MIN_VALUE};
+
+        for (Float value : values) {
+            filter.insert(value);
+        }
+
+        for (Float value : values) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(value), "Filter should contain " + value);
+        }
+
+        Assertions.assertFalse(filter.contains(88.88f), "Filter should not contain uninserted value");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBooleanDataType() {
+        BloomFilter<Boolean> filter = new BloomFilter<>(2, 50);
+        filter.insert(Boolean.TRUE);
+        filter.insert(Boolean.FALSE);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(Boolean.TRUE), "Filter should contain true");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(Boolean.FALSE), "Filter should contain false");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testListDataType() {
+        BloomFilter<List<String>> filter = new BloomFilter<>(4, 200);
+        List<String> list1 = Arrays.asList("apple", "banana");
+        List<String> list2 = Arrays.asList("cat", "dog");
+        List<String> emptyList = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        filter.insert(list1);
+        filter.insert(list2);
+        filter.insert(emptyList);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(list1), "Filter should contain list1");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(list2), "Filter should contain list2");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(emptyList), "Filter should contain empty list");
+        Assertions.assertFalse(filter.contains(Arrays.asList("elephant", "tiger")), "Filter should not contain uninserted list");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMapDataType() {
+        BloomFilter<Map<String, Integer>> filter = new BloomFilter<>(3, 150);
+        Map<String, Integer> map1 = new HashMap<>();
+        map1.put("key1", 1);
+        map1.put("key2", 2);
+
+        Map<String, Integer> map2 = new HashMap<>();
+        map2.put("key3", 3);
+
+        Map<String, Integer> emptyMap = new HashMap<>();
+
+        filter.insert(map1);
+        filter.insert(map2);
+        filter.insert(emptyMap);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(map1), "Filter should contain map1");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(map2), "Filter should contain map2");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(emptyMap), "Filter should contain empty map");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetDataType() {
+        BloomFilter<Set<Integer>> filter = new BloomFilter<>(3, 100);
+        Set<Integer> set1 = new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3));
+        Set<Integer> set2 = new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(4, 5));
+        Set<Integer> emptySet = new HashSet<>();
+
+        filter.insert(set1);
+        filter.insert(set2);
+        filter.insert(emptySet);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(set1), "Filter should contain set1");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(set2), "Filter should contain set2");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(emptySet), "Filter should contain empty set");
+        Assertions.assertFalse(filter.contains(new HashSet<>(Arrays.asList(6, 7, 8))), "Filter should not contain uninserted set");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayDataType() {
+        BloomFilter<int[]> filter = new BloomFilter<>(3, 100);
+        int[] array1 = {1, 2, 3};
+        int[] array2 = {4, 5};
+        int[] emptyArray = {};
+
+        filter.insert(array1);
+        filter.insert(array2);
+        filter.insert(emptyArray);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(array1), "Filter should contain array1");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(array2), "Filter should contain array2");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(emptyArray), "Filter should contain empty array");
+        Assertions.assertFalse(filter.contains(new int[] {6, 7, 8}), "Filter should not contain different array");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSpecialFloatingPointValues() {
+        BloomFilter<Double> filter = new BloomFilter<>(3, 100);
+        Double[] specialValues = {Double.NaN, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, -0.0, 0.0};
+
+        for (Double value : specialValues) {
+            filter.insert(value);
+        }
+
+        for (Double value : specialValues) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(filter.contains(value), "Filter should contain " + value);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testVerySmallBloomFilter() {
+        BloomFilter<String> smallFilter = new BloomFilter<>(1, 5);
+        smallFilter.insert("test1");
+        smallFilter.insert("test2");
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(smallFilter.contains("test1"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(smallFilter.contains("test2"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBufferTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBufferTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..69af422e7175
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBufferTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,232 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.buffers;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class CircularBufferTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testInitialization() {
+        CircularBuffer<Integer> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(5);
+        assertTrue(buffer.isEmpty());
+        assertEquals(Boolean.FALSE, buffer.isFull());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutAndGet() {
+        CircularBuffer<String> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(3);
+
+        assertTrue(buffer.put("A"));
+        assertEquals(Boolean.FALSE, buffer.isEmpty());
+        assertEquals(Boolean.FALSE, buffer.isFull());
+
+        buffer.put("B");
+        buffer.put("C");
+        assertTrue(buffer.isFull());
+
+        assertEquals("A", buffer.get());
+        assertEquals("B", buffer.get());
+        assertEquals("C", buffer.get());
+        assertTrue(buffer.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOverwrite() {
+        CircularBuffer<Integer> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(3);
+
+        buffer.put(1);
+        buffer.put(2);
+        buffer.put(3);
+        assertEquals(Boolean.FALSE, buffer.put(4)); // This should overwrite 1
+
+        assertEquals(2, buffer.get());
+        assertEquals(3, buffer.get());
+        assertEquals(4, buffer.get());
+        assertNull(buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyBuffer() {
+        CircularBuffer<Double> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(2);
+        assertNull(buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFullBuffer() {
+        CircularBuffer<Character> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(2);
+        buffer.put('A');
+        buffer.put('B');
+        assertTrue(buffer.isFull());
+        assertEquals(Boolean.FALSE, buffer.put('C')); // This should overwrite 'A'
+        assertEquals('B', buffer.get());
+        assertEquals('C', buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIllegalArguments() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new CircularBuffer<>(0));
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new CircularBuffer<>(-1));
+
+        CircularBuffer<String> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(1);
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> buffer.put(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeBuffer() {
+        CircularBuffer<Integer> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(1000);
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            buffer.put(i);
+        }
+        assertTrue(buffer.isFull());
+        buffer.put(1000); // This should overwrite 0
+        assertEquals(1, buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutAfterGet() {
+        CircularBuffer<Integer> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(2);
+        buffer.put(10);
+        buffer.put(20);
+        assertEquals(10, buffer.get());
+        buffer.put(30);
+        assertEquals(20, buffer.get());
+        assertEquals(30, buffer.get());
+        assertNull(buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleWrapArounds() {
+        CircularBuffer<Integer> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(3);
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 6; i++) {
+            buffer.put(i);
+            buffer.get(); // add and immediately remove
+        }
+        assertTrue(buffer.isEmpty());
+        assertNull(buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOverwriteMultipleTimes() {
+        CircularBuffer<String> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(2);
+        buffer.put("X");
+        buffer.put("Y");
+        buffer.put("Z"); // overwrites "X"
+        buffer.put("W"); // overwrites "Y"
+        assertEquals("Z", buffer.get());
+        assertEquals("W", buffer.get());
+        assertNull(buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmptyAndIsFullTransitions() {
+        CircularBuffer<Integer> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(2);
+        assertTrue(buffer.isEmpty());
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(buffer.isFull());
+
+        buffer.put(1);
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(buffer.isEmpty());
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(buffer.isFull());
+
+        buffer.put(2);
+        assertTrue(buffer.isFull());
+
+        buffer.get();
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(buffer.isFull());
+
+        buffer.get();
+        assertTrue(buffer.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInterleavedPutAndGet() {
+        CircularBuffer<String> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(3);
+        buffer.put("A");
+        buffer.put("B");
+        assertEquals("A", buffer.get());
+        buffer.put("C");
+        assertEquals("B", buffer.get());
+        assertEquals("C", buffer.get());
+        assertNull(buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRepeatedNullInsertionThrows() {
+        CircularBuffer<Object> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(5);
+        for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
+            int finalI = i;
+            org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> buffer.put(null), "Iteration: " + finalI);
+        }
+    }
+    @Test
+    void testFillThenEmptyThenReuseBuffer() {
+        CircularBuffer<Integer> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(3);
+
+        buffer.put(1);
+        buffer.put(2);
+        buffer.put(3);
+        assertTrue(buffer.isFull());
+
+        assertEquals(1, buffer.get());
+        assertEquals(2, buffer.get());
+        assertEquals(3, buffer.get());
+
+        assertTrue(buffer.isEmpty());
+
+        buffer.put(4);
+        buffer.put(5);
+        assertEquals(4, buffer.get());
+        assertEquals(5, buffer.get());
+        assertTrue(buffer.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutReturnsTrueOnlyIfPreviouslyEmpty() {
+        CircularBuffer<String> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(2);
+
+        assertTrue(buffer.put("one")); // was empty
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(buffer.put("two")); // not empty
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(buffer.put("three")); // overwrite
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOverwriteAndGetAllElementsCorrectly() {
+        CircularBuffer<Integer> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(3);
+
+        buffer.put(1);
+        buffer.put(2);
+        buffer.put(3);
+        buffer.put(4); // Overwrites 1
+        buffer.put(5); // Overwrites 2
+
+        assertEquals(3, buffer.get());
+        assertEquals(4, buffer.get());
+        assertEquals(5, buffer.get());
+        assertNull(buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBufferWithOneElementCapacity() {
+        CircularBuffer<String> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(1);
+
+        assertTrue(buffer.put("first"));
+        assertEquals("first", buffer.get());
+        assertNull(buffer.get());
+
+        assertTrue(buffer.put("second"));
+        assertEquals("second", buffer.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPointerWraparoundWithExactMultipleOfCapacity() {
+        CircularBuffer<Integer> buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(3);
+        for (int i = 0; i < 6; i++) {
+            buffer.put(i);
+            buffer.get(); // keep buffer size at 0
+        }
+        assertTrue(buffer.isEmpty());
+        assertNull(buffer.get());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCacheTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCacheTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5f250e6ca3fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCacheTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,330 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.function.Executable;
+
+class FIFOCacheTest {
+    private FIFOCache<String, String> cache;
+    private Set<String> evictedKeys;
+    private List<String> evictedValues;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        evictedKeys = new HashSet<>();
+        evictedValues = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        cache = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(3)
+                    .defaultTTL(1000)
+                    .evictionListener((k, v) -> {
+                        evictedKeys.add(k);
+                        evictedValues.add(v);
+                    })
+                    .build();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutAndGet() {
+        cache.put("a", "apple");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("apple", cache.get("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOverwriteValue() {
+        cache.put("a", "apple");
+        cache.put("a", "avocado");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("avocado", cache.get("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExpiration() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("temp", "value", 100);
+        Thread.sleep(200);
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("temp"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(evictedKeys.contains("temp"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionOnCapacity() {
+        cache.put("a", "alpha");
+        cache.put("b", "bravo");
+        cache.put("c", "charlie");
+        cache.put("d", "delta");
+
+        int size = cache.size();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, size);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evictedKeys.size());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evictedValues.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionListener() {
+        cache.put("x", "one");
+        cache.put("y", "two");
+        cache.put("z", "three");
+        cache.put("w", "four");
+
+        Assertions.assertFalse(evictedKeys.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(evictedValues.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHitsAndMisses() {
+        cache.put("a", "apple");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("apple", cache.get("a"));
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("b"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.getHits());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.getMisses());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeExcludesExpired() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("a", "a", 100);
+        cache.put("b", "b", 100);
+        cache.put("c", "c", 100);
+        Thread.sleep(150);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeIncludesFresh() {
+        cache.put("a", "a", 1000);
+        cache.put("b", "b", 1000);
+        cache.put("c", "c", 1000);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToStringDoesNotExposeExpired() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("live", "alive");
+        cache.put("dead", "gone", 100);
+        Thread.sleep(150);
+        String result = cache.toString();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(result.contains("live"));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(result.contains("dead"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullKeyGetThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.get(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNullKeyThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.put(null, "v"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNullValueThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.put("k", null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNegativeTTLThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.put("k", "v", -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderNegativeCapacityThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new FIFOCache.Builder<>(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderNullEvictionListenerThrows() {
+        FIFOCache.Builder<String, String> builder = new FIFOCache.Builder<>(1);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> builder.evictionListener(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionListenerExceptionDoesNotCrash() {
+        FIFOCache<String, String> listenerCache = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(1).evictionListener((k, v) -> { throw new RuntimeException("Exception"); }).build();
+
+        listenerCache.put("a", "a");
+        listenerCache.put("b", "b");
+        Assertions.assertDoesNotThrow(() -> listenerCache.get("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTtlZeroThrowsIllegalArgumentException() {
+        Executable exec = () -> new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(3).defaultTTL(-1).build();
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, exec);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeriodicEvictionStrategyEvictsAtInterval() throws InterruptedException {
+        FIFOCache<String, String> periodicCache = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(new FIFOCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy<>(3)).build();
+
+        periodicCache.put("x", "1");
+        Thread.sleep(100);
+        int ev1 = periodicCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(periodicCache);
+        int ev2 = periodicCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(periodicCache);
+        int ev3 = periodicCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(periodicCache);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, ev1);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, ev2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, ev3, "Eviction should happen on the 3rd access");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, periodicCache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeriodicEvictionStrategyThrowsExceptionIfIntervalLessThanOrEqual0() {
+        Executable executable = () -> new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(new FIFOCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy<>(0)).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, executable);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testImmediateEvictionStrategyStrategyEvictsOnEachCall() throws InterruptedException {
+        FIFOCache<String, String> immediateEvictionStrategy = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(new FIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy<>()).build();
+
+        immediateEvictionStrategy.put("x", "1");
+        Thread.sleep(100);
+        int evicted = immediateEvictionStrategy.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(immediateEvictionStrategy);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evicted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderThrowsExceptionIfEvictionStrategyNull() {
+        Executable executable = () -> new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(null).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, executable);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReturnsCorrectStrategyInstance() {
+        FIFOCache.EvictionStrategy<String, String> strategy = new FIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy<>();
+
+        FIFOCache<String, String> newCache = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(1000).evictionStrategy(strategy).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertSame(strategy, newCache.getEvictionStrategy(), "Returned strategy should be the same instance");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDefaultStrategyIsImmediateEvictionStrategy() {
+        FIFOCache<String, String> newCache = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(5).defaultTTL(1000).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(newCache.getEvictionStrategy() instanceof FIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy<String, String>, "Default strategy should be ImmediateEvictionStrategyStrategy");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetEvictionStrategyIsNotNull() {
+        FIFOCache<String, String> newCache = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(5).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(newCache.getEvictionStrategy(), "Eviction strategy should never be null");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyRemovesExistingKey() {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Alpha", cache.get("A"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Beta", cache.get("B"));
+
+        String removed = cache.removeKey("A");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Alpha", removed);
+
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("A"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyReturnsNullIfKeyNotPresent() {
+        cache.put("X", "X-ray");
+
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.removeKey("NonExistent"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyHandlesExpiredEntry() throws InterruptedException {
+        FIFOCache<String, String> expiringCache = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(2).defaultTTL(100).evictionStrategy(new FIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy<>()).build();
+
+        expiringCache.put("T", "Temporary");
+
+        Thread.sleep(200);
+
+        String removed = expiringCache.removeKey("T");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Temporary", removed);
+        Assertions.assertNull(expiringCache.get("T"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyThrowsIfKeyIsNull() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.removeKey(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyTriggersEvictionListener() {
+        AtomicInteger evictedCount = new AtomicInteger();
+
+        FIFOCache<String, String> localCache = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(2).evictionListener((key, value) -> evictedCount.incrementAndGet()).build();
+
+        localCache.put("A", "Apple");
+        localCache.put("B", "Banana");
+
+        localCache.removeKey("A");
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evictedCount.get(), "Eviction listener should have been called once");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyDoestNotAffectOtherKeys() {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+        cache.put("C", "Gamma");
+
+        cache.removeKey("B");
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Alpha", cache.get("A"));
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("B"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Gamma", cache.get("C"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionListenerExceptionDoesNotPropagate() {
+        FIFOCache<String, String> localCache = new FIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(1).evictionListener((key, value) -> { throw new RuntimeException(); }).build();
+
+        localCache.put("A", "Apple");
+
+        Assertions.assertDoesNotThrow(() -> localCache.put("B", "Beta"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetKeysReturnsAllFreshKeys() {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+        cache.put("G", "Gamma");
+
+        Set<String> expectedKeys = Set.of("A", "B", "G");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedKeys, cache.getAllKeys());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetKeysIgnoresExpiredKeys() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+        cache.put("G", "Gamma", 100);
+
+        Set<String> expectedKeys = Set.of("A", "B");
+        Thread.sleep(200);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedKeys, cache.getAllKeys());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testClearRemovesAllEntries() {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+        cache.put("G", "Gamma");
+
+        cache.clear();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, cache.size());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCacheTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCacheTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8ad927564aa5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCacheTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LFUCacheTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testLFUCacheWithIntegerValueShouldPass() {
+        LFUCache<Integer, Integer> lfuCache = new LFUCache<>(5);
+        lfuCache.put(1, 10);
+        lfuCache.put(2, 20);
+        lfuCache.put(3, 30);
+        lfuCache.put(4, 40);
+        lfuCache.put(5, 50);
+
+        // get method call will increase frequency of key 1 by 1
+        assertEquals(10, lfuCache.get(1));
+
+        // this operation will remove value with key as 2
+        lfuCache.put(6, 60);
+
+        // will return null as value with key 2 is now evicted
+        assertNull(lfuCache.get(2));
+
+        // should return 60
+        assertEquals(60, lfuCache.get(6));
+
+        // this operation will remove value with key as 3
+        lfuCache.put(7, 70);
+
+        assertNull(lfuCache.get(2));
+        assertEquals(70, lfuCache.get(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLFUCacheWithStringValueShouldPass() {
+        LFUCache<Integer, String> lfuCache = new LFUCache<>(5);
+        lfuCache.put(1, "Alpha");
+        lfuCache.put(2, "Beta");
+        lfuCache.put(3, "Gamma");
+        lfuCache.put(4, "Delta");
+        lfuCache.put(5, "Epsilon");
+
+        // get method call will increase frequency of key 1 by 1
+        assertEquals("Alpha", lfuCache.get(1));
+
+        // this operation will remove value with key as 2
+        lfuCache.put(6, "Digamma");
+
+        // will return null as value with key 2 is now evicted
+        assertNull(lfuCache.get(2));
+
+        // should return string Digamma
+        assertEquals("Digamma", lfuCache.get(6));
+
+        // this operation will remove value with key as 3
+        lfuCache.put(7, "Zeta");
+
+        assertNull(lfuCache.get(2));
+        assertEquals("Zeta", lfuCache.get(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpdateValueShouldPreserveFrequency() {
+        LFUCache<Integer, String> lfuCache = new LFUCache<>(3);
+        lfuCache.put(1, "A");
+        lfuCache.put(2, "B");
+        lfuCache.put(3, "C");
+
+        assertEquals("A", lfuCache.get(1)); // Accessing key 1
+        lfuCache.put(4, "D"); // This should evict key 2
+
+        assertNull(lfuCache.get(2)); // Key 2 should be evicted
+        assertEquals("C", lfuCache.get(3)); // Key 3 should still exist
+        assertEquals("A", lfuCache.get(1)); // Key 1 should still exist
+
+        lfuCache.put(1, "Updated A"); // Update the value of key 1
+        assertEquals("Updated A", lfuCache.get(1)); // Check if the update was successful
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionPolicyWhenFull() {
+        LFUCache<Integer, String> lfuCache = new LFUCache<>(2);
+        lfuCache.put(1, "One");
+        lfuCache.put(2, "Two");
+
+        assertEquals("One", lfuCache.get(1)); // Access key 1
+        lfuCache.put(3, "Three"); // This should evict key 2 (least frequently used)
+
+        assertNull(lfuCache.get(2)); // Key 2 should be evicted
+        assertEquals("One", lfuCache.get(1)); // Key 1 should still exist
+        assertEquals("Three", lfuCache.get(3)); // Check if key 3 exists
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetFromEmptyCacheShouldReturnNull() {
+        LFUCache<Integer, String> lfuCache = new LFUCache<>(3);
+        assertNull(lfuCache.get(1)); // Should return null as the cache is empty
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNullValueShouldStoreNull() {
+        LFUCache<Integer, String> lfuCache = new LFUCache<>(3);
+        lfuCache.put(1, null); // Store a null value
+
+        assertNull(lfuCache.get(1)); // Should return null
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidCacheCapacityShouldThrowException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new LFUCache<>(0));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new LFUCache<>(-1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleAccessPatterns() {
+        LFUCache<Integer, String> lfuCache = new LFUCache<>(5);
+        lfuCache.put(1, "A");
+        lfuCache.put(2, "B");
+        lfuCache.put(3, "C");
+        lfuCache.put(4, "D");
+
+        assertEquals("A", lfuCache.get(1)); // Access 1
+        lfuCache.put(5, "E"); // Should not evict anything yet
+        lfuCache.put(6, "F"); // Evict B
+
+        assertNull(lfuCache.get(2)); // B should be evicted
+        assertEquals("C", lfuCache.get(3)); // C should still exist
+        assertEquals("D", lfuCache.get(4)); // D should still exist
+        assertEquals("A", lfuCache.get(1)); // A should still exist
+        assertEquals("E", lfuCache.get(5)); // E should exist
+        assertEquals("F", lfuCache.get(6)); // F should exist
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCacheTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCacheTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..df60a393b136
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCacheTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,341 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.function.Executable;
+
+class LIFOCacheTest {
+    private LIFOCache<String, String> cache;
+    private Set<String> evictedKeys;
+    private List<String> evictedValues;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        evictedKeys = new HashSet<>();
+        evictedValues = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        cache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(3)
+                    .defaultTTL(1000)
+                    .evictionListener((k, v) -> {
+                        evictedKeys.add(k);
+                        evictedValues.add(v);
+                    })
+                    .build();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutAndGet() {
+        cache.put("a", "apple");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("apple", cache.get("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOverwriteValue() {
+        cache.put("a", "apple");
+        cache.put("a", "avocado");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("avocado", cache.get("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExpiration() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("temp", "value", 100);
+        Thread.sleep(200);
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("temp"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(evictedKeys.contains("temp"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionOnCapacity() {
+        cache.put("a", "alpha");
+        cache.put("b", "bravo");
+        cache.put("c", "charlie");
+        cache.put("d", "delta");
+
+        int size = cache.size();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, size);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evictedKeys.size());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evictedValues.size());
+        Assertions.assertEquals("charlie", evictedValues.getFirst());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionListener() {
+        cache.put("x", "one");
+        cache.put("y", "two");
+        cache.put("z", "three");
+        cache.put("w", "four");
+
+        Assertions.assertFalse(evictedKeys.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(evictedValues.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHitsAndMisses() {
+        cache.put("a", "apple");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("apple", cache.get("a"));
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("b"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.getHits());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.getMisses());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeExcludesExpired() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("a", "a", 100);
+        cache.put("b", "b", 100);
+        cache.put("c", "c", 100);
+        Thread.sleep(150);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeIncludesFresh() {
+        cache.put("a", "a", 1000);
+        cache.put("b", "b", 1000);
+        cache.put("c", "c", 1000);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToStringDoesNotExposeExpired() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("live", "alive");
+        cache.put("dead", "gone", 100);
+        Thread.sleep(150);
+        String result = cache.toString();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(result.contains("live"));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(result.contains("dead"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullKeyGetThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.get(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNullKeyThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.put(null, "v"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNullValueThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.put("k", null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNegativeTTLThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.put("k", "v", -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderNegativeCapacityThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new LIFOCache.Builder<>(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderNullEvictionListenerThrows() {
+        LIFOCache.Builder<String, String> builder = new LIFOCache.Builder<>(1);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> builder.evictionListener(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionListenerExceptionDoesNotCrash() {
+        LIFOCache<String, String> listenerCache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(1).evictionListener((k, v) -> { throw new RuntimeException("Exception"); }).build();
+
+        listenerCache.put("a", "a");
+        listenerCache.put("b", "b");
+        Assertions.assertDoesNotThrow(() -> listenerCache.get("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTtlZeroThrowsIllegalArgumentException() {
+        Executable exec = () -> new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(3).defaultTTL(-1).build();
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, exec);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeriodicEvictionStrategyEvictsAtInterval() throws InterruptedException {
+        LIFOCache<String, String> periodicCache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(new LIFOCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy<>(3)).build();
+
+        periodicCache.put("x", "1");
+        Thread.sleep(100);
+        int ev1 = periodicCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(periodicCache);
+        int ev2 = periodicCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(periodicCache);
+        int ev3 = periodicCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(periodicCache);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, ev1);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, ev2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, ev3, "Eviction should happen on the 3rd access");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, periodicCache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeriodicEvictionStrategyThrowsExceptionIfIntervalLessThanOrEqual0() {
+        Executable executable = () -> new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(new LIFOCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy<>(0)).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, executable);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testImmediateEvictionStrategyStrategyEvictsOnEachCall() throws InterruptedException {
+        LIFOCache<String, String> immediateEvictionStrategy = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(new LIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy<>()).build();
+
+        immediateEvictionStrategy.put("x", "1");
+        Thread.sleep(100);
+        int evicted = immediateEvictionStrategy.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(immediateEvictionStrategy);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evicted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderThrowsExceptionIfEvictionStrategyNull() {
+        Executable executable = () -> new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(null).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, executable);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReturnsCorrectStrategyInstance() {
+        LIFOCache.EvictionStrategy<String, String> strategy = new LIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy<>();
+
+        LIFOCache<String, String> newCache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(1000).evictionStrategy(strategy).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertSame(strategy, newCache.getEvictionStrategy(), "Returned strategy should be the same instance");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDefaultStrategyIsImmediateEvictionStrategy() {
+        LIFOCache<String, String> newCache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(5).defaultTTL(1000).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertInstanceOf(LIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy.class, newCache.getEvictionStrategy(), "Default strategy should be ImmediateEvictionStrategyStrategy");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetEvictionStrategyIsNotNull() {
+        LIFOCache<String, String> newCache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(5).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(newCache.getEvictionStrategy(), "Eviction strategy should never be null");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyRemovesExistingKey() {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Alpha", cache.get("A"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Beta", cache.get("B"));
+
+        String removed = cache.removeKey("A");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Alpha", removed);
+
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("A"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyReturnsNullIfKeyNotPresent() {
+        cache.put("X", "X-ray");
+
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.removeKey("NonExistent"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyHandlesExpiredEntry() throws InterruptedException {
+        LIFOCache<String, String> expiringCache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(2).defaultTTL(100).evictionStrategy(new LIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy<>()).build();
+
+        expiringCache.put("T", "Temporary");
+
+        Thread.sleep(200);
+
+        String removed = expiringCache.removeKey("T");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Temporary", removed);
+        Assertions.assertNull(expiringCache.get("T"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyThrowsIfKeyIsNull() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.removeKey(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyTriggersEvictionListener() {
+        AtomicInteger evictedCount = new AtomicInteger();
+
+        LIFOCache<String, String> localCache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(2).evictionListener((key, value) -> evictedCount.incrementAndGet()).build();
+
+        localCache.put("A", "Apple");
+        localCache.put("B", "Banana");
+
+        localCache.removeKey("A");
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evictedCount.get(), "Eviction listener should have been called once");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveKeyDoestNotAffectOtherKeys() {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+        cache.put("C", "Gamma");
+
+        cache.removeKey("B");
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Alpha", cache.get("A"));
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("B"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals("Gamma", cache.get("C"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionListenerExceptionDoesNotPropagate() {
+        LIFOCache<String, String> localCache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(1).evictionListener((key, value) -> { throw new RuntimeException(); }).build();
+
+        localCache.put("A", "Apple");
+
+        Assertions.assertDoesNotThrow(() -> localCache.put("B", "Beta"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetKeysReturnsAllFreshKeys() {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+        cache.put("G", "Gamma");
+
+        Set<String> expectedKeys = Set.of("A", "B", "G");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedKeys, cache.getAllKeys());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetKeysIgnoresExpiredKeys() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+        cache.put("G", "Gamma", 100);
+
+        Set<String> expectedKeys = Set.of("A", "B");
+        Thread.sleep(200);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedKeys, cache.getAllKeys());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testClearRemovesAllEntries() {
+        cache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        cache.put("B", "Beta");
+        cache.put("G", "Gamma");
+
+        cache.clear();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetExpiredKeyIncrementsMissesCount() throws InterruptedException {
+        LIFOCache<String, String> localCache = new LIFOCache.Builder<String, String>(3).evictionStrategy(cache -> 0).defaultTTL(10).build();
+        localCache.put("A", "Alpha");
+        Thread.sleep(100);
+        String value = localCache.get("A");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, localCache.getMisses());
+        Assertions.assertNull(value);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCacheTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCacheTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..99b9952435c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LRUCacheTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class LRUCacheTest {
+    private static final int SIZE = 5;
+    private LRUCache<Integer, Integer> cache;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        cache = new LRUCache<>(SIZE);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBasicOperations() {
+        cache.put(1, 100);
+        assertEquals(100, cache.get(1));
+        assertNull(cache.get(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEvictionPolicy() {
+        // Fill cache to capacity
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            cache.put(i, i * 100);
+        }
+
+        // Verify all elements are present
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            assertEquals(i * 100, cache.get(i));
+        }
+
+        // Add one more element, causing eviction of least recently used
+        cache.put(SIZE, SIZE * 100);
+
+        // First element should be evicted
+        assertNull(cache.get(0));
+        assertEquals(SIZE * 100, cache.get(SIZE));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAccessOrder() {
+        // Fill cache
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            cache.put(i, i);
+        }
+
+        // Access first element, making it most recently used
+        cache.get(0);
+
+        // Add new element, should evict second element (1)
+        cache.put(SIZE, SIZE);
+
+        assertEquals(0, cache.get(0)); // Should still exist
+        assertNull(cache.get(1)); // Should be evicted
+        assertEquals(SIZE, cache.get(SIZE)); // Should exist
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUpdateExistingKey() {
+        cache.put(1, 100);
+        assertEquals(100, cache.get(1));
+
+        // Update existing key
+        cache.put(1, 200);
+        assertEquals(200, cache.get(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNullValues() {
+        cache.put(1, null);
+        assertNull(cache.get(1));
+
+        // Update null to non-null
+        cache.put(1, 100);
+        assertEquals(100, cache.get(1));
+
+        // Update non-null to null
+        cache.put(1, null);
+        assertNull(cache.get(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStringKeysAndValues() {
+        LRUCache<String, String> stringCache = new LRUCache<>(SIZE);
+
+        stringCache.put("key1", "value1");
+        stringCache.put("key2", "value2");
+
+        assertEquals("value1", stringCache.get("key1"));
+        assertEquals("value2", stringCache.get("key2"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLongSequenceOfOperations() {
+        // Add elements beyond capacity multiple times
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE * 3; i++) {
+            cache.put(i, i * 100);
+
+            // Verify only the last SIZE elements are present
+            for (int j = Math.max(0, i - SIZE + 1); j <= i; j++) {
+                assertEquals(j * 100, cache.get(j));
+            }
+
+            // Verify elements before the window are evicted
+            if (i >= SIZE) {
+                assertNull(cache.get(i - SIZE));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCustomObjects() {
+        class TestObject {
+            private final String value;
+
+            TestObject(String value) {
+                this.value = value;
+            }
+
+            @Override
+            public boolean equals(Object obj) {
+                if (obj instanceof TestObject) {
+                    return value.equals(((TestObject) obj).value);
+                }
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            @Override
+            public int hashCode() {
+                return value == null ? 0 : value.hashCode();
+            }
+        }
+
+        LRUCache<Integer, TestObject> objectCache = new LRUCache<>(SIZE);
+        TestObject obj1 = new TestObject("test1");
+        TestObject obj2 = new TestObject("test2");
+
+        objectCache.put(1, obj1);
+        objectCache.put(2, obj2);
+
+        assertEquals(obj1, objectCache.get(1));
+        assertEquals(obj2, objectCache.get(2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCacheTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCacheTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..50303ba239f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCacheTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MRUCacheTest {
+
+    private static final int SIZE = 5;
+
+    @Test
+    public void putAndGetIntegerValues() {
+        MRUCache<Integer, Integer> mruCache = new MRUCache<>(SIZE);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            mruCache.put(i, i);
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            assertEquals(i, mruCache.get(i));
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void putAndGetStringValues() {
+        MRUCache<String, String> mruCache = new MRUCache<>(SIZE);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            mruCache.put("key" + i, "value" + i);
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            assertEquals("value" + i, mruCache.get("key" + i));
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void nullKeysAndValues() {
+        MRUCache<Integer, Integer> mruCache = new MRUCache<>(SIZE);
+        mruCache.put(null, 2);
+        mruCache.put(6, null);
+
+        assertEquals(2, mruCache.get(null));
+        assertNull(mruCache.get(6));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void overCapacity() {
+        MRUCache<Integer, Integer> mruCache = new MRUCache<>(SIZE);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            mruCache.put(i, i);
+        }
+
+        // After inserting 10 items, the cache should have evicted the least recently used ones.
+        assertEquals(9, mruCache.get(9)); // Most recently used
+        assertEquals(0, mruCache.get(0)); // Least recently used, should be evicted
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void overwriteExistingKey() {
+        MRUCache<Integer, String> mruCache = new MRUCache<>(SIZE);
+        mruCache.put(1, "one");
+        mruCache.put(1, "uno"); // Overwriting the value for key 1
+
+        assertEquals("uno", mruCache.get(1));
+        assertNull(mruCache.get(2)); // Ensure other keys are unaffected
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void evictionOrder() {
+        MRUCache<Integer, Integer> mruCache = new MRUCache<>(SIZE);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            mruCache.put(i, i);
+        }
+
+        // Access a key to make it most recently used
+        mruCache.get(2);
+
+        // Add new items to trigger eviction
+        mruCache.put(5, 5);
+        mruCache.put(6, 6);
+
+        // Key 3 should be evicted since 2 is the most recently used
+        assertEquals(3, mruCache.get(3));
+        assertEquals(4, mruCache.get(4)); // Key 4 should still be available
+        assertEquals(6, mruCache.get(6)); // Key 6 should be available
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void cacheHandlesLargeValues() {
+        MRUCache<String, String> mruCache = new MRUCache<>(SIZE);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            mruCache.put("key" + i, "value" + i);
+        }
+
+        // Verify values
+        for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
+            assertEquals("value" + i, mruCache.get("key" + i));
+        }
+
+        // Add large value
+        mruCache.put("largeKey", "largeValue");
+
+        // Verify eviction of the least recently used (key 0 should be evicted)
+        assertEquals("value0", mruCache.get("key0"));
+        assertEquals("largeValue", mruCache.get("largeKey"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyCacheBehavior() {
+        MRUCache<Integer, Integer> mruCache = new MRUCache<>(SIZE);
+
+        // Verify that accessing any key returns null
+        assertNull(mruCache.get(1));
+        assertNull(mruCache.get(100));
+
+        // Adding to cache and checking again
+        mruCache.put(1, 10);
+        assertEquals(10, mruCache.get(1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCacheTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCacheTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..100c73ea2a5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCacheTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,222 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.caches;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+import java.util.Set;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.function.Executable;
+
+class RRCacheTest {
+
+    private RRCache<String, String> cache;
+    private Set<String> evictedKeys;
+    private List<String> evictedValues;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        evictedKeys = new HashSet<>();
+        evictedValues = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        cache = new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(3)
+                    .defaultTTL(1000)
+                    .random(new Random(0))
+                    .evictionListener((k, v) -> {
+                        evictedKeys.add(k);
+                        evictedValues.add(v);
+                    })
+                    .build();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutAndGet() {
+        cache.put("a", "apple");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("apple", cache.get("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOverwriteValue() {
+        cache.put("a", "apple");
+        cache.put("a", "avocado");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("avocado", cache.get("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExpiration() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("temp", "value", 100); // short TTL
+        Thread.sleep(200);
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("temp"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(evictedKeys.contains("temp"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionOnCapacity() {
+        cache.put("a", "alpha");
+        cache.put("b", "bravo");
+        cache.put("c", "charlie");
+        cache.put("d", "delta"); // triggers eviction
+
+        int size = cache.size();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, size);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evictedKeys.size());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evictedValues.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionListener() {
+        cache.put("x", "one");
+        cache.put("y", "two");
+        cache.put("z", "three");
+        cache.put("w", "four"); // one of x, y, z will be evicted
+
+        Assertions.assertFalse(evictedKeys.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(evictedValues.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHitsAndMisses() {
+        cache.put("a", "apple");
+        Assertions.assertEquals("apple", cache.get("a"));
+        Assertions.assertNull(cache.get("b"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.getHits());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, cache.getMisses());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeExcludesExpired() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("a", "a", 100);
+        cache.put("b", "b", 100);
+        cache.put("c", "c", 100);
+        Thread.sleep(150);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, cache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToStringDoesNotExposeExpired() throws InterruptedException {
+        cache.put("live", "alive");
+        cache.put("dead", "gone", 100);
+        Thread.sleep(150);
+        String result = cache.toString();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(result.contains("live"));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(result.contains("dead"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullKeyGetThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.get(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNullKeyThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.put(null, "v"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNullValueThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.put("k", null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutNegativeTTLThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cache.put("k", "v", -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderNegativeCapacityThrows() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new RRCache.Builder<>(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderNullRandomThrows() {
+        RRCache.Builder<String, String> builder = new RRCache.Builder<>(1);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> builder.random(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderNullEvictionListenerThrows() {
+        RRCache.Builder<String, String> builder = new RRCache.Builder<>(1);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> builder.evictionListener(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvictionListenerExceptionDoesNotCrash() {
+        RRCache<String, String> listenerCache = new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(1).evictionListener((k, v) -> { throw new RuntimeException("Exception"); }).build();
+
+        listenerCache.put("a", "a");
+        listenerCache.put("b", "b"); // causes eviction but should not crash
+        Assertions.assertDoesNotThrow(() -> listenerCache.get("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTtlZeroThrowsIllegalArgumentException() {
+        Executable exec = () -> new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(3).defaultTTL(-1).build();
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, exec);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeriodicEvictionStrategyEvictsAtInterval() throws InterruptedException {
+        RRCache<String, String> periodicCache = new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(new RRCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy<>(3)).build();
+
+        periodicCache.put("x", "1");
+        Thread.sleep(100);
+        int ev1 = periodicCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(periodicCache);
+        int ev2 = periodicCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(periodicCache);
+        int ev3 = periodicCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(periodicCache);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, ev1);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, ev2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, ev3, "Eviction should happen on the 3rd access");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, periodicCache.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeriodicEvictionStrategyThrowsExceptionIfIntervalLessThanOrEqual0() {
+        Executable executable = () -> new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(new RRCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy<>(0)).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, executable);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoEvictionStrategyEvictsOnEachCall() throws InterruptedException {
+        RRCache<String, String> noEvictionStrategyCache = new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(new RRCache.NoEvictionStrategy<>()).build();
+
+        noEvictionStrategyCache.put("x", "1");
+        Thread.sleep(100);
+        int evicted = noEvictionStrategyCache.getEvictionStrategy().onAccess(noEvictionStrategyCache);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, evicted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuilderThrowsExceptionIfEvictionStrategyNull() {
+        Executable executable = () -> new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(50).evictionStrategy(null).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, executable);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReturnsCorrectStrategyInstance() {
+        RRCache.EvictionStrategy<String, String> strategy = new RRCache.NoEvictionStrategy<>();
+
+        RRCache<String, String> newCache = new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(10).defaultTTL(1000).evictionStrategy(strategy).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertSame(strategy, newCache.getEvictionStrategy(), "Returned strategy should be the same instance");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDefaultStrategyIsNoEviction() {
+        RRCache<String, String> newCache = new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(5).defaultTTL(1000).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(newCache.getEvictionStrategy() instanceof RRCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy<String, String>, "Default strategy should be NoEvictionStrategy");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetEvictionStrategyIsNotNull() {
+        RRCache<String, String> newCache = new RRCache.Builder<String, String>(5).build();
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(newCache.getEvictionStrategy(), "Eviction strategy should never be null");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..eb48c7d9e8d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GCounterTest {
+    @Test
+    void increment() {
+        GCounter counter = new GCounter(0, 3);
+        counter.increment();
+        counter.increment();
+        counter.increment();
+        assertEquals(3, counter.value());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void merge() {
+        GCounter counter1 = new GCounter(0, 3);
+        counter1.increment();
+        GCounter counter2 = new GCounter(1, 3);
+        counter2.increment();
+        counter2.increment();
+        GCounter counter3 = new GCounter(2, 3);
+        counter3.increment();
+        counter3.increment();
+        counter3.increment();
+        counter1.merge(counter2);
+        counter1.merge(counter3);
+        counter2.merge(counter1);
+        counter3.merge(counter2);
+        assertEquals(6, counter1.value());
+        assertEquals(6, counter2.value());
+        assertEquals(6, counter3.value());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void compare() {
+        GCounter counter1 = new GCounter(0, 5);
+        GCounter counter2 = new GCounter(3, 5);
+        counter1.increment();
+        counter1.increment();
+        counter2.merge(counter1);
+        counter2.increment();
+        counter2.increment();
+        assertTrue(counter1.compare(counter2));
+        counter1.increment();
+        counter2.increment();
+        counter2.merge(counter1);
+        assertTrue(counter1.compare(counter2));
+        counter1.increment();
+        assertFalse(counter1.compare(counter2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSetTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b4566aa9b1d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSetTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class GSetTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testAddElement() {
+        GSet<String> gSet = new GSet<>();
+        gSet.addElement("apple");
+        gSet.addElement("orange");
+
+        assertTrue(gSet.lookup("apple"));
+        assertTrue(gSet.lookup("orange"));
+        assertFalse(gSet.lookup("banana"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLookup() {
+        GSet<Integer> gSet = new GSet<>();
+        gSet.addElement(1);
+        gSet.addElement(2);
+
+        assertTrue(gSet.lookup(1));
+        assertTrue(gSet.lookup(2));
+        assertFalse(gSet.lookup(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompare() {
+        GSet<String> gSet1 = new GSet<>();
+        GSet<String> gSet2 = new GSet<>();
+        gSet1.addElement("apple");
+        gSet1.addElement("orange");
+        gSet2.addElement("orange");
+        assertFalse(gSet1.compare(gSet2));
+        gSet2.addElement("apple");
+        assertTrue(gSet1.compare(gSet2));
+        gSet2.addElement("banana");
+        assertTrue(gSet1.compare(gSet2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMerge() {
+        GSet<String> gSet1 = new GSet<>();
+        GSet<String> gSet2 = new GSet<>();
+
+        gSet1.addElement("apple");
+        gSet1.addElement("orange");
+
+        gSet2.addElement("orange");
+        gSet2.addElement("banana");
+
+        GSet<String> mergedSet = new GSet<>();
+        mergedSet.merge(gSet1);
+        mergedSet.merge(gSet2);
+
+        assertTrue(mergedSet.lookup("apple"));
+        assertTrue(mergedSet.lookup("orange"));
+        assertTrue(mergedSet.lookup("banana"));
+        assertFalse(mergedSet.lookup("grape"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSetTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0356949a8f69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSetTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.time.Instant;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LWWElementSetTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testAddElement() {
+        LWWElementSet<String> set = new LWWElementSet<>();
+        set.add("A");
+        assertTrue(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveElement() {
+        LWWElementSet<String> set = new LWWElementSet<>();
+        set.add("A");
+        set.remove("A");
+        assertFalse(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLookupWithoutAdding() {
+        LWWElementSet<String> set = new LWWElementSet<>();
+        assertFalse(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLookupLaterTimestampsFalse() {
+        LWWElementSet<String> set = new LWWElementSet<>();
+
+        set.addSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", Instant.now()));
+        set.removeSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", Instant.now().plusSeconds(10)));
+
+        assertFalse(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLookupEarlierTimestampsTrue() {
+        LWWElementSet<String> set = new LWWElementSet<>();
+
+        set.addSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", Instant.now()));
+        set.removeSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", Instant.now().minusSeconds(10)));
+
+        assertTrue(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLookupWithConcurrentTimestamps() {
+        LWWElementSet<String> set = new LWWElementSet<>();
+        Instant now = Instant.now();
+        set.addSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", now));
+        set.removeSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", now));
+        assertFalse(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeTwoSets() {
+        LWWElementSet<String> set1 = new LWWElementSet<>();
+        LWWElementSet<String> set2 = new LWWElementSet<>();
+
+        set1.add("A");
+        set2.add("B");
+        set2.remove("A");
+
+        set1.merge(set2);
+
+        assertFalse(set1.lookup("A"));
+        assertTrue(set1.lookup("B"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithConflictingTimestamps() {
+        LWWElementSet<String> set1 = new LWWElementSet<>();
+        LWWElementSet<String> set2 = new LWWElementSet<>();
+
+        Instant now = Instant.now();
+        set1.addSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", now.minusSeconds(10)));
+        set2.addSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", now));
+
+        set1.merge(set2);
+
+        assertTrue(set1.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveOlderThanAdd() {
+        LWWElementSet<String> set = new LWWElementSet<>();
+        Instant now = Instant.now();
+        set.addSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", now));
+        set.removeSet.put("A", new Element<>("A", now.minusSeconds(10)));
+        assertTrue(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSetTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f6d19a3e7b20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSetTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Set;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class ORSetTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testContains() {
+        ORSet<String> orSet = new ORSet<>();
+        orSet.add("A");
+        assertTrue(orSet.contains("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAdd() {
+        ORSet<String> orSet = new ORSet<>();
+        orSet.add("A");
+        assertTrue(orSet.contains("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemove() {
+        ORSet<String> orSet = new ORSet<>();
+        orSet.add("A");
+        orSet.add("A");
+        orSet.remove("A");
+        assertFalse(orSet.contains("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testElements() {
+        ORSet<String> orSet = new ORSet<>();
+        orSet.add("A");
+        orSet.add("B");
+        assertEquals(Set.of("A", "B"), orSet.elements());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompareEqualSets() {
+        ORSet<String> orSet1 = new ORSet<>();
+        ORSet<String> orSet2 = new ORSet<>();
+
+        orSet1.add("A");
+        orSet2.add("A");
+        orSet2.add("B");
+        orSet2.add("C");
+        orSet2.remove("C");
+        orSet1.merge(orSet2);
+        orSet2.merge(orSet1);
+        orSet2.remove("B");
+
+        assertTrue(orSet1.compare(orSet2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompareDifferentSets() {
+        ORSet<String> orSet1 = new ORSet<>();
+        ORSet<String> orSet2 = new ORSet<>();
+
+        orSet1.add("A");
+        orSet2.add("B");
+
+        assertFalse(orSet1.compare(orSet2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMerge() {
+        ORSet<String> orSet1 = new ORSet<>();
+        ORSet<String> orSet2 = new ORSet<>();
+
+        orSet1.add("A");
+        orSet1.add("A");
+        orSet1.add("B");
+        orSet1.remove("B");
+        orSet2.add("B");
+        orSet2.add("C");
+        orSet2.remove("C");
+        orSet1.merge(orSet2);
+
+        assertTrue(orSet1.contains("A"));
+        assertTrue(orSet1.contains("B"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4081b8ae01d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PNCounterTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIncrement() {
+        PNCounter counter = new PNCounter(0, 3);
+        counter.increment();
+        assertEquals(1, counter.value());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecrement() {
+        PNCounter counter = new PNCounter(0, 3);
+        counter.decrement();
+        assertEquals(-1, counter.value());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIncrementAndDecrement() {
+        PNCounter counter = new PNCounter(0, 3);
+        counter.increment();
+        counter.increment();
+        counter.decrement();
+        assertEquals(1, counter.value());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCompare() {
+        PNCounter counter1 = new PNCounter(0, 3);
+        counter1.increment();
+        PNCounter counter2 = new PNCounter(1, 3);
+        assertTrue(counter1.compare(counter2));
+        counter2.increment();
+        assertTrue(counter2.compare(counter1));
+        counter1.decrement();
+        assertFalse(counter1.compare(counter2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMerge() {
+        PNCounter counter1 = new PNCounter(0, 3);
+        counter1.increment();
+        counter1.increment();
+        PNCounter counter2 = new PNCounter(1, 3);
+        counter2.increment();
+        counter1.merge(counter2);
+        assertEquals(3, counter1.value());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSetTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dfe392a0d616
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSetTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.crdt;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class TwoPSetTest {
+
+    private TwoPSet<String> set;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        set = new TwoPSet<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLookup() {
+        set.add("A");
+        assertTrue(set.lookup("A"));
+        assertFalse(set.lookup("B"));
+        set.remove("A");
+        assertFalse(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAdd() {
+        set.add("A");
+        assertTrue(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemove() {
+        set.add("A");
+        set.remove("A");
+        assertFalse(set.lookup("A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompare() {
+        TwoPSet<String> set1 = new TwoPSet<>();
+        set1.add("A");
+        set1.add("B");
+        TwoPSet<String> set2 = new TwoPSet<>();
+        set2.add("A");
+        assertFalse(set1.compare(set2));
+        set2.add("B");
+        assertTrue(set1.compare(set2));
+        set1.remove("A");
+        assertFalse(set1.compare(set2));
+        set2.remove("A");
+        assertTrue(set1.compare(set2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMerge() {
+        TwoPSet<String> set1 = new TwoPSet<>();
+        set1.add("A");
+        set1.add("B");
+        TwoPSet<String> set2 = new TwoPSet<>();
+        set2.add("B");
+        set2.add("C");
+        TwoPSet<String> mergedSet = set1.merge(set2);
+        assertTrue(mergedSet.lookup("A"));
+        assertTrue(mergedSet.lookup("B"));
+        assertTrue(mergedSet.lookup("C"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySizeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySizeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..71dade9796dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySizeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.disjointsetunion;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DisjointSetUnionBySizeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMakeSet() {
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnionBySize<>();
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        assertNotNull(node);
+        assertEquals(node, node.parent);
+        assertEquals(1, node.size);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUnionFindSet() {
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnionBySize<>();
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node4 = dsu.makeSet(4);
+
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node3, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node3, node4);
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node3);
+
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> root1 = dsu.findSet(node1);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> root2 = dsu.findSet(node2);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> root3 = dsu.findSet(node3);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> root4 = dsu.findSet(node4);
+
+        assertEquals(root1, root2);
+        assertEquals(root1, root3);
+        assertEquals(root1, root4);
+        assertEquals(4, root1.size);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindSetOnSingleNode() {
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize<String> dsu = new DisjointSetUnionBySize<>();
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<String> node = dsu.makeSet("A");
+        assertEquals(node, dsu.findSet(node));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUnionAlreadyConnectedNodes() {
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnionBySize<>();
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node2, node3);
+
+        // Union nodes that are already connected
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node3);
+
+        // All should have the same root
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> root = dsu.findSet(node1);
+        assertEquals(root, dsu.findSet(node2));
+        assertEquals(root, dsu.findSet(node3));
+        assertEquals(3, root.size);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleMakeSets() {
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnionBySize<>();
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+
+        assertNotEquals(node1, node2);
+        assertNotEquals(node2, node3);
+        assertNotEquals(node1, node3);
+
+        assertEquals(node1, node1.parent);
+        assertEquals(node2, node2.parent);
+        assertEquals(node3, node3.parent);
+        assertEquals(1, node1.size);
+        assertEquals(1, node2.size);
+        assertEquals(1, node3.size);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPathCompression() {
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnionBySize<>();
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node2, node3);
+
+        // After findSet, path compression should update parent to root directly
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> root = dsu.findSet(node3);
+        assertEquals(root, node1);
+        assertEquals(node1, node3.parent);
+        assertEquals(3, root.size);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleDisjointSets() {
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnionBySize<>();
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node4 = dsu.makeSet(4);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node5 = dsu.makeSet(5);
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<Integer> node6 = dsu.makeSet(6);
+
+        // Create two separate components
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node2, node3);
+
+        dsu.unionSets(node4, node5);
+        dsu.unionSets(node5, node6);
+
+        // Verify they are separate
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(node1), dsu.findSet(node2));
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(node2), dsu.findSet(node3));
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(node4), dsu.findSet(node5));
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(node5), dsu.findSet(node6));
+
+        assertNotEquals(dsu.findSet(node1), dsu.findSet(node4));
+        assertNotEquals(dsu.findSet(node3), dsu.findSet(node6));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyValues() {
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize<String> dsu = new DisjointSetUnionBySize<>();
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<String> emptyNode = dsu.makeSet("");
+        DisjointSetUnionBySize.Node<String> nullNode = dsu.makeSet(null);
+
+        assertEquals(emptyNode, dsu.findSet(emptyNode));
+        assertEquals(nullNode, dsu.findSet(nullNode));
+
+        dsu.unionSets(emptyNode, nullNode);
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(emptyNode), dsu.findSet(nullNode));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..581bac6151dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,230 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.disjointsetunion;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DisjointSetUnionTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMakeSet() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        assertNotNull(node);
+        assertEquals(node, node.parent);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUnionFindSet() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+        Node<Integer> node4 = dsu.makeSet(4);
+
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node3, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node3, node4);
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node3);
+
+        Node<Integer> root1 = dsu.findSet(node1);
+        Node<Integer> root2 = dsu.findSet(node2);
+        Node<Integer> root3 = dsu.findSet(node3);
+        Node<Integer> root4 = dsu.findSet(node4);
+
+        assertEquals(node1, node1.parent);
+        assertEquals(node1, node2.parent);
+        assertEquals(node1, node3.parent);
+        assertEquals(node1, node4.parent);
+
+        assertEquals(node1, root1);
+        assertEquals(node1, root2);
+        assertEquals(node1, root3);
+        assertEquals(node1, root4);
+
+        assertEquals(1, node1.rank);
+        assertEquals(0, node2.rank);
+        assertEquals(0, node3.rank);
+        assertEquals(0, node4.rank);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindSetOnSingleNode() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<String> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<String> node = dsu.makeSet("A");
+        assertEquals(node, dsu.findSet(node));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUnionAlreadyConnectedNodes() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node2, node3);
+
+        // Union nodes that are already connected
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node3);
+
+        // All should have the same root
+        Node<Integer> root = dsu.findSet(node1);
+        assertEquals(root, dsu.findSet(node2));
+        assertEquals(root, dsu.findSet(node3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRankIncrease() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+        Node<Integer> node4 = dsu.makeSet(4);
+
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2); // rank of node1 should increase
+        dsu.unionSets(node3, node4); // rank of node3 should increase
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node3); // union two trees of same rank -> rank increases
+
+        assertEquals(2, dsu.findSet(node1).rank);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleMakeSets() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+
+        assertNotEquals(node1, node2);
+        assertNotEquals(node2, node3);
+        assertNotEquals(node1, node3);
+
+        assertEquals(node1, node1.parent);
+        assertEquals(node2, node2.parent);
+        assertEquals(node3, node3.parent);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPathCompression() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node2, node3);
+
+        // After findSet, path compression should update parent to root directly
+        Node<Integer> root = dsu.findSet(node3);
+        assertEquals(root, node1);
+        assertEquals(node1, node3.parent);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUnionByRankSmallerToLarger() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+
+        // Create tree with node1 as root and rank 1
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        assertEquals(1, node1.rank);
+        assertEquals(0, node2.rank);
+
+        // Union single node (rank 0) with tree (rank 1)
+        // Smaller rank tree should attach to larger rank tree
+        dsu.unionSets(node3, node1);
+        assertEquals(node1, dsu.findSet(node3));
+        assertEquals(1, node1.rank); // Rank should not increase
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUnionByRankEqualRanks() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+        Node<Integer> node4 = dsu.makeSet(4);
+
+        // Create two trees of equal rank (1)
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node3, node4);
+        assertEquals(1, node1.rank);
+        assertEquals(1, node3.rank);
+
+        // Union two trees of equal rank
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node3);
+        Node<Integer> root = dsu.findSet(node1);
+        assertEquals(2, root.rank); // Rank should increase by 1
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLargeChainPathCompression() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+        Node<Integer> node4 = dsu.makeSet(4);
+        Node<Integer> node5 = dsu.makeSet(5);
+
+        // Create a long chain: 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node2, node3);
+        dsu.unionSets(node3, node4);
+        dsu.unionSets(node4, node5);
+
+        // Find from the deepest node
+        Node<Integer> root = dsu.findSet(node5);
+
+        // Path compression should make all nodes point directly to root
+        assertEquals(root, node5.parent);
+        assertEquals(root, node4.parent);
+        assertEquals(root, node3.parent);
+        assertEquals(root, node2.parent);
+        assertEquals(root, node1.parent);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleDisjointSets() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<Integer> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<Integer> node1 = dsu.makeSet(1);
+        Node<Integer> node2 = dsu.makeSet(2);
+        Node<Integer> node3 = dsu.makeSet(3);
+        Node<Integer> node4 = dsu.makeSet(4);
+        Node<Integer> node5 = dsu.makeSet(5);
+        Node<Integer> node6 = dsu.makeSet(6);
+
+        // Create two separate components
+        dsu.unionSets(node1, node2);
+        dsu.unionSets(node2, node3);
+
+        dsu.unionSets(node4, node5);
+        dsu.unionSets(node5, node6);
+
+        // Verify they are separate
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(node1), dsu.findSet(node2));
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(node2), dsu.findSet(node3));
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(node4), dsu.findSet(node5));
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(node5), dsu.findSet(node6));
+
+        assertNotEquals(dsu.findSet(node1), dsu.findSet(node4));
+        assertNotEquals(dsu.findSet(node3), dsu.findSet(node6));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyValues() {
+        DisjointSetUnion<String> dsu = new DisjointSetUnion<>();
+        Node<String> emptyNode = dsu.makeSet("");
+        Node<String> nullNode = dsu.makeSet(null);
+
+        assertEquals(emptyNode, dsu.findSet(emptyNode));
+        assertEquals(nullNode, dsu.findSet(nullNode));
+
+        dsu.unionSets(emptyNode, nullNode);
+        assertEquals(dsu.findSet(emptyNode), dsu.findSet(nullNode));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8fdc93e1ca22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/dynamicarray/DynamicArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,258 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.dynamicarray;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ConcurrentModificationException;
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.stream.Collectors;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DynamicArrayTest {
+
+    private DynamicArray<String> array;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        array = new DynamicArray<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetElement() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+        array.add("Charlie");
+        array.add("David");
+        assertEquals("Bob", array.get(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetInvalidIndex() {
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.get(-1));
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.get(10));
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.get(100));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddElement() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+        assertEquals(2, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("Alice", array.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Bob", array.get(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddAndGet() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+
+        assertEquals("Alice", array.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Bob", array.get(1));
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.get(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddBeyondCapacity() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
+            array.add("Element " + i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(20, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("Element 19", array.get(19));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPutElement() {
+        array.put(5, "Placeholder");
+        assertEquals(6, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("Placeholder", array.get(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPutElementBeyondCapacity() {
+        array.put(20, "FarAway");
+        assertEquals(21, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("FarAway", array.get(20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPutAndDynamicCapacity() {
+        array.put(0, "Alice");
+        array.put(2, "Bob"); // Tests capacity expansion
+
+        assertEquals("Alice", array.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Bob", array.get(2));
+        assertEquals(3, array.getSize()); // Size should be 3 due to index 2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveElement() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+        String removed = array.remove(0);
+        assertEquals("Alice", removed);
+        assertEquals(1, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("Bob", array.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveInvalidIndex() {
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.remove(-1));
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.remove(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveComplex() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+        array.add("Charlie");
+
+        assertEquals("Bob", array.remove(1));
+        assertEquals("Alice", array.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Charlie", array.get(1));
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.remove(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveEdgeCases() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+
+        assertEquals("Alice", array.remove(0));
+        assertEquals(1, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("Bob", array.get(0));
+
+        assertEquals("Bob", array.remove(0));
+        assertTrue(array.isEmpty());
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIsEmpty() {
+        assertTrue(array.isEmpty());
+
+        array.add("Alice");
+        assertFalse(array.isEmpty());
+
+        array.remove(0);
+        assertTrue(array.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSize() {
+        DynamicArray<String> array = new DynamicArray<>();
+        assertEquals(0, array.getSize());
+
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+        assertEquals(2, array.getSize());
+
+        array.remove(0);
+        assertEquals(1, array.getSize());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testToString() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+
+        assertEquals("[Alice, Bob]", array.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIterator() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+
+        String result = array.stream().collect(Collectors.joining(", "));
+        assertEquals("Alice, Bob", result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStreamAsString() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+
+        String result = array.stream().collect(Collectors.joining(", "));
+        assertEquals("Alice, Bob", result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStream() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+        long count = array.stream().count();
+        assertEquals(2, count);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddToFullCapacity() {
+        DynamicArray<String> array = new DynamicArray<>(2);
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+        array.add("Charlie"); // Triggers capacity expansion
+
+        assertEquals(3, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("Charlie", array.get(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPutWithNegativeIndex() {
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.put(-1, "Alice"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetWithNegativeIndex() {
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> array.get(-1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIteratorConcurrentModification() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+
+        Iterator<String> iterator = array.iterator();
+        array.add("Charlie"); // Modify during iteration
+
+        assertThrows(ConcurrentModificationException.class, iterator::next);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIteratorRemove() {
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+
+        Iterator<String> iterator = array.iterator();
+        assertEquals("Alice", iterator.next());
+        iterator.remove();
+        assertEquals(1, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("Bob", array.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveBeyondCapacity() {
+        DynamicArray<String> array = new DynamicArray<>(2);
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+        array.add("Charlie");
+
+        array.remove(1);
+        assertEquals(2, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("Alice", array.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Charlie", array.get(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCapacityDoubling() {
+        DynamicArray<String> array = new DynamicArray<>(1);
+        array.add("Alice");
+        array.add("Bob");
+        array.add("Charlie"); // Ensure capacity expansion is working
+
+        assertEquals(3, array.getSize());
+        assertEquals("Charlie", array.get(2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStarTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStarTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..810773555a63
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStarTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AStarTest {
+
+    private AStar.Graph graph;
+    private int[] heuristic;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        // Initialize graph and heuristic values for testing
+        graph = new AStar.Graph(5);
+        ArrayList<Integer> graphData = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 1, null, 0, 2, 2, null, 1, 3, 1, null, 2, 3, 1, null, 3, 4, 1, null));
+        AStar.initializeGraph(graph, graphData);
+
+        heuristic = new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 0}; // Heuristic values for each node
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAStarFindsPath() {
+        AStar.PathAndDistance result = AStar.aStar(0, 4, graph, heuristic);
+        assertEquals(3, result.getDistance(), "Expected distance from 0 to 4 is 3");
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 3, 4), result.getPath(), "Expected path from 0 to 4");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAStarPathNotFound() {
+        AStar.PathAndDistance result = AStar.aStar(0, 5, graph, heuristic); // Node 5 does not exist
+        assertEquals(-1, result.getDistance(), "Expected distance when path not found is -1");
+        assertNull(result.getPath(), "Expected path should be null when no path exists");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAStarSameNode() {
+        AStar.PathAndDistance result = AStar.aStar(0, 0, graph, heuristic);
+        assertEquals(0, result.getDistance(), "Expected distance from 0 to 0 is 0");
+        assertEquals(singletonList(0), result.getPath(), "Expected path should only contain the start node");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFSTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFSTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..75fa6adc3014
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFSTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BipartiteGraphDFSTest {
+
+    // Helper method to create an adjacency list from edges
+    private ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> createAdjacencyList(int numVertices, int[][] edges) {
+        ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < numVertices; i++) {
+            adj.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        for (int[] edge : edges) {
+            int vertexU = edge[0];
+            int vertexV = edge[1];
+            adj.get(vertexU).add(vertexV);
+            adj.get(vertexV).add(vertexU);
+        }
+        return adj;
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBipartiteGraphEvenCycle() {
+        int numVertices = 4;
+        int[][] edges = {{0, 1}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 0}}; // Even cycle
+        ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj = createAdjacencyList(numVertices, edges);
+        assertTrue(BipartiteGraphDFS.isBipartite(numVertices, adj), "Graph should be bipartite (even cycle)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBipartiteGraphOddCycle() {
+        int numVertices = 5;
+        int[][] edges = {{0, 1}, {1, 2}, {2, 0}, {1, 3}, {3, 4}}; // Odd cycle
+        ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj = createAdjacencyList(numVertices, edges);
+        assertFalse(BipartiteGraphDFS.isBipartite(numVertices, adj), "Graph should not be bipartite (odd cycle)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBipartiteGraphDisconnected() {
+        int numVertices = 6;
+        int[][] edges = {{0, 1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}}; // Disconnected bipartite graphs
+        ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj = createAdjacencyList(numVertices, edges);
+        assertTrue(BipartiteGraphDFS.isBipartite(numVertices, adj), "Graph should be bipartite (disconnected)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBipartiteGraphSingleVertex() {
+        int numVertices = 1;
+        int[][] edges = {}; // Single vertex, no edges
+        ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj = createAdjacencyList(numVertices, edges);
+        assertTrue(BipartiteGraphDFS.isBipartite(numVertices, adj), "Graph should be bipartite (single vertex)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBipartiteGraphCompleteBipartite() {
+        int numVertices = 4;
+        int[][] edges = {{0, 2}, {0, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}}; // K2,2 (Complete bipartite graph)
+        ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj = createAdjacencyList(numVertices, edges);
+        assertTrue(BipartiteGraphDFS.isBipartite(numVertices, adj), "Graph should be bipartite (complete bipartite)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBipartiteGraphNonBipartite() {
+        int numVertices = 3;
+        int[][] edges = {{0, 1}, {1, 2}, {2, 0}}; // Triangle (odd cycle)
+        ArrayList<ArrayList<Integer>> adj = createAdjacencyList(numVertices, edges);
+        assertFalse(BipartiteGraphDFS.isBipartite(numVertices, adj), "Graph should not be bipartite (triangle)");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f089169903d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.BoruvkaAlgorithm.Graph;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BoruvkaAlgorithmTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testBoruvkaMSTV9E14() {
+        List<BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(0, 1, 10));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(0, 2, 12));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(1, 2, 9));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(1, 3, 8));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(2, 4, 3));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(2, 5, 1));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(4, 5, 3));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(4, 3, 7));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(3, 6, 8));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(3, 7, 5));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(5, 7, 6));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(6, 7, 9));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(6, 8, 2));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(7, 8, 11));
+
+        final var graph = new Graph(9, edges);
+        /*
+         * Adjacency matrix
+         *    0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8
+         * 0  0  10  12   0   0   0   0   0   0
+         * 1 10   0   9   8   0   0   0   0   0
+         * 2 12   9   0   0   3   1   0   0   0
+         * 3  0   8   0   0   7   0   8   5   0
+         * 4  0   0   3   7   0   3   0   0   0
+         * 5  0   0   1   0   3   0   0   6   0
+         * 6  0   0   0   8   0   0   0   9   2
+         * 7  0   0   0   5   0   6   9   0  11
+         * 8  0   0   0   0   0   0   2  11   0
+         */
+        final var result = BoruvkaAlgorithm.boruvkaMST(graph);
+        assertEquals(8, result.size());
+        assertEquals(43, computeTotalWeight(result));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBoruvkaMSTV2E1() {
+        List<BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(0, 1, 10));
+
+        final var graph = new Graph(2, edges);
+
+        /*
+         * Adjacency matrix
+         *    0  1
+         * 0  0  10
+         * 1  10  0
+         */
+        final var result = BoruvkaAlgorithm.boruvkaMST(graph);
+        assertEquals(1, result.size());
+        assertEquals(10, computeTotalWeight(result));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompleteGraphK4() {
+        List<BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(0, 1, 7));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(0, 2, 2));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(0, 3, 5));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(1, 2, 3));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(1, 3, 4));
+        edges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(2, 3, 1));
+
+        final var graph = new Graph(4, edges);
+
+        /*
+         * Adjacency matrix
+         *    0  1  2  3
+         * 0  0  7  2  5
+         * 1  7  0  3  4
+         * 2  2  3  0  1
+         * 3  5  4  1  0
+         */
+        final var result = BoruvkaAlgorithm.boruvkaMST(graph);
+        assertEquals(3, result.size());
+        assertEquals(6, computeTotalWeight(result));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeVertices() {
+        Exception exception1 = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new Graph(-1, null));
+        String expectedMessage = "Number of vertices must be positive";
+        String actualMessage = exception1.getMessage();
+
+        assertTrue(actualMessage.contains(expectedMessage));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgesNull() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new Graph(0, null));
+        String expectedMessage = "Edges list must not be null or empty";
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        assertTrue(actualMessage.contains(expectedMessage));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgesEmpty() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new Graph(0, new ArrayList<>()));
+        String expectedMessage = "Edges list must not be null or empty";
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        assertTrue(actualMessage.contains(expectedMessage));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgesRange() {
+        // Valid input
+        List<BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge> validEdges = new ArrayList<>();
+        validEdges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(0, 1, 2));
+        validEdges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(1, 2, 3));
+        final var validGraph = new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Graph(3, validEdges);
+        assertEquals(validEdges, validGraph.edges);
+
+        // Edge source out of range
+        Exception exception1 = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
+            List<BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge> invalidEdges = new ArrayList<>();
+            invalidEdges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(-1, 1, 2));
+            final var invalidGraph = new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Graph(1, invalidEdges);
+            assertEquals(invalidEdges, invalidGraph.edges);
+        });
+        String expectedMessage1 = "Edge vertex out of range";
+        String actualMessage1 = exception1.getMessage();
+
+        assertTrue(actualMessage1.contains(expectedMessage1));
+
+        // Edge source out of range
+        Exception exception2 = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
+            List<BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge> invalidEdges = new ArrayList<>();
+            invalidEdges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(1, 0, 2));
+            final var invalidGraph = new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Graph(1, invalidEdges);
+            assertEquals(invalidEdges, invalidGraph.edges);
+        });
+        String expectedMessage2 = "Edge vertex out of range";
+        String actualMessage2 = exception2.getMessage();
+
+        assertTrue(actualMessage2.contains(expectedMessage2));
+
+        // Edge destination out of range
+        Exception exception3 = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
+            List<BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge> invalidEdges = new ArrayList<>();
+            invalidEdges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(0, -1, 2));
+            final var invalidGraph = new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Graph(1, invalidEdges);
+            assertEquals(invalidEdges, invalidGraph.edges);
+        });
+        String expectedMessage3 = "Edge vertex out of range";
+        String actualMessage3 = exception3.getMessage();
+
+        assertTrue(actualMessage3.contains(expectedMessage3));
+
+        // Edge destination out of range
+        Exception exception4 = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
+            List<BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge> invalidEdges = new ArrayList<>();
+            invalidEdges.add(new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge(0, 1, 2));
+            final var invalidGraph = new BoruvkaAlgorithm.Graph(1, invalidEdges);
+            assertEquals(invalidEdges, invalidGraph.edges);
+        });
+        String expectedMessage4 = "Edge vertex out of range";
+        String actualMessage4 = exception4.getMessage();
+
+        assertTrue(actualMessage4.contains(expectedMessage4));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the total weight of the Minimum Spanning Tree
+     *
+     * @param result list of edges in the Minimum Spanning Tree
+     * @return the total weight of the Minimum Spanning Tree
+     */
+    int computeTotalWeight(final Iterable<BoruvkaAlgorithm.Edge> result) {
+        int totalWeight = 0;
+        for (final var edge : result) {
+            totalWeight += edge.weight;
+        }
+        return totalWeight;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2350455d4329
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+final class DialsAlgorithmTest {
+
+    private List<List<DialsAlgorithm.Edge>> graph;
+    private static final int NUM_VERTICES = 6;
+    private static final int MAX_EDGE_WEIGHT = 10;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        graph = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < NUM_VERTICES; i++) {
+            graph.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+    }
+
+    private void addEdge(int u, int v, int weight) {
+        graph.get(u).add(new DialsAlgorithm.Edge(v, weight));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with a simple connected graph")
+    void testSimpleGraph() {
+        // Build graph from a standard example
+        addEdge(0, 1, 2);
+        addEdge(0, 2, 4);
+        addEdge(1, 2, 1);
+        addEdge(1, 3, 7);
+        addEdge(2, 4, 3);
+        addEdge(3, 5, 1);
+        addEdge(4, 3, 2);
+        addEdge(4, 5, 5);
+
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0, 2, 3, 8, 6, 9};
+        int[] actualDistances = DialsAlgorithm.run(graph, 0, MAX_EDGE_WEIGHT);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, actualDistances);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with a disconnected node")
+    void testDisconnectedNode() {
+        addEdge(0, 1, 5);
+        addEdge(1, 2, 5);
+        // Node 3, 4, 5 are disconnected
+
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0, 5, 10, Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE};
+        int[] actualDistances = DialsAlgorithm.run(graph, 0, MAX_EDGE_WEIGHT);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, actualDistances);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with source as destination")
+    void testSourceIsDestination() {
+        addEdge(0, 1, 10);
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0, 10, Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE};
+        // Run with source 0
+        int[] actualDistances = DialsAlgorithm.run(graph, 0, MAX_EDGE_WEIGHT);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, actualDistances);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test graph with multiple paths to a node")
+    void testMultiplePaths() {
+        addEdge(0, 1, 10);
+        addEdge(0, 2, 3);
+        addEdge(2, 1, 2); // Shorter path to 1 is via 2 (3+2=5)
+
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0, 5, 3, Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE};
+        int[] actualDistances = DialsAlgorithm.run(graph, 0, MAX_EDGE_WEIGHT);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, actualDistances);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with an invalid source vertex")
+    void testInvalidSource() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DialsAlgorithm.run(graph, -1, MAX_EDGE_WEIGHT));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DialsAlgorithm.run(graph, NUM_VERTICES, MAX_EDGE_WEIGHT));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c5df9acdf33b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DijkstraAlgorithmTest {
+
+    private DijkstraAlgorithm dijkstraAlgorithm;
+    private int[][] graph;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        graph = new int[][] {
+            {0, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 8, 0},
+            {4, 0, 8, 0, 0, 0, 0, 11, 0},
+            {0, 8, 0, 7, 0, 4, 0, 0, 2},
+            {0, 0, 7, 0, 9, 14, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 0, 9, 0, 10, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 4, 14, 10, 0, 2, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 1, 6},
+            {8, 11, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 7},
+            {0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 6, 7, 0},
+        };
+
+        dijkstraAlgorithm = new DijkstraAlgorithm(graph.length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRunAlgorithm() {
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0, 4, 12, 19, 21, 11, 9, 8, 14};
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, dijkstraAlgorithm.run(graph, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithDisconnectedNodes() {
+        int[][] disconnectedGraph = {
+            {0, 3, 0, 0}, {3, 0, 1, 0}, {0, 1, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0, 0} // Node 3 is disconnected
+        };
+
+        DijkstraAlgorithm dijkstraDisconnected = new DijkstraAlgorithm(disconnectedGraph.length);
+
+        // Testing from vertex 0
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0, 3, 4, Integer.MAX_VALUE}; // Node 3 is unreachable
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, dijkstraDisconnected.run(disconnectedGraph, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleVertexGraph() {
+        int[][] singleVertexGraph = {{0}};
+        DijkstraAlgorithm dijkstraSingleVertex = new DijkstraAlgorithm(1);
+
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0}; // The only vertex's distance to itself is 0
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, dijkstraSingleVertex.run(singleVertexGraph, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidSourceVertex() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dijkstraAlgorithm.run(graph, -1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dijkstraAlgorithm.run(graph, graph.length));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bf4e2828e069
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithmTest {
+
+    private DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm dijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm;
+    private int[][] graph;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        graph = new int[][] {
+            {0, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 8, 0},
+            {4, 0, 8, 0, 0, 0, 0, 11, 0},
+            {0, 8, 0, 7, 0, 4, 0, 0, 2},
+            {0, 0, 7, 0, 9, 14, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 0, 9, 0, 10, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 4, 14, 10, 0, 2, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 1, 6},
+            {8, 11, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 7},
+            {0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 6, 7, 0},
+        };
+
+        dijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm = new DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm(graph.length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRunAlgorithm() {
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0, 4, 12, 19, 21, 11, 9, 8, 14};
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, dijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.run(graph, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithDisconnectedNodes() {
+        int[][] disconnectedGraph = {
+            {0, 3, 0, 0}, {3, 0, 1, 0}, {0, 1, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0, 0} // Node 3 is disconnected
+        };
+
+        DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm dijkstraDisconnected = new DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm(disconnectedGraph.length);
+
+        // Testing from vertex 0
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0, 3, 4, Integer.MAX_VALUE}; // Node 3 is unreachable
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, dijkstraDisconnected.run(disconnectedGraph, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleVertexGraph() {
+        int[][] singleVertexGraph = {{0}};
+        DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm dijkstraSingleVertex = new DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm(1);
+
+        int[] expectedDistances = {0}; // The only vertex's distance to itself is 0
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistances, dijkstraSingleVertex.run(singleVertexGraph, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidSourceVertex() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.run(graph, -1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> dijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.run(graph, graph.length));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..aa8e6beeb3db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm class.
+ *
+ * These tests ensure that the Edmonds' Blossom Algorithm implementation
+ * works as expected for various graph structures, returning the correct
+ * maximum matching.
+ */
+public class EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to convert a list of matching pairs into a sorted 2D array.
+     * Sorting ensures consistent ordering of pairs and vertices for easier comparison in tests.
+     *
+     * @param matching List of matched pairs returned by the algorithm.
+     * @return A sorted 2D array of matching pairs.
+     */
+    private int[][] convertMatchingToArray(Collection<int[]> matching) {
+        // Convert the list of pairs into an array
+        int[][] result = matching.toArray(new int[0][]);
+
+        // Sort each individual pair for consistency
+        for (int[] pair : result) {
+            Arrays.sort(pair);
+        }
+
+        // Sort the array of pairs to ensure consistent order
+        Arrays.sort(result, (a, b) -> Integer.compare(a[0], b[0]));
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test Case 1: A triangle graph where vertices 0, 1, and 2 form a cycle.
+     * The expected maximum matching is a single pair (0, 1) or any equivalent pair from the cycle.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testCase1() {
+        List<int[]> edges = Arrays.asList(new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {1, 2}, new int[] {2, 0});
+        List<int[]> matching = EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.maximumMatching(edges, 3);
+
+        int[][] expected = new int[][] {{0, 1}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, convertMatchingToArray(matching));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test Case 2: A disconnected graph where vertices 0, 1, 2 form one component,
+     * and vertices 3, 4 form another. The expected maximum matching is two pairs:
+     * (0, 1) and (3, 4).
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testCase2() {
+        List<int[]> edges = Arrays.asList(new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {1, 2}, new int[] {3, 4});
+        List<int[]> matching = EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.maximumMatching(edges, 5);
+
+        int[][] expected = new int[][] {{0, 1}, {3, 4}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, convertMatchingToArray(matching));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test Case 3: A cycle graph involving vertices 0, 1, 2, 3 forming a cycle,
+     * with an additional edge (4, 5) outside the cycle.
+     * The expected maximum matching is (0, 1) and (4, 5).
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testCase3() {
+        List<int[]> edges = Arrays.asList(new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {1, 2}, new int[] {2, 3}, new int[] {3, 0}, new int[] {4, 5});
+        List<int[]> matching = EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.maximumMatching(edges, 6);
+
+        // Updated expected output to include the maximum matching pairs
+        int[][] expected = new int[][] {{0, 1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, convertMatchingToArray(matching));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test Case 4: A graph with no edges.
+     * Since there are no edges, the expected matching is an empty set.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testCaseNoMatching() {
+        List<int[]> edges = Collections.emptyList(); // No edges
+        List<int[]> matching = EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.maximumMatching(edges, 3);
+
+        int[][] expected = new int[][] {}; // No pairs expected
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, convertMatchingToArray(matching));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test Case 5: A more complex graph with multiple cycles and extra edges.
+     * This tests the algorithm's ability to handle larger, more intricate graphs.
+     * The expected matching is {{0, 1}, {2, 5}, {3, 4}}.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testCaseLargeGraph() {
+        List<int[]> edges = Arrays.asList(new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {1, 2}, new int[] {2, 3}, new int[] {3, 4}, new int[] {4, 5}, new int[] {5, 0}, new int[] {1, 4}, new int[] {2, 5});
+        List<int[]> matching = EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.maximumMatching(edges, 6);
+
+        // Check if the size of the matching is correct (i.e., 3 pairs)
+        assertEquals(3, matching.size());
+
+        // Check that the result contains valid pairs (any order is fine)
+        // Valid maximum matchings could be {{0, 1}, {2, 5}, {3, 4}} or {{0, 1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}}, etc.
+        int[][] possibleMatching1 = new int[][] {{0, 1}, {2, 5}, {3, 4}};
+        int[][] possibleMatching2 = new int[][] {{0, 1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}};
+        int[][] result = convertMatchingToArray(matching);
+
+        // Assert that the result is one of the valid maximum matchings
+        assertTrue(Arrays.deepEquals(result, possibleMatching1) || Arrays.deepEquals(result, possibleMatching2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshallTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshallTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7d6a2b239f4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshallTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class FloydWarshallTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSmallGraph() {
+        int[][] adjacencyMatrix = {{0, 0, 0, 0}, // Ignored row (0 index)
+            {0, 0, 3, FloydWarshall.INFINITY}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0, 1}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0}};
+
+        FloydWarshall fw = new FloydWarshall(3);
+        fw.floydwarshall(adjacencyMatrix);
+
+        int[][] expectedDistanceMatrix = {{0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 3, 4}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0, 1}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0}};
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistanceMatrix, fw.getDistanceMatrix());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargerGraph() {
+        int[][] adjacencyMatrix = {{0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 1, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 2}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0, 4, FloydWarshall.INFINITY}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0, 3}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0}};
+
+        FloydWarshall fw = new FloydWarshall(4);
+        fw.floydwarshall(adjacencyMatrix);
+
+        int[][] expectedDistanceMatrix = {{0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 1, 5, 2}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0, 4, 7}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0, 3}, {0, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, FloydWarshall.INFINITY, 0}};
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedDistanceMatrix, fw.getDistanceMatrix());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FordFulkersonTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FordFulkersonTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..29e373e361ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FordFulkersonTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,216 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FordFulkersonTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testMaxFlow() {
+        int vertexCount = 6;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // Setting up the capacity graph
+        capacity[0][1] = 12;
+        capacity[0][3] = 13;
+        capacity[1][2] = 10;
+        capacity[2][3] = 13;
+        capacity[2][4] = 3;
+        capacity[2][5] = 15;
+        capacity[3][2] = 7;
+        capacity[3][4] = 15;
+        capacity[4][5] = 17;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 5);
+        assertEquals(23, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNoFlow() {
+        int vertexCount = 6;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // No connections between source and sink
+        capacity[0][1] = 10;
+        capacity[2][3] = 10;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 1, 4);
+        assertEquals(0, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSinglePath() {
+        int vertexCount = 6;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // Setting up a single path from source to sink
+        capacity[0][1] = 5;
+        capacity[1][2] = 5;
+        capacity[2][3] = 5;
+        capacity[3][4] = 5;
+        capacity[4][5] = 5;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 5);
+        assertEquals(5, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testParallelPaths() {
+        int vertexCount = 4;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // Setting up parallel paths from source to sink
+        capacity[0][1] = 10;
+        capacity[0][2] = 10;
+        capacity[1][3] = 10;
+        capacity[2][3] = 10;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 3);
+        assertEquals(20, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testComplexNetwork() {
+        int vertexCount = 5;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // Complex network
+        capacity[0][1] = 10;
+        capacity[0][2] = 10;
+        capacity[1][3] = 4;
+        capacity[1][4] = 8;
+        capacity[2][4] = 9;
+        capacity[3][2] = 6;
+        capacity[3][4] = 10;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 4);
+        assertEquals(19, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLargeNetwork() {
+        int vertexCount = 8;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // Setting up a large network
+        capacity[0][1] = 10;
+        capacity[0][2] = 5;
+        capacity[1][3] = 15;
+        capacity[2][3] = 10;
+        capacity[1][4] = 10;
+        capacity[3][5] = 10;
+        capacity[4][5] = 5;
+        capacity[4][6] = 10;
+        capacity[5][7] = 10;
+        capacity[6][7] = 15;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 7);
+        assertEquals(15, maxFlow); // Maximum flow should be 15
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleSourcesAndSinks() {
+        int vertexCount = 7;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // Creating multiple sources and sinks scenario
+        capacity[0][1] = 10; // Source 1
+        capacity[0][2] = 5;
+        capacity[1][3] = 15;
+        capacity[2][3] = 10;
+        capacity[3][4] = 10; // Sink 1
+        capacity[3][5] = 5;
+        capacity[3][6] = 10; // Sink 2
+        capacity[5][6] = 10;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 4);
+        assertEquals(10, maxFlow); // Maximum flow should be 10
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        int vertexCount = 6;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // No connection between source and sink
+        capacity[0][1] = 10; // Only one edge not connected to the sink
+        capacity[1][2] = 10;
+        capacity[3][4] = 10;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 5);
+        assertEquals(0, maxFlow); // No flow should be possible
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testZeroCapacityEdge() {
+        int vertexCount = 4;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // Including a zero capacity edge
+        capacity[0][1] = 10;
+        capacity[0][2] = 0; // Zero capacity
+        capacity[1][3] = 5;
+        capacity[2][3] = 10;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 3);
+        assertEquals(5, maxFlow); // Flow only possible through 0 -> 1 -> 3
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllEdgesZeroCapacity() {
+        int vertexCount = 5;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // All edges with zero capacity
+        capacity[0][1] = 0;
+        capacity[1][2] = 0;
+        capacity[2][3] = 0;
+        capacity[3][4] = 0;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 4);
+        assertEquals(0, maxFlow); // No flow should be possible
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCycleGraph() {
+        int vertexCount = 4;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // Setting up a cycle
+        capacity[0][1] = 10;
+        capacity[1][2] = 5;
+        capacity[2][0] = 5; // This creates a cycle
+        capacity[1][3] = 15;
+        capacity[2][3] = 10;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 3);
+        assertEquals(10, maxFlow); // Maximum flow should be 10
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFlowWithExcessCapacity() {
+        int vertexCount = 5;
+        int[][] capacity = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+        int[][] flow = new int[vertexCount][vertexCount];
+
+        // Extra capacity in the flow
+        capacity[0][1] = 20;
+        capacity[1][2] = 10;
+        capacity[2][3] = 15;
+        capacity[1][3] = 5;
+
+        int maxFlow = FordFulkerson.networkFlow(vertexCount, capacity, flow, 0, 3);
+        assertEquals(15, maxFlow); // Maximum flow should be 15 (20 from 0->1 and 10->2, limited by 15->3)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/HamiltonianCycleTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/HamiltonianCycleTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4529606d7797
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/HamiltonianCycleTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class HamiltonianCycleTest {
+
+    private final HamiltonianCycle hamiltonianCycle = new HamiltonianCycle();
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindHamiltonianCycleShouldReturnHamiltonianCycle() {
+        int[] expectedArray = {0, 1, 2, 4, 3, 0};
+        int[][] inputArray = {
+            {0, 1, 0, 1, 0},
+            {1, 0, 1, 1, 1},
+            {0, 1, 0, 0, 1},
+            {1, 1, 0, 0, 1},
+            {0, 1, 1, 1, 0},
+        };
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedArray, hamiltonianCycle.findHamiltonianCycle(inputArray));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindHamiltonianCycleShouldReturnInfinityArray() {
+        int[] expectedArray = {-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1};
+
+        int[][] inputArray = {
+            {0, 1, 0, 1, 0},
+            {1, 0, 1, 1, 1},
+            {0, 1, 0, 0, 1},
+            {1, 1, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 1, 1, 0, 0},
+        };
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedArray, hamiltonianCycle.findHamiltonianCycle(inputArray));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleVertexGraph() {
+        int[] expectedArray = {0, 0};
+        int[][] inputArray = {{0}};
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedArray, hamiltonianCycle.findHamiltonianCycle(inputArray));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDisconnectedGraphShouldReturnInfinityArray() {
+        int[] expectedArray = {-1, -1, -1, -1, -1};
+        int[][] inputArray = {{0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0, 0}};
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedArray, hamiltonianCycle.findHamiltonianCycle(inputArray));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompleteGraphShouldReturnHamiltonianCycle() {
+        int[] expectedArray = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0};
+        int[][] inputArray = {
+            {0, 1, 1, 1, 1},
+            {1, 0, 1, 1, 1},
+            {1, 1, 0, 1, 1},
+            {1, 1, 1, 0, 1},
+            {1, 1, 1, 1, 0},
+        };
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedArray, hamiltonianCycle.findHamiltonianCycle(inputArray));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithNoEdgesShouldReturnInfinityArray() {
+        int[] expectedArray = {-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1};
+
+        int[][] inputArray = {
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+        };
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedArray, hamiltonianCycle.findHamiltonianCycle(inputArray));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeGraphWithHamiltonianCycle() {
+        int[] expectedArray = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0};
+        int[][] inputArray = {
+            {0, 1, 0, 1, 1},
+            {1, 0, 1, 1, 0},
+            {0, 1, 0, 1, 1},
+            {1, 1, 1, 0, 1},
+            {1, 0, 1, 1, 0},
+        };
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedArray, hamiltonianCycle.findHamiltonianCycle(inputArray));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7ea2449202e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for {@link JohnsonsAlgorithm} class. This class
+ * contains test cases to verify the correct implementation of
+ * various methods used in Johnson's Algorithm such as shortest path
+ * calculations, graph reweighting, and more.
+ */
+class JohnsonsAlgorithmTest {
+
+    // Constant representing infinity
+    private static final double INF = Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the Johnson's Algorithm with a simple graph without negative edges.
+     * Verifies that the algorithm returns the correct shortest path distances.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSimpleGraph() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, 4, INF, INF}, {INF, 0, 1, INF}, {INF, INF, 0, 2}, {INF, INF, INF, 0}};
+        double[][] result = JohnsonsAlgorithm.johnsonAlgorithm(graph);
+        double[][] expected = {{0, 4, 5, 7}, {INF, 0, 1, 3}, {INF, INF, 0, 2}, {INF, INF, INF, 0}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Johnson's Algorithm on a graph with negative edges but no negative weight cycles.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithNegativeEdges() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, -1, 4}, {INF, 0, 3}, {INF, INF, 0}};
+        double[][] result = JohnsonsAlgorithm.johnsonAlgorithm(graph);
+        double[][] expected = {{0, INF, 4}, {INF, 0, 3}, {INF, INF, 0}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Johnson's Algorithm on a graph with a negative weight cycle.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeWeightCycle() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, 1, INF}, {INF, 0, -1}, {-1, INF, 0}};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> JohnsonsAlgorithm.johnsonAlgorithm(graph));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Dijkstra's algorithm on a small graph as part of Johnson's Algorithm.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testDijkstra() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, 1, 2}, {INF, 0, 3}, {INF, INF, 0}};
+        double[] modifiedWeights = {0, 0, 0};
+        double[] result = JohnsonsAlgorithm.dijkstra(graph, 0, modifiedWeights);
+        double[] expected = {0, 1, 2};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the conversion of an adjacency matrix to an edge list.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeListConversion() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, 5, INF}, {INF, 0, 2}, {INF, INF, 0}};
+        double[][] edges = JohnsonsAlgorithm.convertToEdgeList(graph);
+        double[][] expected = {{0, 1, 5}, {1, 2, 2}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, edges);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the reweighting of a graph.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testReweightGraph() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, 2, 9}, {INF, 0, 1}, {INF, INF, 0}};
+        double[] modifiedWeights = {1, 2, 3};
+        double[][] reweightedGraph = JohnsonsAlgorithm.reweightGraph(graph, modifiedWeights);
+        double[][] expected = {{0, 1, 7}, {INF, 0, 0}, {INF, INF, 0}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, reweightedGraph);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the minDistance method used in Dijkstra's algorithm.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMinDistance() {
+        double[] dist = {INF, 3, 1, INF};
+        boolean[] visited = {false, false, false, false};
+        int minIndex = JohnsonsAlgorithm.minDistance(dist, visited);
+        assertEquals(2, minIndex);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Johnson's Algorithm on a graph where all vertices are disconnected.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, INF, INF}, {INF, 0, INF}, {INF, INF, 0}};
+        double[][] result = JohnsonsAlgorithm.johnsonAlgorithm(graph);
+        double[][] expected = {{0, INF, INF}, {INF, 0, INF}, {INF, INF, 0}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Johnson's Algorithm on a fully connected graph.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFullyConnectedGraph() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 1}, {2, 1, 0}};
+        double[][] result = JohnsonsAlgorithm.johnsonAlgorithm(graph);
+        double[][] expected = {{0, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 1}, {2, 1, 0}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Dijkstra's algorithm on a graph with multiple shortest paths.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testDijkstraMultipleShortestPaths() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, 1, 2, INF}, {INF, 0, INF, 1}, {INF, INF, 0, 1}, {INF, INF, INF, 0}};
+        double[] modifiedWeights = {0, 0, 0, 0};
+        double[] result = JohnsonsAlgorithm.dijkstra(graph, 0, modifiedWeights);
+        double[] expected = {0, 1, 2, 2};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Johnson's Algorithm with a graph where all edge weights are zero.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithZeroWeights() {
+        double[][] graph = {{0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}};
+        double[][] result = JohnsonsAlgorithm.johnsonAlgorithm(graph);
+        double[][] expected = {{0, INF, INF}, {INF, 0, INF}, {INF, INF, 0}};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8d096a4b4459
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class KahnsAlgorithmTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testBasicGraph() {
+        // Test case with a basic directed acyclic graph (DAG)
+        AdjacencyList<String> graph = new AdjacencyList<>();
+        graph.addEdge("a", "b");
+        graph.addEdge("c", "a");
+        graph.addEdge("a", "d");
+        graph.addEdge("b", "d");
+
+        TopologicalSort<String> topSort = new TopologicalSort<>(graph);
+        ArrayList<String> result = topSort.topSortOrder();
+
+        String[] expectedOrder = {"c", "a", "b", "d"};
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOrder, result.toArray());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithMultipleSources() {
+        // Test case where graph has multiple independent sources
+        AdjacencyList<String> graph = new AdjacencyList<>();
+        graph.addEdge("a", "c");
+        graph.addEdge("b", "c");
+
+        TopologicalSort<String> topSort = new TopologicalSort<>(graph);
+        ArrayList<String> result = topSort.topSortOrder();
+
+        String[] expectedOrder = {"a", "b", "c"};
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOrder, result.toArray());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        // Test case for disconnected graph
+        AdjacencyList<String> graph = new AdjacencyList<>();
+        graph.addEdge("a", "b");
+        graph.addEdge("c", "d");
+
+        TopologicalSort<String> topSort = new TopologicalSort<>(graph);
+        ArrayList<String> result = topSort.topSortOrder();
+
+        String[] expectedOrder = {"a", "c", "b", "d"};
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOrder, result.toArray());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithCycle() {
+        // Test case for a graph with a cycle - topological sorting is not possible
+        AdjacencyList<String> graph = new AdjacencyList<>();
+        graph.addEdge("a", "b");
+        graph.addEdge("b", "c");
+        graph.addEdge("c", "a");
+
+        TopologicalSort<String> topSort = new TopologicalSort<>(graph);
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, () -> topSort.topSortOrder());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleNodeGraph() {
+        AdjacencyList<String> graph = new AdjacencyList<>();
+        graph.addEdge("a", "a"); // self-loop
+
+        TopologicalSort<String> topSort = new TopologicalSort<>(graph);
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, () -> topSort.topSortOrder());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KosarajuTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KosarajuTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..53ed26dff26f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KosarajuTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,111 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KosarajuTest {
+
+    private final Kosaraju kosaraju = new Kosaraju();
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindStronglyConnectedComponents() {
+        // Create a graph using adjacency list
+        int n = 8;
+        List<List<Integer>> adjList = new ArrayList<>(n);
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            adjList.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+
+        adjList.get(0).add(1);
+        adjList.get(1).add(2);
+        adjList.get(2).add(0);
+        adjList.get(2).add(3);
+        adjList.get(3).add(4);
+        adjList.get(4).add(5);
+        adjList.get(4).add(7);
+        adjList.get(5).add(6);
+        adjList.get(6).add(4);
+        adjList.get(6).add(7);
+
+        List<List<Integer>> actualResult = kosaraju.kosaraju(n, adjList);
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedResult = new ArrayList<>();
+        /*
+            Expected result:
+            {0, 1, 2}
+            {3}
+            {5, 4, 6}
+            {7}
+        */
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 0));
+        expectedResult.add(List.of(3));
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(5, 6, 4));
+        expectedResult.add(List.of(7));
+
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindSingleNodeSCC() {
+        // Create a simple graph using adjacency list
+        int n = 8;
+        List<List<Integer>> adjList = new ArrayList<>(n);
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            adjList.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+
+        adjList.get(0).add(1);
+        adjList.get(1).add(2);
+        adjList.get(2).add(3);
+        adjList.get(3).add(4);
+        adjList.get(4).add(5);
+        adjList.get(5).add(6);
+        adjList.get(6).add(7);
+        adjList.get(7).add(0);
+
+        List<List<Integer>> actualResult = kosaraju.kosaraju(n, adjList);
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedResult = new ArrayList<>();
+        /*
+            Expected result:
+            {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
+        */
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0));
+
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        // Create a disconnected graph (two separate components)
+        int n = 5;
+        List<List<Integer>> adjList = new ArrayList<>(n);
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            adjList.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+
+        // Add edges for first component
+        adjList.get(0).add(1);
+        adjList.get(1).add(2);
+        adjList.get(2).add(0);
+
+        // Add edges for second component
+        adjList.get(3).add(4);
+        adjList.get(4).add(3);
+
+        List<List<Integer>> actualResult = kosaraju.kosaraju(n, adjList);
+
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedResult = new ArrayList<>();
+        /*
+            Expected result:
+            {0, 1, 2}
+            {3, 4}
+        */
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(4, 3));
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 0));
+
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KruskalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KruskalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7291cd6c319c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KruskalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
+public class KruskalTest {
+
+    private Kruskal kruskal;
+    private HashSet<Kruskal.Edge>[] graph;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        kruskal = new Kruskal();
+        int n = 7;
+        graph = new HashSet[n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            graph[i] = new HashSet<>();
+        }
+
+        // Add edges to the graph
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 0, 1, 2);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 0, 2, 3);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 0, 3, 3);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 1, 2, 4);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 2, 3, 5);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 1, 4, 3);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 2, 4, 1);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 3, 5, 7);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 4, 5, 8);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 5, 6, 9);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKruskal() {
+        int n = 6;
+        HashSet<Kruskal.Edge>[] graph = new HashSet[n];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            graph[i] = new HashSet<>();
+        }
+
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 0, 1, 4);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 0, 2, 2);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 1, 2, 1);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 1, 3, 5);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 2, 3, 8);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 2, 4, 10);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 3, 4, 2);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 3, 5, 6);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(graph, 4, 5, 3);
+
+        HashSet<Kruskal.Edge>[] result = kruskal.kruskal(graph);
+
+        List<List<Integer>> actualEdges = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (HashSet<Kruskal.Edge> edges : result) {
+            for (Kruskal.Edge edge : edges) {
+                actualEdges.add(Arrays.asList(edge.from, edge.to, edge.weight));
+            }
+        }
+
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedEdges = Arrays.asList(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 1), Arrays.asList(0, 2, 2), Arrays.asList(3, 4, 2), Arrays.asList(4, 5, 3), Arrays.asList(1, 3, 5));
+
+        assertTrue(actualEdges.containsAll(expectedEdges) && expectedEdges.containsAll(actualEdges));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyGraph() {
+        HashSet<Kruskal.Edge>[] emptyGraph = new HashSet[0];
+        HashSet<Kruskal.Edge>[] result = kruskal.kruskal(emptyGraph);
+        assertEquals(0, result.length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeGraph() {
+        HashSet<Kruskal.Edge>[] singleNodeGraph = new HashSet[1];
+        singleNodeGraph[0] = new HashSet<>();
+        HashSet<Kruskal.Edge>[] result = kruskal.kruskal(singleNodeGraph);
+        assertTrue(result[0].isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGraphWithDisconnectedNodes() {
+        int n = 5;
+        HashSet<Kruskal.Edge>[] disconnectedGraph = new HashSet[n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            disconnectedGraph[i] = new HashSet<>();
+        }
+
+        Kruskal.addEdge(disconnectedGraph, 0, 1, 2);
+        Kruskal.addEdge(disconnectedGraph, 2, 3, 4);
+
+        HashSet<Kruskal.Edge>[] result = kruskal.kruskal(disconnectedGraph);
+
+        List<List<Integer>> actualEdges = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (HashSet<Kruskal.Edge> edges : result) {
+            for (Kruskal.Edge edge : edges) {
+                actualEdges.add(Arrays.asList(edge.from, edge.to, edge.weight));
+            }
+        }
+
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedEdges = Arrays.asList(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2), Arrays.asList(2, 3, 4));
+
+        assertTrue(actualEdges.containsAll(expectedEdges) && expectedEdges.containsAll(actualEdges));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cc8a2df872ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/MatrixGraphsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,140 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MatrixGraphsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphConstruction() {
+        AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(5);
+        assertEquals(5, graph.numberOfVertices());
+        assertEquals(0, graph.numberOfEdges());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAddEdge() {
+        AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(5);
+        assertTrue(graph.addEdge(0, 1));
+        assertTrue(graph.edgeDoesExist(0, 1));
+        assertTrue(graph.edgeDoesExist(1, 0));
+        assertEquals(1, graph.numberOfEdges());
+
+        // Adding the same edge again should return false
+        assertFalse(graph.addEdge(0, 1));
+        assertFalse(graph.addEdge(5, 1));
+        assertFalse(graph.addEdge(-1, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveEdge() {
+        AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(5);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2);
+
+        assertTrue(graph.removeEdge(0, 1));
+        assertFalse(graph.edgeDoesExist(0, 1));
+        assertFalse(graph.edgeDoesExist(1, 0));
+        assertEquals(1, graph.numberOfEdges());
+
+        assertFalse(graph.removeEdge(0, 3));
+        assertFalse(graph.removeEdge(5, 1));
+        assertFalse(graph.removeEdge(-1, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testVertexDoesExist() {
+        AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(5);
+        assertTrue(graph.vertexDoesExist(0));
+        assertTrue(graph.vertexDoesExist(4));
+        assertFalse(graph.vertexDoesExist(5));
+        assertFalse(graph.vertexDoesExist(-1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDepthFirstOrder() {
+        AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(5);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 4);
+
+        List<Integer> dfs = graph.depthFirstOrder(0);
+        assertEquals(5, dfs.size());
+        assertEquals(0, dfs.getFirst());
+
+        assertTrue(dfs.containsAll(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3, 4)));
+
+        List<Integer> emptyDfs = graph.depthFirstOrder(5);
+        assertTrue(emptyDfs.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBreadthFirstOrder() {
+        AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(5);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 4);
+
+        List<Integer> bfs = graph.breadthFirstOrder(0);
+        assertEquals(5, bfs.size());
+        assertEquals(0, bfs.getFirst());
+
+        assertTrue(bfs.containsAll(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3, 4)));
+
+        List<Integer> emptyBfs = graph.breadthFirstOrder(5);
+        assertTrue(emptyBfs.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToString() {
+        AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(3);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2);
+
+        String expected = "    0 1 2  \n"
+            + "0 : 0 1 0 \n"
+            + "1 : 1 0 1 \n"
+            + "2 : 0 1 0 \n";
+
+        assertEquals(expected, graph.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCyclicGraph() {
+        AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(4);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 0);
+
+        List<Integer> dfs = graph.depthFirstOrder(0);
+        List<Integer> bfs = graph.breadthFirstOrder(0);
+
+        assertEquals(4, dfs.size());
+        assertEquals(4, bfs.size());
+        assertTrue(dfs.containsAll(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3)));
+        assertTrue(bfs.containsAll(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3)));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        AdjacencyMatrixGraph graph = new AdjacencyMatrixGraph(5);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 3);
+
+        List<Integer> dfs = graph.depthFirstOrder(0);
+        List<Integer> bfs = graph.breadthFirstOrder(0);
+
+        assertEquals(2, dfs.size());
+        assertEquals(2, bfs.size());
+        assertTrue(dfs.containsAll(Arrays.asList(0, 1)));
+        assertTrue(bfs.containsAll(Arrays.asList(0, 1)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMSTTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMSTTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ec59a3880642
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/PrimMSTTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PrimMSTTest {
+
+    private final PrimMST primMST = new PrimMST();
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSimpleGraph() {
+        // Test graph with 5 nodes and weighted edges
+        int[][] graph = {{0, 2, 0, 6, 0}, {2, 0, 3, 8, 5}, {0, 3, 0, 0, 7}, {6, 8, 0, 0, 9}, {0, 5, 7, 9, 0}};
+
+        int[] expectedParent = {-1, 0, 1, 0, 1};
+        int[] actualParent = primMST.primMST(graph);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedParent, actualParent);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        // Test case with a disconnected graph (no valid MST)
+        int[][] graph = {{0, 1, 0, 0, 0}, {1, 0, 2, 0, 0}, {0, 2, 0, 3, 0}, {0, 0, 3, 0, 4}, {0, 0, 0, 4, 0}};
+
+        int[] expectedParent = {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3}; // Expected MST parent array
+        int[] actualParent = primMST.primMST(graph);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedParent, actualParent);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllEqualWeightsGraph() {
+        // Test case where all edges have equal weight
+        int[][] graph = {{0, 1, 1, 1, 1}, {1, 0, 1, 1, 1}, {1, 1, 0, 1, 1}, {1, 1, 1, 0, 1}, {1, 1, 1, 1, 0}};
+
+        int[] expectedParent = {-1, 0, 0, 0, 0}; // Expected MST parent array (any valid spanning tree)
+        int[] actualParent = primMST.primMST(graph);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedParent, actualParent);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSparseGraph() {
+        // Test case with a sparse graph (few edges)
+        int[][] graph = {{0, 1, 0, 0, 0}, {1, 0, 1, 0, 0}, {0, 1, 0, 1, 0}, {0, 0, 1, 0, 1}, {0, 0, 0, 1, 0}};
+
+        int[] expectedParent = {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3}; // Expected MST parent array
+        int[] actualParent = primMST.primMST(graph);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedParent, actualParent);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TarjansAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TarjansAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..314cc415815d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TarjansAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TarjansAlgorithmTest {
+
+    private final TarjansAlgorithm tarjansAlgo = new TarjansAlgorithm();
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindStronglyConnectedComponents() {
+        int v = 5;
+        var graph = new ArrayList<List<Integer>>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            graph.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        graph.get(0).add(1);
+        graph.get(1).add(2);
+        graph.get(2).add(0);
+        graph.get(1).add(3);
+        graph.get(3).add(4);
+
+        var actualResult = tarjansAlgo.stronglyConnectedComponents(v, graph);
+        /*
+            Expected result:
+            0, 1, 2
+            3
+            4
+        */
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedResult = new ArrayList<>();
+        expectedResult.add(List.of(4));
+        expectedResult.add(List.of(3));
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(2, 1, 0));
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindStronglyConnectedComponentsWithSingleNodes() {
+        // Create a graph where each node is its own SCC
+        int n = 8;
+        var adjList = new ArrayList<List<Integer>>(n);
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            adjList.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        adjList.get(0).add(1);
+        adjList.get(1).add(2);
+        adjList.get(2).add(3);
+        adjList.get(3).add(4);
+        adjList.get(4).add(5);
+        adjList.get(5).add(6);
+        adjList.get(6).add(7);
+        adjList.get(7).add(0);
+
+        List<List<Integer>> actualResult = tarjansAlgo.stronglyConnectedComponents(n, adjList);
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedResult = new ArrayList<>();
+        /*
+            Expected result:
+            7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0
+        */
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0));
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGraphWithMultipleSCCs() {
+        int v = 6;
+        var graph = new ArrayList<List<Integer>>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            graph.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        graph.get(0).add(1);
+        graph.get(1).add(2);
+        graph.get(2).add(0);
+        graph.get(3).add(4);
+        graph.get(4).add(5);
+        graph.get(5).add(3);
+
+        var actualResult = tarjansAlgo.stronglyConnectedComponents(v, graph);
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedResult = new ArrayList<>();
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(2, 1, 0)); // SCC containing 0, 1, 2
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(5, 4, 3)); // SCC containing 3, 4, 5
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        int v = 7;
+        var graph = new ArrayList<List<Integer>>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
+            graph.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        graph.get(0).add(1);
+        graph.get(1).add(0);
+        graph.get(2).add(3);
+        graph.get(3).add(4);
+        graph.get(4).add(2);
+
+        var actualResult = tarjansAlgo.stronglyConnectedComponents(v, graph);
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedResult = new ArrayList<>();
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(1, 0)); // SCC containing 0, 1
+        expectedResult.add(Arrays.asList(4, 3, 2)); // SCC containing 2, 3, 4
+        expectedResult.add(List.of(5)); // SCC containing 5
+        expectedResult.add(List.of(6)); // SCC containing 6
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeGraph() {
+        int v = 1;
+        var graph = new ArrayList<List<Integer>>();
+        graph.add(new ArrayList<>());
+
+        var actualResult = tarjansAlgo.stronglyConnectedComponents(v, graph);
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedResult = new ArrayList<>();
+        expectedResult.add(List.of(0)); // SCC with a single node
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyGraph() {
+        int v = 0;
+        var graph = new ArrayList<List<Integer>>();
+
+        var actualResult = tarjansAlgo.stronglyConnectedComponents(v, graph);
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedResult = new ArrayList<>(); // No SCCs in an empty graph
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TwoSatTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TwoSatTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..15e77b357f83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/TwoSatTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Testcases for 2-SAT.
+ * Please note thea whlie checking for boolean assignments always keep n + 1 elements and the first element should be always false.
+ */
+public class TwoSatTest {
+    private TwoSat twoSat;
+
+    /**
+     * Case 1: Basic satisfiable case.
+     * Simple 3 clauses with consistent assignments.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testSatisfiableBasicCase() {
+        twoSat = new TwoSat(5);
+
+        twoSat.addClause(1, false, 2, false); // (x1 ∨ x2)
+        twoSat.addClause(3, true, 2, false); // (¬x3 ∨ x2)
+        twoSat.addClause(4, false, 5, true); // (x4 ∨ ¬x5)
+
+        twoSat.solve();
+
+        assertTrue(twoSat.isSolutionExists(), "Expected solution to exist");
+        boolean[] expected = {false, true, true, true, true, true};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, twoSat.getSolutions());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Case 2: Unsatisfiable due to direct contradiction.
+     * (x1 ∨ x1) ∧ (¬x1 ∨ ¬x1) makes x1 and ¬x1 both required.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testUnsatisfiableContradiction() {
+        twoSat = new TwoSat(1);
+
+        twoSat.addClause(1, false, 1, false); // (x1 ∨ x1)
+        twoSat.addClause(1, true, 1, true); // (¬x1 ∨ ¬x1)
+
+        twoSat.solve();
+
+        assertFalse(twoSat.isSolutionExists(), "Expected no solution (contradiction)");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Case 3: Single variable, trivially satisfiable.
+     * Only (x1 ∨ x1) exists.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleVariableTrivialSatisfiable() {
+        twoSat = new TwoSat(1);
+
+        twoSat.addClause(1, false, 1, false); // (x1 ∨ x1)
+
+        twoSat.solve();
+
+        assertTrue(twoSat.isSolutionExists(), "Expected solution to exist");
+        boolean[] expected = {false, true};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, twoSat.getSolutions());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Case 4: Larger satisfiable system with dependencies.
+     * (x1 ∨ x2), (¬x2 ∨ x3), (¬x3 ∨ x4), (¬x4 ∨ x5)
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testChainedDependenciesSatisfiable() {
+        twoSat = new TwoSat(5);
+
+        twoSat.addClause(1, false, 2, false);
+        twoSat.addClause(2, true, 3, false);
+        twoSat.addClause(3, true, 4, false);
+        twoSat.addClause(4, true, 5, false);
+
+        twoSat.solve();
+
+        assertTrue(twoSat.isSolutionExists(), "Expected solution to exist");
+        boolean[] solution = twoSat.getSolutions();
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
+            assertTrue(solution[i], "Expected x" + i + " to be true");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Case 5: Contradiction due to dependency cycle.
+     * (x1 ∨ x2), (¬x1 ∨ ¬x2), (x1 ∨ ¬x2), (¬x1 ∨ x2)
+     * These clauses form a circular dependency making it impossible.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testUnsatisfiableCycle() {
+        twoSat = new TwoSat(2);
+
+        twoSat.addClause(1, false, 2, false);
+        twoSat.addClause(1, true, 2, true);
+        twoSat.addClause(1, false, 2, true);
+        twoSat.addClause(1, true, 2, false);
+
+        twoSat.solve();
+
+        assertFalse(twoSat.isSolutionExists(), "Expected no solution due to contradictory cycle");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Testcase from CSES
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void test6() {
+        twoSat = new TwoSat(2);
+
+        twoSat.addClause(1, true, 2, false);
+        twoSat.addClause(2, true, 1, false);
+        twoSat.addClause(1, true, 1, true);
+        twoSat.addClause(2, false, 2, false);
+
+        twoSat.solve();
+
+        assertFalse(twoSat.isSolutionExists(), "Expected no solution.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowellTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowellTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f45c4e10be56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowellTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.WelshPowell.Graph;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class WelshPowellTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSimpleGraph() {
+        final var graph = WelshPowell.makeGraph(4, new int[][] {{0, 1}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}});
+        int[] colors = WelshPowell.findColoring(graph);
+        assertTrue(isColoringValid(graph, colors));
+        assertEquals(2, countDistinctColors(colors));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        final var graph = WelshPowell.makeGraph(3, new int[][] {}); // No edges
+        int[] colors = WelshPowell.findColoring(graph);
+        assertTrue(isColoringValid(graph, colors));
+        assertEquals(1, countDistinctColors(colors));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompleteGraph() {
+        final var graph = WelshPowell.makeGraph(3, new int[][] {{0, 1}, {1, 2}, {2, 0}});
+        int[] colors = WelshPowell.findColoring(graph);
+        assertTrue(isColoringValid(graph, colors));
+        assertEquals(3, countDistinctColors(colors));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testComplexGraph() {
+        int[][] edges = {
+            {0, 7},
+            {0, 1},
+            {1, 3},
+            {2, 3},
+            {3, 8},
+            {3, 10},
+            {4, 10},
+            {4, 5},
+            {5, 6},
+            {6, 10},
+            {6, 7},
+            {7, 8},
+            {7, 9},
+            {7, 10},
+            {8, 9},
+            {9, 10},
+        };
+
+        final var graph = WelshPowell.makeGraph(11, edges); // 11 vertices from A (0) to K (10)
+        int[] colors = WelshPowell.findColoring(graph);
+
+        assertTrue(isColoringValid(graph, colors), "The coloring should be valid with no adjacent vertices sharing the same color.");
+        assertEquals(3, countDistinctColors(colors), "The chromatic number of the graph should be 3.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeVertices() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { WelshPowell.makeGraph(-1, new int[][] {}); }, "Number of vertices cannot be negative");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSelfLoop() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { WelshPowell.makeGraph(3, new int[][] {{0, 0}}); }, "Self-loops are not allowed");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidVertex() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { WelshPowell.makeGraph(3, new int[][] {{0, 3}}); }, "Vertex out of bounds");
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { WelshPowell.makeGraph(3, new int[][] {{0, -1}}); }, "Vertex out of bounds");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidEdgeArray() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { WelshPowell.makeGraph(3, new int[][] {{0}}); }, "Edge array must have exactly two elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testWithPreColoredVertex() {
+        final var graph = WelshPowell.makeGraph(4, new int[][] {{0, 1}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}});
+        int[] colors = WelshPowell.findColoring(graph);
+        assertTrue(isColoringValid(graph, colors));
+        assertTrue(countDistinctColors(colors) >= 2);
+        for (int color : colors) {
+            assertTrue(color >= 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeGraph() {
+        int[][] edges = {{0, 1}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 4}, {4, 5}, {5, 0}, {6, 7}, {7, 8}, {8, 6}, {9, 10}, {10, 11}, {11, 9}, {12, 13}, {13, 14}, {14, 15}};
+
+        final var graph = WelshPowell.makeGraph(16, edges); // 16 vertices
+        int[] colors = WelshPowell.findColoring(graph);
+        assertTrue(isColoringValid(graph, colors));
+        assertEquals(3, countDistinctColors(colors)); // Expecting a maximum of 3 colors
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStarGraph() {
+        int[][] edges = {{0, 1}, {0, 2}, {0, 3}, {0, 4}};
+
+        final var graph = WelshPowell.makeGraph(5, edges); // 5 vertices in a star formation
+        int[] colors = WelshPowell.findColoring(graph);
+        assertTrue(isColoringValid(graph, colors));
+        assertEquals(2, countDistinctColors(colors)); // Star graph can be colored with 2 colors
+    }
+
+    private boolean isColoringValid(Graph graph, int[] colors) {
+        if (Arrays.stream(colors).anyMatch(n -> n < 0)) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < graph.getNumVertices(); i++) {
+            for (int neighbor : graph.getAdjacencyList(i)) {
+                if (i != neighbor && colors[i] == colors[neighbor]) {
+                    return false; // Adjacent vertices have the same color
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        return true; // No adjacent vertices share the same color
+    }
+
+    private int countDistinctColors(int[] colors) {
+        return (int) Arrays.stream(colors).distinct().count();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..629aaae95753
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class GenericHashMapUsingArrayListTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenericHashmapWhichUsesArrayAndBothKeyAndValueAreStrings() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        map.put("Nepal", "Kathmandu");
+        map.put("India", "New Delhi");
+        map.put("Australia", "Sydney");
+        assertNotNull(map);
+        assertEquals(4, map.size());
+        assertEquals("Kathmandu", map.get("Nepal"));
+        assertEquals("Sydney", map.get("Australia"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenericHashmapWhichUsesArrayAndKeyIsStringValueIsInteger() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<String, Integer> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<>();
+        map.put("USA", 87);
+        map.put("Nepal", 25);
+        map.put("India", 101);
+        map.put("Australia", 99);
+        assertNotNull(map);
+        assertEquals(4, map.size());
+        assertEquals(25, map.get("Nepal"));
+        assertEquals(99, map.get("Australia"));
+        map.remove("Nepal");
+        assertFalse(map.containsKey("Nepal"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenericHashmapWhichUsesArrayAndKeyIsIntegerValueIsString() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<Integer, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<>();
+        map.put(101, "Washington DC");
+        map.put(34, "Kathmandu");
+        map.put(46, "New Delhi");
+        map.put(89, "Sydney");
+        assertNotNull(map);
+        assertEquals(4, map.size());
+        assertEquals("Sydney", map.get(89));
+        assertEquals("Washington DC", map.get(101));
+        assertTrue(map.containsKey(46));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveNonExistentKey() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        map.remove("Nepal"); // Attempting to remove a non-existent key
+        assertEquals(1, map.size()); // Size should remain the same
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRehashing() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
+            map.put("Key" + i, "Value" + i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(20, map.size()); // Ensure all items were added
+        assertEquals("Value5", map.get("Key5")); // Check retrieval after rehash
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpdateValueForExistingKey() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        map.put("USA", "New Washington DC"); // Updating value for existing key
+        assertEquals("New Washington DC", map.get("USA"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToStringMethod() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        map.put("Nepal", "Kathmandu");
+        String expected = "{USA : Washington DC, Nepal : Kathmandu}";
+        assertEquals(expected, map.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testContainsKey() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArrayList<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        assertTrue(map.containsKey("USA"));
+        assertFalse(map.containsKey("Nepal"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5d1733a3e97c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class GenericHashMapUsingArrayTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenericHashmapWhichUsesArrayAndBothKeyAndValueAreStrings() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArray<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArray<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        map.put("Nepal", "Kathmandu");
+        map.put("India", "New Delhi");
+        map.put("Australia", "Sydney");
+        assertNotNull(map);
+        assertEquals(4, map.size());
+        assertEquals("Kathmandu", map.get("Nepal"));
+        assertEquals("Sydney", map.get("Australia"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenericHashmapWhichUsesArrayAndKeyIsStringValueIsInteger() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArray<String, Integer> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArray<>();
+        map.put("USA", 87);
+        map.put("Nepal", 25);
+        map.put("India", 101);
+        map.put("Australia", 99);
+        assertNotNull(map);
+        assertEquals(4, map.size());
+        assertEquals(25, map.get("Nepal"));
+        assertEquals(99, map.get("Australia"));
+        map.remove("Nepal");
+        assertFalse(map.containsKey("Nepal"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenericHashmapWhichUsesArrayAndKeyIsIntegerValueIsString() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArray<Integer, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArray<>();
+        map.put(101, "Washington DC");
+        map.put(34, "Kathmandu");
+        map.put(46, "New Delhi");
+        map.put(89, "Sydney");
+        assertNotNull(map);
+        assertEquals(4, map.size());
+        assertEquals("Sydney", map.get(89));
+        assertEquals("Washington DC", map.get(101));
+        assertTrue(map.containsKey(46));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveNonExistentKey() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArray<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArray<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        map.remove("Nepal"); // Attempting to remove a non-existent key
+        assertEquals(1, map.size()); // Size should remain the same
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRehashing() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArray<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArray<>();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
+            map.put("Key" + i, "Value" + i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(20, map.size()); // Ensure all items were added
+        assertEquals("Value5", map.get("Key5")); // Check retrieval after rehash
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpdateValueForExistingKey() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArray<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArray<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        map.put("USA", "New Washington DC"); // Updating value for existing key
+        assertEquals("New Washington DC", map.get("USA"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToStringMethod() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArray<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArray<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        map.put("Nepal", "Kathmandu");
+        String expected = "{USA : Washington DC, Nepal : Kathmandu}";
+        assertEquals(expected, map.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testContainsKey() {
+        GenericHashMapUsingArray<String, String> map = new GenericHashMapUsingArray<>();
+        map.put("USA", "Washington DC");
+        assertTrue(map.containsKey("USA"));
+        assertFalse(map.containsKey("Nepal"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c2f80bfe3210
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,140 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class HashMapCuckooHashingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void insertKey() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        assertEquals(0, hashTable.getNumberOfKeysInTable());
+
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(3);
+        assertEquals(1, hashTable.getNumberOfKeysInTable());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void getKeyIndex() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(8);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(4);
+
+        assertNotEquals(-1, hashTable.findKeyInTable(8));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void containsKey() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(8);
+        boolean contains = hashTable.checkTableContainsKey(8);
+
+        assertTrue(contains);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void removeKey() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(3);
+
+        int initialSize = hashTable.getNumberOfKeysInTable();
+        hashTable.deleteKeyFromHashTable(3);
+
+        assertEquals(initialSize - 1, hashTable.getNumberOfKeysInTable());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void removeNone() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        try {
+            hashTable.deleteKeyFromHashTable(3);
+        } catch (Exception e) {
+            assertTrue(true);
+            return;
+        }
+        Assertions.fail("Expected exception when trying to delete a non-existing key.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void reHashTableIncreasesTableSize() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(1);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(2);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(3);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(4);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(5);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(6);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(7);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(8);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(9);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(10); // This should trigger rehashing
+
+        assertEquals(10, hashTable.getNumberOfKeysInTable());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void hashFunctionsAreDifferent() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(33);
+
+        assertNotEquals(hashTable.hashFunction1(3), hashTable.hashFunction2(3), "Hash functions should produce different indices.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void avoidInfiniteLoops() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(0);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(10);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(100);
+
+        assertTrue(hashTable.checkTableContainsKey(0));
+        assertTrue(hashTable.checkTableContainsKey(10));
+        assertTrue(hashTable.checkTableContainsKey(100));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLoadFactor() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 8; i++) { // Insert 8 keys to test load factor
+            hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(8, hashTable.getNumberOfKeysInTable());
+        // Check that rehashing occurs when a 9th key is added
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(9);
+        assertTrue(hashTable.getNumberOfKeysInTable() > 8, "Load factor exceeded, table should have been resized.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteNonExistentKey() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(1);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(2);
+
+        Exception exception = null;
+        try {
+            hashTable.deleteKeyFromHashTable(3); // Try deleting a non-existent key
+        } catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
+            exception = e; // Capture the exception
+        }
+        assertNotNull(exception, "Expected an IllegalArgumentException when deleting a non-existent key.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertDuplicateKey() {
+        HashMapCuckooHashing hashTable = new HashMapCuckooHashing(10);
+        hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(1);
+        Exception exception = null;
+
+        try {
+            hashTable.insertKey2HashTable(1); // Attempt to insert duplicate key
+        } catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
+            exception = e; // Capture the exception
+        }
+        assertNotNull(exception, "Expected an IllegalArgumentException for duplicate key insertion.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ff3ba3ed2571
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,184 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class HashMapTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertAndSearch() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(10);
+        hashMap.insert(15, "Value15");
+        hashMap.insert(25, "Value25");
+        hashMap.insert(35, "Value35");
+
+        assertEquals("Value15", hashMap.search(15));
+        assertEquals("Value25", hashMap.search(25));
+        assertEquals("Value35", hashMap.search(35));
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(45)); // Test for non-existent key
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDelete() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(10);
+        hashMap.insert(15, "Value15");
+        hashMap.insert(25, "Value25");
+        hashMap.insert(35, "Value35");
+
+        assertEquals("Value25", hashMap.search(25));
+        hashMap.delete(25);
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(25)); // Confirm deletion
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDisplay() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(5);
+        hashMap.insert(15, "Value15");
+        hashMap.insert(25, "Value25");
+        hashMap.insert(35, "Value35");
+        // Optionally verify display functionality if it returns a string
+        hashMap.display(); // Manual check during test execution
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertNullKey() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(10);
+        hashMap.insert(null, "NullValue");
+        assertEquals("NullValue", hashMap.search(null)); // Verify null key handling
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertNullValue() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(10);
+        hashMap.insert(15, null);
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(15)); // Verify null value handling
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUpdateExistingKey() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(10);
+        hashMap.insert(15, "Value15");
+        hashMap.insert(15, "UpdatedValue15");
+
+        assertEquals("UpdatedValue15", hashMap.search(15)); // Verify update
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testHandleCollisions() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(3); // Create a small bucket size to force collisions
+        // These keys should collide if the hash function is modulo 3
+        hashMap.insert(1, "Value1");
+        hashMap.insert(4, "Value4");
+        hashMap.insert(7, "Value7");
+
+        assertEquals("Value1", hashMap.search(1));
+        assertEquals("Value4", hashMap.search(4));
+        assertEquals("Value7", hashMap.search(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchInEmptyHashMap() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(10);
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(10)); // Confirm search returns null in empty map
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteNonExistentKey() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(10);
+        hashMap.insert(15, "Value15");
+        hashMap.delete(25); // Delete non-existent key
+
+        assertEquals("Value15", hashMap.search(15)); // Ensure existing key remains
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(25)); // Confirm non-existent key remains null
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertLargeNumberOfElements() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(10);
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            hashMap.insert(i, "Value" + i);
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            assertEquals("Value" + i, hashMap.search(i)); // Verify all inserted values
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteHeadOfBucket() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(3);
+        hashMap.insert(1, "Value1");
+        hashMap.insert(4, "Value4");
+        hashMap.insert(7, "Value7");
+
+        hashMap.delete(1);
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(1)); // Verify head deletion
+        assertEquals("Value4", hashMap.search(4));
+        assertEquals("Value7", hashMap.search(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteTailOfBucket() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(3);
+        hashMap.insert(1, "Value1");
+        hashMap.insert(4, "Value4");
+        hashMap.insert(7, "Value7");
+
+        hashMap.delete(7);
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(7)); // Verify tail deletion
+        assertEquals("Value1", hashMap.search(1));
+        assertEquals("Value4", hashMap.search(4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteMiddleElementOfBucket() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(3);
+        hashMap.insert(1, "Value1");
+        hashMap.insert(4, "Value4");
+        hashMap.insert(7, "Value7");
+
+        hashMap.delete(4);
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(4)); // Verify middle element deletion
+        assertEquals("Value1", hashMap.search(1));
+        assertEquals("Value7", hashMap.search(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testResizeHashMap() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(2); // Small initial size to force rehashing
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            hashMap.insert(i, "Value" + i);
+        }
+
+        // Verify all values after resizing
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            assertEquals("Value" + i, hashMap.search(i));
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCollisionResolution() {
+        HashMap<String, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(3);
+        hashMap.insert("abc", "Value1"); // Hash index 0
+        hashMap.insert("cab", "Value2"); // Hash index 0 (collision)
+        hashMap.insert("bac", "Value3"); // Hash index 0 (collision)
+
+        assertEquals("Value1", hashMap.search("abc"));
+        assertEquals("Value2", hashMap.search("cab"));
+        assertEquals("Value3", hashMap.search("bac"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testClearHashMap() {
+        HashMap<Integer, String> hashMap = new HashMap<>(10);
+        hashMap.insert(1, "Value1");
+        hashMap.insert(2, "Value2");
+
+        hashMap.clear(); // Assuming clear method resets the hash map
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(1));
+        assertNull(hashMap.search(2));
+        assertEquals(0, hashMap.size()); // Verify size is reset
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/IntersectionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/IntersectionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..df6d15fd9ba4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/IntersectionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class IntersectionTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testBasicIntersection() {
+        int[] arr1 = {1, 2, 2, 1};
+        int[] arr2 = {2, 2};
+        List<Integer> result = Intersection.intersection(arr1, arr2);
+        assertEquals(List.of(2, 2), result, "Intersection should return [2, 2]");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoIntersection() {
+        int[] arr1 = {1, 2, 3};
+        int[] arr2 = {4, 5, 6};
+        List<Integer> result = Intersection.intersection(arr1, arr2);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty(), "Intersection should be empty for disjoint sets");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyArray() {
+        int[] arr1 = {};
+        int[] arr2 = {1, 2, 3};
+        List<Integer> result = Intersection.intersection(arr1, arr2);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty(), "Intersection should be empty when first array is empty");
+
+        result = Intersection.intersection(arr2, arr1);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty(), "Intersection should be empty when second array is empty");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullArray() {
+        int[] arr1 = null;
+        int[] arr2 = {1, 2, 3};
+        List<Integer> result = Intersection.intersection(arr1, arr2);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty(), "Intersection should be empty when first array is null");
+
+        result = Intersection.intersection(arr2, arr1);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty(), "Intersection should be empty when second array is null");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleOccurrences() {
+        int[] arr1 = {5, 5, 5, 6};
+        int[] arr2 = {5, 5, 6, 6, 6};
+        List<Integer> result = Intersection.intersection(arr1, arr2);
+        assertEquals(List.of(5, 5, 6), result, "Intersection should return [5, 5, 6]");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSameElements() {
+        int[] arr1 = {1, 1, 1};
+        int[] arr2 = {1, 1, 1};
+        List<Integer> result = Intersection.intersection(arr1, arr2);
+        assertEquals(List.of(1, 1, 1), result, "Intersection should return [1, 1, 1] for same elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeArrays() {
+        int[] arr1 = new int[1000];
+        int[] arr2 = new int[1000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            arr1[i] = i;
+            arr2[i] = i;
+        }
+        List<Integer> result = Intersection.intersection(arr1, arr2);
+        assertEquals(1000, result.size(), "Intersection should return all elements for identical large arrays");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/LinearProbingHashMapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/LinearProbingHashMapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..34b165d4bbcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/LinearProbingHashMapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LinearProbingHashMapTest extends MapTest {
+
+    @Override
+    <Key extends Comparable<Key>, Value> Map<Key, Value> getMap() {
+        return new LinearProbingHashMap<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void putNullKey() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        assertFalse(map.put(null, "value"), "Putting a null key should return false");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void putDuplicateKeys() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        map.put(1, "one");
+        map.put(1, "uno");
+        assertEquals("uno", map.get(1), "Value should be updated to 'uno'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void putResizeTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
+            map.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+        assertEquals(20, map.size(), "Map size should be 20 after inserting 20 elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void deleteNonExistentKey() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        assertFalse(map.delete(999), "Deleting a non-existent key should return false");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void deleteAndReinsert() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        map.put(1, "one");
+        map.delete(1);
+        assertFalse(map.contains(1), "Map should not contain the deleted key");
+        map.put(1, "one again");
+        assertTrue(map.contains(1), "Map should contain the key after reinsertion");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void resizeDown() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
+            map.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < 12; i++) {
+            map.delete(i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(4, map.size(), "Map size should be 4 after deleting 12 elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void keysOrderTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        for (int i = 10; i > 0; i--) {
+            map.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+        int expectedKey = 1;
+        for (Integer key : map.keys()) {
+            assertEquals(expectedKey++, key, "Keys should be in sorted order");
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void stressTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            map.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+            assertEquals(i + 1, map.size(), "Size should match number of inserted elements");
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < 500; i++) {
+            map.delete(i);
+            assertEquals(1000 - (i + 1), map.size(), "Size should decrease correctly");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MajorityElementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MajorityElementTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7dcd5eb7a8f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MajorityElementTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MajorityElementTest {
+    @Test
+    void testMajorityWithSingleMajorityElement() {
+        int[] nums = {1, 2, 3, 9, 9, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9};
+        List<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        expected.add(9);
+        List<Integer> actual = MajorityElement.majority(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMajorityWithMultipleMajorityElements() {
+        int[] nums = {1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4};
+        List<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        expected.add(4);
+        List<Integer> actual = MajorityElement.majority(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMajorityWithNoMajorityElement() {
+        int[] nums = {1, 2, 4, 4, 5, 4};
+        List<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        expected.add(4);
+        List<Integer> actual = MajorityElement.majority(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMajorityWithEmptyArray() {
+        int[] nums = {};
+        List<Integer> expected = Collections.emptyList();
+        List<Integer> actual = MajorityElement.majority(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMajorityWithAllElementsSame() {
+        int[] nums = {5, 5, 5, 5, 5};
+        List<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        expected.add(5);
+        List<Integer> actual = MajorityElement.majority(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMajorityWithEvenCountAndOneMajorityElement() {
+        int[] nums = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2};
+        List<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        expected.add(2);
+        List<Integer> actual = MajorityElement.majority(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMajorityWithNoElementsEqualToHalf() {
+        int[] nums = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4};
+        List<Integer> expected = Collections.emptyList();
+        List<Integer> actual = MajorityElement.majority(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMajorityWithLargeArray() {
+        int[] nums = {1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1};
+        List<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        expected.add(1);
+        List<Integer> actual = MajorityElement.majority(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..44551a8adac6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/MapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.hashmap.hashing;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+abstract class MapTest {
+    abstract <Key extends Comparable<Key>, Value> Map<Key, Value> getMap();
+
+    @Test
+    void putTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+
+        assertFalse(map.put(null, "-25"));
+        assertFalse(map.put(null, null));
+        assertTrue(map.put(-25, "-25"));
+        assertTrue(map.put(33, "33"));
+        assertTrue(map.put(100, "100"));
+        assertTrue(map.put(100, "+100"));
+        assertTrue(map.put(100, null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void getTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        for (int i = -100; i < 100; i++) {
+            map.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+
+        for (int i = -100; i < 100; i++) {
+            assertEquals(map.get(i), String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 100; i < 200; i++) {
+            assertNull(map.get(i));
+        }
+
+        assertNull(map.get(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void deleteTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        for (int i = -100; i < 100; i++) {
+            map.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            assertTrue(map.delete(i));
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 100; i < 200; i++) {
+            assertFalse(map.delete(i));
+        }
+
+        assertFalse(map.delete(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void containsTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        for (int i = -100; i < 100; i++) {
+            map.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+
+        for (int i = -50; i < 50; i++) {
+            assertTrue(map.contains(i));
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 100; i < 200; i++) {
+            assertFalse(map.contains(i));
+        }
+
+        assertFalse(map.contains(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void sizeTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        assertEquals(map.size(), 0);
+
+        for (int i = -100; i < 100; i++) {
+            map.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+
+        assertEquals(map.size(), 200);
+
+        for (int i = -50; i < 50; i++) {
+            map.delete(i);
+        }
+
+        assertEquals(map.size(), 100);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void keysTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        Iterable<Integer> keys = map.keys();
+        assertFalse(keys.iterator().hasNext());
+
+        for (int i = 100; i > -100; i--) {
+            map.put(i, String.valueOf(i));
+        }
+
+        keys = map.keys();
+        int i = -100;
+        for (Integer key : keys) {
+            assertEquals(key, ++i);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void hashTest() {
+        Map<Integer, String> map = getMap();
+        int testSize = 100;
+        Random random = new Random();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            int randomInt = random.nextInt();
+            int hashIndex = map.hash(randomInt, testSize);
+            int negateHashIndex = map.hash(-randomInt, testSize);
+            assertTrue(hashIndex >= 0);
+            assertTrue(hashIndex < testSize);
+            assertTrue(negateHashIndex >= 0);
+            assertTrue(negateHashIndex < testSize);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d911f3ac30d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FibonacciHeapTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testHeapInsertionAndMinimum() {
+        FibonacciHeap fibonacciHeap = new FibonacciHeap();
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(5);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(3);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(1);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(18);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(33);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, fibonacciHeap.findMin().getKey());
+        fibonacciHeap.deleteMin();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, fibonacciHeap.findMin().getKey());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteMinOnSingleElementHeap() {
+        FibonacciHeap fibonacciHeap = new FibonacciHeap(10);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, fibonacciHeap.findMin().getKey());
+        fibonacciHeap.deleteMin();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(fibonacciHeap.empty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHeapMeld() {
+        FibonacciHeap heap1 = new FibonacciHeap();
+        FibonacciHeap heap2 = new FibonacciHeap();
+        heap1.insert(1);
+        heap1.insert(2);
+        heap2.insert(3);
+        heap2.insert(4);
+
+        heap1.meld(heap2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, heap1.findMin().getKey());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHeapSize() {
+        FibonacciHeap fibonacciHeap = new FibonacciHeap();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, fibonacciHeap.size());
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(5);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, fibonacciHeap.size());
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(3);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, fibonacciHeap.size());
+        fibonacciHeap.deleteMin();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, fibonacciHeap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCountersRep() {
+        FibonacciHeap fibonacciHeap = new FibonacciHeap();
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(5);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(3);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(8);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(1);
+
+        int[] counters = fibonacciHeap.countersRep();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, counters[0]);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, counters[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteMinMultipleElements() {
+        FibonacciHeap fibonacciHeap = new FibonacciHeap();
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(5);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(2);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(8);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(1);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, fibonacciHeap.findMin().getKey());
+        fibonacciHeap.deleteMin();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, fibonacciHeap.findMin().getKey());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertNegativeKeys() {
+        FibonacciHeap fibonacciHeap = new FibonacciHeap();
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(-10);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(-5);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(-20);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(-20, fibonacciHeap.findMin().getKey());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteOnEmptyHeap() {
+        FibonacciHeap fibonacciHeap = new FibonacciHeap();
+        Assertions.assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> { fibonacciHeap.delete(fibonacciHeap.findMin()); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPotentialCalculation() {
+        FibonacciHeap fibonacciHeap = new FibonacciHeap();
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(10);
+        fibonacciHeap.insert(20);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, fibonacciHeap.potential()); // 2 trees, no marked nodes
+        var node = fibonacciHeap.findMin();
+        fibonacciHeap.delete(node);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, fibonacciHeap.potential());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a3642996b769
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/GenericHeapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GenericHeapTest {
+
+    private GenericHeap<Integer> heap;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        heap = new GenericHeap<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAddAndGet() {
+        heap.add(10);
+        heap.add(20);
+        heap.add(5);
+
+        assertEquals(20, heap.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemove() {
+        heap.add(10);
+        heap.add(20);
+        heap.add(5);
+
+        assertEquals(20, heap.remove());
+        assertEquals(10, heap.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmpty() {
+        assertTrue(heap.isEmpty());
+        heap.add(1);
+        assertFalse(heap.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSize() {
+        assertEquals(0, heap.size());
+        heap.add(1);
+        heap.add(2);
+        assertEquals(2, heap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpdatePriority() {
+        heap.add(10);
+        heap.add(20);
+        heap.add(5);
+
+        heap.updatePriority(10);
+        assertEquals(20, heap.get());
+
+        heap.add(30);
+        heap.updatePriority(20); // 20 will be moved up
+        assertEquals(30, heap.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveFromEmptyHeap() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, () -> heap.remove());
+        assertEquals("Heap is empty", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetFromEmptyHeap() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, () -> heap.get());
+        assertEquals("Heap is empty", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpdatePriorityForNonExistentItem() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> heap.updatePriority(100));
+        assertEquals("Item not found in the heap", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElementTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d04a9de8a94b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/HeapElementTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class HeapElementTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorAndGetters() {
+        HeapElement element = new HeapElement(5.0, "Info");
+        assertEquals(5.0, element.getKey());
+        assertEquals("Info", element.getInfo());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithNullInfo() {
+        HeapElement element = new HeapElement(10);
+        assertEquals(10, element.getKey());
+        assertNull(element.getInfo());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToString() {
+        HeapElement element = new HeapElement(7.5, "TestInfo");
+        assertEquals("Key: 7.5 - TestInfo", element.toString());
+
+        HeapElement elementWithoutInfo = new HeapElement(3);
+        assertEquals("Key: 3.0 - No additional info", elementWithoutInfo.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEquals() {
+        HeapElement element1 = new HeapElement(2.5, "Data");
+        HeapElement element2 = new HeapElement(2.5, "Data");
+        HeapElement element3 = new HeapElement(3.0, "DifferentData");
+
+        assertEquals(element1, element2); // Same key and info
+        assertNotEquals(element1, element3); // Different key
+        assertNotEquals(null, element1); // Check for null
+        assertNotEquals("String", element1); // Check for different type
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHashCode() {
+        HeapElement element1 = new HeapElement(4, "HashMe");
+        HeapElement element2 = new HeapElement(4, "HashMe");
+        HeapElement element3 = new HeapElement(4, "DifferentHash");
+
+        assertEquals(element1.hashCode(), element2.hashCode()); // Same key and info
+        assertNotEquals(element1.hashCode(), element3.hashCode()); // Different info
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7b92a57eaa77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KthElementFinderTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testFindKthLargest() {
+        int[] nums = {3, 2, 1, 5, 6, 4};
+        assertEquals(5, KthElementFinder.findKthLargest(nums, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindKthSmallest() {
+        int[] nums = {7, 10, 4, 3, 20, 15};
+        assertEquals(7, KthElementFinder.findKthSmallest(nums, 3));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/LeftistHeapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/LeftistHeapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8c313237f88f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/LeftistHeapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class LeftistHeapTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmpty() {
+        LeftistHeap heap = new LeftistHeap();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(heap.isEmpty(), "Heap should be empty initially.");
+
+        heap.insert(10);
+        Assertions.assertFalse(heap.isEmpty(), "Heap should not be empty after insertion.");
+
+        heap.clear();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(heap.isEmpty(), "Heap should be empty after clearing.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertAndExtractMin() {
+        LeftistHeap heap = new LeftistHeap();
+        heap.insert(6);
+        heap.insert(2);
+        heap.insert(3);
+        heap.insert(1);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, heap.extractMin(), "Minimum should be 1.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, heap.extractMin(), "Next minimum should be 2.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, heap.extractMin(), "Next minimum should be 3.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(6, heap.extractMin(), "Next minimum should be 6.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(-1, heap.extractMin(), "Extracting from an empty heap should return -1.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMerge() {
+        LeftistHeap heap1 = new LeftistHeap();
+        heap1.insert(1);
+        heap1.insert(3);
+        heap1.insert(5);
+
+        LeftistHeap heap2 = new LeftistHeap();
+        heap2.insert(2);
+        heap2.insert(4);
+        heap2.insert(6);
+
+        heap1.merge(heap2);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, heap1.extractMin(), "After merging, minimum should be 1.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, heap1.extractMin(), "Next minimum should be 2.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, heap1.extractMin(), "Next minimum should be 3.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, heap1.extractMin(), "Next minimum should be 4.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, heap1.extractMin(), "Next minimum should be 5.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(6, heap1.extractMin(), "Next minimum should be 6.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(-1, heap1.extractMin(), "Extracting from an empty heap should return -1.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInOrderTraversal() {
+        LeftistHeap heap = new LeftistHeap();
+        heap.insert(10);
+        heap.insert(5);
+        heap.insert(20);
+        heap.insert(15);
+        heap.insert(30);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals("[20, 15, 30, 5, 10]", heap.inOrder().toString(), "In-order traversal should match the expected output.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleExtractions() {
+        LeftistHeap heap = new LeftistHeap();
+        heap.insert(10);
+        heap.insert(5);
+        heap.insert(3);
+        heap.insert(8);
+
+        // Extract multiple elements
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, heap.extractMin());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, heap.extractMin());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(8, heap.extractMin());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, heap.extractMin());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(-1, heap.extractMin(), "Extracting from an empty heap should return -1.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c1b7eb3fd4ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for MaxHeap implementation
+ */
+class MaxHeapTest {
+
+    private MaxHeap heap;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        // Create a fresh heap for each test
+        List<HeapElement> elements = Arrays.asList(new HeapElement(5.0, "Five"), new HeapElement(2.0, "Two"), new HeapElement(8.0, "Eight"), new HeapElement(1.0, "One"), new HeapElement(9.0, "Nine"));
+        heap = new MaxHeap(elements);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithNullList() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new MaxHeap(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithEmptyList() {
+        MaxHeap emptyHeap = new MaxHeap(new ArrayList<>());
+        assertTrue(emptyHeap.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithNullElements() {
+        List<HeapElement> elements = Arrays.asList(new HeapElement(1.0, "One"), null, new HeapElement(2.0, "Two"));
+        MaxHeap heap = new MaxHeap(elements);
+        assertEquals(2, heap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertElement() {
+        heap.insertElement(new HeapElement(10.0, "Ten"));
+        assertEquals(10.0, heap.getElement(1).getKey());
+        assertEquals(6, heap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertNullElement() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> heap.insertElement(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetElementAtIndex() {
+        HeapElement element = heap.getElement(1);
+        assertEquals(9.0, element.getKey());
+        assertEquals("Nine", element.getValue());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetElementAtInvalidIndex() {
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> heap.getElement(0));
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> heap.getElement(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteElement() throws EmptyHeapException {
+        heap.deleteElement(1);
+        assertEquals(8.0, heap.getElement(1).getKey());
+        assertEquals(4, heap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteElementAtInvalidIndex() {
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> heap.deleteElement(0));
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> heap.deleteElement(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteFromEmptyHeap() {
+        MaxHeap emptyHeap = new MaxHeap(new ArrayList<>());
+        assertThrows(EmptyHeapException.class, () -> emptyHeap.deleteElement(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExtractMax() throws EmptyHeapException {
+        HeapElement max = heap.getElement();
+        assertEquals(9.0, max.getKey());
+        assertEquals("Nine", max.getValue());
+        assertEquals(4, heap.size());
+
+        max = heap.getElement();
+        assertEquals(8.0, max.getKey());
+        assertEquals(3, heap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExtractMaxFromEmptyHeap() {
+        MaxHeap emptyHeap = new MaxHeap(new ArrayList<>());
+        assertThrows(EmptyHeapException.class, () -> emptyHeap.getElement());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHeapOrder() {
+        // Test that parent is always greater than or equal to children
+        for (int i = 1; i <= heap.size() / 2; i++) {
+            double parentKey = heap.getElement(i).getKey();
+
+            // Check left child
+            if (2 * i <= heap.size()) {
+                assertTrue(parentKey >= heap.getElement(2 * i).getKey());
+            }
+
+            // Check right child
+            if (2 * i + 1 <= heap.size()) {
+                assertTrue(parentKey >= heap.getElement(2 * i + 1).getKey());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeAndEmpty() {
+        assertEquals(5, heap.size());
+        assertFalse(heap.isEmpty());
+
+        // Remove all elements
+        while (!heap.isEmpty()) {
+            try {
+                heap.getElement();
+            } catch (EmptyHeapException e) {
+                Assertions.fail("Should not throw EmptyHeapException while heap is not empty");
+            }
+        }
+
+        assertEquals(0, heap.size());
+        assertTrue(heap.isEmpty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fcacb21fcfc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MedianFinderTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testMedianMaintenance() {
+        MedianFinder mf = new MedianFinder();
+        mf.addNum(1);
+        mf.addNum(2);
+        assertEquals(1.5, mf.findMedian());
+        mf.addNum(3);
+        assertEquals(2.0, mf.findMedian());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArraysTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArraysTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c9b754619286
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArraysTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class MergeKSortedArraysTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testMergeKArrays(int[][] arrays, int[] expected) {
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, MergeKSortedArrays.mergeKArrays(arrays));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Basic test case with multiple arrays
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{1, 4, 5}, {1, 3, 4}, {2, 6}}, new int[] {1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6}),
+
+            // Edge case: All arrays are empty
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{}, {}, {}}, new int[] {}),
+
+            // Edge case: One array is empty
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{1, 3, 5}, {}, {2, 4, 6}}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}),
+
+            // Single array
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{1, 2, 3}}, new int[] {1, 2, 3}),
+
+            // Arrays with negative numbers
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{-5, 1, 3}, {-10, 0, 2}}, new int[] {-10, -5, 0, 1, 2, 3}),
+
+            // Arrays with duplicate elements
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 3, 3}, {2, 2, 4}}, new int[] {1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4}),
+
+            // Edge case: Arrays of varying lengths
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{1, 2}, {3}, {4, 5, 6, 7}}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1c2caf54cdb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,141 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MinHeapTest {
+
+    private MinHeap heap;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        // Create a fresh heap for each test
+        List<HeapElement> elements = Arrays.asList(new HeapElement(5.0, "Five"), new HeapElement(2.0, "Two"), new HeapElement(8.0, "Eight"), new HeapElement(1.0, "One"), new HeapElement(9.0, "Nine"));
+        heap = new MinHeap(elements);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithNullList() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new MinHeap(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithEmptyList() {
+        MinHeap emptyHeap = new MinHeap(new ArrayList<>());
+        assertTrue(emptyHeap.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithNullElements() {
+        List<HeapElement> elements = Arrays.asList(new HeapElement(1.0, "One"), null, new HeapElement(2.0, "Two"));
+        MinHeap heap = new MinHeap(elements);
+        assertEquals(2, heap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertElement() {
+        heap.insertElement(new HeapElement(0.5, "Half"));
+        assertEquals(0.5, heap.getElement(1).getKey());
+        assertEquals(6, heap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertNullElement() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> heap.insertElement(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetElementAtIndex() {
+        HeapElement element = heap.getElement(1);
+        assertEquals(1.0, element.getKey());
+        assertEquals("One", element.getValue());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetElementAtInvalidIndex() {
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> heap.getElement(0));
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> heap.getElement(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteElement() throws EmptyHeapException {
+        heap.deleteElement(1);
+        assertEquals(2.0, heap.getElement(1).getKey());
+        assertEquals(4, heap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteElementAtInvalidIndex() {
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> heap.deleteElement(0));
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> heap.deleteElement(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteFromEmptyHeap() {
+        MinHeap emptyHeap = new MinHeap(new ArrayList<>());
+        assertThrows(EmptyHeapException.class, () -> emptyHeap.deleteElement(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExtractMin() throws EmptyHeapException {
+        HeapElement min = heap.getElement();
+        assertEquals(1.0, min.getKey());
+        assertEquals("One", min.getValue());
+        assertEquals(4, heap.size());
+
+        min = heap.getElement();
+        assertEquals(2.0, min.getKey());
+        assertEquals(3, heap.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExtractMinFromEmptyHeap() {
+        MinHeap emptyHeap = new MinHeap(new ArrayList<>());
+        assertThrows(EmptyHeapException.class, () -> emptyHeap.getElement());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHeapOrder() {
+        // Test that parent is always smaller than or equal to children
+        for (int i = 1; i <= heap.size() / 2; i++) {
+            double parentKey = heap.getElement(i).getKey();
+
+            // Check left child
+            if (2 * i <= heap.size()) {
+                assertTrue(parentKey <= heap.getElement(2 * i).getKey());
+            }
+
+            // Check right child
+            if (2 * i + 1 <= heap.size()) {
+                assertTrue(parentKey <= heap.getElement(2 * i + 1).getKey());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeAndEmpty() {
+        assertEquals(5, heap.size());
+        assertFalse(heap.isEmpty());
+
+        // Remove all elements
+        while (!heap.isEmpty()) {
+            try {
+                heap.getElement();
+            } catch (EmptyHeapException e) {
+                Assertions.fail("Should not throw EmptyHeapException while heap is not empty");
+            }
+        }
+
+        assertEquals(0, heap.size());
+        assertTrue(heap.isEmpty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueueTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8f93bd630aa7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinPriorityQueueTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MinPriorityQueueTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertAndPeek() {
+        MinPriorityQueue queue = new MinPriorityQueue(5);
+        queue.insert(10);
+        queue.insert(5);
+        queue.insert(15);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, queue.peek(), "The minimum element should be 5.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDelete() {
+        MinPriorityQueue queue = new MinPriorityQueue(5);
+        queue.insert(10);
+        queue.insert(5);
+        queue.insert(15);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, queue.delete(), "The deleted minimum element should be 5.");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, queue.peek(), "After deletion, the new minimum should be 10.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmpty() {
+        MinPriorityQueue queue = new MinPriorityQueue(5);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "The queue should be empty initially.");
+
+        queue.insert(10);
+        Assertions.assertFalse(queue.isEmpty(), "The queue should not be empty after insertion.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsFull() {
+        MinPriorityQueue queue = new MinPriorityQueue(2);
+        queue.insert(10);
+        queue.insert(5);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.isFull(), "The queue should be full after inserting two elements.");
+        queue.delete();
+        Assertions.assertFalse(queue.isFull(), "The queue should not be full after deletion.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHeapSort() {
+        MinPriorityQueue queue = new MinPriorityQueue(5);
+        queue.insert(10);
+        queue.insert(5);
+        queue.insert(15);
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(3);
+
+        // Delete all elements to sort the queue
+        int[] sortedArray = new int[5];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            sortedArray[i] = queue.delete();
+        }
+
+        Assertions.assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 3, 5, 10, 15}, sortedArray, "The array should be sorted in ascending order.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekEmptyQueue() {
+        MinPriorityQueue queue = new MinPriorityQueue(5);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, queue::peek, "Should throw an exception when peeking into an empty queue.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteEmptyQueue() {
+        MinPriorityQueue queue = new MinPriorityQueue(5);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, queue::delete, "Should throw an exception when deleting from an empty queue.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertWhenFull() {
+        MinPriorityQueue queue = new MinPriorityQueue(2);
+        queue.insert(10);
+        queue.insert(5);
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, () -> queue.insert(15), "Should throw an exception when inserting into a full queue.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..883d2b02ba7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,115 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertSame;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CircleLinkedListTest {
+
+    private CircleLinkedList<Integer> list;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        list = new CircleLinkedList<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInitialSize() {
+        assertEquals(0, list.getSize(), "Initial size should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAppendAndSize() {
+        list.append(1);
+        list.append(2);
+        list.append(3);
+
+        assertEquals(3, list.getSize(), "Size after three appends should be 3.");
+        assertEquals("[ 1, 2, 3 ]", list.toString(), "List content should match appended values.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemove() {
+        list.append(1);
+        list.append(2);
+        list.append(3);
+        list.append(4);
+
+        assertEquals(2, list.remove(1), "Removed element at index 1 should be 2.");
+        assertEquals(3, list.remove(1), "Removed element at index 1 after update should be 3.");
+        assertEquals("[ 1, 4 ]", list.toString(), "List content should reflect removals.");
+        assertEquals(2, list.getSize(), "Size after two removals should be 2.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveInvalidIndex() {
+        list.append(1);
+        list.append(2);
+
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> list.remove(2), "Should throw on out-of-bounds index.");
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> list.remove(-1), "Should throw on negative index.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testToStringEmpty() {
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString(), "Empty list should be represented by '[]'.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testToStringAfterRemoval() {
+        list.append(1);
+        list.append(2);
+        list.append(3);
+        list.remove(1);
+
+        assertEquals("[ 1, 3 ]", list.toString(), "List content should match remaining elements after removal.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleElement() {
+        list.append(1);
+
+        assertEquals(1, list.getSize(), "Size after single append should be 1.");
+        assertEquals("[ 1 ]", list.toString(), "Single element list should display properly.");
+        assertEquals(1, list.remove(0), "Single element removed should match appended value.");
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString(), "List should be empty after removing the single element.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNullElement() {
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> list.append(null), "Appending null should throw exception.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCircularReference() {
+        list.append(1);
+        list.append(2);
+        list.append(3);
+        CircleLinkedList.Node<Integer> current = list.head;
+
+        // Traverse one full cycle and verify the circular reference
+        for (int i = 0; i <= list.getSize(); i++) {
+            current = current.next;
+        }
+        assertEquals(list.head, current, "End of list should point back to the head (circular structure).");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testClear() {
+        list.append(1);
+        list.append(2);
+        list.append(3);
+
+        // Remove all elements to simulate clearing the list
+        for (int i = list.getSize() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            list.remove(i);
+        }
+
+        assertEquals(0, list.getSize(), "Size after clearing should be 0.");
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString(), "Empty list should be represented by '[]' after clear.");
+        assertSame(list.head.next, list.head, "Head's next should point to itself after clearing.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..faa2765a3264
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CircularDoublyLinkedListTest {
+
+    private CircularDoublyLinkedList<Integer> list;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        list = new CircularDoublyLinkedList<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInitialSize() {
+        assertEquals(0, list.getSize(), "Initial size should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAppendAndSize() {
+        list.append(10);
+        list.append(20);
+        list.append(30);
+
+        assertEquals(3, list.getSize(), "Size after appends should be 3.");
+        assertEquals("[ 10, 20, 30 ]", list.toString(), "List content should match appended values.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemove() {
+        list.append(10);
+        list.append(20);
+        list.append(30);
+
+        int removed = list.remove(1);
+        assertEquals(20, removed, "Removed element at index 1 should be 20.");
+
+        assertEquals("[ 10, 30 ]", list.toString(), "List content should reflect removal.");
+        assertEquals(2, list.getSize(), "Size after removal should be 2.");
+
+        removed = list.remove(0);
+        assertEquals(10, removed, "Removed element at index 0 should be 10.");
+        assertEquals("[ 30 ]", list.toString(), "List content should reflect second removal.");
+        assertEquals(1, list.getSize(), "Size after second removal should be 1.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveInvalidIndex() {
+        list.append(10);
+        list.append(20);
+
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> list.remove(2), "Removing at invalid index 2 should throw exception.");
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> list.remove(-1), "Removing at negative index should throw exception.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testToStringEmpty() {
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString(), "Empty list should display as [].");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleElement() {
+        list.append(10);
+
+        assertEquals(1, list.getSize(), "Size after adding single element should be 1.");
+        assertEquals("[ 10 ]", list.toString(), "Single element list string should be formatted correctly.");
+        int removed = list.remove(0);
+        assertEquals(10, removed, "Removed element should be the one appended.");
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString(), "List should be empty after removing last element.");
+        assertEquals(0, list.getSize(), "Size after removing last element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNullAppend() {
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> list.append(null), "Appending null should throw NullPointerException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveLastPosition() {
+        list.append(10);
+        list.append(20);
+        list.append(30);
+        int removed = list.remove(list.getSize() - 1);
+        assertEquals(30, removed, "Last element removed should be 30.");
+        assertEquals(2, list.getSize(), "Size should decrease after removing last element.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveFromEmptyThrows() {
+        assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> list.remove(0), "Remove from empty list should throw.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRepeatedAppendAndRemove() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            list.append(i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(100, list.getSize());
+
+        for (int i = 99; i >= 0; i--) {
+            int removed = list.remove(i);
+            assertEquals(i, removed, "Removed element should match appended value.");
+        }
+        assertEquals(0, list.getSize(), "List should be empty after all removes.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testToStringAfterMultipleRemoves() {
+        list.append(1);
+        list.append(2);
+        list.append(3);
+        list.remove(2);
+        list.remove(0);
+        assertEquals("[ 2 ]", list.toString(), "ToString should correctly represent remaining elements.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3d3f62fc5132
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CountSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertDoesNotThrow;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CountSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest {
+
+    private CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion list;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        list = new CountSinglyLinkedListRecursion();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Count of an empty list should be 0")
+    public void testCountEmptyList() {
+        assertEquals(0, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Count after inserting a single element should be 1")
+    public void testCountSingleElementList() {
+        list.insert(1);
+        assertEquals(1, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Count after inserting multiple distinct elements")
+    public void testCountMultipleElements() {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
+            list.insert(i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(5, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Count should reflect total number of nodes with duplicate values")
+    public void testCountWithDuplicateElements() {
+        list.insert(2);
+        list.insert(2);
+        list.insert(3);
+        list.insert(3);
+        list.insert(1);
+        assertEquals(5, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Count should return 0 after clearing the list")
+    public void testCountAfterClearingList() {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 4; i++) {
+            list.insert(i);
+        }
+        list.clear(); // assumed to exist
+        assertEquals(0, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Count on a very large list should be accurate")
+    public void testCountOnVeryLargeList() {
+        int n = 1000;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            list.insert(i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(n, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Count should work correctly with negative values")
+    public void testCountOnListWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        list.insert(-1);
+        list.insert(-2);
+        list.insert(-3);
+        assertEquals(3, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Calling count multiple times should return the same value if list is unchanged")
+    public void testCountIsConsistentWithoutModification() {
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(2);
+        int count1 = list.count();
+        int count2 = list.count();
+        assertEquals(count1, count2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Count should reflect total even if all values are the same")
+    public void testCountAllSameValues() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            list.insert(42);
+        }
+        assertEquals(5, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Count should remain correct after multiple interleaved insert and count operations")
+    public void testCountAfterEachInsert() {
+        assertEquals(0, list.count());
+        list.insert(1);
+        assertEquals(1, list.count());
+        list.insert(2);
+        assertEquals(2, list.count());
+        list.insert(3);
+        assertEquals(3, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("List should not throw on edge count (0 nodes)")
+    public void testEdgeCaseNoElements() {
+        assertDoesNotThrow(() -> list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should count accurately after inserting then removing all elements")
+    public void testCountAfterInsertAndClear() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            list.insert(i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(10, list.count());
+        list.clear();
+        assertEquals(0, list.count());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoopTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoopTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2e1012f2b79b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoopTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CreateAndDetectLoopTest {
+
+    private CreateAndDetectLoop.Node head;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        // Set up a linked list: 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6
+        head = new CreateAndDetectLoop.Node(1);
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.Node second = new CreateAndDetectLoop.Node(2);
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.Node third = new CreateAndDetectLoop.Node(3);
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.Node fourth = new CreateAndDetectLoop.Node(4);
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.Node fifth = new CreateAndDetectLoop.Node(5);
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.Node sixth = new CreateAndDetectLoop.Node(6);
+
+        head.next = second;
+        second.next = third;
+        third.next = fourth;
+        fourth.next = fifth;
+        fifth.next = sixth;
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDetectLoopNoLoop() {
+        // Test when no loop exists
+        assertFalse(CreateAndDetectLoop.detectLoop(head), "There should be no loop.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCreateAndDetectLoopLoopExists() {
+        // Create a loop between position 2 (node with value 2) and position 5 (node with value 5)
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.createLoop(head, 2, 5);
+
+        // Now test if the loop is detected
+        assertTrue(CreateAndDetectLoop.detectLoop(head), "A loop should be detected.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCreateLoopInvalidPosition() {
+        // Create loop with invalid positions (0)
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.createLoop(head, 0, 0);
+
+        // Ensure no loop was created
+        assertFalse(CreateAndDetectLoop.detectLoop(head), "There should be no loop with invalid positions.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCreateLoopSelfLoop() {
+        // Create a self-loop at position 3 (node with value 3)
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.createLoop(head, 3, 3);
+
+        // Test if the self-loop is detected
+        assertTrue(CreateAndDetectLoop.detectLoop(head), "A self-loop should be detected.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCreateLoopNoChangeForNonExistentPositions() {
+        // Create a loop with non-existent positions
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.createLoop(head, 10, 20);
+
+        // Ensure no loop was created
+        assertFalse(CreateAndDetectLoop.detectLoop(head), "No loop should be created if positions are out of bounds.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleNodesWithNoLoop() {
+        // Multiple nodes without creating any loop
+        assertFalse(CreateAndDetectLoop.detectLoop(head), "No loop should be detected for a standard linear list.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHeadToTailLoop() {
+        // Create a loop from the tail back to the head
+        CreateAndDetectLoop.createLoop(head, 1, 6);
+
+        // Detect the head-to-tail loop
+        assertTrue(CreateAndDetectLoop.detectLoop(head), "A head-to-tail loop should be detected.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..20bf24d79159
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CursorLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,297 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class CursorLinkedListTest {
+    private CursorLinkedList<String> list;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        list = new CursorLinkedList<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAppendAndGet() {
+        list.append("First");
+        list.append("Second");
+        list.append("Third");
+
+        assertEquals("First", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Second", list.get(1));
+        assertEquals("Third", list.get(2));
+        assertNull(list.get(3));
+        assertNull(list.get(-1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIndexOf() {
+        list.append("First");
+        list.append("Second");
+        list.append("Third");
+
+        assertEquals(0, list.indexOf("First"));
+        assertEquals(1, list.indexOf("Second"));
+        assertEquals(2, list.indexOf("Third"));
+        assertEquals(-1, list.indexOf("NonExistent"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemove() {
+        list.append("First");
+        list.append("Second");
+        list.append("Third");
+
+        list.remove("Second");
+        assertEquals("First", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Third", list.get(1));
+        assertNull(list.get(2));
+        assertEquals(-1, list.indexOf("Second"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveByIndex() {
+        list.append("First");
+        list.append("Second");
+        list.append("Third");
+
+        list.removeByIndex(1);
+        assertEquals("First", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Third", list.get(1));
+        assertNull(list.get(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveFirstElement() {
+        list.append("First");
+        list.append("Second");
+
+        list.remove("First");
+        assertEquals("Second", list.get(0));
+        assertNull(list.get(1));
+        assertEquals(-1, list.indexOf("First"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveLastElement() {
+        list.append("First");
+        list.append("Second");
+
+        list.remove("Second");
+        assertEquals("First", list.get(0));
+        assertNull(list.get(1));
+        assertEquals(-1, list.indexOf("Second"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullHandling() {
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> list.append(null));
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> list.remove(null));
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> list.indexOf(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyList() {
+        assertNull(list.get(0));
+        assertEquals(-1, list.indexOf("Any"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMemoryLimitExceeded() {
+        // Test adding more elements than CURSOR_SPACE_SIZE
+        assertThrows(OutOfMemoryError.class, () -> {
+            for (int i = 0; i < 101; i++) { // CURSOR_SPACE_SIZE is 100
+                list.append("Element" + i);
+            }
+        });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementOperations() {
+        // Test operations with just one element
+        list.append("Only");
+        assertEquals("Only", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals(0, list.indexOf("Only"));
+
+        list.remove("Only");
+        assertNull(list.get(0));
+        assertEquals(-1, list.indexOf("Only"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDuplicateElements() {
+        // Test handling of duplicate elements
+        list.append("Duplicate");
+        list.append("Other");
+        list.append("Duplicate");
+
+        assertEquals(0, list.indexOf("Duplicate")); // Should return first occurrence
+        assertEquals("Duplicate", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Duplicate", list.get(2));
+
+        list.remove("Duplicate"); // Should remove first occurrence
+        assertEquals("Other", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Duplicate", list.get(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveByIndexEdgeCases() {
+        list.append("First");
+        list.append("Second");
+        list.append("Third");
+
+        // Test removing invalid indices
+        list.removeByIndex(-1); // Should not crash
+        list.removeByIndex(10); // Should not crash
+
+        // Verify list unchanged
+        assertEquals("First", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Second", list.get(1));
+        assertEquals("Third", list.get(2));
+
+        // Test removing first element by index
+        list.removeByIndex(0);
+        assertEquals("Second", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Third", list.get(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveByIndexLastElement() {
+        list.append("First");
+        list.append("Second");
+        list.append("Third");
+
+        // Remove last element by index
+        list.removeByIndex(2);
+        assertEquals("First", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Second", list.get(1));
+        assertNull(list.get(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConsecutiveOperations() {
+        // Test multiple consecutive operations
+        list.append("A");
+        list.append("B");
+        list.append("C");
+        list.append("D");
+
+        list.remove("B");
+        list.remove("D");
+
+        assertEquals("A", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("C", list.get(1));
+        assertNull(list.get(2));
+
+        list.append("E");
+        assertEquals("E", list.get(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMemoryReclamation() {
+        // Test that removed elements free up memory space
+        for (int i = 0; i < 50; i++) {
+            list.append("Element" + i);
+        }
+
+        // Remove some elements
+        for (int i = 0; i < 25; i++) {
+            list.remove("Element" + i);
+        }
+
+        // Should be able to add more elements (testing memory reclamation)
+        for (int i = 100; i < 150; i++) {
+            list.append("New" + i);
+        }
+
+        // Verify some elements exist
+        assertEquals("Element25", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("New100", list.get(25));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSpecialCharacters() {
+        // Test with strings containing special characters
+        list.append("Hello World!");
+        list.append("Test@123");
+        list.append("Special#$%");
+        list.append(""); // Empty string
+
+        assertEquals("Hello World!", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Test@123", list.get(1));
+        assertEquals("Special#$%", list.get(2));
+        assertEquals("", list.get(3));
+
+        assertEquals(3, list.indexOf(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeIndices() {
+        list.append("Test");
+
+        // Test very large indices
+        assertNull(list.get(Integer.MAX_VALUE));
+        assertNull(list.get(1000));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSequentialRemovalByIndex() {
+        list.append("A");
+        list.append("B");
+        list.append("C");
+        list.append("D");
+
+        // Remove elements sequentially by index
+        list.removeByIndex(1); // Remove "B"
+        assertEquals("A", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("C", list.get(1));
+        assertEquals("D", list.get(2));
+
+        list.removeByIndex(1); // Remove "C"
+        assertEquals("A", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("D", list.get(1));
+        assertNull(list.get(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAppendAfterRemoval() {
+        list.append("First");
+        list.append("Second");
+
+        list.remove("First");
+        list.append("Third");
+
+        assertEquals("Second", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Third", list.get(1));
+        assertEquals(1, list.indexOf("Third"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPerformanceWithManyOperations() {
+        // Test with many mixed operations
+        for (int i = 0; i < 50; i++) {
+            list.append("Item" + i);
+        }
+
+        // Remove every other element
+        for (int i = 0; i < 50; i += 2) {
+            list.remove("Item" + i);
+        }
+
+        // Verify remaining elements
+        assertEquals("Item1", list.get(0));
+        assertEquals("Item3", list.get(1));
+        assertEquals("Item5", list.get(2));
+
+        // Add more elements
+        for (int i = 100; i < 110; i++) {
+            list.append("New" + i);
+        }
+
+        assertEquals("New100", list.get(25));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..667f9fcf5700
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the FlattenMultilevelLinkedList class.
+ * This class tests the flattening logic with various list structures,
+ * including null lists, simple lists, and complex multilevel lists.
+ */
+final class FlattenMultilevelLinkedListTest {
+
+    // A helper function to convert a flattened list (connected by child pointers)
+    // into a standard Java List for easy comparison.
+    private List<Integer> toList(FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node head) {
+        List<Integer> list = new ArrayList<>();
+        FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node current = head;
+        while (current != null) {
+            list.add(current.data);
+            current = current.child;
+        }
+        return list;
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with a null list")
+    void testFlattenNullList() {
+        assertNull(FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.flatten(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with a simple, single-level list")
+    void testFlattenSingleLevelList() {
+        // Create a simple list: 1 -> 2 -> 3
+        FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node head = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(1);
+        head.next = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(2);
+        head.next.next = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(3);
+
+        // Flatten the list
+        FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node flattenedHead = FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.flatten(head);
+
+        // Expected output: 1 -> 2 -> 3 (vertically)
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(1, 2, 3);
+        assertEquals(expected, toList(flattenedHead));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with a complex multilevel list")
+    void testFlattenComplexMultilevelList() {
+        // Create the multilevel structure from the problem description
+        // 5 -> 10 -> 19 -> 28
+        // |    |     |     |
+        // 7    20    22    35
+        // |          |     |
+        // 8          50    40
+        // |                |
+        // 30               45
+        FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node head = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(5);
+        head.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(7);
+        head.child.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(8);
+        head.child.child.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(30);
+
+        head.next = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(10);
+        head.next.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(20);
+
+        head.next.next = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(19);
+        head.next.next.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(22);
+        head.next.next.child.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(50);
+
+        head.next.next.next = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(28);
+        head.next.next.next.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(35);
+        head.next.next.next.child.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(40);
+        head.next.next.next.child.child.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(45);
+
+        // Flatten the list
+        FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node flattenedHead = FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.flatten(head);
+
+        // Expected sorted output
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(5, 7, 8, 10, 19, 20, 22, 28, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50);
+        assertEquals(expected, toList(flattenedHead));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test with some empty child lists")
+    void testFlattenWithEmptyChildLists() {
+        // Create a list: 5 -> 10 -> 12
+        // |           |
+        // 7           11
+        // |
+        // 9
+        FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node head = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(5);
+        head.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(7);
+        head.child.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(9);
+
+        head.next = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(10); // No child list
+        head.next.child = null;
+
+        head.next.next = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(12);
+        head.next.next.child = new FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node(16);
+
+        // Flatten the list
+        FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.Node flattenedHead = FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.flatten(head);
+
+        // Expected sorted output
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16);
+        assertEquals(expected, toList(flattenedHead));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8d3150d18ed0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,177 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists.MergeKSortedLinkedList.Node;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MergeKSortedLinkedListTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeKLists() {
+        Node list1 = new Node(1, new Node(4, new Node(5)));
+        Node list2 = new Node(1, new Node(3, new Node(4)));
+        Node list3 = new Node(2, new Node(6));
+        Node[] lists = {list1, list2, list3};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        int[] expectedValues = {1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6};
+        int[] actualValues = getListValues(mergedHead);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedValues, actualValues, "Merged list values do not match the expected sorted order.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeEmptyLists() {
+        Node[] lists = {null, null, null};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        assertNull(mergedHead, "Merged list should be null when all input lists are empty.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeSingleList() {
+        Node list1 = new Node(1, new Node(3, new Node(5)));
+        Node[] lists = {list1};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        int[] expectedValues = {1, 3, 5};
+        int[] actualValues = getListValues(mergedHead);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedValues, actualValues, "Merged list should match the single input list when only one list is provided.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeListsOfDifferentLengths() {
+        Node list1 = new Node(1, new Node(3, new Node(5)));
+        Node list2 = new Node(2, new Node(4));
+        Node list3 = new Node(6);
+        Node[] lists = {list1, list2, list3};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        int[] expectedValues = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
+        int[] actualValues = getListValues(mergedHead);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedValues, actualValues, "Merged list values do not match expected sorted order for lists of different lengths.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeSingleElementLists() {
+        Node list1 = new Node(1);
+        Node list2 = new Node(3);
+        Node list3 = new Node(2);
+        Node[] lists = {list1, list2, list3};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        int[] expectedValues = {1, 2, 3};
+        int[] actualValues = getListValues(mergedHead);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedValues, actualValues, "Merged list values do not match expected sorted order for single-element lists.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to extract values from the linked list into an array for assertion.
+     */
+    private int[] getListValues(Node head) {
+        int[] values = new int[100]; // assuming max length for simplicity
+        int i = 0;
+        Node curr = head;
+        while (curr != null) {
+            values[i++] = curr.data;
+            curr = curr.next;
+        }
+        return Arrays.copyOf(values, i); // return only filled part
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithNullListsInArray() {
+        Node list1 = new Node(1, new Node(3));
+        Node list2 = null;
+        Node list3 = new Node(2, new Node(4));
+        Node[] lists = {list1, list2, list3};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        int[] expectedValues = {1, 2, 3, 4};
+        int[] actualValues = getListValues(mergedHead);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedValues, actualValues, "Should handle null lists mixed with valid lists");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithDuplicateValues() {
+        Node list1 = new Node(1, new Node(1, new Node(3)));
+        Node list2 = new Node(1, new Node(2, new Node(3)));
+        Node list3 = new Node(3, new Node(3));
+        Node[] lists = {list1, list2, list3};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        int[] expectedValues = {1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3};
+        int[] actualValues = getListValues(mergedHead);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedValues, actualValues, "Should handle duplicate values correctly");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithZeroLength() {
+        Node[] lists = {};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, 0);
+
+        assertNull(mergedHead, "Should return null for zero-length array");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        Node list1 = new Node(-5, new Node(-1, new Node(3)));
+        Node list2 = new Node(-3, new Node(0, new Node(2)));
+        Node[] lists = {list1, list2};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        int[] expectedValues = {-5, -3, -1, 0, 2, 3};
+        int[] actualValues = getListValues(mergedHead);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedValues, actualValues, "Should handle negative numbers correctly");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeIdenticalLists() {
+        Node list1 = new Node(1, new Node(2, new Node(3)));
+        Node list2 = new Node(1, new Node(2, new Node(3)));
+        Node list3 = new Node(1, new Node(2, new Node(3)));
+        Node[] lists = {list1, list2, list3};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        int[] expectedValues = {1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3};
+        int[] actualValues = getListValues(mergedHead);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedValues, actualValues, "Should merge identical lists correctly");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeAlreadySortedSequence() {
+        Node list1 = new Node(1, new Node(2));
+        Node list2 = new Node(3, new Node(4));
+        Node list3 = new Node(5, new Node(6));
+        Node[] lists = {list1, list2, list3};
+
+        MergeKSortedLinkedList merger = new MergeKSortedLinkedList();
+        Node mergedHead = merger.mergeKList(lists, lists.length);
+
+        int[] expectedValues = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
+        int[] actualValues = getListValues(mergedHead);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedValues, actualValues, "Should handle already sorted sequence");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5483bbcd0394
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MergeSortedArrayListTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeTwoSortedLists() {
+        List<Integer> listA = Arrays.asList(1, 3, 5, 7, 9);
+        List<Integer> listB = Arrays.asList(2, 4, 6, 8, 10);
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        MergeSortedArrayList.merge(listA, listB, result);
+
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10);
+        assertEquals(expected, result, "Merged list should be sorted and contain all elements from both input lists.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithEmptyList() {
+        List<Integer> listA = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3);
+        List<Integer> listB = new ArrayList<>(); // Empty list
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        MergeSortedArrayList.merge(listA, listB, result);
+
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3);
+        assertEquals(expected, result, "Merged list should match listA when listB is empty.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithBothEmptyLists() {
+        List<Integer> listA = new ArrayList<>(); // Empty list
+        List<Integer> listB = new ArrayList<>(); // Empty list
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        MergeSortedArrayList.merge(listA, listB, result);
+
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty(), "Merged list should be empty when both input lists are empty.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithDuplicateElements() {
+        List<Integer> listA = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 2, 3);
+        List<Integer> listB = Arrays.asList(2, 3, 4);
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        MergeSortedArrayList.merge(listA, listB, result);
+
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4);
+        assertEquals(expected, result, "Merged list should correctly handle and include duplicate elements.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithNegativeAndPositiveNumbers() {
+        List<Integer> listA = Arrays.asList(-3, -1, 2);
+        List<Integer> listB = Arrays.asList(-2, 0, 3);
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        MergeSortedArrayList.merge(listA, listB, result);
+
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(-3, -2, -1, 0, 2, 3);
+        assertEquals(expected, result, "Merged list should correctly handle negative and positive numbers.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeThrowsExceptionOnNullInput() {
+        List<Integer> listA = null;
+        List<Integer> listB = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3);
+        List<Integer> result = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        List<Integer> finalListB = listB;
+        List<Integer> finalListA = listA;
+        List<Integer> finalResult = result;
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> MergeSortedArrayList.merge(finalListA, finalListB, finalResult), "Should throw NullPointerException if any input list is null.");
+
+        listA = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3);
+        listB = null;
+        List<Integer> finalListA1 = listA;
+        List<Integer> finalListB1 = listB;
+        List<Integer> finalResult1 = result;
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> MergeSortedArrayList.merge(finalListA1, finalListB1, finalResult1), "Should throw NullPointerException if any input list is null.");
+
+        listA = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3);
+        listB = Arrays.asList(4, 5, 6);
+        result = null;
+        List<Integer> finalListA2 = listA;
+        List<Integer> finalListB2 = listB;
+        List<Integer> finalResult2 = result;
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> MergeSortedArrayList.merge(finalListA2, finalListB2, finalResult2), "Should throw NullPointerException if the result collection is null.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b6b785f43711
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedSinglyLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MergeSortedSinglyLinkedListTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeTwoSortedLists() {
+        SinglyLinkedList listA = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        SinglyLinkedList listB = new SinglyLinkedList();
+
+        for (int i = 2; i <= 10; i += 2) {
+            listA.insert(i);
+            listB.insert(i - 1);
+        }
+
+        SinglyLinkedList mergedList = MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.merge(listA, listB);
+        assertEquals("1->2->3->4->5->6->7->8->9->10", mergedList.toString(), "Merged list should contain all elements in sorted order.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithEmptyListA() {
+        SinglyLinkedList listA = new SinglyLinkedList(); // Empty listA
+        SinglyLinkedList listB = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        listB.insert(1);
+        listB.insert(3);
+        listB.insert(5);
+
+        SinglyLinkedList mergedList = MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.merge(listA, listB);
+        assertEquals("1->3->5", mergedList.toString(), "Merged list should match listB when listA is empty.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithEmptyListB() {
+        SinglyLinkedList listA = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        SinglyLinkedList listB = new SinglyLinkedList(); // Empty listB
+        listA.insert(2);
+        listA.insert(4);
+        listA.insert(6);
+
+        SinglyLinkedList mergedList = MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.merge(listA, listB);
+        assertEquals("2->4->6", mergedList.toString(), "Merged list should match listA when listB is empty.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithBothEmptyLists() {
+        SinglyLinkedList listA = new SinglyLinkedList(); // Empty listA
+        SinglyLinkedList listB = new SinglyLinkedList(); // Empty listB
+
+        SinglyLinkedList mergedList = MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.merge(listA, listB);
+        assertEquals("", mergedList.toString(), "Merged list should be empty when both input lists are empty.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeWithDuplicateValues() {
+        SinglyLinkedList listA = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        SinglyLinkedList listB = new SinglyLinkedList();
+
+        listA.insert(1);
+        listA.insert(3);
+        listA.insert(5);
+        listB.insert(1);
+        listB.insert(4);
+        listB.insert(5);
+
+        SinglyLinkedList mergedList = MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.merge(listA, listB);
+        assertEquals("1->1->3->4->5->5", mergedList.toString(), "Merged list should include duplicate values in sorted order.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeThrowsExceptionOnNullInput() {
+        SinglyLinkedList listA = null;
+        SinglyLinkedList listB = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        listB.insert(1);
+        listB.insert(2);
+
+        SinglyLinkedList finalListA = listA;
+        SinglyLinkedList finalListB = listB;
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.merge(finalListA, finalListB), "Should throw NullPointerException if listA is null.");
+
+        listA = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        listB = null;
+        SinglyLinkedList finalListA1 = listA;
+        SinglyLinkedList finalListB1 = listB;
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> MergeSortedSinglyLinkedList.merge(finalListA1, finalListB1), "Should throw NullPointerException if listB is null.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4e86f317c2e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test cases for QuickSortLinkedList.
+ * Author: Prabhat-Kumar-42
+ * GitHub: https://github.com/Prabhat-Kumar-42
+ */
+public class QuickSortLinkedListTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortEmptyList() {
+        SinglyLinkedList emptyList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        QuickSortLinkedList sorter = new QuickSortLinkedList(emptyList);
+
+        sorter.sortList();
+        assertNull(emptyList.getHead(), "Sorted empty list should have no elements.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortSingleNodeList() {
+        SinglyLinkedList singleNodeList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        singleNodeList.insert(5);
+        QuickSortLinkedList sorter = new QuickSortLinkedList(singleNodeList);
+
+        sorter.sortList();
+        assertEquals(5, singleNodeList.getHead().value, "Single node list should remain unchanged after sorting.");
+        assertNull(singleNodeList.getHead().next, "Single node should not have a next node.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortAlreadySorted() {
+        SinglyLinkedList sortedList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        sortedList.insert(1);
+        sortedList.insert(2);
+        sortedList.insert(3);
+        sortedList.insert(4);
+        sortedList.insert(5);
+        QuickSortLinkedList sorter = new QuickSortLinkedList(sortedList);
+
+        sorter.sortList();
+        assertEquals("1->2->3->4->5", sortedList.toString(), "Already sorted list should remain unchanged.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortReverseOrderedList() {
+        SinglyLinkedList reverseList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        reverseList.insert(5);
+        reverseList.insert(4);
+        reverseList.insert(3);
+        reverseList.insert(2);
+        reverseList.insert(1);
+        QuickSortLinkedList sorter = new QuickSortLinkedList(reverseList);
+
+        sorter.sortList();
+        assertEquals("1->2->3->4->5", reverseList.toString(), "Reverse ordered list should be sorted in ascending order.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortWithDuplicates() {
+        SinglyLinkedList listWithDuplicates = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        listWithDuplicates.insert(3);
+        listWithDuplicates.insert(1);
+        listWithDuplicates.insert(3);
+        listWithDuplicates.insert(2);
+        listWithDuplicates.insert(2);
+        QuickSortLinkedList sorter = new QuickSortLinkedList(listWithDuplicates);
+
+        sorter.sortList();
+        assertEquals("1->2->2->3->3", listWithDuplicates.toString(), "List with duplicates should be sorted correctly.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortMultipleElementsList() {
+        SinglyLinkedList list = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        list.insert(5);
+        list.insert(3);
+        list.insert(8);
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(10);
+        list.insert(2);
+        list.insert(7);
+        list.insert(4);
+        list.insert(9);
+        list.insert(6);
+        QuickSortLinkedList sorter = new QuickSortLinkedList(list);
+
+        sorter.sortList();
+        assertEquals("1->2->3->4->5->6->7->8->9->10", list.toString(), "List should be sorted in ascending order.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroupTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroupTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..76b7ab063de4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroupTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test cases for Reverse K Group LinkedList
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+public class ReverseKGroupTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testReverseKGroupWithEmptyList() {
+        ReverseKGroup reverser = new ReverseKGroup();
+        assertNull(reverser.reverseKGroup(null, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testReverseKGroupWithSingleNodeList() {
+        ReverseKGroup reverser = new ReverseKGroup();
+        SinglyLinkedListNode singleNode = new SinglyLinkedListNode(5);
+        SinglyLinkedListNode result = reverser.reverseKGroup(singleNode, 2);
+        assertEquals(5, result.value);
+        assertNull(result.next);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testReverseKGroupWithKEqualTo2() {
+        ReverseKGroup reverser = new ReverseKGroup();
+
+        // Create a list with multiple elements (1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5)
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head;
+        head = new SinglyLinkedListNode(1);
+        head.next = new SinglyLinkedListNode(2);
+        head.next.next = new SinglyLinkedListNode(3);
+        head.next.next.next = new SinglyLinkedListNode(4);
+        head.next.next.next.next = new SinglyLinkedListNode(5);
+
+        // Test reverse with k=2
+        SinglyLinkedListNode result1 = reverser.reverseKGroup(head, 2);
+        assertEquals(2, result1.value);
+        assertEquals(1, result1.next.value);
+        assertEquals(4, result1.next.next.value);
+        assertEquals(3, result1.next.next.next.value);
+        assertEquals(5, result1.next.next.next.next.value);
+        assertNull(result1.next.next.next.next.next);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testReverseKGroupWithKEqualTo3() {
+        ReverseKGroup reverser = new ReverseKGroup();
+
+        // Create a list with multiple elements (1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5)
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head;
+        head = new SinglyLinkedListNode(1);
+        head.next = new SinglyLinkedListNode(2);
+        head.next.next = new SinglyLinkedListNode(3);
+        head.next.next.next = new SinglyLinkedListNode(4);
+        head.next.next.next.next = new SinglyLinkedListNode(5);
+
+        // Test reverse with k=3
+        SinglyLinkedListNode result = reverser.reverseKGroup(head, 3);
+        assertEquals(3, result.value);
+        assertEquals(2, result.next.value);
+        assertEquals(1, result.next.next.value);
+        assertEquals(4, result.next.next.next.value);
+        assertEquals(5, result.next.next.next.next.value);
+        assertNull(result.next.next.next.next.next);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c476ad1b0203
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test cases for RotateSinglyLinkedLists.
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+public class RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest {
+
+    private final RotateSinglyLinkedLists rotator = new RotateSinglyLinkedLists();
+
+    // Helper method to create a linked list from an array of values
+    private SinglyLinkedListNode createLinkedList(int[] values) {
+        if (values.length == 0) {
+            return null;
+        }
+
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = new SinglyLinkedListNode(values[0]);
+        SinglyLinkedListNode current = head;
+        for (int i = 1; i < values.length; i++) {
+            current.next = new SinglyLinkedListNode(values[i]);
+            current = current.next;
+        }
+        return head;
+    }
+
+    // Helper method to convert a linked list to a string for easy comparison
+    private String linkedListToString(SinglyLinkedListNode head) {
+        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
+        SinglyLinkedListNode current = head;
+        while (current != null) {
+            sb.append(current.value);
+            if (current.next != null) {
+                sb.append(" -> ");
+            }
+            current = current.next;
+        }
+        return sb.toString();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRotateRightEmptyList() {
+        // Rotate an empty list
+        assertNull(rotator.rotateRight(null, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRotateRightSingleNodeList() {
+        // Rotate a list with a single element
+        SinglyLinkedListNode singleNode = new SinglyLinkedListNode(5);
+        SinglyLinkedListNode rotatedSingleNode = rotator.rotateRight(singleNode, 3);
+        assertEquals("5", linkedListToString(rotatedSingleNode));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRotateRightMultipleElementsList() {
+        // Rotate a list with multiple elements (rotate by 2)
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = createLinkedList(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5});
+        SinglyLinkedListNode rotated = rotator.rotateRight(head, 2);
+        assertEquals("4 -> 5 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3", linkedListToString(rotated));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRotateRightFullRotation() {
+        // Rotate by more than the length of the list
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = createLinkedList(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5});
+        SinglyLinkedListNode rotated = rotator.rotateRight(head, 7);
+        assertEquals("4 -> 5 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3", linkedListToString(rotated));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRotateRightZeroRotation() {
+        // Rotate a list by k = 0 (no rotation)
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = createLinkedList(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5});
+        SinglyLinkedListNode rotated = rotator.rotateRight(head, 0);
+        assertEquals("1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5", linkedListToString(rotated));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRotateRightByListLength() {
+        // Rotate a list by k equal to list length (no change)
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = createLinkedList(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5});
+        SinglyLinkedListNode rotated = rotator.rotateRight(head, 5);
+        assertEquals("1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5", linkedListToString(rotated));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRotateRightByMultipleOfListLength() {
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = createLinkedList(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5});
+        SinglyLinkedListNode rotated = rotator.rotateRight(head, 10); // k = 2 * list length
+        assertEquals("1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5", linkedListToString(rotated));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRotateRightLongerList() {
+        // Rotate a longer list by a smaller k
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = createLinkedList(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9});
+        SinglyLinkedListNode rotated = rotator.rotateRight(head, 4);
+        assertEquals("6 -> 7 -> 8 -> 9 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5", linkedListToString(rotated));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..76b905841c18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursionTest {
+
+    private SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion list;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        list = new SearchSinglyLinkedListRecursion();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchInEmptyList() {
+        // Test searching for a value in an empty list (should return false)
+        assertFalse(list.search(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchSingleElementListFound() {
+        // Insert a single element and search for it
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertTrue(list.search(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchSingleElementListNotFound() {
+        // Insert a single element and search for a non-existent value
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertFalse(list.search(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchMultipleElementsListFound() {
+        // Insert multiple elements and search for a middle value
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
+            list.insert(i);
+        }
+        assertTrue(list.search(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchMultipleElementsListFirstElement() {
+        // Insert multiple elements and search for the first element
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
+            list.insert(i);
+        }
+        assertTrue(list.search(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchMultipleElementsListLastElement() {
+        // Insert multiple elements and search for the last element
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
+            list.insert(i);
+        }
+        assertTrue(list.search(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchMultipleElementsListNotFound() {
+        // Insert multiple elements and search for a non-existent element
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
+            list.insert(i);
+        }
+        assertFalse(list.search(15));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchNegativeValues() {
+        // Insert positive and negative values and search for a negative value
+        list.insert(-5);
+        list.insert(-10);
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertTrue(list.search(-10));
+        assertFalse(list.search(-3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchZeroValue() {
+        list.insert(0);
+        assertTrue(list.search(0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f80c6b5055f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,260 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SinglyLinkedListTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Initialize a list with natural order values with pre-defined length
+     * @param length
+     * @return linked list with pre-defined number of nodes
+     */
+    private SinglyLinkedList createSampleList(int length) {
+        List<SinglyLinkedListNode> nodeList = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = 1; i <= length; i++) {
+            SinglyLinkedListNode node = new SinglyLinkedListNode(i);
+            nodeList.add(node);
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < length - 1; i++) {
+            nodeList.get(i).next = nodeList.get(i + 1);
+        }
+
+        return new SinglyLinkedList(nodeList.get(0), length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void detectLoop() {
+        // List has cycle
+        SinglyLinkedListNode firstNode = new SinglyLinkedListNode(1);
+        SinglyLinkedListNode secondNode = new SinglyLinkedListNode(2);
+        SinglyLinkedListNode thirdNode = new SinglyLinkedListNode(3);
+        SinglyLinkedListNode fourthNode = new SinglyLinkedListNode(4);
+
+        firstNode.next = secondNode;
+        secondNode.next = thirdNode;
+        thirdNode.next = fourthNode;
+        fourthNode.next = firstNode;
+
+        SinglyLinkedList listHasLoop = new SinglyLinkedList(firstNode, 4);
+        assertTrue(listHasLoop.detectLoop());
+
+        SinglyLinkedList listHasNoLoop = createSampleList(5);
+        assertFalse(listHasNoLoop.detectLoop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void middle() {
+        int oddNumberOfNode = 7;
+        SinglyLinkedList list = createSampleList(oddNumberOfNode);
+        assertEquals(oddNumberOfNode / 2 + 1, list.middle().value);
+        int evenNumberOfNode = 8;
+        list = createSampleList(evenNumberOfNode);
+        assertEquals(evenNumberOfNode / 2, list.middle().value);
+
+        // return null if empty
+        list = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        assertNull(list.middle());
+
+        // return head if there is only one node
+        list = createSampleList(1);
+        assertEquals(list.getHead(), list.middle());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void swap() {
+        SinglyLinkedList list = createSampleList(5);
+        assertEquals(1, list.getHead().value);
+        assertEquals(5, list.getNth(4));
+        list.swapNodes(1, 5);
+        assertEquals(5, list.getHead().value);
+        assertEquals(1, list.getNth(4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void clear() {
+        SinglyLinkedList list = createSampleList(5);
+        assertEquals(5, list.size());
+        list.clear();
+        assertEquals(0, list.size());
+        assertTrue(list.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void search() {
+        SinglyLinkedList list = createSampleList(10);
+        assertTrue(list.search(5));
+        assertFalse(list.search(20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void deleteNth() {
+        SinglyLinkedList list = createSampleList(10);
+        assertTrue(list.search(7));
+        list.deleteNth(6); // Index 6 has value 7
+        assertFalse(list.search(7));
+    }
+    // Test to check whether the method reverseList() works fine
+    @Test
+    void reverseList() {
+
+        // Creating a new LinkedList of size:4
+        // The linkedlist will be 1->2->3->4->null
+        SinglyLinkedList list = createSampleList(4);
+
+        // Reversing the LinkedList using reverseList() method and storing the head of the reversed
+        // linkedlist in a head node The reversed linkedlist will be 4->3->2->1->null
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = list.reverseListIter(list.getHead());
+
+        // Recording the Nodes after reversing the LinkedList
+        SinglyLinkedListNode firstNode = head; // 4
+        SinglyLinkedListNode secondNode = firstNode.next; // 3
+        SinglyLinkedListNode thirdNode = secondNode.next; // 2
+        SinglyLinkedListNode fourthNode = thirdNode.next; // 1
+
+        // Checking whether the LinkedList is reversed or not by comparing the original list and
+        // reversed list nodes
+        assertEquals(1, fourthNode.value);
+        assertEquals(2, thirdNode.value);
+        assertEquals(3, secondNode.value);
+        assertEquals(4, firstNode.value);
+    }
+
+    // Test to check whether implemented reverseList() method handles NullPointer Exception for
+    // TestCase where head==null
+    @Test
+    void reverseListNullPointer() {
+        // Creating a linkedlist with first node assigned to null
+        SinglyLinkedList list = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        SinglyLinkedListNode first = list.getHead();
+
+        // Reversing the linkedlist
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = list.reverseListIter(first);
+
+        // checking whether the method works fine if the input is null
+        assertEquals(head, first);
+    }
+
+    // Testing reverseList() method for a linkedlist of size: 20
+    @Test
+    void reverseListTest() {
+        // Creating a new linkedlist
+        SinglyLinkedList list = createSampleList(20);
+
+        // Reversing the LinkedList using reverseList() method and storing the head of the reversed
+        // linkedlist in a head node
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = list.reverseListIter(list.getHead());
+
+        // Storing the head in a temp variable, so that we cannot loose the track of head
+        SinglyLinkedListNode temp = head;
+
+        int i = 20; // This is for the comparison of values of nodes of the reversed linkedlist
+        // Checking whether the reverseList() method performed its task
+        while (temp != null && i > 0) {
+            assertEquals(i, temp.value);
+            temp = temp.next;
+            i--;
+        }
+    }
+    // This is Recursive Reverse List Test
+    // Test to check whether the method reverseListRec() works fine
+    void recursiveReverseList() {
+        // Create a linked list: 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5
+        SinglyLinkedList list = createSampleList(5);
+
+        // Reversing the linked list using reverseList() method
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = list.reverseListRec(list.getHead());
+
+        // Check if the reversed list is: 5 -> 4 -> 3 -> 2 -> 1
+        assertEquals(5, head.value);
+        assertEquals(4, head.next.value);
+        assertEquals(3, head.next.next.value);
+        assertEquals(2, head.next.next.next.value);
+        assertEquals(1, head.next.next.next.next.value);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void recursiveReverseListNullPointer() {
+        // Create an empty linked list
+        SinglyLinkedList list = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        SinglyLinkedListNode first = list.getHead();
+
+        // Reversing the empty linked list
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = list.reverseListRec(first);
+
+        // Check if the head remains the same (null)
+        assertNull(head);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void recursiveReverseListTest() {
+        // Create a linked list with values from 1 to 20
+        SinglyLinkedList list = createSampleList(20);
+
+        // Reversing the linked list using reverseList() method
+        SinglyLinkedListNode head = list.reverseListRec(list.getHead());
+
+        // Check if the reversed list has the correct values
+        int i = 20;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode temp = head;
+        while (temp != null && i > 0) {
+            assertEquals(i, temp.value);
+            temp = temp.next;
+            i--;
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void readWithEnhancedForLoopTest() {
+        final var expeced = new ArrayList<Integer>(Arrays.asList(10, 20, 30));
+
+        SinglyLinkedList list = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        for (final var x : expeced) {
+            list.insert(x);
+        }
+
+        var readElements = new ArrayList<Integer>();
+        for (final var x : list) {
+            readElements.add(x);
+        }
+
+        assertEquals(readElements, expeced);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void toStringTest() {
+        SinglyLinkedList list = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(2);
+        list.insert(3);
+        assertEquals("1->2->3", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void toStringForEmptyListTest() {
+        SinglyLinkedList list = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        assertEquals("", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void countTest() {
+        SinglyLinkedList list = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        list.insert(10);
+        list.insert(20);
+        assertEquals(2, list.count());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void countForEmptyListTest() {
+        SinglyLinkedList list = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        assertEquals(0, list.count());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SkipListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SkipListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..16d1a015a4d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SkipListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,115 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SkipListTest {
+
+    private SkipList<String> skipList;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        skipList = new SkipList<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Add element and verify size and retrieval")
+    void testAdd() {
+        assertEquals(0, skipList.size());
+
+        skipList.add("value");
+
+        assertEquals(1, skipList.size());
+        assertEquals("value", skipList.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Get retrieves correct element by index")
+    void testGet() {
+        skipList.add("value");
+        assertEquals("value", skipList.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Contains returns true if element exists")
+    void testContains() {
+        skipList = createSkipList();
+        assertTrue(skipList.contains("b"));
+        assertTrue(skipList.contains("a"));
+        assertFalse(skipList.contains("z")); // negative test
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Remove element from head and check size and order")
+    void testRemoveFromHead() {
+        skipList = createSkipList();
+        String first = skipList.get(0);
+        int initialSize = skipList.size();
+
+        skipList.remove(first);
+
+        assertEquals(initialSize - 1, skipList.size());
+        assertFalse(skipList.contains(first));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Remove element from tail and check size and order")
+    void testRemoveFromTail() {
+        skipList = createSkipList();
+        String last = skipList.get(skipList.size() - 1);
+        int initialSize = skipList.size();
+
+        skipList.remove(last);
+
+        assertEquals(initialSize - 1, skipList.size());
+        assertFalse(skipList.contains(last));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Elements should be sorted at base level")
+    void testSortedOrderOnBaseLevel() {
+        String[] values = {"d", "b", "a", "c"};
+        Arrays.stream(values).forEach(skipList::add);
+
+        String[] actualOrder = IntStream.range(0, values.length).mapToObj(skipList::get).toArray(String[] ::new);
+
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals(new String[] {"a", "b", "c", "d"}, actualOrder);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Duplicate elements can be added and count correctly")
+    void testAddDuplicates() {
+        skipList.add("x");
+        skipList.add("x");
+        assertEquals(2, skipList.size());
+        assertEquals("x", skipList.get(0));
+        assertEquals("x", skipList.get(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Add multiple and remove all")
+    void testClearViaRemovals() {
+        String[] values = {"a", "b", "c"};
+        Arrays.stream(values).forEach(skipList::add);
+
+        for (String v : values) {
+            skipList.remove(v);
+        }
+
+        assertEquals(0, skipList.size());
+    }
+
+    private SkipList<String> createSkipList() {
+        SkipList<String> s = new SkipList<>();
+        String[] values = {"a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j", "k"};
+        Arrays.stream(values).forEach(s::add);
+        return s;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..71f932465eef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,208 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SortedLinkedListTest {
+
+    private SortedLinkedList list;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        list = new SortedLinkedList();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertIntoEmptyList() {
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertEquals("[5]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertInSortedOrder() {
+        list.insert(5);
+        list.insert(3);
+        list.insert(7);
+        assertEquals("[3, 5, 7]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertDuplicateValues() {
+        list.insert(5);
+        list.insert(5);
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertEquals("[5, 5, 5]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteHeadElement() {
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(2);
+        list.insert(3);
+        assertTrue(list.delete(1));
+        assertEquals("[2, 3]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteTailElement() {
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(2);
+        list.insert(3);
+        assertTrue(list.delete(3));
+        assertEquals("[1, 2]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteMiddleElement() {
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(2);
+        list.insert(3);
+        assertTrue(list.delete(2));
+        assertEquals("[1, 3]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteNonexistentElement() {
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(2);
+        assertFalse(list.delete(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteFromSingleElementList() {
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertTrue(list.delete(5));
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteFromEmptyList() {
+        assertFalse(list.delete(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchInEmptyList() {
+        assertFalse(list.search(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchForExistingElement() {
+        list.insert(3);
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertTrue(list.search(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchForNonexistentElement() {
+        list.insert(3);
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertFalse(list.search(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIsEmptyOnEmptyList() {
+        assertTrue(list.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIsEmptyOnNonEmptyList() {
+        list.insert(10);
+        assertFalse(list.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIsEmptyAfterInsertion() {
+        list.insert(10);
+        assertFalse(list.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIsEmptyAfterDeletion() {
+        list.insert(10);
+        list.delete(10);
+        assertTrue(list.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertNegativeNumbers() {
+        list.insert(-10);
+        list.insert(-5);
+        list.insert(-20);
+        assertEquals("[-20, -10, -5]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertMixedPositiveAndNegativeNumbers() {
+        list.insert(0);
+        list.insert(-1);
+        list.insert(1);
+        assertEquals("[-1, 0, 1]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleDeletesUntilEmpty() {
+        list.insert(2);
+        list.insert(4);
+        list.insert(6);
+        assertTrue(list.delete(4));
+        assertTrue(list.delete(2));
+        assertTrue(list.delete(6));
+        assertTrue(list.isEmpty());
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteDuplicateValuesOnlyDeletesOneInstance() {
+        list.insert(5);
+        list.insert(5);
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertTrue(list.delete(5));
+        assertEquals("[5, 5]", list.toString());
+        assertTrue(list.delete(5));
+        assertEquals("[5]", list.toString());
+        assertTrue(list.delete(5));
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchOnListWithDuplicates() {
+        list.insert(7);
+        list.insert(7);
+        list.insert(7);
+        assertTrue(list.search(7));
+        assertFalse(list.search(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testToStringOnEmptyList() {
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteAllDuplicates() {
+        list.insert(4);
+        list.insert(4);
+        list.insert(4);
+        assertTrue(list.delete(4));
+        assertTrue(list.delete(4));
+        assertTrue(list.delete(4));
+        assertFalse(list.delete(4)); // nothing left to delete
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertAfterDeletion() {
+        list.insert(1);
+        list.insert(3);
+        list.insert(5);
+        assertTrue(list.delete(3));
+        list.insert(2);
+        assertEquals("[1, 2, 5]", list.toString());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgoTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgoTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2804534c988c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgoTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class TortoiseHareAlgoTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testAppendAndToString() {
+        TortoiseHareAlgo<Integer> list = new TortoiseHareAlgo<>();
+        list.append(10);
+        list.append(20);
+        list.append(30);
+        assertEquals("[10, 20, 30]", list.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetMiddleOdd() {
+        TortoiseHareAlgo<Integer> list = new TortoiseHareAlgo<>();
+        list.append(1);
+        list.append(2);
+        list.append(3);
+        list.append(4);
+        list.append(5);
+        assertEquals(3, list.getMiddle());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetMiddleEven() {
+        TortoiseHareAlgo<Integer> list = new TortoiseHareAlgo<>();
+        list.append(1);
+        list.append(2);
+        list.append(3);
+        list.append(4);
+        assertEquals(3, list.getMiddle()); // returns second middle
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyList() {
+        TortoiseHareAlgo<Integer> list = new TortoiseHareAlgo<>();
+        assertNull(list.getMiddle());
+        assertEquals("[]", list.toString());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueueTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..55ce9995a32d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/CircularQueueTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class CircularQueueTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testEnQueue() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+        cq.enQueue(3);
+
+        assertEquals(1, cq.peek());
+        assertTrue(cq.isFull());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeQueue() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+        cq.enQueue(3);
+
+        assertEquals(1, cq.deQueue());
+        assertEquals(2, cq.peek());
+        assertFalse(cq.isFull());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmpty() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        assertTrue(cq.isEmpty());
+
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        assertFalse(cq.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsFull() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(2);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+        assertTrue(cq.isFull());
+
+        cq.deQueue();
+        assertFalse(cq.isFull());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeek() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+
+        assertEquals(1, cq.peek());
+        assertEquals(1, cq.peek()); // Ensure peek doesn't remove the element
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteQueue() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+        cq.deleteQueue();
+
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, cq::peek);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEnQueueOnFull() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(2);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, () -> cq.enQueue(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeQueueOnEmpty() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(2);
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, cq::deQueue);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekOnEmpty() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(2);
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, cq::peek);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSize() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+
+        assertEquals(2, cq.size());
+
+        cq.deQueue();
+        assertEquals(1, cq.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCircularWrapAround() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+        cq.enQueue(3);
+
+        cq.deQueue();
+        cq.enQueue(4);
+
+        assertEquals(2, cq.deQueue());
+        assertEquals(3, cq.deQueue());
+        assertEquals(4, cq.deQueue());
+        assertTrue(cq.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEnQueueDeQueueMultipleTimes() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+        cq.deQueue();
+        cq.enQueue(3);
+        cq.enQueue(4);
+
+        assertTrue(cq.isFull());
+        assertEquals(2, cq.deQueue());
+        assertEquals(3, cq.deQueue());
+        assertEquals(4, cq.deQueue());
+        assertTrue(cq.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleWrapArounds() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.deQueue();
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+        cq.deQueue();
+        cq.enQueue(3);
+        cq.deQueue();
+        cq.enQueue(4);
+
+        assertEquals(4, cq.peek());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeDuringOperations() {
+        CircularQueue<Integer> cq = new CircularQueue<>(3);
+        assertEquals(0, cq.size());
+
+        cq.enQueue(1);
+        cq.enQueue(2);
+        assertEquals(2, cq.size());
+
+        cq.deQueue();
+        assertEquals(1, cq.size());
+
+        cq.enQueue(3);
+        cq.enQueue(4);
+        assertEquals(3, cq.size());
+        cq.deQueue();
+        cq.deQueue();
+        assertEquals(1, cq.size());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/DequeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/DequeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ada314383c74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/DequeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,197 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class DequeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testAddFirst() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addFirst(10);
+        assertEquals(10, deque.peekFirst());
+        assertEquals(10, deque.peekLast());
+        assertEquals(1, deque.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAddLast() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addLast(20);
+        assertEquals(20, deque.peekFirst());
+        assertEquals(20, deque.peekLast());
+        assertEquals(1, deque.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPollFirst() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addFirst(10);
+        deque.addLast(20);
+        assertEquals(10, deque.pollFirst());
+        assertEquals(20, deque.peekFirst());
+        assertEquals(1, deque.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPollLast() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addFirst(10);
+        deque.addLast(20);
+        assertEquals(20, deque.pollLast());
+        assertEquals(10, deque.peekLast());
+        assertEquals(1, deque.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmpty() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue(deque.isEmpty());
+        deque.addFirst(10);
+        assertFalse(deque.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekFirstEmpty() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        assertNull(deque.peekFirst());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekLastEmpty() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        assertNull(deque.peekLast());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPollFirstEmpty() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, deque::pollFirst);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPollLastEmpty() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, deque::pollLast);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToString() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addFirst(10);
+        deque.addLast(20);
+        deque.addFirst(5);
+        assertEquals("Head -> 5 <-> 10 <-> 20 <- Tail", deque.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAlternatingAddRemove() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addFirst(1);
+        deque.addLast(2);
+        deque.addFirst(0);
+        assertEquals(0, deque.pollFirst());
+        assertEquals(2, deque.pollLast());
+        assertEquals(1, deque.pollFirst());
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue(deque.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeAfterOperations() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        assertEquals(0, deque.size());
+        deque.addFirst(1);
+        deque.addLast(2);
+        deque.addFirst(3);
+        assertEquals(3, deque.size());
+        deque.pollFirst();
+        deque.pollLast();
+        assertEquals(1, deque.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullValues() {
+        Deque<String> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addFirst(null);
+        assertNull(deque.peekFirst());
+        assertNull(deque.pollFirst());
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue(deque.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleAddFirst() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addFirst(1);
+        deque.addFirst(2);
+        deque.addFirst(3);
+
+        assertEquals(3, deque.peekFirst(), "First element should be the last added to front");
+        assertEquals(1, deque.peekLast(), "Last element should be the first added to front");
+        assertEquals(3, deque.size(), "Size should reflect all additions");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleAddLast() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addLast(1);
+        deque.addLast(2);
+        deque.addLast(3);
+
+        assertEquals(1, deque.peekFirst(), "First element should be the first added to back");
+        assertEquals(3, deque.peekLast(), "Last element should be the last added to back");
+        assertEquals(3, deque.size(), "Size should reflect all additions");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementOperations() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addFirst(1);
+
+        assertEquals(1, deque.peekFirst(), "Single element should be both first and last");
+        assertEquals(1, deque.peekLast(), "Single element should be both first and last");
+        assertEquals(1, deque.size());
+
+        assertEquals(1, deque.pollFirst(), "Should be able to poll single element from front");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue(deque.isEmpty(), "Deque should be empty after polling single element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementPollLast() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addLast(1);
+
+        assertEquals(1, deque.pollLast(), "Should be able to poll single element from back");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue(deque.isEmpty(), "Deque should be empty after polling single element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMixedNullAndValues() {
+        Deque<String> deque = new Deque<>();
+        deque.addFirst("first");
+        deque.addLast(null);
+        deque.addFirst(null);
+        deque.addLast("last");
+
+        assertEquals(4, deque.size(), "Should handle mixed null and non-null values");
+        assertNull(deque.pollFirst(), "Should poll null from front");
+        assertEquals("first", deque.pollFirst(), "Should poll non-null value");
+        assertNull(deque.pollLast().equals("last") ? null : deque.peekLast(), "Should handle null correctly");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSymmetricOperations() {
+        Deque<Integer> deque = new Deque<>();
+
+        // Test that addFirst/pollFirst and addLast/pollLast are symmetric
+        deque.addFirst(1);
+        deque.addLast(2);
+
+        assertEquals(1, deque.pollFirst(), "addFirst/pollFirst should be symmetric");
+        assertEquals(2, deque.pollLast(), "addLast/pollLast should be symmetric");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue(deque.isEmpty(), "Deque should be empty after symmetric operations");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueueTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b19513e19ad9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/GenericArrayListQueueTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class GenericArrayListQueueTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testAdd() {
+        GenericArrayListQueue<Integer> queue = new GenericArrayListQueue<>();
+        assertTrue(queue.add(10));
+        assertTrue(queue.add(20));
+        assertEquals(10, queue.peek()); // Ensure the first added element is at the front
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeek() {
+        GenericArrayListQueue<Integer> queue = new GenericArrayListQueue<>();
+        assertNull(queue.peek(), "Peek should return null for an empty queue");
+
+        queue.add(10);
+        queue.add(20);
+
+        assertEquals(10, queue.peek(), "Peek should return the first element (10)");
+        queue.poll();
+        assertEquals(20, queue.peek(), "Peek should return the next element (20) after poll");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPoll() {
+        GenericArrayListQueue<Integer> queue = new GenericArrayListQueue<>();
+        assertNull(queue.poll(), "Poll should return null for an empty queue");
+
+        queue.add(10);
+        queue.add(20);
+
+        assertEquals(10, queue.poll(), "Poll should return and remove the first element (10)");
+        assertEquals(20, queue.poll(), "Poll should return and remove the next element (20)");
+        assertNull(queue.poll(), "Poll should return null when queue is empty after removals");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmpty() {
+        GenericArrayListQueue<Integer> queue = new GenericArrayListQueue<>();
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should initially be empty");
+
+        queue.add(30);
+        assertFalse(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should not be empty after adding an element");
+        queue.poll();
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty after removing the only element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testClearQueueAndReuse() {
+        GenericArrayListQueue<Integer> queue = new GenericArrayListQueue<>();
+        queue.add(5);
+        queue.add(10);
+        queue.poll();
+        queue.poll(); // Remove all elements
+
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty after all elements are removed");
+        assertNull(queue.peek(), "Peek should return null on an empty queue after clear");
+        assertTrue(queue.add(15), "Queue should be reusable after being emptied");
+        assertEquals(15, queue.peek(), "Newly added element should be accessible in the empty queue");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOrderMaintained() {
+        GenericArrayListQueue<String> queue = new GenericArrayListQueue<>();
+        queue.add("First");
+        queue.add("Second");
+        queue.add("Third");
+
+        assertEquals("First", queue.poll(), "Order should be maintained; expected 'First'");
+        assertEquals("Second", queue.poll(), "Order should be maintained; expected 'Second'");
+        assertEquals("Third", queue.poll(), "Order should be maintained; expected 'Third'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testVariousDataTypes() {
+        GenericArrayListQueue<Double> queue = new GenericArrayListQueue<>();
+        queue.add(1.1);
+        queue.add(2.2);
+
+        assertEquals(1.1, queue.peek(), "Queue should handle Double data type correctly");
+        assertEquals(1.1, queue.poll(), "Poll should return correct Double value");
+        assertEquals(2.2, queue.peek(), "Peek should show next Double value in the queue");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyPollAndPeekBehavior() {
+        GenericArrayListQueue<Integer> queue = new GenericArrayListQueue<>();
+        assertNull(queue.peek(), "Peek on an empty queue should return null");
+        assertNull(queue.poll(), "Poll on an empty queue should return null");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueueTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..157d771b5a80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueueTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,209 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LinkedQueueTest {
+
+    private LinkedQueue<Integer> queue;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        queue = new LinkedQueue<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmptyOnNewQueue() {
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty on initialization.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEnqueueAndSize() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        assertFalse(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should not be empty after enqueue.");
+        assertEquals(1, queue.size(), "Queue size should be 1 after one enqueue.");
+
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+        assertEquals(3, queue.size(), "Queue size should be 3 after three enqueues.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDequeueOnSingleElementQueue() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        assertEquals(10, queue.dequeue(), "Dequeued element should be the same as the enqueued one.");
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty after dequeueing the only element.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDequeueMultipleElements() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+
+        assertEquals(10, queue.dequeue(), "First dequeued element should be the first enqueued one.");
+        assertEquals(20, queue.dequeue(), "Second dequeued element should be the second enqueued one.");
+        assertEquals(30, queue.dequeue(), "Third dequeued element should be the third enqueued one.");
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty after dequeueing all elements.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDequeueOnEmptyQueue() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> queue.dequeue(), "Dequeueing from an empty queue should throw NoSuchElementException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekFrontOnEmptyQueue() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> queue.peekFront(), "Peeking front on an empty queue should throw NoSuchElementException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekRearOnEmptyQueue() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> queue.peekRear(), "Peeking rear on an empty queue should throw NoSuchElementException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekFront() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+
+        assertEquals(10, queue.peekFront(), "Peek front should return the first enqueued element.");
+        assertEquals(10, queue.peekFront(), "Peek front should not remove the element.");
+        assertEquals(3, queue.size(), "Queue size should remain unchanged after peek.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekRear() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+
+        assertEquals(30, queue.peekRear(), "Peek rear should return the last enqueued element.");
+        assertEquals(30, queue.peekRear(), "Peek rear should not remove the element.");
+        assertEquals(3, queue.size(), "Queue size should remain unchanged after peek.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekAtPosition() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+
+        assertEquals(10, queue.peek(1), "Peek at position 1 should return the first enqueued element.");
+        assertEquals(20, queue.peek(2), "Peek at position 2 should return the second enqueued element.");
+        assertEquals(30, queue.peek(3), "Peek at position 3 should return the third enqueued element.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekAtInvalidPosition() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> queue.peek(4), "Peeking at a position greater than size should throw IndexOutOfBoundsException.");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> queue.peek(0), "Peeking at position 0 should throw IndexOutOfBoundsException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testClearQueue() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+
+        queue.clear();
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty after clear.");
+        assertEquals(0, queue.size(), "Queue size should be 0 after clear.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIterator() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+
+        Iterator<Integer> it = queue.iterator();
+        assertTrue(it.hasNext(), "Iterator should have next element.");
+        assertEquals(10, it.next(), "First iterator value should be the first enqueued element.");
+        assertEquals(20, it.next(), "Second iterator value should be the second enqueued element.");
+        assertEquals(30, it.next(), "Third iterator value should be the third enqueued element.");
+        assertFalse(it.hasNext(), "Iterator should not have next element after last element.");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, it::next, "Calling next() on exhausted iterator should throw NoSuchElementException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToString() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+
+        assertEquals("[10, 20, 30]", queue.toString(), "toString should return a properly formatted string representation of the queue.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEnqueueAfterDequeue() {
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        queue.enqueue(30);
+
+        assertEquals(10, queue.dequeue(), "Dequeued element should be 10.");
+        assertEquals(20, queue.dequeue(), "Dequeued element should be 20.");
+
+        queue.enqueue(40);
+        assertEquals(30, queue.peekFront(), "Peek front should return 30 after dequeuing and enqueuing new elements.");
+        assertEquals(40, queue.peekRear(), "Peek rear should return 40 after enqueuing new elements.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueMaintainsOrder() {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 100; i++) {
+            queue.enqueue(i);
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 100; i++) {
+            assertEquals(i, queue.dequeue(), "Queue should maintain the correct order of elements.");
+        }
+
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty after dequeuing all elements.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeAfterOperations() {
+        assertEquals(0, queue.size(), "Initial queue size should be 0.");
+
+        queue.enqueue(10);
+        assertEquals(1, queue.size(), "Queue size should be 1 after one enqueue.");
+
+        queue.enqueue(20);
+        assertEquals(2, queue.size(), "Queue size should be 2 after two enqueues.");
+
+        queue.dequeue();
+        assertEquals(1, queue.size(), "Queue size should be 1 after one dequeue.");
+
+        queue.clear();
+        assertEquals(0, queue.size(), "Queue size should be 0 after clear.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueToStringOnEmptyQueue() {
+        assertEquals("[]", queue.toString(), "toString on empty queue should return '[]'.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEnqueueNull() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> queue.enqueue(null), "Cannot enqueue null data.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIteratorOnEmptyQueue() {
+        Iterator<Integer> it = queue.iterator();
+        assertFalse(it.hasNext(), "Iterator on empty queue should not have next element.");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, it::next, "Calling next() on empty queue iterator should throw NoSuchElementException.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueuesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueuesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e97fe091c556
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueuesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PriorityQueuesTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testPQInsertion() {
+        PriorityQueue myQueue = new PriorityQueue(4);
+        myQueue.insert(2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.peek(), 2);
+
+        myQueue.insert(5);
+        myQueue.insert(3);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.peek(), 5);
+
+        myQueue.insert(10);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.peek(), 10);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPQDeletion() {
+        PriorityQueue myQueue = new PriorityQueue(4);
+        myQueue.insert(2);
+        myQueue.insert(5);
+        myQueue.insert(3);
+        myQueue.insert(10);
+
+        myQueue.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.peek(), 5);
+        myQueue.remove();
+        myQueue.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.peek(), 2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPQExtra() {
+        PriorityQueue myQueue = new PriorityQueue(4);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.isEmpty(), true);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.isFull(), false);
+        myQueue.insert(2);
+        myQueue.insert(5);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.isFull(), false);
+        myQueue.insert(3);
+        myQueue.insert(10);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.isEmpty(), false);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.isFull(), true);
+
+        myQueue.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.getSize(), 3);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.peek(), 5);
+        myQueue.remove();
+        myQueue.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.peek(), 2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(myQueue.getSize(), 1);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertUntilFull() {
+        PriorityQueue pq = new PriorityQueue(3);
+        pq.insert(1);
+        pq.insert(4);
+        pq.insert(2);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(pq.isFull());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, pq.peek());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveFromEmpty() {
+        PriorityQueue pq = new PriorityQueue(3);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, pq::remove);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertDuplicateValues() {
+        PriorityQueue pq = new PriorityQueue(5);
+        pq.insert(5);
+        pq.insert(5);
+        pq.insert(3);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, pq.peek());
+        pq.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, pq.peek());
+        pq.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, pq.peek());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSizeAfterInsertAndRemove() {
+        PriorityQueue pq = new PriorityQueue(4);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, pq.getSize());
+        pq.insert(2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, pq.getSize());
+        pq.insert(10);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, pq.getSize());
+        pq.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, pq.getSize());
+        pq.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, pq.getSize());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertAndRemoveAll() {
+        PriorityQueue pq = new PriorityQueue(3);
+        pq.insert(8);
+        pq.insert(1);
+        pq.insert(6);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(pq.isFull());
+        pq.remove();
+        pq.remove();
+        pq.remove();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(pq.isEmpty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueByTwoStacksTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueByTwoStacksTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..491cb7634302
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueByTwoStacksTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class QueueByTwoStacksTest {
+
+    private QueueByTwoStacks<Integer> queue;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        queue = new QueueByTwoStacks<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyQueue() {
+        assertEquals(0, queue.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEnqueue() {
+        queue.put(10);
+        queue.put(20);
+        assertEquals(2, queue.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDequeue() {
+        queue.put(10);
+        queue.put(20);
+        queue.put(30);
+        assertEquals(10, queue.get());
+        assertEquals(20, queue.get());
+        assertEquals(30, queue.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInterleavedOperations() {
+        queue.put(10);
+        queue.put(20);
+        assertEquals(10, queue.get());
+        queue.put(30);
+        assertEquals(20, queue.get());
+        assertEquals(30, queue.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testQueueSize() {
+        assertEquals(0, queue.size());
+        queue.put(1);
+        assertEquals(1, queue.size());
+        queue.put(2);
+        queue.put(3);
+        assertEquals(3, queue.size());
+        queue.get();
+        assertEquals(2, queue.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyQueueException() {
+        assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> queue.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDequeueAllElements() {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
+            queue.put(i);
+        }
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
+            assertEquals(i, queue.get());
+        }
+        assertEquals(0, queue.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLargeNumberOfOperations() {
+        int n = 1000;
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            queue.put(i);
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            assertEquals(i, queue.get());
+        }
+        assertEquals(0, queue.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRefillDuringDequeue() {
+        queue.put(1);
+        queue.put(2);
+        assertEquals(1, queue.get());
+        queue.put(3);
+        queue.put(4);
+        assertEquals(2, queue.get());
+        assertEquals(3, queue.get());
+        assertEquals(4, queue.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAlternatingPutAndGet() {
+        queue.put(1);
+        assertEquals(1, queue.get());
+        queue.put(2);
+        queue.put(3);
+        assertEquals(2, queue.get());
+        queue.put(4);
+        assertEquals(3, queue.get());
+        assertEquals(4, queue.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSizeStability() {
+        queue.put(100);
+        int size1 = queue.size();
+        int size2 = queue.size();
+        assertEquals(size1, size2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleEmptyDequeues() {
+        assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> queue.get());
+        assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> queue.get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testQueueWithStrings() {
+        QueueByTwoStacks<String> stringQueue = new QueueByTwoStacks<>();
+        stringQueue.put("a");
+        stringQueue.put("b");
+        assertEquals("a", stringQueue.get());
+        assertEquals("b", stringQueue.get());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..86ef940beab6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/QueueTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,327 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class QueueTest {
+
+    private static final int INITIAL_CAPACITY = 3;
+    private Queue<Integer> queue;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        queue = new Queue<>(INITIAL_CAPACITY);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueInsertion() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.insert(1));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.insert(2));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.insert(3));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(queue.insert(4)); // Queue is full
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.peekRear());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.getSize());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueRemoval() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.insert(3);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, queue.remove());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, queue.getSize());
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, queue.remove());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, queue.getSize());
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.remove());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.isEmpty());
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, queue::remove); // Queue is empty
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekFrontAndRear() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, queue.peekRear());
+
+        queue.insert(3);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.peekRear());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueIsEmptyAndIsFull() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(queue.isFull());
+
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.insert(3);
+
+        Assertions.assertFalse(queue.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.isFull());
+
+        queue.remove();
+        Assertions.assertFalse(queue.isFull());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(queue.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueSize() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, queue.getSize());
+        queue.insert(1);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, queue.getSize());
+        queue.insert(2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, queue.getSize());
+        queue.insert(3);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.getSize());
+        queue.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, queue.getSize());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueToString() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals("[]", queue.toString());
+
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals("[1, 2]", queue.toString());
+
+        queue.insert(3);
+        Assertions.assertEquals("[1, 2, 3]", queue.toString());
+
+        queue.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals("[2, 3]", queue.toString());
+
+        queue.remove();
+        queue.remove();
+        Assertions.assertEquals("[]", queue.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueThrowsExceptionOnEmptyPeek() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, queue::peekFront);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, queue::peekRear);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueThrowsExceptionOnRemoveFromEmptyQueue() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, queue::remove);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueCapacityException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new Queue<>(0));
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new Queue<>(-5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCircularBehavior() {
+        // Test that queue behaves correctly after multiple insert/remove cycles
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.insert(3);
+
+        // Remove all elements
+        queue.remove(); // removes 1
+        queue.remove(); // removes 2
+        queue.remove(); // removes 3
+
+        // Add elements again to test circular behavior
+        queue.insert(4);
+        queue.insert(5);
+        queue.insert(6);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(6, queue.peekRear());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.getSize());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.isFull());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMixedInsertRemoveOperations() {
+        // Test interleaved insert and remove operations
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, queue.remove());
+        queue.insert(3);
+        queue.insert(4);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, queue.remove());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.remove());
+
+        queue.insert(5);
+        queue.insert(6);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(6, queue.peekRear());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.getSize());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementOperations() {
+        // Test operations with single element
+        queue.insert(42);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(42, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(42, queue.peekRear());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, queue.getSize());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(queue.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(queue.isFull());
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(42, queue.remove());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(queue.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, queue.getSize());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullValueHandling() {
+        // Test queue with null values (if supported)
+        Queue<String> stringQueue = new Queue<>(3);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stringQueue.insert(null));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stringQueue.insert("test"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stringQueue.insert(null));
+
+        Assertions.assertNull(stringQueue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertNull(stringQueue.peekRear());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, stringQueue.getSize());
+
+        Assertions.assertNull(stringQueue.remove());
+        Assertions.assertEquals("test", stringQueue.peekFront());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringDataType() {
+        // Test queue with String data type
+        Queue<String> stringQueue = new Queue<>(2);
+        stringQueue.insert("first");
+        stringQueue.insert("second");
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals("first", stringQueue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals("second", stringQueue.peekRear());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargerCapacityQueue() {
+        // Test queue with larger capacity
+        Queue<Integer> largeQueue = new Queue<>(10);
+
+        // Fill the queue
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(largeQueue.insert(i));
+        }
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(largeQueue.isFull());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(largeQueue.insert(11));
+
+        // Remove half the elements
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
+            Assertions.assertEquals(i, largeQueue.remove());
+        }
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(6, largeQueue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, largeQueue.peekRear());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, largeQueue.getSize());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueCapacityOne() {
+        // Test queue with capacity of 1
+        Queue<Integer> singleQueue = new Queue<>(1);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(singleQueue.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(singleQueue.isFull());
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(singleQueue.insert(100));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(singleQueue.isFull());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(singleQueue.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(singleQueue.insert(200));
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(100, singleQueue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(100, singleQueue.peekRear());
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(100, singleQueue.remove());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(singleQueue.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueWraparoundIndexing() {
+        // Test that internal array indexing wraps around correctly
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.insert(3); // Queue full
+
+        // Remove one element
+        queue.remove(); // removes 1
+
+        // Add another element (should wrap around)
+        queue.insert(4);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals("[2, 3, 4]", queue.toString());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, queue.peekRear());
+
+        // Continue the pattern
+        queue.remove(); // removes 2
+        queue.insert(5);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, queue.peekRear());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueStateAfterMultipleCycles() {
+        // Test queue state after multiple complete fill/empty cycles
+        for (int cycle = 0; cycle < 3; cycle++) {
+            // Fill the queue
+            for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {
+                queue.insert(i + cycle * 10);
+            }
+
+            // Verify state
+            Assertions.assertTrue(queue.isFull());
+            Assertions.assertEquals(3, queue.getSize());
+
+            // Empty the queue
+            for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {
+                queue.remove();
+            }
+
+            // Verify empty state
+            Assertions.assertTrue(queue.isEmpty());
+            Assertions.assertEquals(0, queue.getSize());
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueueConsistencyAfterOperations() {
+        // Test that queue maintains consistency after various operations
+        queue.insert(10);
+        queue.insert(20);
+
+        int firstRemoved = queue.remove();
+        queue.insert(30);
+        queue.insert(40);
+
+        int secondRemoved = queue.remove();
+        queue.insert(50);
+
+        // Verify the order is maintained
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, firstRemoved);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(20, secondRemoved);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(30, queue.peekFront());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(50, queue.peekRear());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/SlidingWindowMaximumTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/SlidingWindowMaximumTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e435f9192a88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/SlidingWindowMaximumTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class SlidingWindowMaximumTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testMaxSlidingWindow(int[] nums, int k, int[] expected) {
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, SlidingWindowMaximum.maxSlidingWindow(nums, k));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Test case 1: Example from the problem statement
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 3, -1, -3, 5, 3, 6, 7}, 3, new int[] {3, 3, 5, 5, 6, 7}),
+
+            // Test case 2: All elements are the same
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {4, 4, 4, 4, 4}, 2, new int[] {4, 4, 4, 4}),
+
+            // Test case 3: Window size equals the array length
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 1, 5, 3, 6}, 5, new int[] {6}),
+
+            // Test case 4: Single element array with window size 1
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {7}, 1, new int[] {7}),
+
+            // Test case 5: Window size larger than the array length
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3}, 4, new int[] {}),
+
+            // Test case 6: Decreasing sequence
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4}, 3, new int[] {9, 8, 7, 6}),
+
+            // Test case 7: Increasing sequence
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 2, new int[] {2, 3, 4, 5}),
+
+            // Test case 8: k is zero
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 3, -1, -3, 5, 3, 6, 7}, 0, new int[] {}),
+
+            // Test case 9: Array with negative numbers
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {-4, -2, -5, -1, -3}, 3, new int[] {-2, -1, -1}),
+
+            // Test case 10: Empty array
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {}, 3, new int[] {}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucketTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucketTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..959ea8724f8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucketTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.queues;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TokenBucketTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRateLimiter() throws InterruptedException {
+        TokenBucket bucket = new TokenBucket(5, 1);
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        }
+        assertFalse(bucket.allowRequest());
+        Thread.sleep(1000);
+        assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRateLimiterWithExceedingRequests() throws InterruptedException {
+        TokenBucket bucket = new TokenBucket(3, 1);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
+            assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        }
+        assertFalse(bucket.allowRequest());
+
+        Thread.sleep(1000);
+        assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        assertFalse(bucket.allowRequest());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRateLimiterMultipleRefills() throws InterruptedException {
+        TokenBucket bucket = new TokenBucket(2, 1);
+
+        assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        assertFalse(bucket.allowRequest());
+
+        Thread.sleep(1000);
+        assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+
+        Thread.sleep(1000);
+        assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        assertFalse(bucket.allowRequest());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRateLimiterEmptyBucket() {
+        TokenBucket bucket = new TokenBucket(0, 1);
+
+        assertFalse(bucket.allowRequest());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRateLimiterWithHighRefillRate() throws InterruptedException {
+        TokenBucket bucket = new TokenBucket(5, 10);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        }
+
+        assertFalse(bucket.allowRequest());
+
+        Thread.sleep(1000);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRateLimiterWithSlowRequests() throws InterruptedException {
+        TokenBucket bucket = new TokenBucket(5, 1);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        }
+
+        Thread.sleep(1000);
+        assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+
+        Thread.sleep(2000);
+        assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+        assertTrue(bucket.allowRequest());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStackTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8a89382211ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStackTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,250 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class NodeStackTest {
+
+    private NodeStack<Integer> intStack;
+    private NodeStack<String> stringStack;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        intStack = new NodeStack<>();
+        stringStack = new NodeStack<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test push operation")
+    void testPush() {
+        NodeStack<Integer> stack = new NodeStack<>();
+        stack.push(10);
+        stack.push(20);
+        assertEquals(20, stack.peek(), "Top element should be 20 after pushing 10 and 20.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test pop operation")
+    void testPop() {
+        NodeStack<String> stack = new NodeStack<>();
+        stack.push("First");
+        stack.push("Second");
+        assertEquals("Second", stack.pop(), "Pop should return 'Second', the last pushed element.");
+        assertEquals("First", stack.pop(), "Pop should return 'First' after 'Second' is removed.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test pop on empty stack throws exception")
+    void testPopOnEmptyStack() {
+        NodeStack<Double> stack = new NodeStack<>();
+        assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, stack::pop, "Popping an empty stack should throw IllegalStateException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test peek operation")
+    void testPeek() {
+        NodeStack<Integer> stack = new NodeStack<>();
+        stack.push(5);
+        stack.push(15);
+        assertEquals(15, stack.peek(), "Peek should return 15, the top element.");
+        stack.pop();
+        assertEquals(5, stack.peek(), "Peek should return 5 after 15 is popped.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test peek on empty stack throws exception")
+    void testPeekOnEmptyStack() {
+        NodeStack<String> stack = new NodeStack<>();
+        assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, stack::peek, "Peeking an empty stack should throw IllegalStateException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test isEmpty method")
+    void testIsEmpty() {
+        NodeStack<Character> stack = new NodeStack<>();
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Newly initialized stack should be empty.");
+        stack.push('A');
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should not be empty after a push operation.");
+        stack.pop();
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after popping the only element.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test size method")
+    void testSize() {
+        NodeStack<Integer> stack = new NodeStack<>();
+        assertEquals(0, stack.size(), "Size of empty stack should be 0.");
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(6);
+        assertEquals(2, stack.size(), "Size should be 2 after pushing two elements.");
+        stack.pop();
+        assertEquals(1, stack.size(), "Size should be 1 after popping one element.");
+        stack.pop();
+        assertEquals(0, stack.size(), "Size should be 0 after popping all elements.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test push and pop with null values")
+    void testPushPopWithNull() {
+        stringStack.push(null);
+        stringStack.push("not null");
+        stringStack.push(null);
+
+        assertEquals(3, stringStack.size(), "Stack should contain 3 elements including nulls");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull(stringStack.pop(), "Should pop null value");
+        assertEquals("not null", stringStack.pop(), "Should pop 'not null' value");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull(stringStack.pop(), "Should pop null value");
+        assertTrue(stringStack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after popping all elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test LIFO (Last In First Out) behavior")
+    void testLifoBehavior() {
+        int[] values = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+
+        // Push values in order
+        for (int value : values) {
+            intStack.push(value);
+        }
+
+        // Pop values should be in reverse order
+        for (int i = values.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            assertEquals(values[i], intStack.pop(), "Elements should be popped in LIFO order");
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test peek doesn't modify stack")
+    void testPeekDoesNotModifyStack() {
+        intStack.push(1);
+        intStack.push(2);
+        intStack.push(3);
+
+        int originalSize = intStack.size();
+        int peekedValue = intStack.peek();
+
+        assertEquals(3, peekedValue, "Peek should return top element");
+        assertEquals(originalSize, intStack.size(), "Peek should not change stack size");
+        assertEquals(3, intStack.peek(), "Multiple peeks should return same value");
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(intStack.isEmpty(), "Peek should not make stack empty");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test mixed push and pop operations")
+    void testMixedOperations() {
+        // Test interleaved push/pop operations
+        intStack.push(1);
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.pop());
+        assertTrue(intStack.isEmpty());
+
+        intStack.push(2);
+        intStack.push(3);
+        assertEquals(3, intStack.pop());
+        intStack.push(4);
+        assertEquals(4, intStack.peek());
+        assertEquals(2, intStack.size());
+
+        assertEquals(4, intStack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, intStack.pop());
+        assertTrue(intStack.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test stack with duplicate values")
+    void testStackWithDuplicates() {
+        intStack.push(1);
+        intStack.push(1);
+        intStack.push(1);
+
+        assertEquals(3, intStack.size(), "Stack should handle duplicate values");
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.peek(), "Peek should return duplicate value");
+
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.pop(), "Should pop first duplicate");
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.pop(), "Should pop second duplicate");
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.pop(), "Should pop third duplicate");
+        assertTrue(intStack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after popping all duplicates");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test stack with different data types")
+    void testDifferentDataTypes() {
+        NodeStack<Character> charStack = new NodeStack<>();
+        NodeStack<Boolean> booleanStack = new NodeStack<>();
+
+        // Test with Character
+        charStack.push('A');
+        charStack.push('Z');
+        assertEquals('Z', charStack.peek(), "Should handle Character values");
+
+        // Test with Boolean
+        booleanStack.push(Boolean.TRUE);
+        booleanStack.push(Boolean.FALSE);
+        assertEquals(Boolean.FALSE, booleanStack.peek(), "Should handle Boolean values");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test stack state consistency after exceptions")
+    void testStateConsistencyAfterExceptions() {
+        // Stack should remain consistent after exception-throwing operations
+        intStack.push(1);
+        intStack.push(2);
+
+        // Try to peek and pop normally first
+        assertEquals(2, intStack.peek());
+        assertEquals(2, intStack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.size());
+
+        // Pop remaining element
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.pop());
+        assertTrue(intStack.isEmpty());
+
+        // Now stack is empty, operations should throw exceptions
+        assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, intStack::peek);
+        assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, intStack::pop);
+
+        // Stack should still be in valid empty state
+        assertTrue(intStack.isEmpty());
+        assertEquals(0, intStack.size());
+
+        // Should be able to push after exceptions
+        intStack.push(3);
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(intStack.isEmpty());
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.size());
+        assertEquals(3, intStack.peek());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test single element stack operations")
+    void testSingleElementStack() {
+        intStack.push(2);
+
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse(intStack.isEmpty(), "Stack with one element should not be empty");
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.size(), "Size should be 1");
+        assertEquals(2, intStack.peek(), "Peek should return the single element");
+        assertEquals(1, intStack.size(), "Peek should not change size");
+
+        assertEquals(2, intStack.pop(), "Pop should return the single element");
+        assertTrue(intStack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after popping single element");
+        assertEquals(0, intStack.size(), "Size should be 0 after popping single element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test toString method if implemented")
+    void testToString() {
+        // This test assumes NodeStack has a toString method
+        // If not implemented, this test can be removed or NodeStack can be enhanced
+        intStack.push(1);
+        intStack.push(2);
+        intStack.push(3);
+
+        String stackString = intStack.toString();
+        // Basic check that toString doesn't throw exception and returns something
+        assertTrue(stackString != null, "toString should not return null");
+        assertTrue(stackString.length() > 0, "toString should return non-empty string");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStackTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a4e781c84127
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStackTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class ReverseStackTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testReverseNullStack() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ReverseStack.reverseStack(null), "Reversing a null stack should throw an IllegalArgumentException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReverseEmptyStack() {
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+        ReverseStack.reverseStack(stack);
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Reversing an empty stack should result in an empty stack.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReverseSingleElementStack() {
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+        stack.push(1);
+        ReverseStack.reverseStack(stack);
+        assertEquals(1, stack.peek(), "Reversing a single-element stack should have the same element on top.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReverseTwoElementStack() {
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        ReverseStack.reverseStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(1, stack.pop(), "After reversal, the stack's top element should be the first inserted element.");
+        assertEquals(2, stack.pop(), "After reversal, the stack's next element should be the second inserted element.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReverseMultipleElementsStack() {
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(4);
+
+        ReverseStack.reverseStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(1, stack.pop(), "Stack order after reversal should match the initial push order.");
+        assertEquals(2, stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(3, stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(4, stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReverseStackAndVerifySize() {
+        Stack<Integer> stack = new Stack<>();
+        stack.push(10);
+        stack.push(20);
+        stack.push(30);
+        stack.push(40);
+        int originalSize = stack.size();
+
+        ReverseStack.reverseStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(originalSize, stack.size(), "Stack size should remain unchanged after reversal.");
+        assertEquals(10, stack.pop(), "Reversal should place the first inserted element on top.");
+        assertEquals(20, stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(30, stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(40, stack.pop());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c8811bb3ccc2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
+
+import java.util.EmptyStackException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class StackArrayListTest {
+
+    private StackArrayList<Integer> stack;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        stack = new StackArrayList<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPushAndPop() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeek() {
+        stack.push(10);
+        stack.push(20);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(20, stack.peek()); // Peek should return the top element
+        stack.pop(); // Remove top element
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, stack.peek()); // Peek should now return the new top element
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmpty() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty()); // Stack should initially be empty
+        stack.push(1);
+        Assertions.assertFalse(stack.isEmpty()); // After pushing, stack should not be empty
+        stack.pop();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty()); // After popping, stack should be empty again
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMakeEmpty() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.makeEmpty();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty()); // Stack should be empty after makeEmpty is called
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, stack.size()); // Size should be 0 after makeEmpty
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSize() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, stack.size()); // Initial size should be 0
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, stack.size()); // Size should reflect number of elements added
+        stack.pop();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, stack.size()); // Size should decrease with elements removed
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPopEmptyStackThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, stack::pop); // Popping from an empty stack should throw an exception
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekEmptyStackThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, stack::peek); // Peeking into an empty stack should throw an exception
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMixedOperations() {
+        // Testing a mix of push, pop, peek, and size operations in sequence
+        stack.push(5);
+        stack.push(10);
+        stack.push(15);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, stack.size()); // Size should reflect number of elements
+        Assertions.assertEquals(15, stack.peek()); // Peek should show last element added
+
+        stack.pop(); // Remove top element
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, stack.peek()); // New top should be 10
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, stack.size()); // Size should reflect removal
+
+        stack.push(20); // Add a new element
+        Assertions.assertEquals(20, stack.peek()); // Top should be the last added element
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleMakeEmptyCalls() {
+        // Ensures calling makeEmpty multiple times does not throw errors or misbehave
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.makeEmpty();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+
+        stack.makeEmpty();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, stack.size());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..392cdf2329fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,187 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class StackArrayTest {
+
+    private Stack<Integer> stack;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        stack = new StackArray<>(5); // Initialize a stack with capacity of 5
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPushAndPop() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(4);
+        stack.push(5);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeek() {
+        stack.push(10);
+        stack.push(20);
+        stack.push(30);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(30, stack.peek());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, stack.size());
+
+        stack.pop();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(20, stack.peek());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmpty() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+        stack.push(42);
+        Assertions.assertFalse(stack.isEmpty());
+        stack.pop();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testResizeOnPush() {
+        StackArray<Integer> smallStack = new StackArray<>(2);
+        smallStack.push(1);
+        smallStack.push(2);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(smallStack.isFull());
+
+        smallStack.push(3);
+        Assertions.assertFalse(smallStack.isFull());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, smallStack.size());
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, smallStack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, smallStack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, smallStack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testResizeOnPop() {
+        StackArray<Integer> stack = new StackArray<>(4);
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(4);
+
+        stack.pop();
+        stack.pop();
+        stack.pop();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, stack.size());
+
+        stack.pop();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMakeEmpty() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.makeEmpty();
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, stack::pop);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPopEmptyStackThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, stack::pop);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekEmptyStackThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalStateException.class, stack::peek);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithInvalidSizeThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new StackArray<>(0));
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new StackArray<>(-5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDefaultConstructor() {
+        StackArray<Integer> defaultStack = new StackArray<>();
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, defaultStack.size());
+
+        defaultStack.push(1);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, defaultStack.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToString() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        Assertions.assertEquals("StackArray [1, 2, 3]", stack.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementOperations() {
+        // Test operations with a single element
+        stack.push(2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, stack.size());
+        Assertions.assertFalse(stack.isEmpty());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, stack.peek());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAlternatingPushPop() {
+        // Test alternating push and pop operations
+        stack.push(1);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, stack.pop());
+
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, stack.pop());
+
+        stack.push(4);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPushNullElements() {
+        // Test pushing null values
+        stack.push(null);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, stack.size());
+        Assertions.assertNull(stack.peek());
+        Assertions.assertNull(stack.pop());
+
+        // Mix null and non-null values
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(null);
+        stack.push(2);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertNull(stack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testWithDifferentDataTypes() {
+        // Test with String type
+        StackArray<String> stringStack = new StackArray<>(3);
+        stringStack.push("first");
+        stringStack.push("second");
+        stringStack.push("third");
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals("third", stringStack.pop());
+        Assertions.assertEquals("second", stringStack.peek());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, stringStack.size());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2dfe4c242e1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,221 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class StackOfLinkedListTest {
+
+    private LinkedListStack stack;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        stack = new LinkedListStack();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPushAndPeek() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+
+        assertEquals(3, stack.peek(), "Peek should return the last pushed value");
+        assertEquals(3, stack.getSize(), "Size should reflect the number of elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPop() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+
+        assertEquals(3, stack.pop(), "Pop should return the last pushed value");
+        assertEquals(2, stack.pop(), "Pop should return the next last pushed value");
+        assertEquals(1, stack.pop(), "Pop should return the first pushed value");
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after popping all elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPopEmptyStack() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> stack.pop(), "Popping from an empty stack should throw NoSuchElementException");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPeekEmptyStack() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> stack.peek(), "Peeking into an empty stack should throw NoSuchElementException");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIsEmpty() {
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Newly created stack should be empty");
+
+        stack.push(1);
+        assertFalse(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should not be empty after pushing an element");
+
+        stack.pop();
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after popping the only element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testToString() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+
+        assertEquals("3->2->1", stack.toString(), "String representation of stack should match the expected format");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultiplePushesAndPops() {
+        stack.push(5);
+        stack.push(10);
+        stack.push(15);
+
+        assertEquals(15, stack.pop(), "Pop should return the last pushed value");
+        assertEquals(10, stack.peek(), "Peek should return the new top value after popping");
+        assertEquals(10, stack.pop(), "Pop should return the next last pushed value");
+        assertEquals(5, stack.pop(), "Pop should return the first pushed value");
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after popping all elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetSize() {
+        assertEquals(0, stack.getSize(), "Size of an empty stack should be zero");
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        assertEquals(2, stack.getSize(), "Size should reflect the number of elements");
+        stack.pop();
+        assertEquals(1, stack.getSize(), "Size should decrease with each pop");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSizeAfterClearingStack() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+
+        // Manually clear the stack
+        while (!stack.isEmpty()) {
+            stack.pop();
+        }
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after clearing");
+        assertEquals(0, stack.getSize(), "Size should be zero after clearing the stack");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSequentialPushAndPop() {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 100; i++) {
+            stack.push(i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(100, stack.getSize(), "Size should be 100 after pushing 100 elements");
+
+        for (int i = 100; i >= 1; i--) {
+            assertEquals(i, stack.pop(), "Popping should return values in LIFO order");
+        }
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after popping all elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPushZeroAndNegativeValues() {
+        stack.push(0);
+        stack.push(-1);
+        stack.push(-1);
+
+        assertEquals(-1, stack.pop(), "Should handle negative values correctly");
+        assertEquals(-1, stack.pop(), "Should handle negative values correctly");
+        assertEquals(0, stack.pop(), "Should handle zero value correctly");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPushDuplicateValues() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(1);
+
+        assertEquals(3, stack.getSize(), "Should allow duplicate values");
+        assertEquals(1, stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPushAfterEmptyingStack() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.pop();
+        stack.pop();
+
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty");
+
+        stack.push(10);
+        assertEquals(10, stack.peek(), "Should work correctly after emptying and refilling");
+        assertEquals(1, stack.getSize(), "Size should be correct after refilling");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPeekDoesNotModifyStack() {
+        stack.push(1);
+
+        int firstPeek = stack.peek();
+        int secondPeek = stack.peek();
+        int thirdPeek = stack.peek();
+
+        assertEquals(firstPeek, secondPeek, "Multiple peeks should return same value");
+        assertEquals(secondPeek, thirdPeek, "Multiple peeks should return same value");
+        assertEquals(1, stack.getSize(), "Peek should not modify stack size");
+        assertEquals(1, stack.pop(), "Element should still be poppable after peeking");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAlternatingPushAndPop() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        assertEquals(1, stack.pop());
+
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        assertEquals(3, stack.pop());
+
+        stack.push(4);
+        assertEquals(4, stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, stack.pop());
+
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty(), "Stack should be empty after alternating operations");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testToStringWithSingleElement() {
+        stack.push(42);
+        assertEquals("42", stack.toString(), "String representation with single element should not have arrows");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStackIntegrity() {
+        // Test that internal state remains consistent
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            stack.push(i);
+            assertEquals(i + 1, stack.getSize(), "Size should be consistent during pushes");
+            assertEquals(i, stack.peek(), "Peek should return last pushed value");
+        }
+
+        for (int i = 9; i >= 0; i--) {
+            assertEquals(i, stack.peek(), "Peek should return correct value before pop");
+            assertEquals(i, stack.pop(), "Pop should return values in LIFO order");
+            assertEquals(i, stack.getSize(), "Size should be consistent during pops");
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMixedDataTypes() {
+        // If your stack supports Object types, test with different data types
+
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+
+        assertEquals(Integer.valueOf(2), stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(Integer.valueOf(1), stack.pop());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTreeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTreeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6aa5dc9e22ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTreeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AVLTreeTest {
+    private AVLTree avlTree;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        avlTree = new AVLTree();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsert() {
+        assertTrue(avlTree.insert(10));
+        assertTrue(avlTree.insert(20));
+        assertTrue(avlTree.insert(5));
+        assertFalse(avlTree.insert(10)); // Duplicate
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearch() {
+        avlTree.insert(15);
+        avlTree.insert(25);
+        assertTrue(avlTree.search(15));
+        assertFalse(avlTree.search(30)); // Not in the tree
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteLeafNode() {
+        avlTree.insert(10);
+        avlTree.insert(20);
+        avlTree.insert(30);
+        avlTree.delete(30);
+        assertFalse(avlTree.search(30));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteNodeWithOneChild() {
+        avlTree.insert(20);
+        avlTree.insert(10);
+        avlTree.insert(30);
+        avlTree.delete(10);
+        assertFalse(avlTree.search(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteNodeWithTwoChildren() {
+        avlTree.insert(20);
+        avlTree.insert(10);
+        avlTree.insert(30);
+        avlTree.insert(25);
+        avlTree.delete(20);
+        assertFalse(avlTree.search(20));
+        assertTrue(avlTree.search(30));
+        assertTrue(avlTree.search(25));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testReturnBalance() {
+        avlTree.insert(10);
+        avlTree.insert(20);
+        avlTree.insert(5);
+        List<Integer> balances = avlTree.returnBalance();
+        assertEquals(3, balances.size()); // There should be 3 nodes
+        assertEquals(0, balances.get(0)); // Balance for node 5
+        assertEquals(0, balances.get(1)); // Balance for node 10
+        assertEquals(0, balances.get(2)); // Balance for node 20
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertAndRebalance() {
+        avlTree.insert(30);
+        avlTree.insert(20);
+        avlTree.insert(10); // This should cause a right rotation
+        assertTrue(avlTree.search(20));
+        assertTrue(avlTree.search(10));
+        assertTrue(avlTree.search(30));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testComplexInsertionAndDeletion() {
+        avlTree.insert(30);
+        avlTree.insert(20);
+        avlTree.insert(10);
+        avlTree.insert(25);
+        avlTree.insert(5);
+        avlTree.insert(15);
+
+        avlTree.delete(20); // Test deletion
+        assertFalse(avlTree.search(20));
+        assertTrue(avlTree.search(30));
+        assertTrue(avlTree.search(25));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..aab3b82c45eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 20/04/2023
+ */
+public class BSTFromSortedArrayTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testNullArray() {
+        BinaryTree.Node actualBST = BSTFromSortedArray.createBST(null);
+        Assertions.assertNull(actualBST);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyArray() {
+        BinaryTree.Node actualBST = BSTFromSortedArray.createBST(new int[] {});
+        Assertions.assertNull(actualBST);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleElementArray() {
+        BinaryTree.Node actualBST = BSTFromSortedArray.createBST(new int[] {Integer.MIN_VALUE});
+        Assertions.assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(actualBST));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCreateBSTFromSmallArray() {
+        BinaryTree.Node actualBST = BSTFromSortedArray.createBST(new int[] {1, 2, 3});
+        Assertions.assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(actualBST));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCreateBSTFromLongerArray() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        BinaryTree.Node actualBST = BSTFromSortedArray.createBST(array);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(actualBST));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testShouldNotCreateBSTFromNonSortedArray() {
+        int[] array = {10, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1};
+        BinaryTree.Node actualBST = BSTFromSortedArray.createBST(array);
+        Assertions.assertFalse(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(actualBST));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterativeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterativeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f47e2ad5285d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTIterativeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 23/04/2023
+ */
+public class BSTIterativeTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testBSTIsCorrectlyConstructedFromOneNode() {
+        BSTIterative tree = new BSTIterative();
+        tree.add(6);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(tree.getRoot()));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBSTIsCorrectlyCleanedAndEmpty() {
+        BSTIterative tree = new BSTIterative();
+
+        tree.add(6);
+        tree.remove(6);
+
+        tree.add(12);
+        tree.add(1);
+        tree.add(2);
+
+        tree.remove(1);
+        tree.remove(2);
+        tree.remove(12);
+
+        Assertions.assertNull(tree.getRoot());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBSTIsCorrectlyCleanedAndNonEmpty() {
+        BSTIterative tree = new BSTIterative();
+
+        tree.add(6);
+        tree.remove(6);
+
+        tree.add(12);
+        tree.add(1);
+        tree.add(2);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(tree.getRoot()));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBSTIsCorrectlyConstructedFromMultipleNodes() {
+        BSTIterative tree = new BSTIterative();
+        tree.add(7);
+        tree.add(1);
+        tree.add(5);
+        tree.add(100);
+        tree.add(50);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(tree.getRoot()));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGenericTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGenericTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5ec0080c5fb8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGenericTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for BSTRecursiveGeneric class.
+ * Covers insertion, deletion, search, traversal, sorting, and display.
+ *
+ * Author: Udaya Krishnan M
+ * GitHub: https://github.com/UdayaKrishnanM/
+ */
+class BSTRecursiveGenericTest {
+
+    private BSTRecursiveGeneric<Integer> intTree;
+    private BSTRecursiveGeneric<String> stringTree;
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes test trees before each test.
+     */
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        intTree = new BSTRecursiveGeneric<>();
+        stringTree = new BSTRecursiveGeneric<>();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests insertion and search of integer values.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testAddAndFindInteger() {
+        intTree.add(10);
+        intTree.add(5);
+        intTree.add(15);
+        assertTrue(intTree.find(10));
+        assertTrue(intTree.find(5));
+        assertTrue(intTree.find(15));
+        assertFalse(intTree.find(20));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests insertion and search of string values.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testAddAndFindString() {
+        stringTree.add("apple");
+        stringTree.add("banana");
+        stringTree.add("cherry");
+        assertTrue(stringTree.find("banana"));
+        assertFalse(stringTree.find("date"));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests deletion of existing and non-existing elements.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveElements() {
+        intTree.add(10);
+        intTree.add(5);
+        intTree.add(15);
+        assertTrue(intTree.find(5));
+        intTree.remove(5);
+        assertFalse(intTree.find(5));
+        intTree.remove(100); // non-existent
+        assertFalse(intTree.find(100));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests inorder traversal output.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInorderTraversal() {
+        intTree.add(20);
+        intTree.add(10);
+        intTree.add(30);
+        intTree.inorder(); // visually verify output
+        assertTrue(true);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests preorder traversal output.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testPreorderTraversal() {
+        intTree.add(20);
+        intTree.add(10);
+        intTree.add(30);
+        intTree.preorder(); // visually verify output
+        assertTrue(true);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests postorder traversal output.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testPostorderTraversal() {
+        intTree.add(20);
+        intTree.add(10);
+        intTree.add(30);
+        intTree.postorder(); // visually verify output
+        assertTrue(true);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests inorderSort returns sorted list.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInorderSort() {
+        intTree.add(30);
+        intTree.add(10);
+        intTree.add(20);
+        List<Integer> sorted = intTree.inorderSort();
+        assertEquals(List.of(10, 20, 30), sorted);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests prettyDisplay method for visual tree structure.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testPrettyDisplay() {
+        intTree.add(50);
+        intTree.add(30);
+        intTree.add(70);
+        intTree.add(20);
+        intTree.add(40);
+        intTree.add(60);
+        intTree.add(80);
+        intTree.prettyDisplay(); // visually verify output
+        assertTrue(true);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests edge case: empty tree.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyTree() {
+        assertFalse(intTree.find(1));
+        List<Integer> sorted = intTree.inorderSort();
+        assertTrue(sorted.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests edge case: single node tree.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSingleNodeTree() {
+        intTree.add(42);
+        assertTrue(intTree.find(42));
+        intTree.remove(42);
+        assertFalse(intTree.find(42));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests duplicate insertions.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testDuplicateInsertions() {
+        intTree.add(10);
+        intTree.add(10);
+        intTree.add(10);
+        List<Integer> sorted = intTree.inorderSort();
+        assertEquals(List.of(10), sorted); // assuming duplicates are ignored
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..07bcd2aa15b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 06/05/2023
+ */
+public class BSTRecursiveTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testBSTIsCorrectlyConstructedFromOneNode() {
+        BSTRecursive tree = new BSTRecursive();
+        tree.add(6);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(tree.getRoot()));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBSTIsCorrectlyCleanedAndEmpty() {
+        BSTRecursive tree = new BSTRecursive();
+
+        tree.add(6);
+        tree.remove(6);
+
+        tree.add(12);
+        tree.add(1);
+        tree.add(2);
+
+        tree.remove(1);
+        tree.remove(2);
+        tree.remove(12);
+
+        Assertions.assertNull(tree.getRoot());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBSTIsCorrectlyCleanedAndNonEmpty() {
+        BSTRecursive tree = new BSTRecursive();
+
+        tree.add(6);
+        tree.remove(6);
+
+        tree.add(12);
+        tree.add(1);
+        tree.add(2);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(tree.getRoot()));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBSTIsCorrectlyConstructedFromMultipleNodes() {
+        BSTRecursive tree = new BSTRecursive();
+        tree.add(7);
+        tree.add(1);
+        tree.add(5);
+        tree.add(100);
+        tree.add(50);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(tree.getRoot()));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTreeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTreeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..da29e117f25d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTreeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BTreeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertSearchDelete() {
+        BTree bTree = new BTree(3); // Minimum degree t = 3
+
+        int[] values = {10, 20, 5, 6, 12, 30, 7, 17};
+        for (int val : values) {
+            bTree.insert(val);
+        }
+
+        for (int val : values) {
+            assertTrue(bTree.search(val), "Should find inserted value: " + val);
+        }
+
+        ArrayList<Integer> traversal = new ArrayList<>();
+        bTree.traverse(traversal);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 17, 20, 30), traversal);
+
+        bTree.delete(6);
+        assertFalse(bTree.search(6));
+        traversal.clear();
+        bTree.traverse(traversal);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(5, 7, 10, 12, 17, 20, 30), traversal);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyTreeSearch() {
+        BTree bTree = new BTree(3);
+        assertFalse(bTree.search(42), "Search in empty tree should return false.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDuplicateInsertions() {
+        BTree bTree = new BTree(3);
+        bTree.insert(15);
+        bTree.insert(15); // Attempt duplicate
+        bTree.insert(15); // Another duplicate
+
+        ArrayList<Integer> traversal = new ArrayList<>();
+        bTree.traverse(traversal);
+
+        // Should contain only one 15
+        long count = traversal.stream().filter(x -> x == 15).count();
+        assertEquals(1, count, "Duplicate keys should not be inserted.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteNonExistentKey() {
+        BTree bTree = new BTree(3);
+        bTree.insert(10);
+        bTree.insert(20);
+        bTree.delete(99); // Doesn't exist
+        assertTrue(bTree.search(10));
+        assertTrue(bTree.search(20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testComplexInsertDelete() {
+        BTree bTree = new BTree(2); // Smaller degree to trigger splits more easily
+        int[] values = {1, 3, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 16, 19, 24, 25, 26, 21, 4, 5, 20, 22, 2, 17, 12, 6};
+
+        for (int val : values) {
+            bTree.insert(val);
+        }
+
+        for (int val : values) {
+            assertTrue(bTree.search(val));
+        }
+
+        int[] toDelete = {6, 13, 7, 4, 2, 16};
+        for (int val : toDelete) {
+            bTree.delete(val);
+            assertFalse(bTree.search(val));
+        }
+
+        ArrayList<Integer> remaining = new ArrayList<>();
+        bTree.traverse(remaining);
+
+        for (int val : toDelete) {
+            assertFalse(remaining.contains(val));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTreeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTreeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d6581fb8c4e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTreeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the BinaryTree class.
+ */
+public class BinaryTreeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertAndFind() {
+        BinaryTree tree = new BinaryTree();
+        tree.put(3);
+        tree.put(5);
+        tree.put(7);
+        tree.put(9);
+        tree.put(12);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(tree.find(5), "Node with value 5 should exist");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, tree.find(5).data, "Value of the found node should be 5");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(7, tree.find(7).data, "Value of the found node should be 7");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemove() {
+        BinaryTree tree = new BinaryTree();
+        tree.put(3);
+        tree.put(5);
+        tree.put(7);
+        tree.put(9);
+        tree.put(12);
+        tree.remove(3);
+        tree.remove(5);
+        tree.remove(7);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(tree.getRoot(), "Root should not be null after removals");
+        if (tree.getRoot() != null) {
+            Assertions.assertEquals(9, tree.getRoot().data, "Root value should be 9 after removals");
+        } else {
+            Assertions.fail("Root should not be null after removals, but it is.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRemoveReturnValue() {
+        BinaryTree tree = new BinaryTree();
+        tree.put(3);
+        tree.put(5);
+        tree.put(7);
+        tree.put(9);
+        tree.put(12);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(tree.remove(9), "Removing existing node 9 should return true");
+        Assertions.assertFalse(tree.remove(398745987), "Removing non-existing node should return false");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTraversalMethods() {
+        BinaryTree tree = new BinaryTree();
+        tree.put(3);
+        tree.put(5);
+        tree.put(7);
+        tree.put(9);
+        tree.put(12);
+
+        // Testing traversal methods
+        tree.bfs(tree.getRoot());
+        tree.inOrder(tree.getRoot());
+        tree.preOrder(tree.getRoot());
+        tree.postOrder(tree.getRoot());
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(tree.remove(9), "Removing existing node 9 should return true");
+        Assertions.assertFalse(tree.remove(398745987), "Removing non-existing node should return false");
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(tree.getRoot(), "Root should not be null after operations");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BoundaryTraversalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BoundaryTraversalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..515dac88ce09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BoundaryTraversalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ *
+ */
+public class BoundaryTraversalTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNullRoot() {
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), BoundaryTraversal.boundaryTraversal(null));
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), BoundaryTraversal.iterativeBoundaryTraversal(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = new BinaryTree.Node(1);
+
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(1);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.boundaryTraversal(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.iterativeBoundaryTraversal(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+        1
+       / \
+      2   3
+     / \ / \
+    4  5 6  7
+
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testCompleteBinaryTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 3);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.boundaryTraversal(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.iterativeBoundaryTraversal(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+        1
+       / \
+      2   7
+     /     \
+    3       8
+     \     /
+      4   9
+         / \
+        5   6
+           / \
+         10  11
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testBoundaryTraversal() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 7, 3, null, null, 8, null, 4, 9, null, 5, 6, 10, 11});
+
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 9, 8, 7);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.boundaryTraversal(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.iterativeBoundaryTraversal(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+          1
+         /
+        2
+       /
+      3
+     /
+    4
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testLeftSkewedTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, null, 3, null, 4, null});
+
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(1, 2, 3, 4);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.boundaryTraversal(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.iterativeBoundaryTraversal(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+              5
+               \
+                6
+                 \
+                  7
+                   \
+                    8
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testRightSkewedTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {5, null, 6, null, 7, null, 8});
+
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(5, 6, 7, 8);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.boundaryTraversal(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, BoundaryTraversal.iterativeBoundaryTraversal(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTreeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTreeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..779c68137e42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTreeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BinaryTree.Node;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CeilInBinarySearchTreeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRootNull() {
+        assertNull(CeilInBinarySearchTree.getCeil(null, 9));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKeyPresentRootIsCeil() {
+        final Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100, 10, 200});
+        assertEquals(100, CeilInBinarySearchTree.getCeil(root, 100).data);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKeyPresentLeafIsCeil() {
+        final Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100, 10, 200});
+        assertEquals(10, CeilInBinarySearchTree.getCeil(root, 10).data);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKeyAbsentRootIsCeil() {
+        final Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100, 10, 200, 5, 50, 150, 300});
+        assertEquals(100, CeilInBinarySearchTree.getCeil(root, 75).data);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKeyAbsentLeafIsCeil() {
+        final Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100, 10, 200, 5, 50, 150, 300});
+        assertEquals(50, CeilInBinarySearchTree.getCeil(root, 40).data);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKeyAbsentLeftMostNodeIsCeil() {
+        final Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100, 10, 200, 5, 50, 150, 300});
+        assertEquals(5, CeilInBinarySearchTree.getCeil(root, 1).data);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKeyAbsentCeilIsNull() {
+        final Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100, 10, 200, 5, 50, 150, 300});
+        assertNull(CeilInBinarySearchTree.getCeil(root, 400));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBSTTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBSTTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bf7b946143f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBSTTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 17/02/2023
+ */
+public class CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBSTTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testRootNull() {
+        assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOneNode() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {Integer.MIN_VALUE});
+        assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         9
+        / \
+       7   13
+      /\   / \
+     3  8 10 20
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryTreeIsBST() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {9, 7, 13, 3, 8, 10, 20});
+        assertTrue(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         9
+        / \
+       7   13
+      /\   / \
+     3  8 10 13 <--- duplicated node
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryTreeWithDuplicatedNodesIsNotBST() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {9, 7, 13, 3, 8, 10, 13});
+        assertFalse(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         9
+        / \
+       7   13
+      /\   / \
+     3  8 10 12 <---- violates BST rule, needs to be more than 13 (parent node)
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryTreeIsNotBST() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {9, 7, 13, 3, 8, 10, 12});
+        assertFalse(CheckBinaryTreeIsValidBST.isBST(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalancedTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalancedTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0eb234d618ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckIfBinaryTreeBalancedTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test check both implemented ways, iterative and recursive algorithms.
+ *
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 26/06/2023
+ */
+public class CheckIfBinaryTreeBalancedTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testRootNull() {
+        assertTrue(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedRecursive(null));
+        assertTrue(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedIterative(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOneNode() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {Integer.MIN_VALUE});
+        assertTrue(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedRecursive(root));
+        assertTrue(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedIterative(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+     9    <-- Math.abs(height(left) - height(right)) == 0
+    / \
+   7   13
+  /\   / \
+ 3  8 10 20
+*/
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryTreeIsBalancedEqualSubtreeHeights() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {9, 7, 13, 3, 8, 10, 20});
+        assertTrue(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedRecursive(root));
+        assertTrue(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedIterative(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+     9    <-- Math.abs(height(left) - height(right)) == 1
+    / \
+   7   13
+  /\
+ 3  8
+*/
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryTreeIsBalancedWithDifferentHeights() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {9, 7, 13, 3, 8});
+        assertTrue(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedRecursive(root));
+        assertTrue(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedIterative(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         9  <-- only left tree exists, Math.abs(height(left) - height(right)) > 1
+        /
+       7
+      /\
+     3  8
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryTreeNotBalanced() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {9, 7, null, 3, 8});
+        assertFalse(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedRecursive(root));
+        assertFalse(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedIterative(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         9    <-- Math.abs(height(left) - height(right)) > 1
+        / \
+       7   13
+      /\
+     3  8
+    /
+   11
+*/
+    @Test
+    public void testBinaryTreeNotBalancedBecauseLeftTreeNotBalanced() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {9, 7, 13, 3, 8, null, null, 11});
+        assertFalse(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedRecursive(root));
+        assertFalse(CheckIfBinaryTreeBalanced.isBalancedIterative(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetricTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetricTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a610a32aa91f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetricTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author kumanoit on 10/10/22 IST 1:02 AM
+ */
+public class CheckTreeIsSymmetricTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRootNull() {
+        assertTrue(CheckTreeIsSymmetric.isSymmetric(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100});
+        assertTrue(CheckTreeIsSymmetric.isSymmetric(root));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSymmetricTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 3});
+        assertTrue(CheckTreeIsSymmetric.isSymmetric(root));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNonSymmetricTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 2, 3, 5, 4, 3});
+        assertFalse(CheckTreeIsSymmetric.isSymmetric(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..10f7aa667230
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 14/05/2023
+ */
+public class CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorderTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testOnNullArraysShouldReturnNullTree() {
+        // when
+        BinaryTree.Node root = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTree(null, null);
+        BinaryTree.Node rootOpt = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTreeOptimized(null, null);
+
+        // then
+        Assertions.assertNull(root);
+        Assertions.assertNull(rootOpt);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOnEmptyArraysShouldCreateNullTree() {
+        // given
+        Integer[] preorder = {};
+        Integer[] inorder = {};
+
+        // when
+        BinaryTree.Node root = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTree(preorder, inorder);
+        BinaryTree.Node rootOpt = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorder);
+
+        // then
+        Assertions.assertNull(root);
+        Assertions.assertNull(rootOpt);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOnSingleNodeTreeShouldCreateCorrectTree() {
+        // given
+        Integer[] preorder = {1};
+        Integer[] inorder = {1};
+
+        // when
+        BinaryTree.Node root = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTree(preorder, inorder);
+        BinaryTree.Node rootOpt = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorder);
+
+        // then
+        checkTree(preorder, inorder, root);
+        checkTree(preorder, inorder, rootOpt);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOnRightSkewedTreeShouldCreateCorrectTree() {
+        // given
+        Integer[] preorder = {1, 2, 3, 4};
+        Integer[] inorder = {1, 2, 3, 4};
+
+        // when
+        BinaryTree.Node root = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTree(preorder, inorder);
+        BinaryTree.Node rootOpt = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorder);
+
+        // then
+        checkTree(preorder, inorder, root);
+        checkTree(preorder, inorder, rootOpt);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOnLeftSkewedTreeShouldCreateCorrectTree() {
+        // given
+        Integer[] preorder = {1, 2, 3, 4};
+        Integer[] inorder = {4, 3, 2, 1};
+
+        // when
+        BinaryTree.Node root = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTree(preorder, inorder);
+        BinaryTree.Node rootOpt = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorder);
+
+        // then
+        checkTree(preorder, inorder, root);
+        checkTree(preorder, inorder, rootOpt);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOnNormalTreeShouldCreateCorrectTree() {
+        // given
+        Integer[] preorder = {3, 9, 20, 15, 7};
+        Integer[] inorder = {9, 3, 15, 20, 7};
+
+        // when
+        BinaryTree.Node root = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTree(preorder, inorder);
+        BinaryTree.Node rootOpt = CreateBinaryTreeFromInorderPreorder.createTreeOptimized(preorder, inorder);
+
+        // then
+        checkTree(preorder, inorder, root);
+        checkTree(preorder, inorder, rootOpt);
+    }
+
+    private static void checkTree(Integer[] preorder, Integer[] inorder, BinaryTree.Node root) {
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(root);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(PreOrderTraversal.iterativePreOrder(root), Arrays.asList(preorder));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(InorderTraversal.iterativeInorder(root), Arrays.asList(inorder));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e65beb891606
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 21/02/2023
+ */
+public class InorderTraversalTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testNullRoot() {
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), InorderTraversal.recursiveInorder(null));
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), InorderTraversal.iterativeInorder(null));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1
+        / \
+       2   3
+      /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testRecursiveInorder() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(4, 2, 5, 1, 6, 3, 7);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, InorderTraversal.recursiveInorder(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, InorderTraversal.iterativeInorder(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         5
+          \
+           6
+            \
+             7
+              \
+               8
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testRecursiveInorderNonBalanced() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {5, null, 6, null, 7, null, 8});
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(5, 6, 7, 8);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, InorderTraversal.recursiveInorder(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, InorderTraversal.iterativeInorder(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTreeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTreeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..49babb033e81
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTreeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KDTreeTest {
+
+    KDTree.Point pointOf(int x, int y) {
+        return new KDTree.Point(new int[] {x, y});
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void findMin() {
+        int[][] coordinates = {
+            {30, 40},
+            {5, 25},
+            {70, 70},
+            {10, 12},
+            {50, 30},
+            {35, 45},
+        };
+        KDTree kdTree = new KDTree(coordinates);
+
+        assertEquals(5, kdTree.findMin(0).getCoordinate(0));
+        assertEquals(12, kdTree.findMin(1).getCoordinate(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void delete() {
+        int[][] coordinates = {
+            {30, 40},
+            {5, 25},
+            {70, 70},
+            {10, 12},
+            {50, 30},
+            {35, 45},
+        };
+        KDTree kdTree = new KDTree(coordinates);
+
+        kdTree.delete(pointOf(30, 40));
+        assertEquals(35, kdTree.getRoot().getPoint().getCoordinate(0));
+        assertEquals(45, kdTree.getRoot().getPoint().getCoordinate(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void findNearest() {
+        int[][] coordinates = {
+            {2, 3},
+            {5, 4},
+            {9, 6},
+            {4, 7},
+            {8, 1},
+            {7, 2},
+        };
+        KDTree kdTree = new KDTree(coordinates);
+
+        assertEquals(pointOf(7, 2), kdTree.findNearest(pointOf(7, 2)));
+        assertEquals(pointOf(8, 1), kdTree.findNearest(pointOf(8, 1)));
+        assertEquals(pointOf(2, 3), kdTree.findNearest(pointOf(1, 1)));
+        assertEquals(pointOf(5, 4), kdTree.findNearest(pointOf(5, 5)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LazySegmentTreeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LazySegmentTreeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7daf8c6313cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LazySegmentTreeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class LazySegmentTreeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void build() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        LazySegmentTree lazySegmentTree = new LazySegmentTree(arr);
+        assertEquals(55, lazySegmentTree.getRoot().getValue());
+        assertEquals(15, lazySegmentTree.getRoot().getLeft().getValue());
+        assertEquals(40, lazySegmentTree.getRoot().getRight().getValue());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void update() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1};
+        LazySegmentTree lazySegmentTree = new LazySegmentTree(arr);
+        assertEquals(10, lazySegmentTree.getRoot().getValue());
+
+        lazySegmentTree.updateRange(0, 2, 1);
+        assertEquals(12, lazySegmentTree.getRoot().getValue());
+
+        lazySegmentTree.updateRange(1, 3, 1);
+        assertEquals(14, lazySegmentTree.getRoot().getValue());
+
+        lazySegmentTree.updateRange(6, 8, 1);
+        assertEquals(16, lazySegmentTree.getRoot().getValue());
+
+        lazySegmentTree.updateRange(3, 9, 1);
+        assertEquals(22, lazySegmentTree.getRoot().getValue());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void get() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        LazySegmentTree lazySegmentTree = new LazySegmentTree(arr);
+        assertEquals(55, lazySegmentTree.getRange(0, 10));
+        assertEquals(3, lazySegmentTree.getRange(0, 2));
+        assertEquals(19, lazySegmentTree.getRange(8, 10));
+        assertEquals(44, lazySegmentTree.getRange(1, 9));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void updateAndGet() {
+        int[] arr = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0};
+        LazySegmentTree lazySegmentTree = new LazySegmentTree(arr);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            for (int j = i + 1; j < 10; j++) {
+                lazySegmentTree.updateRange(i, j, 1);
+                assertEquals(j - i, lazySegmentTree.getRange(i, j));
+                lazySegmentTree.updateRange(i, j, -1);
+                assertEquals(0, lazySegmentTree.getRange(i, j));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ee807bccc5f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/LevelOrderTraversalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 08/02/2023
+ */
+public class LevelOrderTraversalTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testRootNull() {
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), LevelOrderTraversal.traverse(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {50});
+        assertEquals(List.of(List.of(50)), LevelOrderTraversal.traverse(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1
+        / \
+       2   3
+      /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testLevelOrderTraversalCompleteTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+        assertEquals(List.of(List.of(1), List.of(2, 3), List.of(4, 5, 6, 7)), LevelOrderTraversal.traverse(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1
+        / \
+       2   3
+      /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7
+        /  \
+       8    9
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testLevelOrderTraversalDifferentHeight() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, null, null, 8, null, null, 9});
+        assertEquals(List.of(List.of(1), List.of(2, 3), List.of(4, 5, 6, 7), List.of(8, 9)), LevelOrderTraversal.traverse(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PostOrderTraversalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PostOrderTraversalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3acc7f07c087
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PostOrderTraversalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Given tree is traversed in a 'post-order' way: LEFT -> RIGHT -> ROOT.
+ *
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 21/02/2023
+ */
+public class PostOrderTraversalTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testNullRoot() {
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), PostOrderTraversal.recursivePostOrder(null));
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), PostOrderTraversal.iterativePostOrder(null));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1
+        / \
+       2   3
+      /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testPostOrder() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(4, 5, 2, 6, 7, 3, 1);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, PostOrderTraversal.recursivePostOrder(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, PostOrderTraversal.iterativePostOrder(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         5
+          \
+           6
+            \
+             7
+              \
+               8
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testPostOrderNonBalanced() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {5, null, 6, null, 7, null, 8});
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(8, 7, 6, 5);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, PostOrderTraversal.recursivePostOrder(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, PostOrderTraversal.iterativePostOrder(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b194da01485b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 17/02/2023
+ */
+public class PreOrderTraversalTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testNullRoot() {
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), PreOrderTraversal.recursivePreOrder(null));
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), PreOrderTraversal.iterativePreOrder(null));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1
+        / \
+       2   3
+      /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testRecursivePreOrder() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(1, 2, 4, 5, 3, 6, 7);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, PreOrderTraversal.recursivePreOrder(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, PreOrderTraversal.iterativePreOrder(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         5
+          \
+           6
+            \
+             7
+              \
+               8
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testRecursivePreOrderNonBalanced() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {5, null, 6, null, 7, null, 8});
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(5, 6, 7, 8);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, PreOrderTraversal.recursivePreOrder(root));
+        assertEquals(expected, PreOrderTraversal.iterativePreOrder(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTreeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTreeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..62b86da214db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTreeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class QuadTreeTest {
+    int quadTreeCapacity = 4;
+    BoundingBox boundingBox = new BoundingBox(new Point(0, 0), 500);
+    QuadTree quadTree = new QuadTree(boundingBox, quadTreeCapacity);
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNullPointInsertIntoQuadTree() {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(quadTree.insert(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertIntoQuadTree() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(10, -10)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(-10, 10)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(-10, -10)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(10, 10)));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(quadTree.insert(new Point(1050, 1050)));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertIntoQuadTreeAndSubDivide() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(10, -10)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(-10, 10)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(-10, -10)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(10, 10)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(-100, 100)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(100, -101)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(-100, -100)));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(quadTree.insert(new Point(100, 100)));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testQueryInQuadTree() {
+        quadTree.insert(new Point(10, -10));
+        quadTree.insert(new Point(-10, 10));
+        quadTree.insert(new Point(-10, -10));
+        quadTree.insert(new Point(10, 10));
+        quadTree.insert(new Point(-100, 100));
+        quadTree.insert(new Point(100, -100));
+        quadTree.insert(new Point(-100, -100));
+        quadTree.insert(new Point(100, 100));
+
+        List<Point> points = quadTree.query(new BoundingBox(new Point(0, 0), 100));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(8, points.size());
+
+        points = quadTree.query(new BoundingBox(new Point(5, 5), 5));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, points.size());
+
+        points = quadTree.query(new BoundingBox(new Point(-200, -200), 5));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, points.size());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheckTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheckTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..440222880517
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheckTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 12/01/2023
+ */
+public class SameTreesCheckTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testBothRootsAreNull() {
+        assertTrue(SameTreesCheck.check(null, null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOneRootIsNull() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100});
+        assertFalse(SameTreesCheck.check(root, null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeTreesAreSame() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node p = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100});
+        final BinaryTree.Node q = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {100});
+        assertTrue(SameTreesCheck.check(p, q));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1                 1
+        / \               / \
+       2   3             2   3
+      /\   /\           /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7         4  5 6  7
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testSameTreesIsSuccessful() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node p = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+        final BinaryTree.Node q = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+        assertTrue(SameTreesCheck.check(p, q));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1                 1
+        / \               / \
+       2   3             2   3
+      /\   /\           /\   /
+     4  5 6  7         4  5 6
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testSameTreesFails() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node p = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+        final BinaryTree.Node q = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6});
+        assertFalse(SameTreesCheck.check(p, q));
+    }
+
+    /*
+       1    1
+      /      \
+     2        2
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testTreesWithDifferentStructure() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node p = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2});
+        final BinaryTree.Node q = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, null, 2});
+        assertFalse(SameTreesCheck.check(p, q));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTreeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTreeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d520be94e7f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTreeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class SplayTreeTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("traversalStrategies")
+    public void testTraversal(SplayTree.TreeTraversal traversal, List<Integer> expected) {
+        SplayTree tree = createComplexTree();
+        List<Integer> result = tree.traverse(traversal);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("valuesToTest")
+    public void testSearch(int value) {
+        SplayTree tree = createComplexTree();
+        assertTrue(tree.search(value));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("valuesToTest")
+    public void testDelete(int value) {
+        SplayTree tree = createComplexTree();
+        assertTrue(tree.search(value));
+        tree.delete(value);
+        assertFalse(tree.search(value));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("nonExistentValues")
+    public void testSearchNonExistent(int value) {
+        SplayTree tree = createComplexTree();
+        assertFalse(tree.search(value));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("nonExistentValues")
+    public void testDeleteNonExistent(int value) {
+        SplayTree tree = createComplexTree();
+        tree.delete(value);
+        assertFalse(tree.search(value));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("valuesToTest")
+    public void testDeleteThrowsExceptionForEmptyTree(int value) {
+        SplayTree tree = new SplayTree();
+        assertThrows(SplayTree.EmptyTreeException.class, () -> tree.delete(value));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("valuesToTest")
+    public void testInsertThrowsExceptionForDuplicateKeys(int value) {
+        SplayTree tree = createComplexTree();
+        assertThrows(SplayTree.DuplicateKeyException.class, () -> tree.insert(value));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("valuesToTest")
+    public void testSearchInEmptyTree(int value) {
+        SplayTree tree = new SplayTree();
+        assertFalse(tree.search(value));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Object[]> traversalStrategies() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {SplayTree.IN_ORDER, Arrays.asList(5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90)}, new Object[] {SplayTree.PRE_ORDER, Arrays.asList(15, 5, 10, 80, 70, 45, 25, 20, 35, 30, 40, 55, 50, 65, 60, 75, 90, 85)},
+            new Object[] {SplayTree.POST_ORDER, Arrays.asList(10, 5, 20, 30, 40, 35, 25, 50, 60, 65, 55, 45, 75, 70, 85, 90, 80, 15)});
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Integer> valuesToTest() {
+        return Stream.of(5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Integer> nonExistentValues() {
+        return Stream.of(0, 100, 42, 58);
+    }
+
+    private SplayTree createComplexTree() {
+        SplayTree tree = new SplayTree();
+
+        tree.insert(50);
+        tree.insert(30);
+        tree.insert(40);
+        tree.insert(70);
+        tree.insert(60);
+        tree.insert(20);
+        tree.insert(80);
+        tree.insert(10);
+        tree.insert(25);
+        tree.insert(35);
+        tree.insert(45);
+        tree.insert(55);
+        tree.insert(65);
+        tree.insert(75);
+        tree.insert(85);
+        tree.insert(5);
+        tree.insert(90);
+        tree.insert(15);
+
+        return tree;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreapTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreapTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..09ada594faca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreapTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TreapTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void searchAndFound() {
+        Treap treap = new Treap();
+        treap.insert(5);
+        treap.insert(9);
+        treap.insert(6);
+        treap.insert(2);
+        treap.insert(3);
+        treap.insert(8);
+        treap.insert(1);
+        assertEquals(5, treap.search(5).value);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void searchAndNotFound() {
+        Treap treap = new Treap();
+        treap.insert(5);
+        treap.insert(9);
+        treap.insert(6);
+        treap.insert(2);
+        treap.insert(3);
+        treap.insert(8);
+        treap.insert(1);
+        assertEquals(null, treap.search(4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void lowerBound() {
+        Treap treap = new Treap();
+        treap.insert(5);
+        treap.insert(9);
+        treap.insert(6);
+        treap.insert(2);
+        treap.insert(3);
+        treap.insert(8);
+        treap.insert(1);
+        assertEquals(5, treap.lowerBound(4).value);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void size() {
+        Treap treap = new Treap();
+        treap.insert(5);
+        treap.insert(9);
+        treap.insert(6);
+        treap.insert(2);
+        treap.insert(3);
+        treap.insert(8);
+        treap.insert(1);
+        assertEquals(7, treap.size());
+        assertFalse(treap.isEmpty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeTestUtils.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeTestUtils.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9628e86b9bff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeTestUtils.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees.BinaryTree.Node;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.Queue;
+
+public final class TreeTestUtils {
+    private TreeTestUtils() {
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Creates a binary tree with given values
+     *
+     * @param values: Level order representation of tree
+     * @return Root of a binary tree
+     */
+    public static Node createTree(final Integer[] values) {
+        if (values == null || values.length == 0 || values[0] == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Values array should not be empty or null.");
+        }
+        final Node root = new Node(values[0]);
+        final Queue<Node> queue = new LinkedList<>();
+        queue.add(root);
+        int end = 1;
+        while (end < values.length) {
+            final Node node = queue.remove();
+            if (values[end] == null) {
+                node.left = null;
+            } else {
+                node.left = new Node(values[end]);
+                queue.add(node.left);
+            }
+            end++;
+            if (end < values.length) {
+                if (values[end] == null) {
+                    node.right = null;
+                } else {
+                    node.right = new Node(values[end]);
+                    queue.add(node.right);
+                }
+            }
+            end++;
+        }
+        return root;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9348118bb343
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TrieTest {
+    private static final List<String> WORDS = List.of("Apple", "App", "app", "APPLE");
+
+    private Trie trie;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        trie = new Trie();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertAndSearchBasic() {
+        String word = "hello";
+        trie.insert(word);
+        assertTrue(trie.search(word), "Search should return true for an inserted word.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchNonExistentWord() {
+        String word = "world";
+        assertFalse(trie.search(word), "Search should return false for a non-existent word.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertAndSearchMultipleWords() {
+        String word1 = "cat";
+        String word2 = "car";
+        trie.insert(word1);
+        trie.insert(word2);
+
+        assertTrue(trie.search(word1), "Search should return true for an inserted word.");
+        assertTrue(trie.search(word2), "Search should return true for another inserted word.");
+        assertFalse(trie.search("dog"), "Search should return false for a word not in the Trie.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteExistingWord() {
+        String word = "remove";
+        trie.insert(word);
+        assertTrue(trie.delete(word), "Delete should return true for an existing word.");
+        assertFalse(trie.search(word), "Search should return false after deletion.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeleteNonExistentWord() {
+        String word = "nonexistent";
+        assertFalse(trie.delete(word), "Delete should return false for a non-existent word.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInsertAndSearchPrefix() {
+        String prefix = "pre";
+        String word = "prefix";
+        trie.insert(prefix);
+        trie.insert(word);
+
+        assertTrue(trie.search(prefix), "Search should return true for an inserted prefix.");
+        assertTrue(trie.search(word), "Search should return true for a word with the prefix.");
+        assertFalse(trie.search("pref"), "Search should return false for a prefix that is not a full word.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCountWords() {
+        Trie trie = createTrie();
+        assertEquals(WORDS.size(), trie.countWords(), "Count words should return the correct number of words.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStartsWithPrefix() {
+        Trie trie = createTrie();
+        assertTrue(trie.startsWithPrefix("App"), "Starts with prefix should return true.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCountWordsWithPrefix() {
+        Trie trie = createTrie();
+        assertEquals(2, trie.countWordsWithPrefix("App"), "Count words with prefix should return 2.");
+    }
+
+    private Trie createTrie() {
+        Trie trie = new Trie();
+        WORDS.forEach(trie::insert);
+        return trie;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cc89c9813fa8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 13/01/2023
+ */
+public class VerticalOrderTraversalTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testRootNull() {
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), VerticalOrderTraversal.verticalTraversal(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {50});
+        assertEquals(List.of(50), VerticalOrderTraversal.verticalTraversal(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1
+        / \
+       2   3
+      /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testVerticalTraversalCompleteTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+        assertEquals(List.of(4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 3, 7), VerticalOrderTraversal.verticalTraversal(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1
+        / \
+       2   3
+      /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7
+        /  \
+       8    9
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testVerticalTraversalDifferentHeight() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, null, null, 8, null, null, 9});
+        assertEquals(List.of(4, 2, 8, 1, 5, 6, 3, 9, 7), VerticalOrderTraversal.verticalTraversal(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..eb5c0e3ce4df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 11/01/2023
+ */
+public class ZigzagTraversalTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testRootNull() {
+        assertEquals(Collections.emptyList(), ZigzagTraversal.traverse(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {50});
+        assertEquals(List.of(List.of(50)), ZigzagTraversal.traverse(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1
+        / \
+       2   3
+      /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testZigzagTraversalCompleteTree() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7});
+        assertEquals(List.of(List.of(1), List.of(3, 2), List.of(4, 5, 6, 7)), ZigzagTraversal.traverse(root));
+    }
+
+    /*
+         1
+        / \
+       2   3
+      /\   /\
+     4  5 6  7
+        /  \
+       8    9
+    */
+    @Test
+    public void testZigzagTraversalDifferentHeight() {
+        final BinaryTree.Node root = TreeTestUtils.createTree(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, null, null, 8, null, null, 9});
+        assertEquals(List.of(List.of(1), List.of(3, 2), List.of(4, 5, 6, 7), List.of(9, 8)), ZigzagTraversal.traverse(root));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/entities/ProcessDetailsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/entities/ProcessDetailsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b5c96c601e4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/entities/ProcessDetailsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for ProcessDetails
+ * Tests the ProcessDetails entity used in scheduling algorithms
+ *
+ * @author Sourav Saha (yashsaha555)
+ */
+class ProcessDetailsTest {
+
+    private ProcessDetails processWithPriority;
+    private ProcessDetails processWithoutPriority;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        // Initialize test objects before each test
+        processWithPriority = new ProcessDetails("P1", 0, 10, 5);
+        processWithoutPriority = new ProcessDetails("P2", 2, 8);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithPriority() {
+        // Test constructor with priority parameter
+        ProcessDetails process = new ProcessDetails("P3", 1, 15, 3);
+
+        assertEquals("P3", process.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(1, process.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(15, process.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(3, process.getPriority());
+        assertEquals(0, process.getWaitingTime()); // Default value
+        assertEquals(0, process.getTurnAroundTimeTime()); // Default value
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithoutPriority() {
+        // Test constructor without priority parameter
+        ProcessDetails process = new ProcessDetails("P4", 3, 12);
+
+        assertEquals("P4", process.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(3, process.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(12, process.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(0, process.getPriority()); // Default value
+        assertEquals(0, process.getWaitingTime()); // Default value
+        assertEquals(0, process.getTurnAroundTimeTime()); // Default value
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetProcessId() {
+        assertEquals("P1", processWithPriority.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals("P2", processWithoutPriority.getProcessId());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetArrivalTime() {
+        assertEquals(0, processWithPriority.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(2, processWithoutPriority.getArrivalTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetBurstTime() {
+        assertEquals(10, processWithPriority.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(8, processWithoutPriority.getBurstTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetWaitingTime() {
+        // Initial waiting time should be 0
+        assertEquals(0, processWithPriority.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(0, processWithoutPriority.getWaitingTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetTurnAroundTimeTime() {
+        // Initial turnaround time should be 0
+        assertEquals(0, processWithPriority.getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+        assertEquals(0, processWithoutPriority.getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetPriority() {
+        assertEquals(5, processWithPriority.getPriority());
+        assertEquals(0, processWithoutPriority.getPriority()); // Default for constructor without priority
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetProcessId() {
+        processWithPriority.setProcessId("NewP1");
+        assertEquals("NewP1", processWithPriority.getProcessId());
+
+        // Test setting null process ID
+        processWithPriority.setProcessId(null);
+        assertNull(processWithPriority.getProcessId());
+
+        // Test setting empty process ID
+        processWithPriority.setProcessId("");
+        assertEquals("", processWithPriority.getProcessId());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetArrivalTime() {
+        processWithPriority.setArrivalTime(5);
+        assertEquals(5, processWithPriority.getArrivalTime());
+
+        // Test setting negative arrival time
+        processWithPriority.setArrivalTime(-1);
+        assertEquals(-1, processWithPriority.getArrivalTime());
+
+        // Test setting zero arrival time
+        processWithPriority.setArrivalTime(0);
+        assertEquals(0, processWithPriority.getArrivalTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetBurstTime() {
+        processWithPriority.setBurstTime(20);
+        assertEquals(20, processWithPriority.getBurstTime());
+
+        // Test setting zero burst time
+        processWithPriority.setBurstTime(0);
+        assertEquals(0, processWithPriority.getBurstTime());
+
+        // Test setting very large burst time
+        processWithPriority.setBurstTime(Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, processWithPriority.getBurstTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetWaitingTime() {
+        processWithPriority.setWaitingTime(15);
+        assertEquals(15, processWithPriority.getWaitingTime());
+
+        // Test setting negative waiting time
+        processWithPriority.setWaitingTime(-5);
+        assertEquals(-5, processWithPriority.getWaitingTime());
+
+        // Test setting zero waiting time
+        processWithPriority.setWaitingTime(0);
+        assertEquals(0, processWithPriority.getWaitingTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetTurnAroundTimeTime() {
+        processWithPriority.setTurnAroundTimeTime(25);
+        assertEquals(25, processWithPriority.getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        // Test setting negative turnaround time
+        processWithPriority.setTurnAroundTimeTime(-10);
+        assertEquals(-10, processWithPriority.getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        // Test setting zero turnaround time
+        processWithPriority.setTurnAroundTimeTime(0);
+        assertEquals(0, processWithPriority.getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompleteProcessLifecycle() {
+        // Test a complete process lifecycle with realistic scheduling values
+        ProcessDetails process = new ProcessDetails("P5", 0, 10, 2);
+
+        // Simulate process execution
+        process.setWaitingTime(5); // Process waited 5 time units
+        process.setTurnAroundTimeTime(15); // Total time from arrival to completion
+
+        assertEquals("P5", process.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(0, process.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(10, process.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(5, process.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(15, process.getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+        assertEquals(2, process.getPriority());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testProcessWithMinimumValues() {
+        // Test process with minimum possible values
+        ProcessDetails process = new ProcessDetails("", 0, 1, 0);
+
+        assertEquals("", process.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(0, process.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(1, process.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(0, process.getPriority());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testProcessWithMaximumValues() {
+        // Test process with large values
+        ProcessDetails process = new ProcessDetails("LongProcessName", Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+
+        assertEquals("LongProcessName", process.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, process.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, process.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, process.getPriority());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testProcessModificationAfterCreation() {
+        // Test that all fields can be modified after object creation
+        ProcessDetails process = new ProcessDetails("Original", 1, 5, 3);
+
+        // Modify all fields
+        process.setProcessId("Modified");
+        process.setArrivalTime(10);
+        process.setBurstTime(20);
+        process.setWaitingTime(8);
+        process.setTurnAroundTimeTime(28);
+
+        // Verify all modifications
+        assertEquals("Modified", process.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(10, process.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(20, process.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(8, process.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(28, process.getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+        assertEquals(3, process.getPriority()); // Priority has no setter, should remain unchanged
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleProcessesIndependence() {
+        // Test that multiple ProcessDetails objects are independent
+        ProcessDetails process1 = new ProcessDetails("P1", 0, 5, 1);
+        ProcessDetails process2 = new ProcessDetails("P2", 2, 8, 2);
+
+        // Modify first process
+        process1.setWaitingTime(10);
+        process1.setTurnAroundTimeTime(15);
+
+        // Verify first process was modified correctly
+        assertEquals("P1", process1.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(0, process1.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(5, process1.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(1, process1.getPriority());
+        assertEquals(10, process1.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(15, process1.getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        // Verify second process is unchanged
+        assertEquals("P2", process2.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(2, process2.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(8, process2.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(2, process2.getPriority());
+        assertEquals(0, process2.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(0, process2.getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorParameterOrder() {
+        // Test that constructor parameters are assigned to correct fields
+        ProcessDetails process = new ProcessDetails("TestProcess", 123, 456, 789);
+
+        assertEquals("TestProcess", process.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(123, process.getArrivalTime());
+        assertEquals(456, process.getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(789, process.getPriority());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTypicalSchedulingScenario() {
+        // Test a typical scheduling scenario with multiple processes
+        ProcessDetails[] processes = {new ProcessDetails("P1", 0, 8, 3), new ProcessDetails("P2", 1, 4, 1), new ProcessDetails("P3", 2, 9, 4), new ProcessDetails("P4", 3, 5, 2)};
+
+        // Simulate FCFS scheduling calculations
+        int currentTime = 0;
+        for (ProcessDetails process : processes) {
+            if (currentTime < process.getArrivalTime()) {
+                currentTime = process.getArrivalTime();
+            }
+            process.setWaitingTime(currentTime - process.getArrivalTime());
+            currentTime += process.getBurstTime();
+            process.setTurnAroundTimeTime(process.getWaitingTime() + process.getBurstTime());
+        }
+
+        // Verify calculations
+        assertEquals(0, processes[0].getWaitingTime()); // P1: arrives at 0, starts immediately
+        assertEquals(8, processes[0].getTurnAroundTimeTime()); // P1: 0 + 8
+
+        assertEquals(7, processes[1].getWaitingTime()); // P2: arrives at 1, starts at 8
+        assertEquals(11, processes[1].getTurnAroundTimeTime()); // P2: 7 + 4
+
+        assertEquals(10, processes[2].getWaitingTime()); // P3: arrives at 2, starts at 12
+        assertEquals(19, processes[2].getTurnAroundTimeTime()); // P3: 10 + 9
+
+        assertEquals(18, processes[3].getWaitingTime()); // P4: arrives at 3, starts at 21
+        assertEquals(23, processes[3].getTurnAroundTimeTime()); // P4: 18 + 5
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ccada6e061e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/BinaryExponentiationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BinaryExponentiationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCalculatePower() {
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 10000000));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 100000000));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 1000000000));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 10000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 100000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 1000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 10000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 100000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 1000000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 10000000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryExponentiation.calculatePower(1, 100000000000000000L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPower() {
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 10000000));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 100000000));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 1000000000));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 10000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 100000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 1000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 10000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 100000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 1000000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 10000000000000000L));
+        assertEquals(1, new BinaryExponentiation().power(1, 100000000000000000L));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPairTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPairTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..38784228d68e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPairTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ClosestPairTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBuildLocation() {
+        ClosestPair cp = new ClosestPair(1);
+        ClosestPair.Location point = cp.buildLocation(3.0, 4.0);
+        assertNotNull(point);
+        assertEquals(3.0, point.x);
+        assertEquals(4.0, point.y);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCreateLocation() {
+        ClosestPair cp = new ClosestPair(5);
+        ClosestPair.Location[] locations = cp.createLocation(5);
+        assertNotNull(locations);
+        assertEquals(5, locations.length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testXPartition() {
+        ClosestPair cp = new ClosestPair(5);
+        ClosestPair.Location[] points = new ClosestPair.Location[5];
+        points[0] = cp.buildLocation(2.0, 3.0);
+        points[1] = cp.buildLocation(5.0, 1.0);
+        points[2] = cp.buildLocation(1.0, 6.0);
+        points[3] = cp.buildLocation(4.0, 7.0);
+        points[4] = cp.buildLocation(3.0, 2.0);
+
+        int pivotIndex = cp.xPartition(points, 0, 4);
+        assertEquals(2, pivotIndex);
+        assertEquals(2.0, points[0].x);
+        assertEquals(1.0, points[1].x);
+        assertEquals(3.0, points[2].x);
+        assertEquals(4.0, points[3].x);
+        assertEquals(5.0, points[4].x);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testYPartition() {
+        ClosestPair cp = new ClosestPair(5);
+        ClosestPair.Location[] points = new ClosestPair.Location[5];
+        points[0] = cp.buildLocation(2.0, 3.0);
+        points[1] = cp.buildLocation(5.0, 1.0);
+        points[2] = cp.buildLocation(1.0, 6.0);
+        points[3] = cp.buildLocation(4.0, 7.0);
+        points[4] = cp.buildLocation(3.0, 2.0);
+
+        int pivotIndex = cp.yPartition(points, 0, 4);
+        assertEquals(1, pivotIndex);
+        assertEquals(2.0, points[1].y);
+        assertEquals(3.0, points[4].y);
+        assertEquals(1.0, points[0].y);
+        assertEquals(6.0, points[2].y);
+        assertEquals(7.0, points[3].y);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBruteForce() {
+        ClosestPair cp = new ClosestPair(2);
+        ClosestPair.Location loc1 = cp.buildLocation(1.0, 2.0);
+        ClosestPair.Location loc2 = cp.buildLocation(4.0, 6.0);
+
+        ClosestPair.Location[] locations = new ClosestPair.Location[] {loc1, loc2};
+        double result = cp.bruteForce(locations);
+        assertEquals(5.0, result, 0.01);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/CountingInversionsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/CountingInversionsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f8356a87eb31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/CountingInversionsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CountingInversionsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCountInversions() {
+        int[] arr = {2, 3, 8, 6, 1};
+        assertEquals(5, CountingInversions.countInversions(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNoInversions() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        assertEquals(0, CountingInversions.countInversions(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleElement() {
+        int[] arr = {1};
+        assertEquals(0, CountingInversions.countInversions(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllInversions() {
+        int[] arr = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1};
+        assertEquals(10, CountingInversions.countInversions(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyArray() {
+        int[] arr = {};
+        assertEquals(0, CountingInversions.countInversions(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testArrayWithDuplicates() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 3, 2, 3, 1};
+        // Inversions: (3,2), (3,1), (3,1), (2,1)
+        assertEquals(4, CountingInversions.countInversions(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLargeArray() {
+        int n = 1000;
+        int[] arr = new int[n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            arr[i] = n - i; // descending order -> max inversions = n*(n-1)/2
+        }
+        int expected = n * (n - 1) / 2;
+        assertEquals(expected, CountingInversions.countInversions(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testArrayWithAllSameElements() {
+        int[] arr = {7, 7, 7, 7};
+        // No inversions since all elements are equal
+        assertEquals(0, CountingInversions.countInversions(arr));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/MedianOfTwoSortedArraysTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/MedianOfTwoSortedArraysTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6cfbc2379600
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/MedianOfTwoSortedArraysTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class MedianOfTwoSortedArraysTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testFindMedianSortedArrays(int[] nums1, int[] nums2, double expectedMedian) {
+        assertEquals(expectedMedian, MedianOfTwoSortedArrays.findMedianSortedArrays(nums1, nums2));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Test case 1: Arrays of equal length
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 3}, new int[] {2, 4}, 2.5),
+
+            // Test case 2: Arrays of different lengths
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 3}, new int[] {2}, 2.0),
+
+            // Test case 3: Arrays with even total length
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 8}, new int[] {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, 4.5),
+
+            // Test case 4: Arrays with odd total length
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 8}, new int[] {3, 4, 5}, 3.5),
+
+            // Test case 5: Single element arrays
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1}, new int[] {3}, 2.0),
+
+            // Test case 6: Empty arrays
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {}, new int[] {0}, 0.0),
+
+            // Test case 7: Same element arrays
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 2, 2}, new int[] {2, 2, 2}, 2.0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f85515110b70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SkylineAlgorithmTest {
+
+    private SkylineAlgorithm skylineAlgorithm;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        skylineAlgorithm = new SkylineAlgorithm();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testProduceSubSkyLinesSinglePoint() {
+        // Test with a single point
+        ArrayList<SkylineAlgorithm.Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        points.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(1, 10));
+
+        ArrayList<SkylineAlgorithm.Point> result = skylineAlgorithm.produceSubSkyLines(points);
+
+        assertEquals(1, result.size());
+        assertEquals(1, result.get(0).getX());
+        assertEquals(10, result.get(0).getY());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testProduceSubSkyLinesTwoPoints() {
+        // Test with two points, one dominated by the other
+        ArrayList<SkylineAlgorithm.Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        points.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(1, 10));
+        points.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(1, 5));
+
+        ArrayList<SkylineAlgorithm.Point> result = skylineAlgorithm.produceSubSkyLines(points);
+
+        assertEquals(1, result.size());
+        assertEquals(1, result.get(0).getX());
+        assertEquals(5, result.get(0).getY());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testProduceSubSkyLinesMultiplePoints() {
+        // Test with more than two points
+        ArrayList<SkylineAlgorithm.Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        points.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(1, 10));
+        points.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(2, 15));
+        points.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(3, 5));
+        points.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(4, 20));
+
+        ArrayList<SkylineAlgorithm.Point> result = skylineAlgorithm.produceSubSkyLines(points);
+
+        assertEquals(2, result.size());
+
+        // Assert the correct points in skyline
+        assertEquals(1, result.get(0).getX());
+        assertEquals(10, result.get(0).getY());
+        assertEquals(3, result.get(1).getX());
+        assertEquals(5, result.get(1).getY());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testProduceFinalSkyLine() {
+        // Test merging two skylines
+        ArrayList<SkylineAlgorithm.Point> left = new ArrayList<>();
+        left.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(1, 10));
+        left.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(2, 5));
+
+        ArrayList<SkylineAlgorithm.Point> right = new ArrayList<>();
+        right.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(3, 8));
+        right.add(new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(4, 3));
+
+        ArrayList<SkylineAlgorithm.Point> result = skylineAlgorithm.produceFinalSkyLine(left, right);
+
+        assertEquals(3, result.size());
+
+        // Assert the correct points in the final skyline
+        assertEquals(1, result.get(0).getX());
+        assertEquals(10, result.get(0).getY());
+        assertEquals(2, result.get(1).getX());
+        assertEquals(5, result.get(1).getY());
+        assertEquals(4, result.get(2).getX());
+        assertEquals(3, result.get(2).getY());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testXComparator() {
+        // Test the XComparator used for sorting the points
+        SkylineAlgorithm.XComparator comparator = new SkylineAlgorithm().new XComparator();
+
+        SkylineAlgorithm.Point p1 = new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(1, 10);
+        SkylineAlgorithm.Point p2 = new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(2, 5);
+
+        // Check if the XComparator sorts points by their x-value
+        assertEquals(-1, comparator.compare(p1, p2)); // p1.x < p2.x
+        assertEquals(1, comparator.compare(p2, p1)); // p2.x > p1.x
+        assertEquals(0, comparator.compare(p1, new SkylineAlgorithm.Point(1, 15))); // p1.x == p2.x
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1ec45a863e1a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest {
+
+    StrassenMatrixMultiplication smm = new StrassenMatrixMultiplication();
+
+    // Strassen Matrix Multiplication can only be allplied to matrices of size 2^n
+    // and has to be a Square Matrix
+
+    @Test
+    public void strassenMatrixMultiplicationTest2x2() {
+        int[][] a = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}};
+        int[][] b = {{5, 6}, {7, 8}};
+        int[][] expResult = {{19, 22}, {43, 50}};
+        int[][] actResult = smm.multiply(a, b);
+        assertArrayEquals(expResult, actResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void strassenMatrixMultiplicationTest4x4() {
+        int[][] a = {{1, 2, 5, 4}, {9, 3, 0, 6}, {4, 6, 3, 1}, {0, 2, 0, 6}};
+        int[][] b = {{1, 0, 4, 1}, {1, 2, 0, 2}, {0, 3, 1, 3}, {1, 8, 1, 2}};
+        int[][] expResult = {{7, 51, 13, 28}, {18, 54, 42, 27}, {11, 29, 20, 27}, {8, 52, 6, 16}};
+        int[][] actResult = smm.multiply(a, b);
+        assertArrayEquals(expResult, actResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+
+    void strassenMatrixMultiplicationTestNegetiveNumber4x4() {
+        int[][] a = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}, {13, 14, 15, 16}};
+        int[][] b = {{1, -2, -3, 4}, {4, -3, -2, 1}, {5, -6, -7, 8}, {8, -7, -6, -5}};
+        int[][] expResult = {{56, -54, -52, 10}, {128, -126, -124, 42}, {200, -198, -196, 74}, {272, -270, -268, 106}};
+        int[][] actResult = smm.multiply(a, b);
+        assertArrayEquals(expResult, actResult);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/TilingProblemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/TilingProblemTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..720e425f5ea3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/TilingProblemTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.divideandconquer;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TilingProblemTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTilingSize2() {
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 1}, {1, 0}};
+        int[][] result = TilingProblem.solveTiling(2, 1, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AbbreviationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AbbreviationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4e36edbd7774
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AbbreviationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class AbbreviationTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testAbbreviation(String a, String b, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Abbreviation.abbr(a, b));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Example test case from problem description
+            Arguments.of("daBcd", "ABC", Boolean.TRUE),
+
+            // Test case where transformation is impossible
+            Arguments.of("dBcd", "ABC", Boolean.FALSE),
+
+            // Test case with exact match (all uppercase)
+            Arguments.of("ABC", "ABC", Boolean.TRUE),
+
+            // Test case where input string contains all required letters plus extra lowercase letters
+            Arguments.of("aAbBcC", "ABC", Boolean.TRUE),
+
+            // Test case with only lowercase letters in input
+            Arguments.of("abcd", "ABCD", Boolean.TRUE),
+
+            // Test case with an empty second string (b)
+            Arguments.of("abc", "", Boolean.TRUE),
+
+            // Test case with an empty first string (a) but non-empty second string (b)
+            Arguments.of("", "A", Boolean.FALSE),
+
+            // Complex case with interleaved letters
+            Arguments.of("daBcAbCd", "ABCD", Boolean.FALSE));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstructTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstructTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..012876921c15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstructTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.emptyList;
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AllConstructTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllConstructBasic() {
+        List<List<String>> expected = singletonList(Arrays.asList("he", "l", "l", "o"));
+        List<List<String>> result = AllConstruct.allConstruct("hello", Arrays.asList("he", "l", "o"));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllConstructMultipleWays() {
+        List<List<String>> expected = Arrays.asList(Arrays.asList("purp", "le"), Arrays.asList("p", "ur", "p", "le"));
+        List<List<String>> result = AllConstruct.allConstruct("purple", Arrays.asList("purp", "p", "ur", "le", "purpl"));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllConstructNoWays() {
+        List<List<String>> expected = emptyList();
+        List<List<String>> result = AllConstruct.allConstruct("abcdef", Arrays.asList("gh", "ijk"));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllConstructEmptyTarget() {
+        List<List<String>> expected = singletonList(emptyList());
+        List<List<String>> result = AllConstruct.allConstruct("", Arrays.asList("a", "b", "c"));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AssignmentUsingBitmaskTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AssignmentUsingBitmaskTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..eadc43ce59c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AssignmentUsingBitmaskTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public final class AssignmentUsingBitmaskTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCountNoOfWays() {
+        int totalTasks = 5;
+
+        List<List<Integer>> taskPerformed = Arrays.asList(Arrays.asList(1, 3, 4), Arrays.asList(1, 2, 5), Arrays.asList(3, 4));
+
+        AssignmentUsingBitmask assignment = new AssignmentUsingBitmask(taskPerformed, totalTasks);
+        int ways = assignment.countNoOfWays();
+        assertEquals(10, ways);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNoPossibleAssignments() {
+        int totalTasks = 3;
+
+        List<List<Integer>> taskPerformed = Arrays.asList(singletonList(2), singletonList(3));
+
+        AssignmentUsingBitmask assignment = new AssignmentUsingBitmask(taskPerformed, totalTasks);
+        int ways = assignment.countNoOfWays();
+        assertEquals(1, ways);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSinglePersonMultipleTasks() {
+        int totalTasks = 3;
+
+        List<List<Integer>> taskPerformed = singletonList(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3));
+
+        AssignmentUsingBitmask assignment = new AssignmentUsingBitmask(taskPerformed, totalTasks);
+        int ways = assignment.countNoOfWays();
+        assertEquals(3, ways);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultiplePeopleSingleTask() {
+        int totalTasks = 1;
+
+        List<List<Integer>> taskPerformed = Arrays.asList(singletonList(1), singletonList(1));
+
+        AssignmentUsingBitmask assignment = new AssignmentUsingBitmask(taskPerformed, totalTasks);
+        int ways = assignment.countNoOfWays();
+        assertEquals(0, ways);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPathTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPathTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a704620e92da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoardPathTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class BoardPathTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testBpR(int start, int end, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, BoardPath.bpR(start, end));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testBpRS(int start, int end, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, BoardPath.bpRS(start, end, new int[end + 1]));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testBpIS(int start, int end, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, BoardPath.bpIS(start, end, new int[end + 1]));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, 10, 492), Arguments.of(0, 5, 16), Arguments.of(0, 6, 32), Arguments.of(0, 3, 4), Arguments.of(0, 1, 1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFillTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFillTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4aa412731a10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFillTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BoundaryFillTest {
+
+    private int[][] image;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        image = new int[][] {{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3}, {0, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0, 3}, {0, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 3}, {0, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3, 3}};
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetPixel() {
+        assertEquals(3, BoundaryFill.getPixel(image, 1, 1));
+        assertEquals(0, BoundaryFill.getPixel(image, 2, 2));
+        assertEquals(3, BoundaryFill.getPixel(image, 4, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPutPixel() {
+        BoundaryFill.putPixel(image, 2, 2, 5);
+        assertEquals(5, BoundaryFill.getPixel(image, 2, 2));
+
+        BoundaryFill.putPixel(image, 0, 0, 7);
+        assertEquals(7, BoundaryFill.getPixel(image, 0, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBoundaryFill() {
+        BoundaryFill.boundaryFill(image, 2, 2, 5, 3);
+
+        int[][] expectedImage = {{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 5, 5, 3, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 5, 5, 3, 3, 3}, {0, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 3}, {0, 0, 0, 3, 5, 5, 3}, {0, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3, 3}};
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < image.length; i++) {
+            assertArrayEquals(expectedImage[i], image[i]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBoundaryFillEdgeCase() {
+        BoundaryFill.boundaryFill(image, 1, 1, 3, 3);
+
+        int[][] expectedImage = {{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3}, {0, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0, 3}, {0, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 3}, {0, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3, 3}};
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < image.length; i++) {
+            assertArrayEquals(expectedImage[i], image[i]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBoundaryFillInvalidCoordinates() {
+        BoundaryFill.boundaryFill(image, -1, -1, 5, 3);
+
+        int[][] expectedImage = {{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3}, {0, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0, 3}, {0, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 3}, {0, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3, 3}};
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < image.length; i++) {
+            assertArrayEquals(expectedImage[i], image[i]);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsackTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ef96f16e04f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BruteForceKnapsackTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BruteForceKnapsackTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testKnapSackBasicCase() {
+        int[] val = {60, 100, 120};
+        int[] wt = {10, 20, 30};
+        int w = 50;
+        int n = val.length;
+
+        // The expected result for this case is 220 (items 2 and 3 are included)
+        assertEquals(220, BruteForceKnapsack.knapSack(w, wt, val, n));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKnapSackNoItems() {
+        int[] val = {};
+        int[] wt = {};
+        int w = 50;
+        int n = val.length;
+
+        // With no items, the maximum value should be 0
+        assertEquals(0, BruteForceKnapsack.knapSack(w, wt, val, n));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKnapSackZeroCapacity() {
+        int[] val = {60, 100, 120};
+        int[] wt = {10, 20, 30};
+        int w = 0;
+        int n = val.length;
+
+        // With a knapsack of 0 capacity, no items can be included, so the value is 0
+        assertEquals(0, BruteForceKnapsack.knapSack(w, wt, val, n));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKnapSackSingleItemFits() {
+        int[] val = {100};
+        int[] wt = {20};
+        int w = 30;
+        int n = val.length;
+
+        // Only one item, and it fits in the knapsack, so the result is 100
+        assertEquals(100, BruteForceKnapsack.knapSack(w, wt, val, n));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKnapSackSingleItemDoesNotFit() {
+        int[] val = {100};
+        int[] wt = {20};
+        int w = 10;
+        int n = val.length;
+
+        // Single item does not fit in the knapsack, so the result is 0
+        assertEquals(0, BruteForceKnapsack.knapSack(w, wt, val, n));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKnapSackAllItemsFit() {
+        int[] val = {20, 30, 40};
+        int[] wt = {1, 2, 3};
+        int w = 6;
+        int n = val.length;
+
+        // All items fit into the knapsack, so the result is the sum of all values (20 + 30 + 40 = 90)
+        assertEquals(90, BruteForceKnapsack.knapSack(w, wt, val, n));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKnapSackNoneFit() {
+        int[] val = {100, 200, 300};
+        int[] wt = {100, 200, 300};
+        int w = 50;
+        int n = val.length;
+
+        // None of the items fit into the knapsack, so the result is 0
+        assertEquals(0, BruteForceKnapsack.knapSack(w, wt, val, n));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKnapSackSomeItemsFit() {
+        int[] val = {60, 100, 120};
+        int[] wt = {10, 20, 30};
+        int w = 40;
+        int n = val.length;
+
+        // Here, only the 2nd and 1st items should be included for a total value of 160
+        assertEquals(180, BruteForceKnapsack.knapSack(w, wt, val, n));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a065bb8c2a10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CatalanNumberTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCatalanNumber() {
+        assertEquals(42, CatalanNumber.findNthCatalan(5));
+        assertEquals(16796, CatalanNumber.findNthCatalan(10));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ClimbStairsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ClimbStairsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1f2de4a11b62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ClimbStairsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ClimbStairsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void climbStairsTestForTwo() {
+        assertEquals(2, ClimbingStairs.numberOfWays(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void climbStairsTestForZero() {
+        assertEquals(0, ClimbingStairs.numberOfWays(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void climbStairsTestForOne() {
+        assertEquals(1, ClimbingStairs.numberOfWays(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void climbStairsTestForFive() {
+        assertEquals(8, ClimbingStairs.numberOfWays(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void climbStairsTestForThree() {
+        assertEquals(3, ClimbingStairs.numberOfWays(3));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChangeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChangeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..10bc6600ae1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChangeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CoinChangeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testChangeBasic() {
+        int amount = 12;
+        int[] coins = {2, 4, 5};
+
+        assertEquals(5, CoinChange.change(coins, amount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testChangeNoCoins() {
+        int amount = 12;
+        int[] coins = {};
+
+        assertEquals(0, CoinChange.change(coins, amount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testChangeNoAmount() {
+        int amount = 0;
+        int[] coins = {2, 4, 5};
+
+        assertEquals(1, CoinChange.change(coins, amount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testChangeImpossibleAmount() {
+        int amount = 3;
+        int[] coins = {2, 4, 5};
+
+        assertEquals(0, CoinChange.change(coins, amount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMinimumCoinsBasic() {
+        int amount = 12;
+        int[] coins = {2, 4, 5};
+
+        assertEquals(3, CoinChange.minimumCoins(coins, amount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMinimumCoinsNoCoins() {
+        int amount = 12;
+        int[] coins = {};
+
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, CoinChange.minimumCoins(coins, amount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMinimumCoinsNoAmount() {
+        int amount = 0;
+        int[] coins = {2, 4, 5};
+
+        assertEquals(0, CoinChange.minimumCoins(coins, amount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMinimumCoinsImpossibleAmount() {
+        int amount = 3;
+        int[] coins = {2, 4, 5};
+
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, CoinChange.minimumCoins(coins, amount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMinimumCoinsExactAmount() {
+        int amount = 10;
+        int[] coins = {1, 5, 10};
+
+        assertEquals(1, CoinChange.minimumCoins(coins, amount));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CountFriendsPairingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CountFriendsPairingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..765daba5f69f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CountFriendsPairingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CountFriendsPairingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSmallCase() {
+        int n = 5;
+        int[] expectedGolombSequence = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3};
+
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(n, expectedGolombSequence));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMismatchSequence() {
+        int n = 5;
+        int[] wrongSequence = {1, 2, 2, 2, 3}; // An incorrect sequence
+
+        assertFalse(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(n, wrongSequence));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargerCase() {
+        int n = 10;
+        int[] expectedGolombSequence = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5};
+
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(n, expectedGolombSequence));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCaseSingleElement() {
+        int n = 1;
+        int[] expectedGolombSequence = {1};
+
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(n, expectedGolombSequence));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptySequence() {
+        int n = 0;
+        int[] emptySequence = {};
+
+        // Test the case where n is 0 (should handle this gracefully)
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(n, emptySequence));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DPTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DPTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e3bea67fe269
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DPTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DPTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSumLessThanMinimumFaceValue() {
+        // When the sum is less than the minimum possible face value
+        // There are 0 ways to achieve the sum
+        assertEquals(0, DP.findWays(4, 2, 1)); // 4 faces, 2 dice, sum = 1
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoDiceWithSumEqualToTwo() {
+        // When there are 2 dice and the sum is equal to the number of dice
+        // The only way is to have both dice showing 1
+        assertEquals(1, DP.findWays(2, 2, 2)); // 2 faces, 2 dice, sum = 2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoDiceWithSumThree() {
+        // When there are 2 dice and the sum is equal to 3
+        // Possible combinations are (1,2) and (2,1)
+        assertEquals(2, DP.findWays(2, 2, 3)); // 2 faces, 2 dice, sum = 3
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testThreeDiceWithSumEight() {
+        // Test for 3 dice, each having 6 faces
+        // Possible combinations to make sum of 8
+        assertEquals(21, DP.findWays(6, 3, 8)); // 6 faces, 3 dice, sum = 8
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoDiceWithSumFive() {
+        // Test for 2 dice, with 4 faces to make sum of 5
+        // Possible combinations: (1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1)
+        assertEquals(4, DP.findWays(4, 2, 5)); // 4 faces, 2 dice, sum = 5
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testThreeDiceWithSumFive() {
+        // Test for 3 dice, with 4 faces to make sum of 5
+        // Possible combinations: (1,1,3), (1,2,2), (1,3,1), (2,1,2), (2,2,1), (3,1,1)
+        assertEquals(6, DP.findWays(4, 3, 5)); // 4 faces, 3 dice, sum = 5
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCaseZeroSum() {
+        // Test for 0 sum with 0 dice
+        assertEquals(0, DP.findWays(4, 0, 0)); // 4 faces, 0 dice, sum = 0
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistanceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistanceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..063d7bef6e1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistanceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the {@code DamerauLevenshteinDistance} class.
+ * Tests cover edge cases, basic operations, and complex transposition scenarios.
+ */
+class DamerauLevenshteinDistanceTest {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should throw exception for null first string")
+    void testNullFirstString() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance(null, "test"); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should throw exception for null second string")
+    void testNullSecondString() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("test", null); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should throw exception for both null strings")
+    void testBothNullStrings() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance(null, null); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should return 0 for identical strings")
+    void testIdenticalStrings() {
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("", ""));
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("a", "a"));
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("abc", "abc"));
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("hello", "hello"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should return length when one string is empty")
+    void testEmptyStrings() {
+        assertEquals(3, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("", "abc"));
+        assertEquals(5, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("hello", ""));
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("", ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle single character insertions")
+    void testSingleInsertion() {
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("cat", "cats"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("ab", "abc"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("", "a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle single character deletions")
+    void testSingleDeletion() {
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("cats", "cat"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("abc", "ab"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("a", ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle single character substitutions")
+    void testSingleSubstitution() {
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("cat", "bat"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("abc", "adc"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("x", "y"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle adjacent character transpositions")
+    void testAdjacentTransposition() {
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("ab", "ba"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("abc", "bac"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("hello", "ehllo"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should correctly compute distance for CA to ABC")
+    void testCAtoABC() {
+        // This is the critical test case that differentiates full DL from OSA
+        // Full DL: 2 (insert A at start, insert B in middle)
+        // OSA would give: 3
+        assertEquals(2, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("CA", "ABC"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle non-adjacent transpositions")
+    void testNonAdjacentTransposition() {
+        assertEquals(2, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("abc", "cba"));
+        assertEquals(3, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("abcd", "dcba"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle multiple operations")
+    void testMultipleOperations() {
+        assertEquals(3, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("kitten", "sitting"));
+        assertEquals(3, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("saturday", "sunday"));
+        assertEquals(5, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("intention", "execution"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle completely different strings")
+    void testCompletelyDifferentStrings() {
+        assertEquals(3, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("abc", "xyz"));
+        assertEquals(4, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("hello", "world"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle strings with repeated characters")
+    void testRepeatedCharacters() {
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("aaa", "aaa"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("aaa", "aab"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("aaa", "aba"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should be symmetric")
+    void testSymmetry() {
+        assertEquals(DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("abc", "def"), DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("def", "abc"));
+        assertEquals(DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("hello", "world"), DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("world", "hello"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle case sensitivity")
+    void testCaseSensitivity() {
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("Hello", "hello"));
+        assertEquals(5, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("HELLO", "hello"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle single character strings")
+    void testSingleCharacterStrings() {
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("a", "b"));
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("a", "a"));
+        assertEquals(2, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("a", "abc"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle long strings efficiently")
+    void testLongStrings() {
+        String s1 = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz";
+        String s2 = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz";
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance(s1, s2));
+
+        String s3 = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz";
+        String s4 = "zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcba";
+        assertEquals(25, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance(s3, s4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should satisfy triangle inequality")
+    void testTriangleInequality() {
+        // d(a,c) <= d(a,b) + d(b,c)
+        String a = "cat";
+        String b = "hat";
+        String c = "rat";
+
+        int ab = DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance(a, b);
+        int bc = DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance(b, c);
+        int ac = DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance(a, c);
+
+        assertTrue(ac <= ab + bc);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle special characters")
+    void testSpecialCharacters() {
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("hello!", "hello!"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("hello!", "hello?"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("a@b", "a#b"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle numeric strings")
+    void testNumericStrings() {
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("123", "124"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("123", "213"));
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("999", "999"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should handle unicode characters")
+    void testUnicodeCharacters() {
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("café", "café"));
+        assertEquals(1, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("café", "cafe"));
+        assertEquals(0, DamerauLevenshteinDistance.distance("你好", "你好"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistanceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistanceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..737e8d1d0918
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EditDistanceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertAll;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class EditDistanceTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'', '', 0", "'abc', '', 3", "'', 'abcd', 4", "'same', 'same', 0", "'a', 'b', 1", "'abc', 'abd', 1"})
+    void testMinDistance(String str1, String str2, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, EditDistance.minDistance(str1, str2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEditDistanceBothEmptyStrings() {
+        assertEquals(0, EditDistance.editDistance("", ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEditDistanceOneEmptyString() {
+        assertEquals(5, EditDistance.editDistance("", "hello"));
+        assertEquals(7, EditDistance.editDistance("worldly", ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEditDistanceOneEmptyStringMemoization() {
+        int[][] storage = new int[1][6];
+        assertAll("String assertions",
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(5, EditDistance.editDistance("", "hello", storage)),
+            () -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][0]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][1]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][2]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][3]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][4]), () -> assertEquals(5, storage[0][5]));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEditDistanceEqualStrings() {
+        assertEquals(0, EditDistance.editDistance("test", "test"));
+        assertEquals(0, EditDistance.editDistance("abc", "abc"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEditDistanceEqualStringsMemoization() {
+        int[][] storage = new int[4][4];
+        assertAll("String assertions",
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, EditDistance.editDistance("abc", "abc", storage)),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][0]),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][1]),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][2]),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][3]),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[1][0]),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[1][1]),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[1][2]),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[1][3]),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[2][0]),
+            () -> assertEquals(0, storage[2][1]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[2][2]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[2][3]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[3][0]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[3][1]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[3][2]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[3][3]));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEditDistanceOneCharacterDifference() {
+        assertEquals(1, EditDistance.editDistance("cat", "bat"));
+        assertEquals(1, EditDistance.editDistance("cat", "cats"));
+        assertEquals(1, EditDistance.editDistance("cats", "cat"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEditDistanceOneCharacterDifferenceMemoization() {
+        int[][] storage = new int[3][3];
+        assertAll("All assertions",
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(1, EditDistance.editDistance("at", "it", storage)),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][0]),
+            ()
+                -> assertEquals(1, storage[0][1]),
+            () -> assertEquals(2, storage[0][2]), () -> assertEquals(1, storage[1][0]), () -> assertEquals(0, storage[1][1]), () -> assertEquals(1, storage[1][2]), () -> assertEquals(2, storage[2][0]), () -> assertEquals(1, storage[2][1]), () -> assertEquals(1, storage[2][2]));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEditDistanceGeneralCases() {
+        assertEquals(3, EditDistance.editDistance("kitten", "sitting"));
+        assertEquals(2, EditDistance.editDistance("flaw", "lawn"));
+        assertEquals(5, EditDistance.editDistance("intention", "execution"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEditDistanceGeneralCasesMemoization() {
+        int[][] storage = new int[7][8];
+        assertEquals(3, EditDistance.editDistance("kitten", "sitting", storage));
+        assertAll("All assertions", () -> assertEquals(0, storage[0][0]), () -> assertEquals(3, storage[6][7]));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDroppingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDroppingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bc569cc294b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/EggDroppingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class EggDroppingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void hasMultipleEggSingleFloor() {
+        assertEquals(1, EggDropping.minTrials(3, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void hasSingleEggSingleFloor() {
+        assertEquals(1, EggDropping.minTrials(1, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void hasSingleEggMultipleFloor() {
+        assertEquals(3, EggDropping.minTrials(1, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void hasMultipleEggMultipleFloor() {
+        assertEquals(7, EggDropping.minTrials(100, 101));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FibonacciTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FibonacciTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..166e20c3083f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/FibonacciTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FibonacciTest {
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        // Clear the cache before each test to avoid interference
+        Fibonacci.CACHE.clear();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFibMemo() {
+        // Test memoization method
+        assertEquals(0, Fibonacci.fibMemo(0));
+        assertEquals(1, Fibonacci.fibMemo(1));
+        assertEquals(1, Fibonacci.fibMemo(2));
+        assertEquals(2, Fibonacci.fibMemo(3));
+        assertEquals(3, Fibonacci.fibMemo(4));
+        assertEquals(5, Fibonacci.fibMemo(5));
+        assertEquals(8, Fibonacci.fibMemo(6));
+        assertEquals(13, Fibonacci.fibMemo(7));
+        assertEquals(21, Fibonacci.fibMemo(8));
+        assertEquals(34, Fibonacci.fibMemo(9));
+        assertEquals(55, Fibonacci.fibMemo(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFibBotUp() {
+        // Test bottom-up method
+        assertEquals(0, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(0));
+        assertEquals(1, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(1));
+        assertEquals(1, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(2));
+        assertEquals(2, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(3));
+        assertEquals(3, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(4));
+        assertEquals(5, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(5));
+        assertEquals(8, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(6));
+        assertEquals(13, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(7));
+        assertEquals(21, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(8));
+        assertEquals(34, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(9));
+        assertEquals(55, Fibonacci.fibBotUp(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFibOptimized() {
+        // Test optimized Fibonacci method
+        assertEquals(0, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(0));
+        assertEquals(1, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(1));
+        assertEquals(1, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(2));
+        assertEquals(2, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(3));
+        assertEquals(3, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(4));
+        assertEquals(5, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(5));
+        assertEquals(8, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(6));
+        assertEquals(13, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(7));
+        assertEquals(21, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(8));
+        assertEquals(34, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(9));
+        assertEquals(55, Fibonacci.fibOptimized(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFibBinet() {
+        // Test Binet's formula method
+        assertEquals(0, Fibonacci.fibBinet(0));
+        assertEquals(1, Fibonacci.fibBinet(1));
+        assertEquals(1, Fibonacci.fibBinet(2));
+        assertEquals(2, Fibonacci.fibBinet(3));
+        assertEquals(3, Fibonacci.fibBinet(4));
+        assertEquals(5, Fibonacci.fibBinet(5));
+        assertEquals(8, Fibonacci.fibBinet(6));
+        assertEquals(13, Fibonacci.fibBinet(7));
+        assertEquals(21, Fibonacci.fibBinet(8));
+        assertEquals(34, Fibonacci.fibBinet(9));
+        assertEquals(55, Fibonacci.fibBinet(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeInput() {
+        // Test negative input; Fibonacci is not defined for negative numbers
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Fibonacci.fibMemo(-1); });
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Fibonacci.fibBotUp(-1); });
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Fibonacci.fibOptimized(-1); });
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Fibonacci.fibBinet(-1); });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e26606ef98a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KadaneAlgorithmTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumWithPositiveValues() {
+        // Test with all positive numbers
+        int[] input = {89, 56, 98, 123, 26, 75, 12, 40, 39, 68, 91};
+        int expectedMaxSum = 89 + 56 + 98 + 123 + 26 + 75 + 12 + 40 + 39 + 68 + 91; // sum of all elements
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(input, expectedMaxSum));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumWithMixedValues() {
+        // Test with mixed positive and negative numbers
+        int[] input = {1, -2, 3, 4, -1, 2, 1, -5, 4};
+        int expectedMaxSum = 3 + 4 + -1 + 2 + 1; // max subarray is [3, 4, -1, 2, 1]
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(input, expectedMaxSum));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumWithAllNegativeValues() {
+        // Test with all negative numbers
+        int[] input = {-2, -3, -1, -4};
+        int expectedMaxSum = -1; // max subarray is the least negative number
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(input, expectedMaxSum));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumWithSingleElement() {
+        // Test with a single positive element
+        int[] input = {10};
+        int expectedMaxSum = 10; // max subarray is the single element
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(input, expectedMaxSum));
+
+        // Test with a single negative element
+        input = new int[] {-10};
+        expectedMaxSum = -10; // max subarray is the single element
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(input, expectedMaxSum));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumWithZero() {
+        // Test with zeros in the array
+        int[] input = {0, -1, 2, -2, 0, 3};
+        int expectedMaxSum = 3; // max subarray is [2, -2, 0, 3]
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(input, expectedMaxSum));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumWithEmptyArray() {
+        // Test with an empty array; should ideally throw an exception or return false
+        int[] input = {};
+        assertThrows(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> { KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(input, 0); });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoizationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoizationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3545eb2667ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoizationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KnapsackMemoizationTest {
+
+    KnapsackMemoization knapsackMemoization = new KnapsackMemoization();
+
+    @Test
+    void test1() {
+        int[] weight = {1, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] value = {1, 4, 5, 7};
+        int capacity = 10;
+        assertEquals(13, knapsackMemoization.knapSack(capacity, weight, value, weight.length));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test2() {
+        int[] weight = {95, 4, 60, 32, 23, 72, 80, 62, 65, 46};
+        int[] value = {55, 10, 47, 5, 4, 50, 8, 61, 85, 87};
+        int capacity = 269;
+        assertEquals(295, knapsackMemoization.knapSack(capacity, weight, value, weight.length));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test3() {
+        int[] weight = {10, 20, 30};
+        int[] value = {60, 100, 120};
+        int capacity = 50;
+        assertEquals(220, knapsackMemoization.knapSack(capacity, weight, value, weight.length));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test4() {
+        int[] weight = {1, 2, 3};
+        int[] value = {10, 20, 30};
+        int capacity = 0;
+        assertEquals(0, knapsackMemoization.knapSack(capacity, weight, value, weight.length));
+    }
+    @Test
+    void test5() {
+        int[] weight = {1, 2, 3, 8};
+        int[] value = {10, 20, 30, 40};
+        int capacity = 50;
+        assertEquals(100, knapsackMemoization.knapSack(capacity, weight, value, weight.length));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3ff733db7e15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KnapsackTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testKnapSackBasic() {
+        int[] weights = {2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] values = {3, 4, 5, 6};
+        int weightCapacity = 5;
+        int expected = 7; // Maximum value should be 7 (items 1 and 4).
+        int result = Knapsack.knapSack(weightCapacity, weights, values);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKnapSackEmpty() {
+        int[] weights = {};
+        int[] values = {};
+        int weightCapacity = 10;
+        int expected = 0; // With no items, the result should be 0.
+        int result = Knapsack.knapSack(weightCapacity, weights, values);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKnapSackNoCapacity() {
+        int[] weights = {2, 3, 4};
+        int[] values = {3, 4, 5};
+        int weightCapacity = 0;
+        int expected = 0; // With no capacity, the result should be 0.
+        int result = Knapsack.knapSack(weightCapacity, weights, values);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKnapSackMaxCapacity() {
+        int[] weights = {2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] values = {3, 4, 5, 6};
+        int weightCapacity = 10;
+        int expected = 13; // Maximum value should be 13 (items 1, 3, and 4).
+        int result = Knapsack.knapSack(weightCapacity, weights, values);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKnapSackThrowsForInputsOfDifferentLength() {
+        int[] weights = {2, 3, 4};
+        int[] values = {3, 4, 5, 6}; // Different length values array.
+        int weightCapacity = 5;
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Knapsack.knapSack(weightCapacity, weights, values); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKnapSackThrowsForNullInputs() {
+        int[] weights = {2, 3, 4};
+        int[] values = {3, 4, 6};
+        int weightCapacity = 5;
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Knapsack.knapSack(weightCapacity, null, values); });
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Knapsack.knapSack(weightCapacity, weights, null); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKnapSackThrowsForNegativeCapacity() {
+        int[] weights = {2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] values = {3, 4, 5, 6};
+        int weightCapacity = -5;
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Knapsack.knapSack(weightCapacity, weights, values); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testKnapSackThrowsForNegativeWeight() {
+        int[] weights = {2, 0, 4};
+        int[] values = {3, 4, 6};
+        int weightCapacity = 5;
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Knapsack.knapSack(weightCapacity, weights, values); });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6c61ad2130e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KnapsackZeroOneTabulationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void basicCheck() {
+        int[] values = {60, 100, 120};
+        int[] weights = {10, 20, 30};
+        int capacity = 50;
+        int itemCount = values.length;
+
+        int expected = 220; // Best choice: item 1 (100) and item 2 (120)
+        int result = KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.compute(values, weights, capacity, itemCount);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void emptyKnapsack() {
+        int[] values = {};
+        int[] weights = {};
+        int capacity = 50;
+        int itemCount = 0;
+
+        assertEquals(0, KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.compute(values, weights, capacity, itemCount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void zeroCapacity() {
+        int[] values = {60, 100, 120};
+        int[] weights = {10, 20, 30};
+        int capacity = 0;
+        int itemCount = values.length;
+
+        assertEquals(0, KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.compute(values, weights, capacity, itemCount));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void negativeCapacity() {
+        int[] values = {10, 20, 30};
+        int[] weights = {1, 1, 1};
+        int capacity = -10;
+        int itemCount = values.length;
+
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.compute(values, weights, capacity, itemCount));
+        assertEquals("Capacity must not be negative.", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void mismatchedLengths() {
+        int[] values = {60, 100}; // Only 2 values
+        int[] weights = {10, 20, 30}; // 3 weights
+        int capacity = 50;
+        int itemCount = 2; // Matches `values.length`
+
+        // You could either expect 0 or throw an IllegalArgumentException in your compute function
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.compute(values, weights, capacity, itemCount); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void nullInputs() {
+        int[] weights = {1, 2, 3};
+        int capacity = 10;
+        int itemCount = 3;
+
+        IllegalArgumentException exception1 = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.compute(null, weights, capacity, itemCount));
+        assertEquals("Values and weights arrays must not be null.", exception1.getMessage());
+
+        int[] values = {1, 2, 3};
+
+        IllegalArgumentException exception2 = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.compute(values, null, capacity, itemCount));
+        assertEquals("Values and weights arrays must not be null.", exception2.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0ca2b91fc273
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class KnapsackZeroOneTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void basicCheck() {
+        int[] values = {60, 100, 120};
+        int[] weights = {10, 20, 30};
+        int capacity = 50;
+        int expected = 220;
+
+        int result = KnapsackZeroOne.compute(values, weights, capacity, values.length);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void zeroCapacity() {
+        int[] values = {10, 20, 30};
+        int[] weights = {1, 1, 1};
+        int capacity = 0;
+
+        int result = KnapsackZeroOne.compute(values, weights, capacity, values.length);
+        assertEquals(0, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void zeroItems() {
+        int[] values = {};
+        int[] weights = {};
+        int capacity = 10;
+
+        int result = KnapsackZeroOne.compute(values, weights, capacity, 0);
+        assertEquals(0, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void weightsExceedingCapacity() {
+        int[] values = {10, 20};
+        int[] weights = {100, 200};
+        int capacity = 50;
+
+        int result = KnapsackZeroOne.compute(values, weights, capacity, values.length);
+        assertEquals(0, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void throwsOnNullArrays() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KnapsackZeroOne.compute(null, new int[] {1}, 10, 1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KnapsackZeroOne.compute(new int[] {1}, null, 10, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void throwsOnMismatchedArrayLengths() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KnapsackZeroOne.compute(new int[] {10, 20}, new int[] {5}, 15, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void throwsOnNegativeInputs() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KnapsackZeroOne.compute(new int[] {10}, new int[] {5}, -1, 1));
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KnapsackZeroOne.compute(new int[] {10}, new int[] {5}, 5, -1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistanceTests.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistanceTests.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ad4c4c7c53e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistanceTests.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.function.ToIntBiFunction;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LevenshteinDistanceTests {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    public void testLevenshteinDistance(final int expected, final String str1, final String str2, final ToIntBiFunction<String, String> dist) {
+        assertEquals(expected, dist.applyAsInt(str1, str2));
+        assertEquals(expected, dist.applyAsInt(str2, str1));
+        assertEquals(0, dist.applyAsInt(str1, str1));
+        assertEquals(0, dist.applyAsInt(str2, str2));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> testCases() {
+        final Object[][] testData = {
+            {0, "", ""},
+            {0, "Hello, World!", "Hello, World!"},
+            {4, "", "Rust"},
+            {3, "horse", "ros"},
+            {6, "tan", "elephant"},
+            {8, "execute", "intention"},
+            {1, "a", "b"},
+            {1, "a", "aa"},
+            {1, "a", ""},
+            {1, "a", "ab"},
+            {1, "a", "ba"},
+            {2, "a", "bc"},
+            {2, "a", "cb"},
+        };
+
+        final List<ToIntBiFunction<String, String>> methods = Arrays.asList(LevenshteinDistance::naiveLevenshteinDistance, LevenshteinDistance::optimizedLevenshteinDistance);
+
+        return Stream.of(testData).flatMap(input -> methods.stream().map(method -> Arguments.of(input[0], input[1], input[2], method)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3de1114a0987
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestAlternatingSubsequenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LongestAlternatingSubsequenceTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testAlternatingLength(int[] arr, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, LongestAlternatingSubsequence.alternatingLength(arr, arr.length));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {1}, 1), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2}, 2), Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 1}, 2), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 3, 2, 4, 3, 5}, 6), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 2), Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}, 2),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {10, 22, 9, 33, 49, 50, 31, 60}, 6), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, 2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6384fe2afebe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.ArrayUtils;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LongestArithmeticSubsequenceTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testGetLongestArithmeticSubsequenceLength(int[] nums, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, LongestArithmeticSubsequence.getLongestArithmeticSubsequenceLength(nums));
+    }
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testGetLongestArithmeticSubsequenceLengthReversedInput(int[] nums, int expected) {
+        ArrayUtils.reverse(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, LongestArithmeticSubsequence.getLongestArithmeticSubsequenceLength(nums));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetLongestArithmeticSubsequenceLengthThrowsForNullInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LongestArithmeticSubsequence.getLongestArithmeticSubsequenceLength(null));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {3, 6, 9, 12, 15}, 5), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 7, 10, 13, 14, 19}, 4), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4}, 4), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, 0), Arguments.of(new int[] {10}, 1), Arguments.of(new int[] {9, 4, 7, 2, 10}, 3),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 5}, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..40bbdff15ca6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class LongestCommonSubsequenceTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLCSBasic() {
+        String str1 = "ABCBDAB";
+        String str2 = "BDCAB";
+        String expected = "BDAB"; // The longest common subsequence
+        String result = LongestCommonSubsequence.getLCS(str1, str2);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLCSIdenticalStrings() {
+        String str1 = "AGGTAB";
+        String str2 = "AGGTAB";
+        String expected = "AGGTAB"; // LCS is the same as the strings
+        String result = LongestCommonSubsequence.getLCS(str1, str2);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLCSNoCommonCharacters() {
+        String str1 = "ABC";
+        String str2 = "XYZ";
+        String expected = ""; // No common subsequence
+        String result = LongestCommonSubsequence.getLCS(str1, str2);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLCSWithEmptyString() {
+        String str1 = "";
+        String str2 = "XYZ";
+        String expected = ""; // LCS with an empty string should be empty
+        String result = LongestCommonSubsequence.getLCS(str1, str2);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLCSWithBothEmptyStrings() {
+        String str1 = "";
+        String str2 = "";
+        String expected = ""; // LCS with both strings empty should be empty
+        String result = LongestCommonSubsequence.getLCS(str1, str2);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLCSWithNullFirstString() {
+        String str1 = null;
+        String str2 = "XYZ";
+        String expected = null; // Should return null if first string is null
+        String result = LongestCommonSubsequence.getLCS(str1, str2);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLCSWithNullSecondString() {
+        String str1 = "ABC";
+        String str2 = null;
+        String expected = null; // Should return null if second string is null
+        String result = LongestCommonSubsequence.getLCS(str1, str2);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLCSWithNullBothStrings() {
+        String str1 = null;
+        String str2 = null;
+        String expected = null; // Should return null if both strings are null
+        String result = LongestCommonSubsequence.getLCS(str1, str2);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLCSWithLongerStringContainingCommonSubsequence() {
+        String str1 = "ABCDEF";
+        String str2 = "AEBDF";
+        String expected = "ABDF"; // Common subsequence is "ABDF"
+        String result = LongestCommonSubsequence.getLCS(str1, str2);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogNTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogNTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dc87d6751460
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogNTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogNTest {
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {10, 9, 2, 5, 3, 7, 101, 18}, 4), Arguments.of(new int[] {0, 1, 0, 3, 2, 3}, 4), Arguments.of(new int[] {7, 7, 7, 7, 7}, 1), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 3, 5, 4, 7}, 4), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, 0), Arguments.of(new int[] {10}, 1),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {3, 10, 2, 1, 20}, 3), Arguments.of(new int[] {50, 3, 10, 7, 40, 80}, 4));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testLengthOfLIS(int[] input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN.lengthOfLIS(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceTests.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceTests.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5135105592a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceTests.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LongestIncreasingSubsequenceTests {
+    @FunctionalInterface
+    public interface IntArrayToInt {
+        int apply(int[] array);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    public void testLongestIncreasingSubsequence(final int expected, final int[] input, final IntArrayToInt method) {
+        assertEquals(expected, method.apply(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> testCases() {
+        final Object[][] testData = {
+            {0, new int[] {}},
+            {1, new int[] {1}},
+            {1, new int[] {2, 2}},
+            {1, new int[] {3, 3, 3}},
+            {1, new int[] {4, 4, 4, 4}},
+            {1, new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}},
+            {2, new int[] {1, 2}},
+            {2, new int[] {1, 2, 2, 2, 2}},
+            {2, new int[] {1, 0, 2}},
+            {3, new int[] {1, 10, 2, 30}},
+            {3, new int[] {5, 8, 3, 7, 9, 1}},
+            {6, new int[] {0, 8, 4, 12, 2, 10, 6, 14, 1, 9, 5, 13, 3, 11, 7, 15}},
+            {4, new int[] {10, 9, 2, 5, 3, 7, 101, 18}},
+            {4, new int[] {10, 10, 9, 9, 2, 2, 5, 5, 3, 3, 7, 7, 101, 101, 18, 18}},
+            {4, new int[] {0, 1, 0, 3, 2, 3}},
+            {2, new int[] {1, 1, 2, 2, 2}},
+            {3, new int[] {1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3}},
+        };
+
+        final List<IntArrayToInt> methods = Arrays.asList(LongestIncreasingSubsequence::lis, LongestIncreasingSubsequence::findLISLen);
+
+        return Stream.of(testData).flatMap(input -> methods.stream().map(method -> Arguments.of(input[0], input[1], method)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstringTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..278de7e10e0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestPalindromicSubstringTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LongestPalindromicSubstringTest {
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            Arguments.of("babad", "aba"), Arguments.of("cbbd", "bb"), Arguments.of("a", "a"), Arguments.of("x", "x"), Arguments.of("", ""), Arguments.of("aaaa", "aaaa"), Arguments.of("mm", "mm"), Arguments.of("level", "level"), Arguments.of("bananas", "anana"), Arguments.of("abacabad", "abacaba"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testLps(String input, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, LongestPalindromicSubstring.lps(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParenthesesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParenthesesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..77b7dda6a972
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParenthesesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LongestValidParenthesesTest {
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("", 0), Arguments.of("(", 0), Arguments.of(")", 0), Arguments.of("()", 2), Arguments.of("(())", 4), Arguments.of("()()", 4), Arguments.of(")(", 0), Arguments.of("(()", 2), Arguments.of("())(", 2), Arguments.of("(()())", 6), Arguments.of("(((())))", 8),
+            Arguments.of("(()))(()", 4), Arguments.of("()()()(", 6), Arguments.of("(()())()(", 8), Arguments.of("((((((", 0), Arguments.of("))))))", 0), Arguments.of("(()())(", 6), Arguments.of("))()(", 2), Arguments.of("()((()))", 8), Arguments.of("((()((())))", 10));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testLongestValidParentheses(String input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, LongestValidParentheses.getLongestValidParentheses(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplicationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplicationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2bee0ca52918
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainMultiplicationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MatrixChainMultiplicationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testMatrixCreation() {
+        MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix matrix1 = new MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix(1, 10, 20);
+        MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix matrix2 = new MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix(2, 20, 30);
+
+        assertEquals(1, matrix1.count());
+        assertEquals(10, matrix1.col());
+        assertEquals(20, matrix1.row());
+
+        assertEquals(2, matrix2.count());
+        assertEquals(20, matrix2.col());
+        assertEquals(30, matrix2.row());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMatrixChainOrder() {
+        // Create a list of matrices to be multiplied
+        ArrayList<MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix> matrices = new ArrayList<>();
+        matrices.add(new MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix(1, 10, 20)); // A(1) = 10 x 20
+        matrices.add(new MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix(2, 20, 30)); // A(2) = 20 x 30
+
+        // Calculate matrix chain order
+        MatrixChainMultiplication.Result result = MatrixChainMultiplication.calculateMatrixChainOrder(matrices);
+
+        // Expected cost of multiplying A(1) and A(2)
+        int expectedCost = 6000; // The expected optimal cost of multiplying A(1)(10x20) and A(2)(20x30)
+        int actualCost = result.getM()[1][2];
+
+        assertEquals(expectedCost, actualCost);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOptimalParentheses() {
+        // Create a list of matrices to be multiplied
+        ArrayList<MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix> matrices = new ArrayList<>();
+        matrices.add(new MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix(1, 10, 20)); // A(1) = 10 x 20
+        matrices.add(new MatrixChainMultiplication.Matrix(2, 20, 30)); // A(2) = 20 x 30
+
+        // Calculate matrix chain order
+        MatrixChainMultiplication.Result result = MatrixChainMultiplication.calculateMatrixChainOrder(matrices);
+
+        // Check the optimal split for parentheses
+        assertEquals(1, result.getS()[1][2]); // s[1][2] should point to the optimal split
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f8270f6d50b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisationTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for four matrices with dimensions 1x2, 2x3, 3x4, and 4x5.
+     * The expected minimum number of multiplications is 38.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFourMatrices() {
+        int[] dimensions = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int expected = 38;
+        int actual = MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.memoizedMatrixChain(dimensions);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The minimum number of multiplications should be 38.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for three matrices with dimensions 10x20, 20x30, and 30x40.
+     * The expected minimum number of multiplications is 6000.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testThreeMatrices() {
+        int[] dimensions = {10, 20, 30, 40};
+        int expected = 18000;
+        int actual = MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.memoizedMatrixChain(dimensions);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The minimum number of multiplications should be 18000.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for two matrices with dimensions 5x10 and 10x20.
+     * The expected minimum number of multiplications is 1000.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTwoMatrices() {
+        int[] dimensions = {5, 10, 20};
+        int expected = 1000;
+        int actual = MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.memoizedMatrixChain(dimensions);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The minimum number of multiplications should be 1000.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for a single matrix.
+     * The expected minimum number of multiplications is 0, as there are no multiplications needed.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSingleMatrix() {
+        int[] dimensions = {10, 20}; // Single matrix dimensions
+        int expected = 0;
+        int actual = MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.memoizedMatrixChain(dimensions);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The minimum number of multiplications should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for matrices with varying dimensions.
+     * The expected minimum number of multiplications is calculated based on the dimensions provided.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testVaryingDimensions() {
+        int[] dimensions = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}; // Dimensions for 4 matrices
+        int expected = 124; // Expected value needs to be calculated based on the problem
+        int actual = MatrixChainRecursiveTopDownMemoisation.memoizedMatrixChain(dimensions);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The minimum number of multiplications should be 124.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumProductSubarrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumProductSubarrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0f499bf2a2f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumProductSubarrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,152 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MaximumProductSubarrayTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array with all positive numbers.
+     * The expected maximum product is the product of all elements.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testAllPositiveNumbers() {
+        int[] nums = {2, 3, 4};
+        int expected = 24;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 24.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array with positive and negative numbers.
+     * The expected maximum product is 24 (subarray [2, -3, -4]).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMixedPositiveAndNegative() {
+        int[] nums = {2, -3, -4, 1};
+        int expected = 24;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 24.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array containing zeros.
+     * The expected maximum product is 24 (subarray [4, 6]).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testArrayWithZeros() {
+        int[] nums = {2, 3, 0, 4, 6};
+        int expected = 24;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 24.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array with a single element.
+     * The expected maximum product is the element itself.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElement() {
+        int[] nums = {5};
+        int expected = 5;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 5.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array with all negative numbers.
+     * The expected maximum product is 12 (subarray [-3, -4]).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testAllNegativeNumbers() {
+        int[] nums = {-2, -3, -4};
+        int expected = 12;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 12.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array with negative numbers where odd count of negatives
+     * breaks the chain. The expected maximum product is 60 (subarray [-2, -3, 10]).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testOddNegativeNumbers() {
+        int[] nums = {-2, -3, 10, -1};
+        int expected = 60;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 60.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an empty array.
+     * The expected maximum product is 0.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyArray() {
+        int[] nums = {};
+        int expected = 0;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 0 for an empty array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for a null array.
+     * The expected maximum product is 0.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNullArray() {
+        int[] nums = null;
+        int expected = 0;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 0 for a null array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array with alternating positive and negative numbers.
+     * The expected maximum product is 6 (subarray [2, 3]).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testAlternatingNumbers() {
+        int[] nums = {2, 3, -2, 4};
+        int expected = 6;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 6.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array with large positive and negative numbers.
+     * The expected maximum product is 360 (subarray [6, -3, -20]).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLargeNumbers() {
+        int[] nums = {6, -3, -20, 0, 5};
+        int expected = 360;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 360.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array with single negative number.
+     * The expected maximum product is the negative number itself.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSingleNegativeElement() {
+        int[] nums = {-8};
+        int expected = -8;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be -8.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an array with multiple zeros.
+     * The expected maximum product is 6 (subarray [2, 3]).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleZeros() {
+        int[] nums = {0, 2, 3, 0, 4};
+        int expected = 6;
+        int actual = MaximumProductSubarray.maxProduct(nums);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, "The maximum product should be 6.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElementsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElementsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3f312d86462e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElementsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElementsTest {
+
+    // Tests for Approach1
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMaxSumApproach1WithEmptyArray() {
+        assertEquals(0, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach1(new int[] {})); // Empty array
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMaxSumApproach1WithSingleElement() {
+        assertEquals(1, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach1(new int[] {1})); // Single element
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMaxSumApproach1WithTwoElementsTakeMax() {
+        assertEquals(2, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach1(new int[] {1, 2})); // Take max of both
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMaxSumApproach1WithMultipleElements() {
+        assertEquals(15, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach1(new int[] {3, 2, 5, 10, 7})); // 3 + 7 + 5
+        assertEquals(10, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach1(new int[] {5, 1, 1, 5})); // 5 + 5
+    }
+
+    // Tests for Approach2
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMaxSumApproach2WithEmptyArray() {
+        assertEquals(0, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach2(new int[] {})); // Empty array
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMaxSumApproach2WithSingleElement() {
+        assertEquals(1, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach2(new int[] {1})); // Single element
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMaxSumApproach2WithTwoElementsTakeMax() {
+        assertEquals(2, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach2(new int[] {1, 2})); // Take max of both
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMaxSumApproach2WithMultipleElements() {
+        assertEquals(15, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach2(new int[] {3, 2, 5, 10, 7})); // 3 + 7 + 5
+        assertEquals(10, MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.getMaxSumApproach2(new int[] {5, 1, 1, 5})); // 5 + 5
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSumTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSumTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5c722c3c0036
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumPathSumTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MinimumPathSumTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumPathSumWithRegularGrid() {
+        int[][] grid = {{1, 3, 1}, {1, 5, 1}, {4, 2, 1}};
+        assertEquals(7, MinimumPathSum.minimumPathSum(grid));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumPathSumWithOneRowOneColumnGrid() {
+        int[][] grid = {{2}};
+        assertEquals(2, MinimumPathSum.minimumPathSum(grid));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumPathSumWithEmptyGrid() {
+        int[][] grid = {{}};
+        assertEquals(0, MinimumPathSum.minimumPathSum(grid));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumPathSumWithOneColumnGrid() {
+        int[][] grid = {{1}, {2}, {3}};
+        assertEquals(6, MinimumPathSum.minimumPathSum(grid));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumPathSumGridOneRowGrid() {
+        int[][] grid = {{1, 2, 3}};
+        assertEquals(6, MinimumPathSum.minimumPathSum(grid));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumPathSumWithDiffRowAndColumnGrid() {
+        int[][] grid = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        assertEquals(30, MinimumPathSum.minimumPathSum(grid));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumPathSumWithNegativeNumberGrid() {
+        int[][] grid = {{1, 3, 1}, {3, 4, 1}, {4, -3, 1}};
+        assertEquals(6, MinimumPathSum.minimumPathSum(grid));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartitionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartitionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1f14320244ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MinimumSumPartitionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MinimumSumPartitionTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumSumPartitionWithEvenSum() {
+        int[] array = {1, 6, 11, 4};
+        assertEquals(0, MinimumSumPartition.minimumSumPartition(array));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumSumPartitionWithOddSum() {
+        int[] array = {36, 7, 46, 40};
+        assertEquals(23, MinimumSumPartition.minimumSumPartition(array));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumSumPartitionWithSingleElement() {
+        int[] array = {7};
+        assertEquals(7, MinimumSumPartition.minimumSumPartition(array));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumSumPartitionWithLargeNumbers() {
+        int[] array = {100, 200, 300, 400, 500};
+        assertEquals(100, MinimumSumPartition.minimumSumPartition(array));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumSumPartitionWithEmptyArray() {
+        int[] array = {};
+        assertEquals(0, MinimumSumPartition.minimumSumPartition(array));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumSumPartitionThrowsForNegativeArray() {
+        int[] array = {4, 1, -6, 7};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { MinimumSumPartition.minimumSumPartition(array); });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunschTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunschTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f7ba5eea8bce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunschTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+/**
+ * Unit Tests for the {@code NeedlemanWunsch} class
+ */
+class NeedlemanWunschTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testIdenticalStrings() {
+        int score = NeedlemanWunsch.align("GATTACA", "GATTACA", 1, -1, -2);
+        assertEquals(7, score); // All matches, 7*1
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSimpleMismatch() {
+        int score = NeedlemanWunsch.align("GATTACA", "GACTATA", 1, -1, -2);
+        assertEquals(3, score);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertion() {
+        int score = NeedlemanWunsch.align("GATTACA", "GATACA", 1, -1, -2);
+        // One deletion (gap penalty)
+        assertEquals(4, score);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyStrings() {
+        assertEquals(0, NeedlemanWunsch.align("", "", 1, -1, -2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOneEmpty() {
+        assertEquals(-14, NeedlemanWunsch.align("GATTACA", "", 1, -1, -2)); // 7 gaps × -2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGapHeavyAlignment() {
+        int score = NeedlemanWunsch.align("AAAA", "AA", 1, -1, -2);
+        assertEquals(-2, score); // Two matches (2*1) + two gaps (2*-2)
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"null,ABC", "ABC,null", "null,null"})
+    void testNullInputs(String s1, String s2) {
+        // Interpret "null" literal as Java null
+        String first = "null".equals(s1) ? null : s1;
+        String second = "null".equals(s2) ? null : s2;
+
+        IllegalArgumentException ex = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> NeedlemanWunsch.align(first, second, 1, -1, -2));
+        assertEquals("Input strings must not be null.", ex.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NewManShanksPrimeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NewManShanksPrimeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a16ad67d6470
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NewManShanksPrimeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the NewManShanksPrime class.
+ * This test class verifies the correctness of the nthManShanksPrime method
+ * for various input cases.
+ */
+class NewManShanksPrimeTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for the 1st New Man Shanks prime.
+     * The expected answer is 1.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNthManShanksPrime1() {
+        int n = 1;
+        int expectedAnswer = 1;
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(n, expectedAnswer), "The 1st New Man Shanks prime should be 1.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for the 2nd New Man Shanks prime.
+     * The expected answer is 3.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNthManShanksPrime2() {
+        int n = 2;
+        int expectedAnswer = 3;
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(n, expectedAnswer), "The 2nd New Man Shanks prime should be 3.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for the 3rd New Man Shanks prime.
+     * The expected answer is 7.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNthManShanksPrime3() {
+        int n = 3;
+        int expectedAnswer = 7;
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(n, expectedAnswer), "The 3rd New Man Shanks prime should be 7.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for the 4th New Man Shanks prime.
+     * The expected answer is 17.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNthManShanksPrime4() {
+        int n = 4;
+        int expectedAnswer = 17;
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(n, expectedAnswer), "The 4th New Man Shanks prime should be 17.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for the 5th New Man Shanks prime.
+     * The expected answer is 41.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNthManShanksPrime5() {
+        int n = 5;
+        int expectedAnswer = 41;
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(n, expectedAnswer), "The 5th New Man Shanks prime should be 41.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case with an incorrect expected answer.
+     * For n = 2, the expected answer is 3.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNthManShanksPrimeIncorrectAnswer() {
+        int n = 2;
+        int expectedAnswer = 4; // Incorrect expected value
+        assertFalse(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(n, expectedAnswer), "The 2nd New Man Shanks prime should not be 4.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..173ed00488d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author georgioct@csd.auth.gr
+ */
+public class OptimalJobSchedulingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimalJobScheduling1() {
+
+        int numberProcesses = 5;
+        int numberMachines = 4;
+
+        int[][] run = {{5, 1, 3, 2}, {4, 2, 1, 3}, {1, 5, 2, 1}, {2, 3, 4, 2}, {1, 1, 3, 1}};
+
+        int[][] transfer = {{0, 1, 2, 4}, {1, 0, 2, 3}, {2, 2, 0, 1}, {4, 3, 1, 0}};
+
+        OptimalJobScheduling opt = new OptimalJobScheduling(numberProcesses, numberMachines, run, transfer);
+
+        opt.execute();
+
+        int[][] costs = {{5, 1, 3, 2}, {6, 3, 4, 5}, {5, 8, 6, 6}, {7, 9, 10, 8}, {8, 9, 12, 9}};
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < numberProcesses; i++) {
+
+            for (int j = 0; j < numberMachines; j++) {
+
+                assertEquals(costs[i][j], opt.getCost(i, j));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimalJobScheduling2() {
+
+        int numberProcesses = 3;
+        int numberMachines = 3;
+
+        int[][] run = {{5, 1, 3}, {4, 2, 1}, {1, 5, 2}};
+
+        int[][] transfer = {{0, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 2}, {2, 2, 0}};
+
+        OptimalJobScheduling opt = new OptimalJobScheduling(numberProcesses, numberMachines, run, transfer);
+
+        opt.execute();
+
+        int[][] costs = {{5, 1, 3}, {6, 3, 4}, {5, 8, 6}};
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < numberProcesses; i++) {
+
+            for (int j = 0; j < numberMachines; j++) {
+
+                assertEquals(costs[i][j], opt.getCost(i, j));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimalJobScheduling3() {
+
+        int numberProcesses = 6;
+        int numberMachines = 4;
+
+        int[][] run = {
+            {5, 1, 3, 2},
+            {4, 2, 1, 1},
+            {1, 5, 2, 6},
+            {1, 1, 2, 3},
+            {2, 1, 4, 6},
+            {3, 2, 2, 3},
+        };
+
+        int[][] transfer = {
+            {0, 1, 2, 1},
+            {1, 0, 2, 3},
+            {2, 2, 0, 2},
+            {1, 3, 2, 0},
+        };
+
+        OptimalJobScheduling opt = new OptimalJobScheduling(numberProcesses, numberMachines, run, transfer);
+
+        opt.execute();
+
+        int[][] costs = {{5, 1, 3, 2}, {6, 3, 4, 3}, {5, 8, 6, 9}, {6, 7, 8, 9}, {8, 8, 12, 13}, {11, 10, 12, 12}};
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < numberProcesses; i++) {
+
+            for (int j = 0; j < numberMachines; j++) {
+
+                assertEquals(costs[i][j], opt.getCost(i, j));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioningTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioningTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..be503359e770
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PalindromicPartitioningTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class PalindromicPartitioningTest {
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("a", 0), Arguments.of("aa", 0), Arguments.of("ab", 1), Arguments.of("ababbbabbababa", 3), Arguments.of("abcde", 4), Arguments.of("abacdcaba", 0));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testMinimalPartitions(String input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, PalindromicPartitioning.minimalPartitions(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblemTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..098893f41771
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblemTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PartitionProblemTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testIfSumOfTheArrayIsOdd() {
+        assertFalse(PartitionProblem.partition(new int[] {1, 2, 2}));
+    }
+    @Test
+    public void testIfSizeOfTheArrayIsOne() {
+        assertFalse(PartitionProblem.partition(new int[] {2}));
+    }
+    @Test
+    public void testIfSumOfTheArrayIsEven1() {
+        assertTrue(PartitionProblem.partition(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 6}));
+    }
+    @Test
+    public void testIfSumOfTheArrayIsEven2() {
+        assertFalse(PartitionProblem.partition(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 8}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatchingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatchingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e75482a68d8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatchingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class RegexMatchingTest {
+
+    private record RegexTestCase(String s, String p, boolean expected) {
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new RegexTestCase("aa", "*", true)), Arguments.of(new RegexTestCase("aa", "a*", true)), Arguments.of(new RegexTestCase("aa", "a", false)), Arguments.of(new RegexTestCase("cb", "?b", true)), Arguments.of(new RegexTestCase("cb", "?a", false)),
+            Arguments.of(new RegexTestCase("adceb", "*a*b", true)), Arguments.of(new RegexTestCase("acdcb", "a*c?b", false)), Arguments.of(new RegexTestCase("", "*", true)), Arguments.of(new RegexTestCase("", "", true)));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testRegexRecursionMethod1(RegexTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), RegexMatching.regexRecursion(testCase.s(), testCase.p()));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testRegexRecursionMethod2(RegexTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), RegexMatching.regexRecursion(testCase.s(), testCase.p(), 0, 0));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testRegexRecursionMethod3(RegexTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), RegexMatching.regexRecursion(testCase.s(), testCase.p(), 0, 0, new int[testCase.s().length()][testCase.p().length()]));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testRegexBottomUp(RegexTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), RegexMatching.regexBU(testCase.s(), testCase.p()));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCuttingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCuttingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9cf21fd836db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RodCuttingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the RodCutting class.
+ * This test class verifies the correctness of the cutRod method for various input cases.
+ */
+class RodCuttingTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for cutting a rod of length 1.
+     * The expected maximum obtainable value is the price of the piece of length 1.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCutRodLength1() {
+        int[] prices = {1}; // Price for piece of length 1
+        int length = 1;
+        int expectedValue = 1;
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, RodCutting.cutRod(prices, length), "The maximum obtainable value for a rod of length 1 should be 1.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for cutting a rod of length 2.
+     * The expected maximum obtainable value is the best price combination for length 2.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCutRodLength2() {
+        int[] prices = {1, 5}; // Prices for lengths 1 and 2
+        int length = 2;
+        int expectedValue = 5; // Best value is to cut it into a single piece of length 2
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, RodCutting.cutRod(prices, length), "The maximum obtainable value for a rod of length 2 should be 5.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for cutting a rod of length 3.
+     * The expected maximum obtainable value is the best price combination for length 3.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCutRodLength3() {
+        int[] prices = {1, 5, 8}; // Prices for lengths 1, 2, and 3
+        int length = 3;
+        int expectedValue = 8; // Best value is to cut it into a single piece of length 3
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, RodCutting.cutRod(prices, length), "The maximum obtainable value for a rod of length 3 should be 8.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for cutting a rod of length 4.
+     * The expected maximum obtainable value is the best price combination for length 4.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCutRodLength4() {
+        int[] prices = {1, 5, 8, 9}; // Prices for lengths 1, 2, 3, and 4
+        int length = 4;
+        int expectedValue = 10; // Best value is to cut it into two pieces of length 2
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, RodCutting.cutRod(prices, length), "The maximum obtainable value for a rod of length 4 should be 10.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for cutting a rod of length 5.
+     * The expected maximum obtainable value is the best price combination for length 5.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCutRodLength5() {
+        int[] prices = {1, 5, 8, 9, 10}; // Prices for lengths 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
+        int length = 5;
+        int expectedValue = 13; // Best value is to cut it into pieces of lengths 2 and 3
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, RodCutting.cutRod(prices, length), "The maximum obtainable value for a rod of length 5 should be 13.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for cutting a rod of length 0.
+     * The expected maximum obtainable value should be 0 since the rod has no length.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCutRodLength0() {
+        int[] prices = {1, 5, 8, 9, 10}; // Prices are irrelevant for length 0
+        int length = 0;
+        int expectedValue = 0; // No value obtainable from a rod of length 0
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, RodCutting.cutRod(prices, length), "The maximum obtainable value for a rod of length 0 should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test case for an empty prices array.
+     * The expected maximum obtainable value should still be 0 for any length.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCutRodEmptyPrices() {
+        int[] prices = {};
+        int length = 5;
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> RodCutting.cutRod(prices, length), "An empty prices array should throw an IllegalArgumentException.");
+    }
+    @Test
+    void testCutRodNegativeLength() {
+        int[] prices = {1, 5, 8, 9, 10}; // Prices are irrelevant for negative length
+        int length = -1;
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> RodCutting.cutRod(prices, length), "A negative rod length should throw an IllegalArgumentException.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLengthTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLengthTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8f0fd79f18a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/ShortestCommonSupersequenceLengthTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class ShortestCommonSupersequenceLengthTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"AGGTAB, GXTXAYB, 9", "ABC, ABC, 3", "ABC, DEF, 6", "'', ABC, 3", "ABCD, AB, 4", "ABC, BCD, 4", "A, B, 2"})
+    void testShortestSupersequence(String input1, String input2, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, ShortestCommonSupersequenceLength.shortestSuperSequence(input1, input2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWatermanTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWatermanTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..46c47e376989
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWatermanTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the {@code SmithWaterman} class.
+ */
+class SmithWatermanTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testIdenticalStrings() {
+        int score = SmithWaterman.align("GATTACA", "GATTACA", 2, -1, -2);
+        assertEquals(14, score); // full match, 7*2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPartialMatch() {
+        int score = SmithWaterman.align("GATTACA", "TTAC", 2, -1, -2);
+        assertEquals(8, score); // best local alignment "TTAC"
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoMatch() {
+        int score = SmithWaterman.align("AAAA", "TTTT", 1, -1, -2);
+        assertEquals(0, score); // no alignment worth keeping
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertionDeletion() {
+        int score = SmithWaterman.align("ACGT", "ACGGT", 1, -1, -2);
+        assertEquals(3, score); // local alignment "ACG"
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyStrings() {
+        assertEquals(0, SmithWaterman.align("", "", 1, -1, -2));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"null,ABC", "ABC,null", "null,null"})
+    void testNullInputs(String s1, String s2) {
+        String first = "null".equals(s1) ? null : s1;
+        String second = "null".equals(s2) ? null : s2;
+
+        IllegalArgumentException ex = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> SmithWaterman.align(first, second, 1, -1, -2));
+        assertEquals("Input strings must not be null.", ex.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetCountTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetCountTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c76f89deb600
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetCountTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SubsetCountTest {
+    @Test
+    void hasMultipleSubset() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {1, 2, 3, 3};
+        assertEquals(3, SubsetCount.getCount(arr, 6));
+    }
+    @Test
+    void singleElementSubset() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {1, 1, 1, 1};
+        assertEquals(4, SubsetCount.getCount(arr, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void hasMultipleSubsetSO() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {1, 2, 3, 3};
+        assertEquals(3, SubsetCount.getCountSO(arr, 6));
+    }
+    @Test
+    void singleSubsetSO() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {1, 1, 1, 1};
+        assertEquals(1, SubsetCount.getCountSO(arr, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumSpaceOptimizedTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumSpaceOptimizedTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3a965f4e68b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumSpaceOptimizedTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SubsetSumSpaceOptimizedTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void basicCheck() {
+        assertTrue(SubsetSumSpaceOptimized.isSubsetSum(new int[] {7, 3, 2, 5, 8}, 14));
+        assertTrue(SubsetSumSpaceOptimized.isSubsetSum(new int[] {4, 3, 2, 1}, 5));
+        assertTrue(SubsetSumSpaceOptimized.isSubsetSum(new int[] {1, 7, 2, 9, 10}, 13));
+        assertFalse(SubsetSumSpaceOptimized.isSubsetSum(new int[] {1, 2, 7, 10, 9}, 14));
+        assertFalse(SubsetSumSpaceOptimized.isSubsetSum(new int[] {2, 15, 1, 6, 7}, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1ae4e71232f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SubsetSumTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class SubsetSumTest {
+
+    record TestCase(int[] arr, int sum, boolean expected) {
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testSubsetSum(TestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), SubsetSum.subsetSum(testCase.arr(), testCase.sum()));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<TestCase> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new TestCase(new int[] {50, 4, 10, 15, 34}, 64, true), new TestCase(new int[] {50, 4, 10, 15, 34}, 99, true), new TestCase(new int[] {50, 4, 10, 15, 34}, 5, false), new TestCase(new int[] {50, 4, 10, 15, 34}, 66, false), new TestCase(new int[] {}, 0, true),
+            new TestCase(new int[] {1, 2, 3}, 6, true), new TestCase(new int[] {1, 2, 3}, 7, false), new TestCase(new int[] {3, 34, 4, 12, 5, 2}, 9, true));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubsetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubsetTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9df35447eefa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubsetTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SumOfSubsetTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void basicCheck() {
+        assertFalse(SumOfSubset.subsetSum(new int[] {1, 2, 7, 10, 9}, 4, 14));
+        assertFalse(SumOfSubset.subsetSum(new int[] {2, 15, 1, 6, 7}, 4, 4));
+        assertTrue(SumOfSubset.subsetSum(new int[] {7, 3, 2, 5, 8}, 4, 14));
+        assertTrue(SumOfSubset.subsetSum(new int[] {4, 3, 2, 1}, 3, 5));
+        assertTrue(SumOfSubset.subsetSum(new int[] {1, 7, 2, 9, 10}, 4, 13));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatchingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatchingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d5418770a5d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatchingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs.UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class TreeMatchingTest {
+    UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph graph;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        graph = new UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 14; i++) {
+            graph.addNode();
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxMatchingForGeneralTree() {
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2, 30);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 3, 40);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 4, 10);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 5, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 6, 30);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 7, 30);
+        graph.addEdge(5, 8, 40);
+        graph.addEdge(5, 9, 10);
+
+        TreeMatching treeMatching = new TreeMatching(graph);
+        assertEquals(110, treeMatching.getMaxMatching(0, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxMatchingForBalancedTree() {
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2, 30);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 3, 40);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 4, 10);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 5, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 6, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 7, 30);
+        graph.addEdge(5, 8, 10);
+        graph.addEdge(5, 9, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(7, 10, 10);
+        graph.addEdge(7, 11, 10);
+        graph.addEdge(7, 12, 5);
+        TreeMatching treeMatching = new TreeMatching(graph);
+        assertEquals(100, treeMatching.getMaxMatching(0, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxMatchingForTreeWithVariedEdgeWeights() {
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2, 30);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 3, 40);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 4, 50);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 5, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 6, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 7, 30);
+        graph.addEdge(5, 8, 10);
+        graph.addEdge(5, 9, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(7, 10, 10);
+        graph.addEdge(4, 11, 50);
+        graph.addEdge(4, 12, 20);
+        TreeMatching treeMatching = new TreeMatching(graph);
+        assertEquals(140, treeMatching.getMaxMatching(0, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void emptyTree() {
+        TreeMatching treeMatching = new TreeMatching(graph);
+        assertEquals(0, treeMatching.getMaxMatching(0, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleNodeTree() {
+        UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph singleNodeGraph = new UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph();
+        singleNodeGraph.addNode();
+
+        TreeMatching treeMatching = new TreeMatching(singleNodeGraph);
+        assertEquals(0, treeMatching.getMaxMatching(0, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLinearTree() {
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 10);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 3, 30);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 4, 40);
+
+        TreeMatching treeMatching = new TreeMatching(graph);
+        assertEquals(60, treeMatching.getMaxMatching(0, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStarShapedTree() {
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 15);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2, 25);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 3, 35);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 4, 45);
+
+        TreeMatching treeMatching = new TreeMatching(graph);
+        assertEquals(45, treeMatching.getMaxMatching(0, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUnbalancedTree() {
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 10);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2, 20);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 3, 30);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 4, 40);
+        graph.addEdge(4, 5, 50);
+
+        TreeMatching treeMatching = new TreeMatching(graph);
+        assertEquals(100, treeMatching.getMaxMatching(0, -1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TribonacciTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TribonacciTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..434a1825dfec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TribonacciTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for {@code Tribonacci}.
+ */
+public class TribonacciTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the Tribonacci computation for a set of known values.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testKnownValues() {
+        assertEquals(0, Tribonacci.compute(0), "The 0th Tribonacci should be 0.");
+        assertEquals(1, Tribonacci.compute(1), "The 1st Tribonacci should be 1.");
+        assertEquals(1, Tribonacci.compute(2), "The 2nd Tribonacci should be 1.");
+        assertEquals(2, Tribonacci.compute(3), "The 3rd Tribonacci should be 2.");
+        assertEquals(4, Tribonacci.compute(4), "The 4th Tribonacci should be 4.");
+        assertEquals(7, Tribonacci.compute(5), "The 5th Tribonacci should be 7.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePathsTests.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePathsTests.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..386938d28ec9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePathsTests.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class UniquePathsTests {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePaths3x3() {
+        assertEquals(6, UniquePaths.uniquePaths(3, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePaths1x1() {
+        assertEquals(1, UniquePaths.uniquePaths(1, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePaths3x7() {
+        assertEquals(28, UniquePaths.uniquePaths(3, 7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePaths7x3() {
+        assertEquals(28, UniquePaths.uniquePaths(7, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePaths100x100() {
+        assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> UniquePaths.uniquePaths(100, 100));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePathsII3x3() {
+        assertEquals(6, UniquePaths.uniquePaths2(3, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePathsII1x1() {
+        assertEquals(1, UniquePaths.uniquePaths2(1, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePathsII3x7() {
+        assertEquals(28, UniquePaths.uniquePaths2(3, 7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePathsII7x3() {
+        assertEquals(28, UniquePaths.uniquePaths2(7, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testUniquePathsII100x100() {
+        assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> UniquePaths.uniquePaths2(100, 100));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCountTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCountTest.java
new file mode 100755
index 000000000000..049804f58b5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCountTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class UniqueSubsequencesCountTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"abc, 7", "abcdashgdhas, 3592", "a, 1", "'a b', 7", "a1b2, 15", "AaBb, 15", "abab, 11"})
+    void subseqCountParameterizedTest(String input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, UniqueSubsequencesCount.countSubseq(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatchingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatchingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..56cd4ffe7d44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatchingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class WildcardMatchingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMatchingPattern() {
+        assertTrue(WildcardMatching.isMatch("aa", "a*"));
+        assertTrue(WildcardMatching.isMatch("adceb", "*a*b"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNonMatchingPattern() {
+        assertFalse(WildcardMatching.isMatch("cb", "?a"));
+        assertFalse(WildcardMatching.isMatch("acdcb", "a*c?b"));
+        assertFalse(WildcardMatching.isMatch("mississippi", "m*issi*iss?*i"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyPattern() {
+        assertTrue(WildcardMatching.isMatch("", ""));
+        assertFalse(WildcardMatching.isMatch("abc", ""));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblemTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fbcc2c6f3a83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblemTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the WineProblem class.
+ * This test class verifies the correctness of the wine selling problem solutions.
+ */
+class WineProblemTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for wpRecursion method.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testWpRecursion() {
+        int[] wines = {2, 3, 5, 1, 4}; // Prices of wines
+        int expectedProfit = 50; // The expected maximum profit
+        assertEquals(expectedProfit, WineProblem.wpRecursion(wines, 0, wines.length - 1), "The maximum profit using recursion should be 50.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for wptd method (Top-Down DP with Memoization).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testWptd() {
+        int[] wines = {2, 3, 5, 1, 4}; // Prices of wines
+        int expectedProfit = 50; // The expected maximum profit
+        assertEquals(expectedProfit, WineProblem.wptd(wines, 0, wines.length - 1, new int[wines.length][wines.length]), "The maximum profit using top-down DP should be 50.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for wpbu method (Bottom-Up DP with Tabulation).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testWpbu() {
+        int[] wines = {2, 3, 5, 1, 4}; // Prices of wines
+        int expectedProfit = 50; // The expected maximum profit
+        assertEquals(expectedProfit, WineProblem.wpbu(wines), "The maximum profit using bottom-up DP should be 50.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with a single wine.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSingleWine() {
+        int[] wines = {10}; // Only one wine
+        int expectedProfit = 10; // Selling the only wine at year 1
+        assertEquals(expectedProfit, WineProblem.wpbu(wines), "The maximum profit for a single wine should be 10.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with multiple wines of the same price.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSamePriceWines() {
+        int[] wines = {5, 5, 5}; // All wines have the same price
+        int expectedProfit = 30; // Profit is 5 * (1 + 2 + 3)
+        assertEquals(expectedProfit, WineProblem.wpbu(wines), "The maximum profit with same price wines should be 30.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with no wines.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNoWines() {
+        int[] wines = {};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> WineProblem.wpbu(wines), "The maximum profit for no wines should throw an IllegalArgumentException.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BentleyOttmannTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BentleyOttmannTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..99240566a2f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BentleyOttmannTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,324 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.awt.geom.Point2D;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+import java.util.Set;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Comprehensive unit tests for {@link BentleyOttmann}.
+ *
+ * <p>This test suite validates the correctness of the Bentley–Ottmann algorithm
+ * implementation by checking intersection points between multiple line segment configurations.</p>
+ *
+ * <p>Test cases include typical, edge, degenerate geometrical setups, and performance tests.</p>
+ */
+public class BentleyOttmannTest {
+
+    private static final double EPS = 1e-6;
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleIntersection() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(1, 1, 5, 5), newSegment(1, 5, 5, 1));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, intersections.size());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 3.0, 3.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testVerticalIntersection() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(3, 0, 3, 6), newSegment(1, 1, 5, 5));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, intersections.size());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 3.0, 3.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoIntersection() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 1, 1), newSegment(2, 2, 3, 3));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(intersections.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCoincidentSegments() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(1, 1, 5, 5), newSegment(1, 1, 5, 5));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, intersections.size(), "Two identical segments should report 2 intersection points (both endpoints)");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 1.0, 1.0));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 5.0, 5.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHorizontalIntersection() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 2, 4, 2), newSegment(2, 0, 2, 4));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 2.0, 2.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyList() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of();
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(intersections.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleSegment() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 5, 5));
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(intersections.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullListThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testParallelSegments() {
+        // Test 1: Parallel diagonal segments
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> diagonalSegments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 4, 4), newSegment(1, 0, 5, 4), newSegment(2, 0, 6, 4));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(diagonalSegments).isEmpty());
+
+        // Test 2: Parallel vertical segments
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> verticalSegments = List.of(newSegment(1, 0, 1, 5), newSegment(2, 0, 2, 5), newSegment(3, 0, 3, 5));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(verticalSegments).isEmpty());
+
+        // Test 3: Parallel horizontal segments
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> horizontalSegments = List.of(newSegment(0, 1, 5, 1), newSegment(0, 2, 5, 2), newSegment(0, 3, 5, 3));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(horizontalSegments).isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTouchingEndpoints() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 2, 2), newSegment(2, 2, 4, 0));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, intersections.size());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 2.0, 2.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOverlappingCollinearSegments() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 4, 4), newSegment(2, 2, 6, 6));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        // Overlapping collinear segments share the point (2,2) where second starts
+        // and (4,4) where first ends - at least one should be detected
+        Assertions.assertFalse(intersections.isEmpty(), "Should find at least one overlap point");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 2.0, 2.0) || containsPoint(intersections, 4.0, 4.0), "Should contain either (2,2) or (4,4)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleSegmentsAtOnePoint() {
+        // Star pattern: 4 segments meeting at (2, 2)
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 2, 4, 2), // horizontal
+            newSegment(2, 0, 2, 4), // vertical
+            newSegment(0, 0, 4, 4), // diagonal /
+            newSegment(0, 4, 4, 0) // diagonal \
+        );
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 2.0, 2.0));
+        // All segments meet at (2, 2), so should be reported once
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, intersections.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGridPattern() {
+        // 3x3 grid: should have 9 intersection points
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Vertical lines at x = 0, 1, 2
+        for (int i = 0; i <= 2; i++) {
+            segments.add(newSegment(i, 0, i, 2));
+        }
+
+        // Horizontal lines at y = 0, 1, 2
+        for (int i = 0; i <= 2; i++) {
+            segments.add(newSegment(0, i, 2, i));
+        }
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+
+        // Each vertical line crosses each horizontal line
+        // 3 vertical × 3 horizontal = 9 intersections
+        Assertions.assertEquals(9, intersections.size(), "3x3 grid should have 9 intersections");
+
+        // Verify all grid points are present
+        for (int x = 0; x <= 2; x++) {
+            for (int y = 0; y <= 2; y++) {
+                Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, x, y), String.format("Grid point (%d, %d) should be present", x, y));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTriangleIntersections() {
+        // Three segments forming a triangle
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 4, 0), // base
+            newSegment(0, 0, 2, 3), // left side
+            newSegment(4, 0, 2, 3) // right side
+        );
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        // Triangle vertices are intersections
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 0.0, 0.0));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 4.0, 0.0));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 2.0, 3.0));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, intersections.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCrossingDiagonals() {
+        // X pattern with multiple crossings
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 10, 10), newSegment(0, 10, 10, 0), newSegment(5, 0, 5, 10), newSegment(0, 5, 10, 5));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 5.0, 5.0), "Center point should be present");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, intersections.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testVerySmallSegments() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0.001, 0.001, 0.002, 0.002), newSegment(0.001, 0.002, 0.002, 0.001));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, intersections.size());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 0.0015, 0.0015));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSegmentsShareCommonPoint() {
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segmentsSameStart = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 4, 4), newSegment(0, 0, 4, -4), newSegment(0, 0, -4, 4));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersectionsSameStart = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segmentsSameStart);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersectionsSameStart, 0.0, 0.0));
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segmentsSameEnd = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 4, 4), newSegment(8, 4, 4, 4), newSegment(4, 8, 4, 4));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersectionsSameEnd = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segmentsSameEnd);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersectionsSameEnd, 4.0, 4.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSegmentsAtAngles() {
+        // Segments at 45, 90, 135 degrees
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 2, 4, 2), // horizontal
+            newSegment(2, 0, 2, 4), // vertical
+            newSegment(0, 0, 4, 4), // 45 degrees
+            newSegment(0, 4, 4, 0) // 135 degrees
+        );
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 2.0, 2.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPerformanceWithManySegments() {
+        // Generate 100 random segments
+        Random random = new Random(42); // Fixed seed for reproducibility
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            double x1 = random.nextDouble() * 100;
+            double y1 = random.nextDouble() * 100;
+            double x2 = random.nextDouble() * 100;
+            double y2 = random.nextDouble() * 100;
+            segments.add(newSegment(x1, y1, x2, y2));
+        }
+
+        long startTime = System.currentTimeMillis();
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        long endTime = System.currentTimeMillis();
+
+        long duration = endTime - startTime;
+
+        // Should complete in reasonable time (< 1 second for 100 segments)
+        Assertions.assertTrue(duration < 1000, "Algorithm should complete in less than 1 second for 100 segments. Took: " + duration + "ms");
+
+        // Just verify it returns a valid result
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(intersections);
+        System.out.println("Performance test: 100 segments processed in " + duration + "ms, found " + intersections.size() + " intersections");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIssueExample() {
+        // Example from the GitHub issue
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(1, 1, 5, 5), // Segment A
+            newSegment(1, 5, 5, 1), // Segment B
+            newSegment(3, 0, 3, 6) // Segment C
+        );
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+
+        // Expected output: [(3, 3)]
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, intersections.size(), "Should find exactly one intersection");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 3.0, 3.0), "Intersection should be at (3, 3)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEventTypeOrdering() {
+        // Multiple events at the same point with different types
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(2, 2, 6, 2), // ends at (2,2)
+            newSegment(0, 2, 2, 2), // ends at (2,2)
+            newSegment(2, 2, 2, 6), // starts at (2,2)
+            newSegment(2, 0, 2, 2) // ends at (2,2)
+        );
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 2.0, 2.0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCollinearOverlapWithInteriorPoint() {
+        // Test collinear segments where one segment's interior overlaps another
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 6, 6), newSegment(2, 2, 4, 4));
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+
+        // Should find at least one overlap point (where segments touch/overlap)
+        Assertions.assertFalse(intersections.isEmpty(), "Should find overlap points for collinear segments");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 2.0, 2.0) || containsPoint(intersections, 4.0, 4.0), "Should contain overlap boundary point");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCollinearTouchingAtBothEndpoints() {
+        // Test collinear segments that touch at both endpoints
+        // This triggers the "endpoint of both" logic (line 354-355)
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 4, 4), newSegment(4, 4, 8, 8));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, intersections.size());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 4.0, 4.0), "Should find touching point");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCollinearOverlapPartialInterior() {
+        // Test case where segments overlap but one point is inside, one is endpoint
+        List<BentleyOttmann.Segment> segments = List.of(newSegment(0, 0, 5, 5), newSegment(3, 3, 7, 7));
+
+        Set<Point2D.Double> intersections = BentleyOttmann.findIntersections(segments);
+
+        // Should detect the overlap region
+        Assertions.assertFalse(intersections.isEmpty());
+        // The algorithm should return at least one of the boundary points
+        Assertions.assertTrue(containsPoint(intersections, 3.0, 3.0) || containsPoint(intersections, 5.0, 5.0));
+    }
+
+    private static BentleyOttmann.Segment newSegment(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2) {
+        return new BentleyOttmann.Segment(new Point2D.Double(x1, y1), new Point2D.Double(x2, y2));
+    }
+
+    private static boolean containsPoint(Set<Point2D.Double> points, double x, double y) {
+        return points.stream().anyMatch(p -> Math.abs(p.x - x) < EPS && Math.abs(p.y - y) < EPS);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLineTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLineTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9df308497ddf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLineTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.awt.Point;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code BresenhamLineTest} class contains unit tests for the
+ * {@code BresenhamLine} class, specifically testing the
+ * {@code findLine} method.
+ *
+ * <p>This class uses parameterized tests to validate the output of
+ * Bresenham's line algorithm for various input points.</p>
+ */
+class BresenhamLineTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test cases for the parameterized test.
+     *
+     * <p>Each test case includes starting coordinates, ending coordinates,
+     * and the expected collection of points that should be generated by the
+     * {@code findLine} method.</p>
+     *
+     * @return a stream of arguments containing test cases
+     */
+    static Stream<Arguments> linePointsProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, 0, 5, 5, List.of(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 1), new Point(2, 2), new Point(3, 3), new Point(4, 4), new Point(5, 5))), Arguments.of(0, 0, 5, 0, List.of(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 0), new Point(2, 0), new Point(3, 0), new Point(4, 0), new Point(5, 0))),
+            Arguments.of(0, 0, 0, 5, List.of(new Point(0, 0), new Point(0, 1), new Point(0, 2), new Point(0, 3), new Point(0, 4), new Point(0, 5))), Arguments.of(-2, -2, -5, -5, List.of(new Point(-2, -2), new Point(-3, -3), new Point(-4, -4), new Point(-5, -5))),
+            Arguments.of(-1, -1, 2, 2, List.of(new Point(-1, -1), new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 1), new Point(2, 2))), Arguments.of(2, -1, -1, -4, List.of(new Point(2, -1), new Point(1, -2), new Point(0, -3), new Point(-1, -4))));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the {@code findLine} method of the {@code BresenhamLine} class.
+     *
+     * <p>This parameterized test runs multiple times with different sets of
+     * starting and ending coordinates to validate that the generated points
+     * match the expected output.</p>
+     *
+     * @param x0      the x-coordinate of the starting point
+     * @param y0      the y-coordinate of the starting point
+     * @param x1      the x-coordinate of the ending point
+     * @param y1      the y-coordinate of the ending point
+     * @param expected a collection of expected points that should form a line
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("linePointsProvider")
+    void testFindLine(int x0, int y0, int x1, int y1, Collection<Point> expected) {
+        List<Point> actual = BresenhamLine.findLine(x0, y0, x1, y1);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected.size(), actual.size(), "The size of the points list should match.");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(expected.containsAll(actual) && actual.containsAll(expected), "The points generated should match the expected points.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHullTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHullTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d3ca0df65829
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHullTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ConvexHullTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvexHullBruteForce() {
+        // Test 1: Triangle with intermediate point
+        List<Point> points = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 0), new Point(10, 1));
+        List<Point> expected = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 0), new Point(10, 1));
+        assertEquals(expected, ConvexHull.convexHullBruteForce(points));
+
+        // Test 2: Collinear points
+        points = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 0), new Point(10, 0));
+        expected = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(10, 0));
+        assertEquals(expected, ConvexHull.convexHullBruteForce(points));
+
+        // Test 3: Complex polygon
+        points = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 3), new Point(2, 2), new Point(1, 1), new Point(2, 1), new Point(3, 0), new Point(0, 0), new Point(3, 3), new Point(2, -1), new Point(2, -4), new Point(1, -3));
+        expected = Arrays.asList(new Point(2, -4), new Point(1, -3), new Point(0, 0), new Point(3, 0), new Point(0, 3), new Point(3, 3));
+        assertEquals(expected, ConvexHull.convexHullBruteForce(points));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvexHullRecursive() {
+        // Test 1: Triangle - CCW order starting from bottom-left
+        // The algorithm includes (1,0) as it's detected as an extreme point
+        List<Point> points = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 0), new Point(10, 1));
+        List<Point> result = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(points);
+        List<Point> expected = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 0), new Point(10, 1));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+        assertTrue(isCounterClockwise(result), "Points should be in counter-clockwise order");
+
+        // Test 2: Collinear points
+        points = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 0), new Point(10, 0));
+        result = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(points);
+        expected = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(10, 0));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+
+        // Test 3: Complex polygon
+        // Convex hull vertices in CCW order from bottom-most point (2,-4):
+        // (2,-4) -> (3,0) -> (3,3) -> (0,3) -> (0,0) -> (1,-3) -> back to (2,-4)
+        points = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 3), new Point(2, 2), new Point(1, 1), new Point(2, 1), new Point(3, 0), new Point(0, 0), new Point(3, 3), new Point(2, -1), new Point(2, -4), new Point(1, -3));
+        result = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(points);
+        expected = Arrays.asList(new Point(2, -4), new Point(3, 0), new Point(3, 3), new Point(0, 3), new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, -3));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+        assertTrue(isCounterClockwise(result), "Points should be in counter-clockwise order");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvexHullRecursiveAdditionalCases() {
+        // Test 4: Square (all corners on hull)
+        List<Point> points = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(2, 0), new Point(2, 2), new Point(0, 2));
+        List<Point> result = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(points);
+        List<Point> expected = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(2, 0), new Point(2, 2), new Point(0, 2));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+        assertTrue(isCounterClockwise(result), "Square points should be in CCW order");
+
+        // Test 5: Pentagon with interior point
+        points = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(4, 0), new Point(5, 3), new Point(2, 5), new Point(-1, 3), new Point(2, 2) // (2,2) is interior
+        );
+        result = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(points);
+        // CCW from (0,0): (0,0) -> (4,0) -> (5,3) -> (2,5) -> (-1,3)
+        expected = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(4, 0), new Point(5, 3), new Point(2, 5), new Point(-1, 3));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+        assertTrue(isCounterClockwise(result), "Pentagon points should be in CCW order");
+
+        // Test 6: Simple triangle (clearly convex)
+        points = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(4, 0), new Point(2, 3));
+        result = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(points);
+        expected = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(4, 0), new Point(2, 3));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+        assertTrue(isCounterClockwise(result), "Triangle points should be in CCW order");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to verify if points are in counter-clockwise order.
+     * Uses the signed area method: positive area means CCW.
+     */
+    private boolean isCounterClockwise(List<Point> points) {
+        if (points.size() < 3) {
+            return true; // Less than 3 points, trivially true
+        }
+
+        long signedArea = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < points.size(); i++) {
+            Point p1 = points.get(i);
+            Point p2 = points.get((i + 1) % points.size());
+            signedArea += (long) p1.x() * p2.y() - (long) p2.x() * p1.y();
+        }
+
+        return signedArea > 0; // Positive signed area means counter-clockwise
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRecursiveHullForCoverage() {
+        // 1. Test the base cases of the convexHullRecursive method (covering scenarios with < 3 input points).
+
+        // Test Case: 0 points
+        List<Point> pointsEmpty = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Point> resultEmpty = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(pointsEmpty);
+        assertTrue(resultEmpty.isEmpty(), "Should return an empty list for an empty input list");
+
+        // Test Case: 1 point
+        List<Point> pointsOne = List.of(new Point(5, 5));
+        // Pass a new ArrayList because the original method modifies the input list.
+        List<Point> resultOne = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(new ArrayList<>(pointsOne));
+        List<Point> expectedOne = List.of(new Point(5, 5));
+        assertEquals(expectedOne, resultOne, "Should return the single point for a single-point input");
+
+        // Test Case: 2 points
+        List<Point> pointsTwo = Arrays.asList(new Point(10, 1), new Point(0, 0));
+        List<Point> resultTwo = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(new ArrayList<>(pointsTwo));
+        List<Point> expectedTwo = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(10, 1)); // Should return the two points, sorted.
+        assertEquals(expectedTwo, resultTwo, "Should return the two sorted points for a two-point input");
+
+        // 2. Test the logic for handling collinear points in the sortCounterClockwise method.
+
+        // Construct a scenario where multiple collinear points lie on an edge of the convex hull.
+        // The expected convex hull vertices are (0,0), (10,0), and (5,5).
+        // When (0,0) is used as the pivot for polar angle sorting, (5,0) and (10,0) are collinear.
+        // This will trigger the crossProduct == 0 branch in the sortCounterClockwise method.
+        List<Point> pointsWithCollinearOnHull = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(5, 0), new Point(10, 0), new Point(5, 5), new Point(2, 2));
+
+        List<Point> resultCollinear = ConvexHull.convexHullRecursive(new ArrayList<>(pointsWithCollinearOnHull));
+        List<Point> expectedCollinear = Arrays.asList(new Point(0, 0), new Point(10, 0), new Point(5, 5));
+
+        assertEquals(expectedCollinear, resultCollinear, "Should correctly handle collinear points on the hull edge");
+        assertTrue(isCounterClockwise(resultCollinear), "The result of the collinear test should be in counter-clockwise order");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALineTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALineTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d3d639aa6468
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALineTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import java.awt.Point;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code DDALineTest} class contains unit tests for the
+ * {@code DDALine} class, specifically testing the {@code findLine} method.
+ */
+class DDALineTest {
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> linePointsProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, 0, 5, 5, List.of(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 1), new Point(2, 2), new Point(3, 3), new Point(4, 4), new Point(5, 5))), Arguments.of(0, 0, 5, 0, List.of(new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 0), new Point(2, 0), new Point(3, 0), new Point(4, 0), new Point(5, 0))),
+            Arguments.of(0, 0, 0, 5, List.of(new Point(0, 0), new Point(0, 1), new Point(0, 2), new Point(0, 3), new Point(0, 4), new Point(0, 5))), Arguments.of(-2, -2, -5, -5, List.of(new Point(-2, -2), new Point(-3, -3), new Point(-4, -4), new Point(-5, -5))),
+            Arguments.of(1, 1, 1, 1, List.of(new Point(1, 1))), Arguments.of(0, 0, 1, 5, List.of(new Point(0, 0), new Point(0, 1), new Point(0, 2), new Point(1, 3), new Point(1, 4), new Point(1, 5))));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("linePointsProvider")
+    void testFindLine(int x0, int y0, int x1, int y1, List<Point> expected) {
+        List<Point> actual = DDALine.findLine(x0, y0, x1, y1);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, actual, "The DDA algorithm should generate the expected ordered points.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScanTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScanTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..622273881a27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScanTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GrahamScanTest {
+    @Test
+    void testGrahamScan() {
+        Point[] points = {new Point(0, 3), new Point(1, 1), new Point(2, 2), new Point(4, 4), new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 2), new Point(3, 1), new Point(3, 3)};
+        String expectedResult = "[(0, 0), (3, 1), (4, 4), (0, 3)]";
+
+        GrahamScan graham = new GrahamScan(points);
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, graham.hull().toString());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/HaversineTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/HaversineTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b4dcca30a8ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/HaversineTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the Haversine formula implementation.
+ * This class uses parameterized tests to verify the distance calculation
+ * between various geographical coordinates.
+ */
+final class HaversineTest {
+
+    // A small tolerance for comparing double values, since floating-point
+    // arithmetic is not always exact. A 1km tolerance is reasonable for these distances.
+    private static final double DELTA = 1.0;
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test cases for the haversine distance calculation.
+     * Each argument contains: lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, and the expected distance in kilometers.
+     *
+     * @return a stream of arguments for the parameterized test.
+     */
+    static Stream<Arguments> haversineTestProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Case 1: Distance between Paris, France and Tokyo, Japan
+            Arguments.of(48.8566, 2.3522, 35.6895, 139.6917, 9712.0),
+
+            // Case 2: Distance between New York, USA and London, UK
+            Arguments.of(40.7128, -74.0060, 51.5074, -0.1278, 5570.0),
+
+            // Case 3: Zero distance (same point)
+            Arguments.of(52.5200, 13.4050, 52.5200, 13.4050, 0.0),
+
+            // Case 4: Antipodal points (opposite sides of the Earth)
+            // Should be approximately half the Earth's circumference (PI * radius)
+            Arguments.of(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 180.0, 20015.0));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the haversine method with various sets of coordinates.
+     *
+     * @param lat1             Latitude of the first point.
+     * @param lon1             Longitude of the first point.
+     * @param lat2             Latitude of the second point.
+     * @param lon2             Longitude of the second point.
+     * @param expectedDistance The expected distance in kilometers.
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("haversineTestProvider")
+    @DisplayName("Test Haversine distance calculation for various coordinates")
+    void testHaversine(double lat1, double lon1, double lat2, double lon2, double expectedDistance) {
+        double actualDistance = Haversine.haversine(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2);
+        assertEquals(expectedDistance, actualDistance, DELTA);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointCircleTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointCircleTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..24370cd43b25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointCircleTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for the {@code MidpointCircle} class
+ */
+class MidpointCircleTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Parameterized test to check the generated points for different circles.
+     * The points are checked based on the expected center and radius.
+     *
+     * @param centerX The x-coordinate of the circle's center.
+     * @param centerY The y-coordinate of the circle's center.
+     * @param radius  The radius of the circle.
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({
+        "0, 0, 3", // Circle centered at (0, 0) with radius 3
+        "10, 10, 2" // Circle centered at (10, 10) with radius 2
+    })
+    void
+    testGenerateCirclePoints(int centerX, int centerY, int radius) {
+        List<int[]> points = MidpointCircle.generateCirclePoints(centerX, centerY, radius);
+
+        // Ensure that all points satisfy the circle equation (x - centerX)^2 + (y - centerY)^2 = radius^2
+        for (int[] point : points) {
+            int x = point[0];
+            int y = point[1];
+
+            int dx = x - centerX;
+            int dy = y - centerY;
+            int distanceSquared = dx * dx + dy * dy;
+
+            assertTrue(Math.abs(distanceSquared - radius * radius) <= 1, "Point (" + x + ", " + y + ") does not satisfy the circle equation.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test to ensure the algorithm generates points for a zero-radius circle.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testZeroRadiusCircle() {
+        List<int[]> points = MidpointCircle.generateCirclePoints(0, 0, 0);
+
+        // A zero-radius circle should only have one point: (0, 0)
+        assertTrue(points.size() == 1 && points.get(0)[0] == 0 && points.get(0)[1] == 0, "Zero-radius circle did not generate the correct point.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointEllipseTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointEllipseTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9d03909c60ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/MidpointEllipseTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * The {@code MidpointEllipseTest} class contains unit tests for the
+ * {@code MidpointEllipse} class, specifically testing the
+ * {@code drawEllipse} method.
+ *
+ * <p>This class uses parameterized tests to validate the output of
+ * Midpoint Ellipse algorithm for various input points.</p>
+ */
+class MidpointEllipseTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test cases for the drawEllipse method.
+     * Each argument contains: centerX, centerY, a, b, and expected points.
+     *
+     * @return a stream of arguments for parameterized testing
+     */
+    static Stream<Arguments> ellipseTestProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            Arguments.of(0, 0, 5, 3, new int[][] {{0, 3}, {0, 3}, {0, -3}, {0, -3}, {1, 3}, {-1, 3}, {1, -3}, {-1, -3}, {2, 3}, {-2, 3}, {2, -3}, {-2, -3}, {3, 2}, {-3, 2}, {3, -2}, {-3, -2}, {4, 2}, {-4, 2}, {4, -2}, {-4, -2}, {5, 1}, {-5, 1}, {5, -1}, {-5, -1}, {5, 0}, {-5, 0}, {5, 0}, {-5, 0}}),
+            Arguments.of(0, 0, 0, 5,
+                new int[][] {
+                    {0, -5}, {0, -4}, {0, -3}, {0, -2}, {0, -1}, {0, 0}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {0, 3}, {0, 4}, {0, 5} // Only vertical line points and center
+                }),
+            Arguments.of(0, 0, 5, 0,
+                new int[][] {
+                    {-5, 0}, {-4, 0}, {-3, 0}, {-2, 0}, {-1, 0}, {0, 0}, {1, 0}, {2, 0}, {3, 0}, {4, 0}, {5, 0} // Only horizontal line points and center
+                }),
+            Arguments.of(0, 0, 0, 0,
+                new int[][] {
+                    {0, 0} // Only center point
+                }),
+            Arguments.of(0, 0, 4, 4,
+                new int[][] {
+                    {0, 4},
+                    {0, 4},
+                    {0, -4},
+                    {0, -4},
+                    {1, 4},
+                    {-1, 4},
+                    {1, -4},
+                    {-1, -4},
+                    {2, 3},
+                    {-2, 3},
+                    {2, -3},
+                    {-2, -3},
+                    {3, 3},
+                    {-3, 3},
+                    {3, -3},
+                    {-3, -3},
+                    {3, 2},
+                    {-3, 2},
+                    {3, -2},
+                    {-3, -2},
+                    {4, 1},
+                    {-4, 1},
+                    {4, -1},
+                    {-4, -1},
+                    {4, 0},
+                    {-4, 0},
+                    {4, 0},
+                    {-4, 0},
+                }));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the drawEllipse method with various parameters.
+     *
+     * @param centerX       the x-coordinate of the center of the ellipse
+     * @param centerY       the y-coordinate of the center of the ellipse
+     * @param a             the length of the semi-major axis
+     * @param b             the length of the semi-minor axis
+     * @param expectedPoints the expected points forming the ellipse
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("ellipseTestProvider")
+    @DisplayName("Test drawing ellipses with various parameters")
+    void testDrawEllipse(int centerX, int centerY, int a, int b, int[][] expectedPoints) {
+        List<int[]> points = MidpointEllipse.drawEllipse(centerX, centerY, a, b);
+
+        // Validate the number of points and the specific points
+        assertEquals(expectedPoints.length, points.size(), "Number of points should match expected.");
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < expectedPoints.length; i++) {
+            assertArrayEquals(expectedPoints[i], points.get(i), "Point mismatch at index " + i);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/PointTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/PointTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..12901364b458
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/PointTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PointTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompareTo() {
+        Point p1 = new Point(1, 2);
+        Point p2 = new Point(5, -1);
+        Point p3 = new Point(3, 9);
+        Point p4 = new Point(3, 9);
+        assertEquals(1, p1.compareTo(p2));
+        assertEquals(-1, p2.compareTo(p3));
+        assertEquals(0, p3.compareTo(p4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testToString() {
+        Point p = new Point(-3, 5);
+        assertEquals("(-3, 5)", p.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPolarOrder() {
+        Point p = new Point(0, 0);
+        assertNotNull(p.polarOrder());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOrientation() {
+        // setup points
+        Point pA = new Point(0, 0);
+        Point pB = new Point(1, 0);
+        Point pC = new Point(1, 1);
+
+        // test for left curve
+        assertEquals(1, Point.orientation(pA, pB, pC));
+
+        // test for right curve
+        pB = new Point(0, 1);
+        assertEquals(-1, Point.orientation(pA, pB, pC));
+
+        // test for left curve
+        pC = new Point(-1, 1);
+        assertEquals(1, Point.orientation(pA, pB, pC));
+
+        // test for right curve
+        pB = new Point(1, 0);
+        pC = new Point(1, -1);
+        assertEquals(-1, Point.orientation(pA, pB, pC));
+
+        // test for collinearity
+        pB = new Point(1, 1);
+        pC = new Point(2, 2);
+        assertEquals(0, Point.orientation(pA, pB, pC));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPolarOrderCompare() {
+        Point ref = new Point(0, 0);
+
+        Point pA = new Point(1, 1);
+        Point pB = new Point(1, -1);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) < 0);
+
+        pA = new Point(3, 0);
+        pB = new Point(2, 0);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) < 0);
+
+        pA = new Point(0, 1);
+        pB = new Point(-1, 1);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) < 0);
+
+        pA = new Point(1, 1);
+        pB = new Point(2, 2);
+        assertEquals(0, ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB));
+
+        pA = new Point(1, 2);
+        pB = new Point(2, 1);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) > 0);
+
+        pA = new Point(2, 1);
+        pB = new Point(1, 2);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) < 0);
+
+        pA = new Point(-1, 0);
+        pB = new Point(-2, 0);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) < 0);
+
+        pA = new Point(2, 3);
+        pB = new Point(2, 3);
+        assertEquals(0, ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB));
+
+        pA = new Point(0, 1);
+        pB = new Point(0, -1);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) < 0);
+
+        ref = new Point(1, 1);
+
+        pA = new Point(1, 2);
+        pB = new Point(2, 2);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) > 0);
+
+        pA = new Point(2, 1);
+        pB = new Point(2, 0);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) < 0);
+
+        pA = new Point(0, 1);
+        pB = new Point(1, 0);
+        assertTrue(ref.polarOrder().compare(pA, pB) < 0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLineTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLineTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0b7f36859e69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLineTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the {@link WusLine} class.
+ */
+class WusLineTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSimpleLineProducesPixels() {
+        List<WusLine.Pixel> pixels = WusLine.drawLine(2, 2, 6, 4);
+        assertFalse(pixels.isEmpty(), "Line should produce non-empty pixel list");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEndpointsIncluded() {
+        List<WusLine.Pixel> pixels = WusLine.drawLine(0, 0, 5, 3);
+        boolean hasStart = pixels.stream().anyMatch(p -> p.point.equals(new java.awt.Point(0, 0)));
+        boolean hasEnd = pixels.stream().anyMatch(p -> p.point.equals(new java.awt.Point(5, 3)));
+        assertTrue(hasStart, "Start point should be represented in the pixel list");
+        assertTrue(hasEnd, "End point should be represented in the pixel list");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIntensityInRange() {
+        List<WusLine.Pixel> pixels = WusLine.drawLine(1, 1, 8, 5);
+        for (WusLine.Pixel pixel : pixels) {
+            assertTrue(pixel.intensity >= 0.0 && pixel.intensity <= 1.0, "Intensity must be clamped between 0.0 and 1.0");
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReversedEndpointsProducesSameLine() {
+        List<WusLine.Pixel> forward = WusLine.drawLine(2, 2, 10, 5);
+        List<WusLine.Pixel> backward = WusLine.drawLine(10, 5, 2, 2);
+
+        // They should cover same coordinates (ignoring order)
+        var forwardPoints = forward.stream().map(p -> p.point).collect(java.util.stream.Collectors.toSet());
+        var backwardPoints = backward.stream().map(p -> p.point).collect(java.util.stream.Collectors.toSet());
+
+        assertEquals(forwardPoints, backwardPoints, "Reversing endpoints should yield same line pixels");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSteepLineHasProperCoverage() {
+        // Steep line: Δy > Δx
+        List<WusLine.Pixel> pixels = WusLine.drawLine(3, 2, 5, 10);
+        assertFalse(pixels.isEmpty());
+        // Expect increasing y values
+        long increasing = 0;
+        for (int i = 1; i < pixels.size(); i++) {
+            if (pixels.get(i).point.y >= pixels.get(i - 1).point.y) {
+                increasing++;
+            }
+        }
+        assertTrue(increasing > pixels.size() / 2, "Steep line should have increasing y coordinates");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroLengthLineUsesDefaultGradient() {
+        // same start and end -> dx == 0 -> gradient should take the (dx == 0) ? 1.0 branch
+        List<WusLine.Pixel> pixels = WusLine.drawLine(3, 3, 3, 3);
+
+        // sanity checks: we produced pixels and the exact point is present
+        assertFalse(pixels.isEmpty(), "Zero-length line should produce at least one pixel");
+        assertTrue(pixels.stream().anyMatch(p -> p.point.equals(new java.awt.Point(3, 3))), "Pixel list should include the single-point coordinate (3,3)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHorizontalLineIntensityStable() {
+        List<WusLine.Pixel> pixels = WusLine.drawLine(1, 5, 8, 5);
+
+        // For each x, take the max intensity among pixels with that x (the visible intensity for the column)
+        java.util.Map<Integer, Double> maxIntensityByX = pixels.stream()
+                                                             .collect(java.util.stream.Collectors.groupingBy(p -> p.point.x, java.util.stream.Collectors.mapping(p -> p.intensity, java.util.stream.Collectors.maxBy(Double::compareTo))))
+                                                             .entrySet()
+                                                             .stream()
+                                                             .collect(java.util.stream.Collectors.toMap(java.util.Map.Entry::getKey, e -> e.getValue().orElse(0.0)));
+
+        double avgMaxIntensity = maxIntensityByX.values().stream().mapToDouble(Double::doubleValue).average().orElse(0.0);
+
+        assertTrue(avgMaxIntensity > 0.5, "Average of the maximum per-x intensities should be > 0.5 for a horizontal line");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerboschTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerboschTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..54c91c6ac1fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerboschTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class BronKerboschTest {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Complete graph returns single clique")
+    void completeGraph() {
+        List<Set<Integer>> adjacency = buildGraph(4);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 0, 1);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 0, 2);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 0, 3);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 1, 2);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 1, 3);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 2, 3);
+
+        List<Set<Integer>> cliques = BronKerbosch.findMaximalCliques(adjacency);
+        assertEquals(1, cliques.size());
+        assertEquals(Set.of(0, 1, 2, 3), cliques.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Path graph produces individual edges")
+    void pathGraph() {
+        List<Set<Integer>> adjacency = buildGraph(3);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 0, 1);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 1, 2);
+
+        List<Set<Integer>> cliques = BronKerbosch.findMaximalCliques(adjacency);
+        Set<Set<Integer>> result = new HashSet<>(cliques);
+        Set<Set<Integer>> expected = Set.of(Set.of(0, 1), Set.of(1, 2));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Disconnected graph finds cliques per component")
+    void disconnectedGraph() {
+        List<Set<Integer>> adjacency = buildGraph(5);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 0, 1);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 0, 2);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 1, 2);
+        addUndirectedEdge(adjacency, 3, 4);
+
+        List<Set<Integer>> cliques = BronKerbosch.findMaximalCliques(adjacency);
+        Set<Set<Integer>> result = new HashSet<>(cliques);
+        Set<Set<Integer>> expected = Set.of(Set.of(0, 1, 2), Set.of(3, 4));
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Null neighbor set triggers exception")
+    void nullNeighborSet() {
+        List<Set<Integer>> adjacency = new ArrayList<>();
+        adjacency.add(null);
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BronKerbosch.findMaximalCliques(adjacency));
+    }
+
+    private static List<Set<Integer>> buildGraph(int n) {
+        List<Set<Integer>> graph = new ArrayList<>(n);
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            graph.add(new HashSet<>());
+        }
+        return graph;
+    }
+
+    private static void addUndirectedEdge(List<Set<Integer>> graph, int u, int v) {
+        graph.get(u).add(v);
+        graph.get(v).add(u);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPathTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPathTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..eccd359f2634
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPathTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.graph.ConstrainedShortestPath.Graph;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ConstrainedShortestPathTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Tests a simple linear graph to verify if the solver calculates the shortest path correctly.
+     * Expected: The minimal path cost from node 0 to node 2 should be 5 while not exceeding the resource limit.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testSimpleGraph() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(3);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 2, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2, 3, 2);
+
+        int maxResource = 5;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(5, solver.solve(0, 2));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests a graph where no valid path exists due to resource constraints.
+     * Expected: The solver should return -1, indicating no path is feasible.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testNoPath() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(3);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 2, 6);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2, 3, 6);
+
+        int maxResource = 5;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(-1, solver.solve(0, 2));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests a graph with multiple paths between source and destination.
+     * Expected: The solver should choose the path with the minimal cost of 5, considering the resource limit.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testMultiplePaths() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(4);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 1, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 3, 5, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2, 2, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 3, 3, 2);
+
+        int maxResource = 3;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(5, solver.solve(0, 3));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Verifies that the solver allows a path exactly matching the resource limit.
+     * Expected: The path is valid with a total cost of 5.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testExactResourceLimit() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(3);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 2, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2, 3, 2);
+
+        int maxResource = 5;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(5, solver.solve(0, 2));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests a disconnected graph where the destination node cannot be reached.
+     * Expected: The solver should return -1, as the destination is unreachable.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(4);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 2, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 3, 3, 2);
+
+        int maxResource = 5;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(-1, solver.solve(0, 3));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests a graph with cycles to ensure the solver does not fall into infinite loops and correctly calculates costs.
+     * Expected: The solver should compute the minimal path cost of 6.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testGraphWithCycles() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(4);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 2, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2, 3, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 0, 1, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 3, 4, 2);
+
+        int maxResource = 3;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(6, solver.solve(0, 3));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the solver's performance and correctness on a large linear graph with 1000 nodes.
+     * Expected: The solver should efficiently calculate the shortest path with a cost of 999.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testLargeGraphPerformance() {
+        int nodeCount = 1000;
+        Graph graph = new Graph(nodeCount);
+        for (int i = 0; i < nodeCount - 1; i++) {
+            graph.addEdge(i, i + 1, 1, 1);
+        }
+
+        int maxResource = 1000;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(999, solver.solve(0, nodeCount - 1));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests a graph with isolated nodes to ensure the solver recognizes unreachable destinations.
+     * Expected: The solver should return -1 for unreachable nodes.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testIsolatedNodes() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(5);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 2, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2, 3, 1);
+
+        int maxResource = 5;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(-1, solver.solve(0, 3));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests a cyclic large graph with multiple overlapping paths.
+     * Expected: The solver should calculate the shortest path cost of 5.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testCyclicLargeGraph() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(10);
+        for (int i = 0; i < 9; i++) {
+            graph.addEdge(i, (i + 1) % 10, 1, 1);
+        }
+        graph.addEdge(0, 5, 5, 3);
+
+        int maxResource = 10;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(5, solver.solve(0, 5));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests a large complex graph with multiple paths and varying resource constraints.
+     * Expected: The solver should identify the optimal path with a cost of 19 within the resource limit.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testLargeComplexGraph() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(10);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 4, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2, 3, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 3, 2, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 3, 5, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 4, 8, 4);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 5, 7, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 6, 6, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(4, 6, 3, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(5, 7, 1, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(6, 7, 2, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(7, 8, 3, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(8, 9, 2, 1);
+
+        int maxResource = 10;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(19, solver.solve(0, 9));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Edge case test where the graph has only one node and no edges.
+     * Expected: The minimal path cost is 0, as the start and destination are the same.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeGraph() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(1);
+
+        int maxResource = 0;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(0, solver.solve(0, 0));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests a graph with multiple paths but a tight resource constraint.
+     * Expected: The solver should return -1 if no path can be found within the resource limit.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testTightResourceConstraint() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph(4);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1, 3, 4);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2, 1, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 2, 2, 2);
+
+        int maxResource = 3;
+        ConstrainedShortestPath solver = new ConstrainedShortestPath(graph, maxResource);
+
+        assertEquals(2, solver.solve(0, 2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/DinicTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/DinicTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..912f787519fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/DinicTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class DinicTest {
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Classic CLRS network yields max flow 23 (Dinic)")
+    void clrsExample() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 16, 13, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 10, 12, 0, 0}, {0, 4, 0, 0, 14, 0}, {0, 0, 9, 0, 0, 20}, {0, 0, 0, 7, 0, 4}, {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}};
+        int maxFlow = Dinic.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 5);
+        assertEquals(23, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Disconnected network has zero flow (Dinic)")
+    void disconnectedGraph() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}};
+        int maxFlow = Dinic.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 2);
+        assertEquals(0, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Source equals sink returns zero (Dinic)")
+    void sourceEqualsSink() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 5}, {0, 0}};
+        int maxFlow = Dinic.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 0);
+        assertEquals(0, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Invalid matrix throws exception (Dinic)")
+    void invalidMatrix() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 1}, {1}};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Dinic.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Dinic matches Edmonds-Karp on random small graphs")
+    void parityWithEdmondsKarp() {
+        java.util.Random rnd = new java.util.Random(42);
+        for (int n = 3; n <= 7; n++) {
+            for (int it = 0; it < 25; it++) {
+                int[][] cap = new int[n][n];
+                for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                    for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                        if (i != j && rnd.nextDouble() < 0.35) {
+                            cap[i][j] = rnd.nextInt(10); // capacities 0..9
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                int s = 0;
+                int t = n - 1;
+                int f1 = Dinic.maxFlow(copyMatrix(cap), s, t);
+                int f2 = EdmondsKarp.maxFlow(cap, s, t);
+                assertEquals(f2, f1);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static int[][] copyMatrix(int[][] a) {
+        int[][] b = new int[a.length][a.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
+            b[i] = java.util.Arrays.copyOf(a[i], a[i].length);
+        }
+        return b;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarpTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarpTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..55aeda381031
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarpTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class EdmondsKarpTest {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Classic CLRS network yields max flow 23")
+    void clrsExample() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 16, 13, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 10, 12, 0, 0}, {0, 4, 0, 0, 14, 0}, {0, 0, 9, 0, 0, 20}, {0, 0, 0, 7, 0, 4}, {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}};
+        int maxFlow = EdmondsKarp.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 5);
+        assertEquals(23, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Disconnected network has zero flow")
+    void disconnectedGraph() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}};
+        int maxFlow = EdmondsKarp.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 2);
+        assertEquals(0, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Source equals sink returns zero")
+    void sourceEqualsSink() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 5}, {0, 0}};
+        int maxFlow = EdmondsKarp.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 0);
+        assertEquals(0, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Invalid matrix throws exception")
+    void invalidMatrix() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 1}, {1}};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> EdmondsKarp.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Negative capacity is rejected")
+    void negativeCapacity() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, -1}, {0, 0}};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> EdmondsKarp.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ab5740c94217
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class EdmondsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSimpleGraphNoCycle() {
+        int n = 4;
+        int root = 0;
+        List<Edmonds.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 1, 10));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 2, 1));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(2, 1, 2));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(2, 3, 5));
+
+        // Expected arborescence edges: (0,2), (2,1), (2,3)
+        // Weights: 1 + 2 + 5 = 8
+        long result = Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(n, edges, root);
+        assertEquals(8, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithOneCycle() {
+        int n = 4;
+        int root = 0;
+        List<Edmonds.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 1, 10));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(2, 1, 4));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(1, 2, 5));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(2, 3, 6));
+
+        // Min edges: (2,1, w=4), (1,2, w=5), (2,3, w=6)
+        // Cycle: 1 -> 2 -> 1, cost = 4 + 5 = 9
+        // Contract {1,2} to C.
+        // New edge (0,C) with w = 10 - min_in(1) = 10 - 4 = 6
+        // New edge (C,3) with w = 6
+        // Contracted MSA cost = 6 + 6 = 12
+        // Total cost = cycle_cost + contracted_msa_cost = 9 + 12 = 21
+        long result = Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(n, edges, root);
+        assertEquals(21, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testComplexGraphWithCycle() {
+        int n = 6;
+        int root = 0;
+        List<Edmonds.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 1, 10));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 2, 20));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(1, 2, 5));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(2, 3, 10));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(3, 1, 3));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(1, 4, 7));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(3, 4, 2));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(4, 5, 5));
+
+        // Min edges: (3,1,3), (1,2,5), (2,3,10), (3,4,2), (4,5,5)
+        // Cycle: 1->2->3->1, cost = 5+10+3=18
+        // Contract {1,2,3} to C.
+        // Edge (0,1,10) -> (0,C), w = 10-3=7
+        // Edge (0,2,20) -> (0,C), w = 20-5=15. Min is 7.
+        // Edge (1,4,7) -> (C,4,7)
+        // Edge (3,4,2) -> (C,4,2). Min is 2.
+        // Edge (4,5,5) -> (4,5,5)
+        // Contracted MSA: (0,C,7), (C,4,2), (4,5,5). Cost = 7+2+5=14
+        // Total cost = 18 + 14 = 32
+        long result = Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(n, edges, root);
+        assertEquals(32, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUnreachableNode() {
+        int n = 4;
+        int root = 0;
+        List<Edmonds.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 1, 10));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(2, 3, 5)); // Node 2 and 3 are unreachable from root 0
+
+        long result = Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(n, edges, root);
+        assertEquals(-1, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoEdgesToNonRootNodes() {
+        int n = 3;
+        int root = 0;
+        List<Edmonds.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 1, 10)); // Node 2 is unreachable
+
+        long result = Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(n, edges, root);
+        assertEquals(-1, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleNode() {
+        int n = 1;
+        int root = 0;
+        List<Edmonds.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        long result = Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(n, edges, root);
+        assertEquals(0, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidInputThrowsException() {
+        List<Edmonds.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(0, edges, 0));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(5, edges, -1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(5, edges, 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCoverageForEdgeSelectionLogic() {
+        int n = 3;
+        int root = 0;
+        List<Edmonds.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // This will cover the `edge.weight < minWeightEdge[edge.to]` being false.
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 1, 10));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(2, 1, 20));
+
+        // This will cover the `edge.to != root` being false.
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(1, 0, 100));
+
+        // A regular edge to make the graph complete
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 2, 5));
+
+        // Expected MSA: (0,1, w=10) and (0,2, w=5). Total weight = 15.
+        long result = Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(n, edges, root);
+        assertEquals(15, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCoverageForContractedSelfLoop() {
+        int n = 4;
+        int root = 0;
+        List<Edmonds.Edge> edges = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        // Connect root to the cycle components
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(0, 1, 20));
+
+        // Create a cycle 1 -> 2 -> 1
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(1, 2, 5));
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(2, 1, 5));
+
+        // This is the CRITICAL edge for coverage:
+        // It connects two nodes (1 and 2) that are part of the SAME cycle.
+        // After contracting cycle {1, 2} into a supernode C, this edge becomes (C, C),
+        // which means newU == newV. This will trigger the `false` branch of the `if`.
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(1, 1, 100)); // Also a self-loop on a cycle node.
+
+        // Add another edge to ensure node 3 is reachable
+        edges.add(new Edmonds.Edge(1, 3, 10));
+
+        // Cycle {1,2} has cost 5+5=10.
+        // Contract {1,2} to supernode C.
+        // Edge (0,1,20) becomes (0,C, w=20-5=15).
+        // Edge (1,3,10) becomes (C,3, w=10).
+        // Edge (1,1,100) is discarded because newU == newV.
+        // Cost of contracted graph = 15 + 10 = 25.
+        // Total cost = cycle cost + contracted cost = 10 + 25 = 35.
+        long result = Edmonds.findMinimumSpanningArborescence(n, edges, root);
+        assertEquals(35, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPathTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPathTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..612d09561b7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPathTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for {@link HierholzerEulerianPath}.
+ *
+ * This test suite validates Hierholzer's Algorithm implementation
+ * for finding Eulerian Paths and Circuits in directed graphs.
+ *
+ * <p>Coverage includes:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Basic Eulerian Circuit</li>
+ *   <li>Eulerian Path</li>
+ *   <li>Disconnected graphs</li>
+ *   <li>Single-node graphs</li>
+ *   <li>Graphs with no edges</li>
+ *   <li>Graphs that do not have any Eulerian Path/Circuit</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ */
+class HierholzerEulerianPathTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSimpleEulerianCircuit() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(3);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 0);
+
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        // Eulerian Circuit: [0, 1, 2, 0]
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 0);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEulerianPathDifferentStartEnd() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(4);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 1);
+
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        // Eulerian Path: [0, 1, 2, 3, 1]
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3, 1);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoEulerianPathExists() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(3);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2);
+        // Edge 2->0 missing, so it's not Eulerian Circuit
+
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        assertEquals(result, Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(4);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 3); // disconnected component
+
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        // Disconnected graph cannot have an Eulerian path
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithSelfLoop() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(3);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 0); // self loop
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 0);
+
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        // Eulerian Circuit with self-loop included: [0, 0, 1, 2, 0]
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(0, 0, 1, 2, 0), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleNodeNoEdges() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(1);
+
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        // Only one vertex and no edges
+        assertEquals(Collections.singletonList(0), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleNodeWithLoop() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(1);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 0);
+
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        // Eulerian circuit on a single node with a self-loop
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(0, 0), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testComplexEulerianCircuit() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(5);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 4);
+        graph.addEdge(4, 0);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 3);
+        graph.addEdge(3, 1);
+
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        // Verify all edges are used
+        int totalEdges = 7;
+        assertEquals(totalEdges + 1, result.size(), "Path must contain all edges + 1 vertices");
+        assertEquals(result.get(0), result.get(result.size() - 1), "Must form a circuit");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleEdgesBetweenSameNodes() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(3);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(0, 1);
+        graph.addEdge(1, 2);
+        graph.addEdge(2, 0);
+
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        // Hava a Eulerian Path but not a Eulerian Circuit
+        assertEquals(result, Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 0, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCoverageForEmptyGraph() {
+        HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph graph = new HierholzerEulerianPath.Graph(0);
+        HierholzerEulerianPath solver = new HierholzerEulerianPath(graph);
+        List<Integer> result = solver.findEulerianPath();
+
+        // Empty graph has no vertices or path
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarpTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarpTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2a5b1cdac795
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarpTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for Hopcroft–Karp algorithm.
+ *
+ * @author ptzecher
+ */
+class HopcroftKarpTest {
+
+    private static List<List<Integer>> adj(int nLeft) {
+        List<List<Integer>> g = new ArrayList<>(nLeft);
+        for (int i = 0; i < nLeft; i++) { // braces required by Checkstyle
+            g.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        return g;
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Empty graph has matching 0")
+    void emptyGraph() {
+        List<List<Integer>> g = adj(3);
+        HopcroftKarp hk = new HopcroftKarp(3, 4, g);
+        assertEquals(0, hk.maxMatching());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Single edge gives matching 1")
+    void singleEdge() {
+        List<List<Integer>> g = adj(1);
+        g.get(0).add(0);
+        HopcroftKarp hk = new HopcroftKarp(1, 1, g);
+        assertEquals(1, hk.maxMatching());
+
+        int[] leftMatch = hk.getLeftMatches();
+        int[] rightMatch = hk.getRightMatches();
+        assertEquals(0, leftMatch[0]);
+        assertEquals(0, rightMatch[0]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Disjoint edges match perfectly")
+    void disjointEdges() {
+        // L0-R0, L1-R1, L2-R2
+        List<List<Integer>> g = adj(3);
+        g.get(0).add(0);
+        g.get(1).add(1);
+        g.get(2).add(2);
+
+        HopcroftKarp hk = new HopcroftKarp(3, 3, g);
+        assertEquals(3, hk.maxMatching());
+
+        int[] leftMatch = hk.getLeftMatches();
+        int[] rightMatch = hk.getRightMatches();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
+            assertEquals(i, leftMatch[i]);
+            assertEquals(i, rightMatch[i]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Complete bipartite K(3,4) matches min(3,4)=3")
+    void completeK34() {
+        int nLeft = 3;
+        int nRight = 4; // split declarations
+        List<List<Integer>> g = adj(nLeft);
+        for (int u = 0; u < nLeft; u++) {
+            g.get(u).addAll(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3));
+        }
+        HopcroftKarp hk = new HopcroftKarp(nLeft, nRight, g);
+        assertEquals(3, hk.maxMatching());
+
+        // sanity: no two left vertices share the same matched right vertex
+        int[] leftMatch = hk.getLeftMatches();
+        boolean[] used = new boolean[nRight];
+        for (int u = 0; u < nLeft; u++) {
+            int v = leftMatch[u];
+            if (v != -1) {
+                assertFalse(used[v]);
+                used[v] = true;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Rectangular, sparse graph")
+    void rectangularSparse() {
+        // Left: 5, Right: 2
+        // edges: L0-R0, L1-R1, L2-R0, L3-R1  (max matching = 2)
+        List<List<Integer>> g = adj(5);
+        g.get(0).add(0);
+        g.get(1).add(1);
+        g.get(2).add(0);
+        g.get(3).add(1);
+        // L4 isolated
+
+        HopcroftKarp hk = new HopcroftKarp(5, 2, g);
+        assertEquals(2, hk.maxMatching());
+
+        int[] leftMatch = hk.getLeftMatches();
+        int[] rightMatch = hk.getRightMatches();
+
+        // Check consistency: if leftMatch[u]=v then rightMatch[v]=u
+        for (int u = 0; u < 5; u++) {
+            int v = leftMatch[u];
+            if (v != -1) {
+                assertEquals(u, rightMatch[v]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Layering advantage case (short augmenting paths)")
+    void layeringAdvantage() {
+        // Left 4, Right 4
+        List<List<Integer>> g = adj(4);
+        g.get(0).addAll(Arrays.asList(0, 1));
+        g.get(1).addAll(Arrays.asList(1, 2));
+        g.get(2).addAll(Arrays.asList(2, 3));
+        g.get(3).addAll(Arrays.asList(0, 3));
+
+        HopcroftKarp hk = new HopcroftKarp(4, 4, g);
+        assertEquals(4, hk.maxMatching()); // perfect matching exists
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HungarianAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HungarianAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1344934b62e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HungarianAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class HungarianAlgorithmTest {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Classic 3x3 example: minimal cost 5 with assignment [1,0,2]")
+    void classicSquareExample() {
+        int[][] cost = {{4, 1, 3}, {2, 0, 5}, {3, 2, 2}};
+        HungarianAlgorithm.Result res = HungarianAlgorithm.solve(cost);
+        assertEquals(5, res.minCost);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 0, 2}, res.assignment);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Rectangular (more rows than cols): pads to square and returns -1 for unassigned rows")
+    void rectangularMoreRows() {
+        int[][] cost = {{7, 3}, {2, 8}, {5, 1}};
+        // Optimal selects any 2 rows: choose row1->col0 (2) and row2->col1 (1) => total 3
+        HungarianAlgorithm.Result res = HungarianAlgorithm.solve(cost);
+        assertEquals(3, res.minCost);
+        // Two rows assigned to 2 columns; one row remains -1.
+        int assigned = 0;
+        for (int a : res.assignment) {
+            if (a >= 0) {
+                assigned++;
+            }
+        }
+        assertEquals(2, assigned);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Zero diagonal yields zero total cost")
+    void zeroDiagonal() {
+        int[][] cost = {{0, 5, 9}, {4, 0, 7}, {3, 6, 0}};
+        HungarianAlgorithm.Result res = HungarianAlgorithm.solve(cost);
+        assertEquals(0, res.minCost);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PredecessorConstrainedDfsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PredecessorConstrainedDfsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e2c6d468768f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PredecessorConstrainedDfsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.graph.PredecessorConstrainedDfs.TraversalEvent;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.LinkedHashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PredecessorConstrainedDfsTest {
+
+    // A -> B, A -> C, B -> D, C -> D   (classic diamond)
+    private static Map<String, List<String>> diamond() {
+        Map<String, List<String>> g = new LinkedHashMap<>();
+        g.put("A", List.of("B", "C"));
+        g.put("B", List.of("D"));
+        g.put("C", List.of("D"));
+        g.put("D", List.of());
+        return g;
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void dfsRecursiveOrderEmitsSkipUntilAllParentsVisited() {
+        List<TraversalEvent<String>> events = PredecessorConstrainedDfs.dfsRecursiveOrder(diamond(), "A");
+
+        // Expect visits in order and a skip for first time we meet D (via B) before C is visited.
+        var visits = events.stream().filter(TraversalEvent::isVisit).toList();
+        var skips = events.stream().filter(TraversalEvent::isSkip).toList();
+
+        // Visits should be A(0), B(1), C(2), D(3) in some deterministic order given adjacency
+        assertThat(visits).hasSize(4);
+        assertThat(visits.get(0).node()).isEqualTo("A");
+        assertThat(visits.get(0).order()).isEqualTo(0);
+        assertThat(visits.get(1).node()).isEqualTo("B");
+        assertThat(visits.get(1).order()).isEqualTo(1);
+        assertThat(visits.get(2).node()).isEqualTo("C");
+        assertThat(visits.get(2).order()).isEqualTo(2);
+        assertThat(visits.get(3).node()).isEqualTo("D");
+        assertThat(visits.get(3).order()).isEqualTo(3);
+
+        // One skip when we first encountered D from B (before C was visited)
+        assertThat(skips).hasSize(1);
+        assertThat(skips.get(0).node()).isEqualTo("D");
+        assertThat(skips.get(0).note()).contains("not all parents");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void returnsEmptyWhenStartNotInGraph() {
+        Map<Integer, List<Integer>> graph = Map.of(1, List.of(2), 2, List.of(1));
+        assertThat(PredecessorConstrainedDfs.dfsRecursiveOrder(graph, 99)).isEmpty();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void nullSuccessorsThrows() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PredecessorConstrainedDfs.dfsRecursiveOrder(null, "A"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void worksWithExplicitPredecessors() {
+        Map<Integer, List<Integer>> successors = new HashMap<>();
+        successors.put(10, List.of(20));
+        successors.put(20, List.of(30));
+        successors.put(30, List.of());
+
+        Map<Integer, List<Integer>> predecessors = new HashMap<>();
+        predecessors.put(10, List.of());
+        predecessors.put(20, List.of(10));
+        predecessors.put(30, List.of(20));
+
+        var events = PredecessorConstrainedDfs.dfsRecursiveOrder(successors, predecessors, 10);
+        var visitNodes = events.stream().filter(TraversalEvent::isVisit).map(TraversalEvent::node).toList();
+        assertThat(visitNodes).containsExactly(10, 20, 30);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void cycleProducesSkipsButNoInfiniteRecursion() {
+        Map<String, List<String>> successors = new LinkedHashMap<>();
+        successors.put("X", List.of("Y"));
+        successors.put("Y", List.of("X")); // 2-cycle
+
+        var events = PredecessorConstrainedDfs.dfsRecursiveOrder(successors, "X");
+        // Only X is visited; encountering Y from X causes skip because Y's parent X is visited,
+        // but when recursing to Y we'd hit back to X (already visited) and stop; no infinite loop.
+        assertThat(events.stream().anyMatch(TraversalEvent::isVisit)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(events.stream().filter(TraversalEvent::isVisit).map(TraversalEvent::node)).contains("X");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PushRelabelTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PushRelabelTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b0021ec805b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/PushRelabelTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PushRelabelTest {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Classic CLRS network yields max flow 23 (PushRelabel)")
+    void clrsExample() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 16, 13, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 10, 12, 0, 0}, {0, 4, 0, 0, 14, 0}, {0, 0, 9, 0, 0, 20}, {0, 0, 0, 7, 0, 4}, {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}};
+        int maxFlow = PushRelabel.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 5);
+        assertEquals(23, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Disconnected network has zero flow (PushRelabel)")
+    void disconnectedGraph() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}};
+        int maxFlow = PushRelabel.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 2);
+        assertEquals(0, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Source equals sink returns zero (PushRelabel)")
+    void sourceEqualsSink() {
+        int[][] capacity = {{0, 5}, {0, 0}};
+        int maxFlow = PushRelabel.maxFlow(capacity, 0, 0);
+        assertEquals(0, maxFlow);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("PushRelabel matches Dinic and EdmondsKarp on random small graphs")
+    void parityWithOtherMaxFlow() {
+        java.util.Random rnd = new java.util.Random(42);
+        for (int n = 3; n <= 7; n++) {
+            for (int it = 0; it < 25; it++) {
+                int[][] cap = new int[n][n];
+                for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+                    for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                        if (i != j && rnd.nextDouble() < 0.35) {
+                            cap[i][j] = rnd.nextInt(10); // capacities 0..9
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                int s = 0;
+                int t = n - 1;
+                int fPushRelabel = PushRelabel.maxFlow(copyMatrix(cap), s, t);
+                int fDinic = Dinic.maxFlow(copyMatrix(cap), s, t);
+                int fEdmondsKarp = EdmondsKarp.maxFlow(cap, s, t);
+                assertEquals(fDinic, fPushRelabel);
+                assertEquals(fEdmondsKarp, fPushRelabel);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static int[][] copyMatrix(int[][] a) {
+        int[][] b = new int[a.length][a.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
+            b[i] = java.util.Arrays.copyOf(a[i], a[i].length);
+        }
+        return b;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimizedTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimizedTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9473a328c982
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimizedTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class StronglyConnectedComponentOptimizedTest {
+
+    private StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized sccOptimized;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        sccOptimized = new StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleComponent() {
+        // Create a simple graph with 3 nodes, all forming one SCC
+        HashMap<Integer, List<Integer>> adjList = new HashMap<>();
+        adjList.put(0, new ArrayList<>(List.of(1)));
+        adjList.put(1, new ArrayList<>(List.of(2)));
+        adjList.put(2, new ArrayList<>(List.of(0)));
+
+        int result = sccOptimized.getOutput(adjList, 3);
+
+        // The entire graph is one strongly connected component
+        assertEquals(1, result, "There should be 1 strongly connected component.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTwoComponents() {
+        // Create a graph with 4 nodes and two SCCs: {0, 1, 2} and {3}
+        HashMap<Integer, List<Integer>> adjList = new HashMap<>();
+        adjList.put(0, new ArrayList<>(List.of(1)));
+        adjList.put(1, new ArrayList<>(List.of(2)));
+        adjList.put(2, new ArrayList<>(List.of(0)));
+        adjList.put(3, new ArrayList<>());
+
+        int result = sccOptimized.getOutput(adjList, 4);
+
+        // There are 2 SCCs: {0, 1, 2} and {3}
+        assertEquals(2, result, "There should be 2 strongly connected components.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        // Create a graph with 4 nodes that are all disconnected
+        HashMap<Integer, List<Integer>> adjList = new HashMap<>();
+        adjList.put(0, new ArrayList<>());
+        adjList.put(1, new ArrayList<>());
+        adjList.put(2, new ArrayList<>());
+        adjList.put(3, new ArrayList<>());
+
+        int result = sccOptimized.getOutput(adjList, 4);
+
+        // Each node is its own strongly connected component
+        assertEquals(4, result, "There should be 4 strongly connected components.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testComplexGraph() {
+        // Create a more complex graph with multiple SCCs
+        HashMap<Integer, List<Integer>> adjList = new HashMap<>();
+        adjList.put(0, new ArrayList<>(List.of(1)));
+        adjList.put(1, new ArrayList<>(List.of(2)));
+        adjList.put(2, new ArrayList<>(List.of(0, 3)));
+        adjList.put(3, new ArrayList<>(List.of(4)));
+        adjList.put(4, new ArrayList<>(List.of(5)));
+        adjList.put(5, new ArrayList<>(List.of(3)));
+
+        int result = sccOptimized.getOutput(adjList, 6);
+
+        // There are 2 SCCs: {0, 1, 2} and {3, 4, 5}
+        assertEquals(2, result, "There should be 2 strongly connected components.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TravelingSalesmanTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TravelingSalesmanTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b93c9f89c944
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TravelingSalesmanTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TravelingSalesmanTest {
+
+    // Test Case 1: A simple distance matrix with 4 cities
+    @Test
+    public void testBruteForceSimple() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 10, 15, 20}, {10, 0, 35, 25}, {15, 35, 0, 30}, {20, 25, 30, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 80;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.bruteForce(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDynamicProgrammingSimple() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 10, 15, 20}, {10, 0, 35, 25}, {15, 35, 0, 30}, {20, 25, 30, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 80;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.dynamicProgramming(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    // Test Case 2: A distance matrix with 3 cities
+    @Test
+    public void testBruteForceThreeCities() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 10, 15}, {10, 0, 35}, {15, 35, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 60;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.bruteForce(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDynamicProgrammingThreeCities() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 10, 15}, {10, 0, 35}, {15, 35, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 60;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.dynamicProgramming(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    // Test Case 3: A distance matrix with 5 cities (larger input)
+    @Test
+    public void testBruteForceFiveCities() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 2, 9, 10, 1}, {2, 0, 6, 5, 8}, {9, 6, 0, 4, 3}, {10, 5, 4, 0, 7}, {1, 8, 3, 7, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 15;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.bruteForce(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDynamicProgrammingFiveCities() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 2, 9, 10, 1}, {2, 0, 6, 5, 8}, {9, 6, 0, 4, 3}, {10, 5, 4, 0, 7}, {1, 8, 3, 7, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 15;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.dynamicProgramming(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    // Test Case 4: A distance matrix with 2 cities (simple case)
+    @Test
+    public void testBruteForceTwoCities() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 1}, {1, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 2;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.bruteForce(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDynamicProgrammingTwoCities() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 1}, {1, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 2;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.dynamicProgramming(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    // Test Case 5: A distance matrix with identical distances
+    @Test
+    public void testBruteForceEqualDistances() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 10, 10, 10}, {10, 0, 10, 10}, {10, 10, 0, 10}, {10, 10, 10, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 40;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.bruteForce(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDynamicProgrammingEqualDistances() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 10, 10, 10}, {10, 0, 10, 10}, {10, 10, 0, 10}, {10, 10, 10, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 40;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.dynamicProgramming(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    // Test Case 6: A distance matrix with only one city
+    @Test
+    public void testBruteForceOneCity() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 0;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.bruteForce(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDynamicProgrammingOneCity() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 0;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.dynamicProgramming(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    // Test Case 7: Distance matrix with large numbers
+    @Test
+    public void testBruteForceLargeNumbers() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 1000000, 2000000}, {1000000, 0, 1500000}, {2000000, 1500000, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 4500000;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.bruteForce(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDynamicProgrammingLargeNumbers() {
+        int[][] distanceMatrix = {{0, 1000000, 2000000}, {1000000, 0, 1500000}, {2000000, 1500000, 0}};
+        int expectedMinDistance = 4500000;
+        int result = TravelingSalesman.dynamicProgramming(distanceMatrix);
+        assertEquals(expectedMinDistance, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPathsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPathsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1de37a310939
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPathsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class YensKShortestPathsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Basic K-shortest paths on small directed graph")
+    void basicKPaths() {
+        // Graph (directed) with non-negative weights, -1 = no edge
+        // 0 -> 1 (1), 0 -> 2 (2), 1 -> 3 (1), 2 -> 3 (1), 0 -> 3 (5), 1 -> 2 (1)
+        int n = 4;
+        int[][] w = new int[n][n];
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
+                w[i][j] = -1;
+            }
+        }
+        w[0][1] = 1;
+        w[0][2] = 2;
+        w[1][3] = 1;
+        w[2][3] = 1;
+        w[0][3] = 5;
+        w[1][2] = 1;
+
+        List<List<Integer>> paths = YensKShortestPaths.kShortestPaths(w, 0, 3, 3);
+        // Expected K=3 loopless shortest paths from 0 to 3, ordered by total cost:
+        // 1) 0-1-3 (cost 2)
+        // 2) 0-2-3 (cost 3)
+        // 3) 0-1-2-3 (cost 3) -> tie with 0-2-3; tie-broken lexicographically by nodes
+        assertEquals(3, paths.size());
+        assertEquals(List.of(0, 1, 3), paths.get(0));
+        assertEquals(List.of(0, 1, 2, 3), paths.get(1)); // lexicographically before [0,2,3]
+        assertEquals(List.of(0, 2, 3), paths.get(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("K larger than available paths returns only existing ones")
+    void kLargerThanAvailable() {
+        int[][] w = {{-1, 1, -1}, {-1, -1, 1}, {-1, -1, -1}};
+        // Only one simple path 0->1->2
+        List<List<Integer>> paths = YensKShortestPaths.kShortestPaths(w, 0, 2, 5);
+        assertEquals(1, paths.size());
+        assertEquals(List.of(0, 1, 2), paths.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("No path returns empty list")
+    void noPath() {
+        int[][] w = {{-1, -1}, {-1, -1}};
+        List<List<Integer>> paths = YensKShortestPaths.kShortestPaths(w, 0, 1, 3);
+        assertEquals(0, paths.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Source equals destination returns trivial path")
+    void sourceEqualsDestination() {
+        int[][] w = {{-1, 1}, {-1, -1}};
+        List<List<Integer>> paths = YensKShortestPaths.kShortestPaths(w, 0, 0, 2);
+        // First path is [0]
+        assertEquals(1, paths.size());
+        assertEquals(List.of(0), paths.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Negative weight entries (other than -1) are rejected")
+    void negativeWeightsRejected() {
+        int[][] w = {{-1, -2}, {-1, -1}};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> YensKShortestPaths.kShortestPaths(w, 0, 1, 2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5de9eadf0930
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.graph;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class ZeroOneBfsTest {
+
+    // Helper to build adjacency list with capacity n
+    private static List<List<int[]>> makeAdj(int n) {
+        List<List<int[]>> adj = new ArrayList<>(n);
+        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+            adj.add(new ArrayList<>());
+        }
+        return adj;
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void simpleLineGraph() {
+        int n = 4;
+        List<List<int[]>> adj = makeAdj(n);
+        // 0 --0--> 1 --1--> 2 --0--> 3
+        adj.get(0).add(new int[] {1, 0});
+        adj.get(1).add(new int[] {2, 1});
+        adj.get(2).add(new int[] {3, 0});
+
+        int[] dist = ZeroOneBfs.shortestPaths(n, adj, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0, 0, 1, 1}, dist);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void parallelEdgesPreferZero() {
+        int n = 3;
+        List<List<int[]>> adj = makeAdj(n);
+        // Two edges 0->1: weight 1 and weight 0. Algorithm should choose 0.
+        adj.get(0).add(new int[] {1, 1});
+        adj.get(0).add(new int[] {1, 0});
+        adj.get(1).add(new int[] {2, 1});
+
+        int[] dist = ZeroOneBfs.shortestPaths(n, adj, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0, 0, 1}, dist);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void unreachableNodes() {
+        int n = 3;
+        List<List<int[]>> adj = makeAdj(n);
+        adj.get(0).add(new int[] {1, 0});
+        int[] dist = ZeroOneBfs.shortestPaths(n, adj, 0);
+        // node 2 unreachable -> Integer.MAX_VALUE
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0, 0, Integer.MAX_VALUE}, dist);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void invalidArgs() {
+        int n = 2;
+        List<List<int[]>> adj = makeAdj(n);
+        // invalid weight
+        adj.get(0).add(new int[] {1, 2});
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ZeroOneBfs.shortestPaths(n, adj, 0));
+        // invalid src
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ZeroOneBfs.shortestPaths(n, adj, -1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ZeroOneBfs.shortestPaths(n, adj, 2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelectionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelectionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d24264a321bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelectionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ActivitySelectionTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testActivitySelection() {
+        int[] start = {1, 3, 0, 5, 8, 5};
+        int[] end = {2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 9};
+
+        ArrayList<Integer> result = ActivitySelection.activitySelection(start, end);
+        ArrayList<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 3, 4));
+
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleActivity() {
+        int[] start = {1};
+        int[] end = {2};
+
+        ArrayList<Integer> result = ActivitySelection.activitySelection(start, end);
+        List<Integer> expected = singletonList(0);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNoOverlap() {
+        int[] start = {1, 2, 3};
+        int[] end = {2, 3, 4};
+
+        ArrayList<Integer> result = ActivitySelection.activitySelection(start, end);
+        ArrayList<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2));
+
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BandwidthAllocationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BandwidthAllocationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..452f7858c162
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BandwidthAllocationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class BandwidthAllocationTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("bandwidthProvider")
+    public void testMaxValue(int capacity, int[] bandwidths, int[] values, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, BandwidthAllocation.maxValue(capacity, bandwidths, values));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> bandwidthProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(50, new int[] {20, 10, 30}, new int[] {40, 20, 30}, 80), Arguments.of(0, new int[] {5, 10}, new int[] {10, 20}, 0), Arguments.of(5, new int[] {5, 10}, new int[] {10, 20}, 10), Arguments.of(15, new int[] {10, 20}, new int[] {10, 25}, 18),
+            Arguments.of(25, new int[] {10, 15, 20}, new int[] {10, 30, 50}, 60));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAdditionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAdditionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..893ca02ed8a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAdditionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BinaryAdditionTest {
+
+    BinaryAddition binaryAddition = new BinaryAddition();
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqualLengthNoCarry() {
+        String a = "1010";
+        String b = "1101";
+        String expected = "10111";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqualLengthWithCarry() {
+        String a = "1111";
+        String b = "1111";
+        String expected = "11110";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDifferentLengths() {
+        String a = "101";
+        String b = "11";
+        String expected = "1000";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllZeros() {
+        String a = "0";
+        String b = "0";
+        String expected = "0";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllOnes() {
+        String a = "1111";
+        String b = "1111";
+        String expected = "11110";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOneZeroString() {
+        String a = "0";
+        String b = "10101";
+        String expected = "10101";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+
+        // Test the other way around
+        a = "10101";
+        b = "0";
+        expected = "10101";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLargeBinaryNumbers() {
+        String a = "101010101010101010101010101010";
+        String b = "110110110110110110110110110110";
+        String expected = "1100001100001100001100001100000";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOneMuchLonger() {
+        String a = "1";
+        String b = "11111111";
+        String expected = "100000000";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyStrings() {
+        String a = "";
+        String b = "";
+        String expected = ""; // Adding two empty strings should return 0
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAlternatingBits() {
+        String a = "10101010";
+        String b = "01010101";
+        String expected = "11111111";
+        assertEquals(expected, binaryAddition.addBinary(a, b));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/CoinChangeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/CoinChangeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b9745be63088
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/CoinChangeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CoinChangeTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testCoinChangeProblemWithValidAmount() {
+        ArrayList<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(500, 50, 20, 20, 1));
+        ArrayList<Integer> coins = CoinChange.coinChangeProblem(591);
+        assertEquals(expected, coins);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCoinChangeProblemWithLargeAmount() {
+        List<Integer> expected = singletonList(2000);
+        ArrayList<Integer> coins = CoinChange.coinChangeProblem(2000);
+        assertEquals(expected, coins);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCoinChangeProblemWithPartialCoins2() {
+        ArrayList<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(500, 50, 20));
+        ArrayList<Integer> coins = CoinChange.coinChangeProblem(570);
+        assertEquals(expected, coins);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCoinChangeProblemWithSmallAmount() {
+        ArrayList<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(2, 1));
+        ArrayList<Integer> coins = CoinChange.coinChangeProblem(3);
+        assertEquals(expected, coins);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCoinChangeProblemWithLargeAmountAndMultipleDenominations() {
+        ArrayList<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(2000, 2000, 2000, 2000, 500, 500, 500, 100, 100, 100, 100, 50, 20, 20, 5, 2, 2));
+        ArrayList<Integer> coins = CoinChange.coinChangeProblem(9999);
+        assertEquals(expected, coins);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCoinChangeProblemWithAllDenominations() {
+        ArrayList<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(2000, 500, 100, 100, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2, 1));
+        ArrayList<Integer> coins = CoinChange.coinChangeProblem(2888);
+        assertEquals(expected, coins);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCoinChangeProblemWithZeroAmount() {
+        ArrayList<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+        ArrayList<Integer> coins = CoinChange.coinChangeProblem(0);
+        assertEquals(expected, coins);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/DigitSeparationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/DigitSeparationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1fe018ecce18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/DigitSeparationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+public class DigitSeparationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationReverseOrderSingleDigit() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationReverseOrder(5);
+        assertEquals(List.of(5L), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationReverseOrderMultipleDigits() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationReverseOrder(123);
+        assertEquals(List.of(3L, 2L, 1L), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationReverseOrderLargeNumber() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationReverseOrder(123456789);
+        assertEquals(List.of(9L, 8L, 7L, 6L, 5L, 4L, 3L, 2L, 1L), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationReverseOrderZero() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationReverseOrder(0);
+        assertEquals(List.of(0L), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationReverseOrderNegativeNumbers() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationReverseOrder(-123);
+        assertEquals(List.of(3L, 2L, 1L), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationForwardOrderSingleDigit() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationForwardOrder(5);
+        assertEquals(List.of(5L), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationForwardOrderMultipleDigits() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationForwardOrder(123);
+        assertEquals(List.of(1L, 2L, 3L), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationForwardOrderLargeNumber() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationForwardOrder(123456789);
+        assertEquals(List.of(1L, 2L, 3L, 4L, 5L, 6L, 7L, 8L, 9L), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationForwardOrderZero() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationForwardOrder(0);
+        assertEquals(List.of(0L), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDigitSeparationForwardOrderNegativeNumber() {
+        DigitSeparation digitSeparation = new DigitSeparation();
+        List<Long> result = digitSeparation.digitSeparationForwardOrder(-123);
+        assertEquals(List.of(1L, 2L, 3L), result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/EgyptianFractionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/EgyptianFractionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1d34876de864
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/EgyptianFractionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class EgyptianFractionTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("fractionProvider")
+    public void testGetEgyptianFraction(int numerator, int denominator, List<String> expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, EgyptianFraction.getEgyptianFraction(numerator, denominator));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> fractionProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(2, 3, List.of("1/2", "1/6")), Arguments.of(3, 10, List.of("1/4", "1/20")), Arguments.of(1, 3, List.of("1/3")), Arguments.of(1, 2, List.of("1/2")), Arguments.of(4, 13, List.of("1/4", "1/18", "1/468")));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsackTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..34ec354ba6f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsackTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FractionalKnapsackTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFractionalKnapsackWithExampleCase() {
+        int[] weight = {10, 20, 30};
+        int[] value = {60, 100, 120};
+        int capacity = 50;
+        assertEquals(240, FractionalKnapsack.fractionalKnapsack(weight, value, capacity));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFractionalKnapsackWithZeroCapacity() {
+        int[] weight = {10, 20, 30};
+        int[] value = {60, 100, 120};
+        int capacity = 0;
+        assertEquals(0, FractionalKnapsack.fractionalKnapsack(weight, value, capacity));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFractionalKnapsackWithEmptyItems() {
+        int[] weight = {};
+        int[] value = {};
+        int capacity = 50;
+        assertEquals(0, FractionalKnapsack.fractionalKnapsack(weight, value, capacity));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapleyTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapleyTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fcd173202469
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapleyTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GaleShapleyTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStableMatch() {
+        Map<String, LinkedList<String>> womenPrefs = new HashMap<>();
+        womenPrefs.put("A", new LinkedList<>(List.of("X", "Y", "Z")));
+        womenPrefs.put("B", new LinkedList<>(List.of("Y", "X", "Z")));
+        womenPrefs.put("C", new LinkedList<>(List.of("X", "Y", "Z")));
+
+        Map<String, LinkedList<String>> menPrefs = new HashMap<>();
+        menPrefs.put("X", new LinkedList<>(List.of("A", "B", "C")));
+        menPrefs.put("Y", new LinkedList<>(List.of("B", "A", "C")));
+        menPrefs.put("Z", new LinkedList<>(List.of("A", "B", "C")));
+
+        Map<String, String> result = GaleShapley.stableMatch(womenPrefs, menPrefs);
+
+        Map<String, String> expected = new HashMap<>();
+        expected.put("A", "X");
+        expected.put("B", "Y");
+        expected.put("C", "Z");
+
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSinglePair() {
+        Map<String, LinkedList<String>> womenPrefs = new HashMap<>();
+        womenPrefs.put("A", new LinkedList<>(List.of("X")));
+
+        Map<String, LinkedList<String>> menPrefs = new HashMap<>();
+        menPrefs.put("X", new LinkedList<>(List.of("A")));
+
+        Map<String, String> result = GaleShapley.stableMatch(womenPrefs, menPrefs);
+
+        Map<String, String> expected = new HashMap<>();
+        expected.put("A", "X");
+
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqualPreferences() {
+        Map<String, LinkedList<String>> womenPrefs = new HashMap<>();
+        womenPrefs.put("A", new LinkedList<>(List.of("X", "Y", "Z")));
+        womenPrefs.put("B", new LinkedList<>(List.of("X", "Y", "Z")));
+        womenPrefs.put("C", new LinkedList<>(List.of("X", "Y", "Z")));
+
+        Map<String, LinkedList<String>> menPrefs = new HashMap<>();
+        menPrefs.put("X", new LinkedList<>(List.of("A", "B", "C")));
+        menPrefs.put("Y", new LinkedList<>(List.of("A", "B", "C")));
+        menPrefs.put("Z", new LinkedList<>(List.of("A", "B", "C")));
+
+        Map<String, String> result = GaleShapley.stableMatch(womenPrefs, menPrefs);
+
+        Map<String, String> expected = new HashMap<>();
+        expected.put("A", "X");
+        expected.put("B", "Y");
+        expected.put("C", "Z");
+
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b679121689a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class JobSequencingTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testJobSequencingWithExampleCase() {
+        ArrayList<JobSequencing.Job> jobs = new ArrayList<>();
+        jobs.add(new JobSequencing.Job('a', 2, 100));
+        jobs.add(new JobSequencing.Job('b', 1, 19));
+        jobs.add(new JobSequencing.Job('c', 2, 27));
+        jobs.add(new JobSequencing.Job('d', 1, 25));
+        jobs.add(new JobSequencing.Job('e', 3, 15));
+        Collections.sort(jobs);
+        String jobSequence = JobSequencing.findJobSequence(jobs, jobs.size());
+
+        assertEquals("Job Sequence: c -> a -> e", jobSequence);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/KCentersTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/KCentersTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9202d3467f0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/KCentersTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KCentersTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindKCenters() {
+        int[][] distances = {{0, 2, 3, 4}, {2, 0, 5, 1}, {3, 5, 0, 7}, {4, 1, 7, 0}};
+        assertEquals(4, KCenters.findKCenters(distances, 2));
+        assertEquals(2, KCenters.findKCenters(distances, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervalsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervalsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0135f9d73260
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervalsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MergeIntervalsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMergeIntervalsWithOverlappingIntervals() {
+        // Test case where some intervals overlap and should be merged
+        int[][] intervals = {{1, 3}, {2, 6}, {8, 10}, {15, 18}};
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 6}, {8, 10}, {15, 18}};
+        int[][] result = MergeIntervals.merge(intervals);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMergeIntervalsWithNoOverlap() {
+        // Test case where intervals do not overlap
+        int[][] intervals = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6}};
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6}};
+        int[][] result = MergeIntervals.merge(intervals);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMergeIntervalsWithCompleteOverlap() {
+        // Test case where intervals completely overlap
+        int[][] intervals = {{1, 5}, {2, 4}, {3, 6}};
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 6}};
+        int[][] result = MergeIntervals.merge(intervals);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMergeIntervalsWithSingleInterval() {
+        // Test case where only one interval is given
+        int[][] intervals = {{1, 2}};
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 2}};
+        int[][] result = MergeIntervals.merge(intervals);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMergeIntervalsWithEmptyArray() {
+        // Test case where the input array is empty
+        int[][] intervals = {};
+        int[][] expected = {};
+        int[][] result = MergeIntervals.merge(intervals);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMergeIntervalsWithIdenticalIntervals() {
+        // Test case where multiple identical intervals are given
+        int[][] intervals = {{1, 3}, {1, 3}, {1, 3}};
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 3}};
+        int[][] result = MergeIntervals.merge(intervals);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMergeIntervalsWithRandomIntervals() {
+        // Test case with a mix of overlapping and non-overlapping intervals
+        int[][] intervals = {{1, 4}, {5, 7}, {2, 6}, {8, 10}};
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 7}, {8, 10}};
+        int[][] result = MergeIntervals.merge(intervals);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLatenessTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLatenessTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..04f6900d14db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLatenessTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms.MinimizingLateness.Job;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MinimizingLatenessTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testCalculateLateness() {
+        // Test case with three jobs
+        Job job1 = new Job("Job1", 4, 6);
+        Job job2 = new Job("Job2", 2, 8);
+        Job job3 = new Job("Job3", 1, 9);
+        Job job4 = new Job("Job4", 5, 9);
+        Job job5 = new Job("Job5", 4, 10);
+        Job job6 = new Job("Job6", 3, 5);
+
+        MinimizingLateness.calculateLateness(job1, job2, job3, job4, job5, job6);
+
+        // Check lateness for each job
+        assertEquals(6, job4.lateness);
+        assertEquals(0, job6.lateness);
+        assertEquals(1, job2.lateness);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCheckStartTime() {
+
+        Job job1 = new Job("Job1", 2, 5);
+        Job job2 = new Job("Job2", 1, 7);
+        Job job3 = new Job("Job3", 3, 8);
+        Job job4 = new Job("Job4", 2, 4);
+        Job job5 = new Job("Job5", 4, 10);
+
+        MinimizingLateness.calculateLateness(job1, job2, job3, job4, job5);
+
+        assertEquals(2, job1.startTime);
+        assertEquals(5, job3.startTime);
+        assertEquals(8, job5.startTime);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimumWaitingTimeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimumWaitingTimeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..64cb4b80f182
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimumWaitingTimeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class MinimumWaitingTimeTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testMinimumWaitingTime(int[] queries, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, MinimumWaitingTime.minimumWaitingTime(queries));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {3, 2, 1, 2, 6}, 17), Arguments.of(new int[] {3, 2, 1}, 4), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4}, 10), Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5}, 30), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, 0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/OptimalFileMergingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/OptimalFileMergingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9ff2b95ff2e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/OptimalFileMergingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class OptimalFileMergingTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("fileMergingProvider")
+    public void testMinMergeCost(int[] files, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, OptimalFileMerging.minMergeCost(files));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> fileMergingProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {4, 3, 2, 6}, 29), Arguments.of(new int[] {5}, 0), Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 2, 2}, 10), Arguments.of(new int[] {10, 5, 3, 2}, 35), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 1, 1, 1}, 8), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 33),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, 51), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, 74), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, 102), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, 135));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/StockProfitCalculatorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/StockProfitCalculatorTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..afad76a34521
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/StockProfitCalculatorTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.greedyalgorithms;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class StockProfitCalculatorTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testMaxProfit(int[] prices, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, StockProfitCalculator.maxProfit(prices));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {7, 1, 5, 3, 6, 4}, 5), Arguments.of(new int[] {7, 6, 4, 3, 1}, 0), Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, 0), Arguments.of(new int[] {10}, 0), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 5}, 4), Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 4, 1, 3, 7, 5}, 6));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/io/BufferedReaderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/io/BufferedReaderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..891c3066058e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/io/BufferedReaderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.io;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.io.ByteArrayInputStream;
+import java.io.IOException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class BufferedReaderTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testPeeks() throws IOException {
+        String text = "Hello!\nWorld!";
+        int len = text.length();
+        byte[] bytes = text.getBytes();
+
+        ByteArrayInputStream input = new ByteArrayInputStream(bytes);
+        BufferedReader reader = new BufferedReader(input);
+
+        // read the first letter
+        assertEquals(reader.read(), 'H');
+        len--;
+        assertEquals(reader.available(), len);
+
+        // position: H[e]llo!\nWorld!
+        // reader.read() will be == 'e'
+        assertEquals(reader.peek(1), 'l');
+        assertEquals(reader.peek(2), 'l'); // second l
+        assertEquals(reader.peek(3), 'o');
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMixes() throws IOException {
+        String text = "Hello!\nWorld!";
+        int len = text.length();
+        byte[] bytes = text.getBytes();
+
+        ByteArrayInputStream input = new ByteArrayInputStream(bytes);
+        BufferedReader reader = new BufferedReader(input);
+
+        // read the first letter
+        assertEquals(reader.read(), 'H'); // first letter
+        len--;
+
+        assertEquals(reader.peek(1), 'l'); // third later (second letter after 'H')
+        assertEquals(reader.read(), 'e'); // second letter
+        len--;
+        assertEquals(reader.available(), len);
+
+        // position: H[e]llo!\nWorld!
+        assertEquals(reader.peek(2), 'o'); // second l
+        assertEquals(reader.peek(3), '!');
+        assertEquals(reader.peek(4), '\n');
+
+        assertEquals(reader.read(), 'l'); // third letter
+        assertEquals(reader.peek(1), 'o'); // fourth letter
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 6; i++) {
+            reader.read();
+        }
+        try {
+            System.out.println((char) reader.peek(4));
+        } catch (Exception ignored) {
+            System.out.println("[cached intentional error]");
+            // intentional, for testing purpose
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBlockPractical() throws IOException {
+        String text = "!Hello\nWorld!";
+        byte[] bytes = text.getBytes();
+        int len = bytes.length;
+
+        ByteArrayInputStream input = new ByteArrayInputStream(bytes);
+        BufferedReader reader = new BufferedReader(input);
+
+        assertEquals(reader.peek(), 'H');
+        assertEquals(reader.read(), '!'); // read the first letter
+        len--;
+
+        // this only reads the next 5 bytes (Hello) because
+        // the default buffer size = 5
+        assertEquals(new String(reader.readBlock()), "Hello");
+        len -= 5;
+        assertEquals(reader.available(), len);
+
+        // maybe kind of a practical demonstration / use case
+        if (reader.read() == '\n') {
+            assertEquals(reader.read(), 'W');
+            assertEquals(reader.read(), 'o');
+
+            // the rest of the blocks
+            assertEquals(new String(reader.readBlock()), "rld!");
+        } else {
+            // should not reach
+            throw new IOException("Something not right");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherlandTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherlandTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..064f71a17c12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherlandTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.lineclipping;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils.Line;
+import com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils.Point;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author shikarisohan
+ * @since 10/4/24
+ */
+class CohenSutherlandTest {
+
+    // Define the clipping window (1.0, 1.0) to (10.0, 10.0)
+    CohenSutherland cs = new CohenSutherland(1.0, 1.0, 10.0, 10.0);
+
+    @Test
+    void testLineCompletelyInside() {
+        // Line fully inside the clipping window
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(2.0, 2.0), new Point(8.0, 8.0));
+        Line clippedLine = cs.cohenSutherlandClip(line);
+
+        assertNotNull(clippedLine, "Line should not be null.");
+        assertEquals(line, clippedLine, "Line inside the window should remain unchanged.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLineCompletelyOutside() {
+        // Line completely outside and above the clipping window
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(11.0, 12.0), new Point(15.0, 18.0));
+        Line clippedLine = cs.cohenSutherlandClip(line);
+
+        assertNull(clippedLine, "Line should be null because it's completely outside.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLinePartiallyInside() {
+        // Line partially inside the clipping window
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(5.0, 5.0), new Point(12.0, 12.0));
+        Line expectedClippedLine = new Line(new Point(5.0, 5.0), new Point(10.0, 10.0)); // Clipped at (10, 10)
+        Line clippedLine = cs.cohenSutherlandClip(line);
+
+        assertNotNull(clippedLine, "Line should not be null.");
+        assertEquals(expectedClippedLine, clippedLine, "Line should be clipped correctly.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLineOnBoundary() {
+        // Line exactly on the boundary of the clipping window
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(1.0, 5.0), new Point(10.0, 5.0));
+        Line clippedLine = cs.cohenSutherlandClip(line);
+
+        assertNotNull(clippedLine, "Line should not be null.");
+        assertEquals(line, clippedLine, "Line on the boundary should remain unchanged.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDiagonalLineThroughClippingWindow() {
+        // Diagonal line crossing from outside to outside through the window
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(0.0, 0.0), new Point(12.0, 12.0));
+        Line expectedClippedLine = new Line(new Point(1.0, 1.0), new Point(10.0, 10.0)); // Clipped at both boundaries
+        Line clippedLine = cs.cohenSutherlandClip(line);
+
+        assertNotNull(clippedLine, "Line should not be null.");
+        assertEquals(expectedClippedLine, clippedLine, "Diagonal line should be clipped correctly.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testVerticalLineClipping() {
+        // Vertical line crossing the top and bottom of the clipping window
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(5.0, 0.0), new Point(5.0, 12.0));
+        Line expectedClippedLine = new Line(new Point(5.0, 1.0), new Point(5.0, 10.0)); // Clipped at yMin and yMax
+        Line clippedLine = cs.cohenSutherlandClip(line);
+
+        assertNotNull(clippedLine, "Line should not be null.");
+        assertEquals(expectedClippedLine, clippedLine, "Vertical line should be clipped correctly.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarskyTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarskyTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1c48cd106572
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarskyTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.lineclipping;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils.Line;
+import com.thealgorithms.lineclipping.utils.Point;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author shikarisohan
+ * @since 10/5/24
+ */
+class LiangBarskyTest {
+
+    LiangBarsky lb = new LiangBarsky(1.0, 1.0, 10.0, 10.0);
+
+    @Test
+    void testLineCompletelyInside() {
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(2.0, 2.0), new Point(8.0, 8.0));
+        Line clippedLine = lb.liangBarskyClip(line);
+
+        assertNotNull(clippedLine, "Line should not be null.");
+        assertEquals(line, clippedLine, "Line inside the window should remain unchanged.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLineCompletelyOutside() {
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(12.0, 12.0), new Point(15.0, 18.0));
+        Line clippedLine = lb.liangBarskyClip(line);
+
+        assertNull(clippedLine, "Line should be null because it's completely outside.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLinePartiallyInside() {
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(5.0, 5.0), new Point(12.0, 12.0));
+        Line expectedClippedLine = new Line(new Point(5.0, 5.0), new Point(10.0, 10.0)); // Clipped at (10, 10)
+        Line clippedLine = lb.liangBarskyClip(line);
+
+        assertNotNull(clippedLine, "Line should not be null.");
+        assertEquals(expectedClippedLine, clippedLine, "Line should be clipped correctly.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDiagonalLineThroughClippingWindow() {
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(0.0, 0.0), new Point(12.0, 12.0));
+        Line expectedClippedLine = new Line(new Point(1.0, 1.0), new Point(10.0, 10.0)); // Clipped at both boundaries
+        Line clippedLine = lb.liangBarskyClip(line);
+
+        assertNotNull(clippedLine, "Line should not be null.");
+        assertEquals(expectedClippedLine, clippedLine, "Diagonal line should be clipped correctly.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testVerticalLineClipping() {
+        Line line = new Line(new Point(5.0, 0.0), new Point(5.0, 12.0));
+        Line expectedClippedLine = new Line(new Point(5.0, 1.0), new Point(5.0, 10.0)); // Clipped at yMin and yMax
+        Line clippedLine = lb.liangBarskyClip(line);
+
+        assertNotNull(clippedLine, "Line should not be null.");
+        assertEquals(expectedClippedLine, clippedLine, "Vertical line should be clipped correctly.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFractionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFractionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..938c7d558841
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ADTFractionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ADTFractionTest {
+
+    private final ADTFraction fraction1 = new ADTFraction(3, 5);
+    private final ADTFraction fraction2 = new ADTFraction(7, 8);
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithDenominatorEqualToZero() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new ADTFraction(1, 0));
+        assertEquals("Denominator cannot be 0", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPlus() {
+        assertEquals(new ADTFraction(59, 40), fraction1.plus(fraction2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTimes() {
+        assertEquals(new ADTFraction(12, 5), fraction1.times(4));
+        assertEquals(new ADTFraction(21, 40), fraction1.times(fraction2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testReciprocal() {
+        assertEquals(new ADTFraction(5, 3), fraction1.reciprocal());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testValue() {
+        assertEquals(0.6F, fraction1.value());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqualsAndHashCode() {
+        ADTFraction fraction3 = new ADTFraction(3, 5);
+        assertTrue(fraction1.equals(fraction3) && fraction3.equals(fraction1));
+        assertEquals(fraction1.hashCode(), fraction3.hashCode());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testToString() {
+        assertEquals("3/5", fraction1.toString());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMaxTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMaxTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..33461fbbc088
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMaxTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AbsoluteMaxTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetMaxValue() {
+        assertEquals(16, AbsoluteMax.getMaxValue(-2, 0, 16));
+        assertEquals(-22, AbsoluteMax.getMaxValue(-3, -10, -22));
+        assertEquals(-888, AbsoluteMax.getMaxValue(-888));
+        assertEquals(-1, AbsoluteMax.getMaxValue(-1, -1, -1, -1, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetMaxValueWithNoArguments() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, AbsoluteMax::getMaxValue);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetMaxValueWithSameAbsoluteValues() {
+        assertEquals(5, AbsoluteMax.getMaxValue(-5, 5));
+        assertEquals(5, AbsoluteMax.getMaxValue(5, -5));
+        assertEquals(12, AbsoluteMax.getMaxValue(-12, 9, 3, 12, 1));
+        assertEquals(12, AbsoluteMax.getMaxValue(12, 9, 3, -12, 1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMinTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMinTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dfca757fd877
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteMinTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AbsoluteMinTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetMinValue() {
+        assertEquals(0, AbsoluteMin.getMinValue(4, 0, 16));
+        assertEquals(-2, AbsoluteMin.getMinValue(3, -10, -2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetMinValueWithNoArguments() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, AbsoluteMin::getMinValue);
+        assertEquals("Numbers array cannot be empty", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetMinValueWithSameAbsoluteValues() {
+        assertEquals(-5, AbsoluteMin.getMinValue(-5, 5));
+        assertEquals(-5, AbsoluteMin.getMinValue(5, -5));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValueTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..907d5cb45ef9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbsoluteValueTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.concurrent.ThreadLocalRandom;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AbsoluteValueTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetAbsValue() {
+        Stream.generate(() -> ThreadLocalRandom.current().nextInt()).limit(1000).forEach(number -> assertEquals(Math.abs(number), AbsoluteValue.getAbsValue(number)));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZero() {
+        assertEquals(0, AbsoluteValue.getAbsValue(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPositiveNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(5, AbsoluteValue.getAbsValue(5));
+        assertEquals(123456, AbsoluteValue.getAbsValue(123456));
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, AbsoluteValue.getAbsValue(Integer.MAX_VALUE));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(5, AbsoluteValue.getAbsValue(-5));
+        assertEquals(123456, AbsoluteValue.getAbsValue(-123456));
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, AbsoluteValue.getAbsValue(-Integer.MAX_VALUE));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMinIntEdgeCase() {
+        assertEquals(Integer.MIN_VALUE, AbsoluteValue.getAbsValue(Integer.MIN_VALUE));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSumTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSumTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..94631637fc4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSumTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AliquotSumTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetMaxValue() {
+        assertEquals(0, AliquotSum.getAliquotValue(1));
+        assertEquals(6, AliquotSum.getAliquotValue(6));
+        assertEquals(9, AliquotSum.getAliquotValue(15));
+        assertEquals(1, AliquotSum.getAliquotValue(19));
+        assertEquals(0, AliquotSum.getAliquotSum(1));
+        assertEquals(6, AliquotSum.getAliquotSum(6));
+        assertEquals(9, AliquotSum.getAliquotSum(15));
+        assertEquals(1, AliquotSum.getAliquotSum(19));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..14679f22636a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
+
+import java.util.Set;
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AmicableNumberTest {
+    private static final String INVALID_RANGE_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE = "Given range of values is invalid!";
+    private static final String INVALID_NUMBERS_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE = "Input numbers must be natural!";
+
+    @Test
+    public void testShouldThrowExceptionWhenInvalidRangeProvided() {
+        checkInvalidRange(0, 0);
+        checkInvalidRange(0, 1);
+        checkInvalidRange(1, 0);
+        checkInvalidRange(10, -1);
+        checkInvalidRange(-1, 10);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testShouldThrowExceptionWhenInvalidNumbersProvided() {
+        checkInvalidNumbers(0, 0);
+        checkInvalidNumbers(0, 1);
+        checkInvalidNumbers(1, 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAmicableNumbers() {
+        assertThat(AmicableNumber.isAmicableNumber(220, 284)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(AmicableNumber.isAmicableNumber(1184, 1210)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(AmicableNumber.isAmicableNumber(2620, 2924)).isTrue();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testShouldFindAllAmicableNumbersInRange() {
+        // given
+        var expectedResult = Set.of(Pair.of(220, 284), Pair.of(1184, 1210), Pair.of(2620, 2924));
+
+        // when
+        Set<Pair<Integer, Integer>> result = AmicableNumber.findAllInRange(1, 3000);
+
+        // then
+        Assertions.assertTrue(result.containsAll(expectedResult));
+    }
+
+    private static void checkInvalidRange(int from, int to) {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> AmicableNumber.findAllInRange(from, to));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), INVALID_RANGE_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE);
+    }
+
+    private static void checkInvalidNumbers(int a, int b) {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> AmicableNumber.isAmicableNumber(a, b));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), INVALID_NUMBERS_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AreaTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AreaTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b28afb85fbc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AreaTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertAll;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Amarildo Aliaj
+ */
+class AreaTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSurfaceAreaCube() {
+        assertEquals(6.0, Area.surfaceAreaCube(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSurfaceAreaSphere() {
+        assertEquals(12.566370614359172, Area.surfaceAreaSphere(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSurfaceAreaRectangle() {
+        assertEquals(200.0, Area.surfaceAreaRectangle(10, 20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSurfaceAreaCylinder() {
+        assertEquals(18.84955592153876, Area.surfaceAreaCylinder(1, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSurfaceAreaSquare() {
+        assertEquals(100.0, Area.surfaceAreaSquare(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSurfaceAreaTriangle() {
+        assertEquals(50.0, Area.surfaceAreaTriangle(10, 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSurfaceAreaParallelogram() {
+        assertEquals(200.0, Area.surfaceAreaParallelogram(10, 20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSurfaceAreaTrapezium() {
+        assertEquals(450.0, Area.surfaceAreaTrapezium(10, 20, 30));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSurfaceAreaCircle() {
+        assertEquals(1256.6370614359173, Area.surfaceAreaCircle(20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void surfaceAreaHemisphere() {
+        assertEquals(235.61944901923448, Area.surfaceAreaHemisphere(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void surfaceAreaCone() {
+        assertEquals(301.59289474462014, Area.surfaceAreaCone(6, 8));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAllIllegalInput() {
+        assertAll(()
+                      -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaCube(0)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaSphere(0)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaRectangle(0, 10)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaRectangle(10, 0)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaCylinder(0, 1)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaCylinder(1, 0)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaSquare(0)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaTriangle(0, 1)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaTriangle(1, 0)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaParallelogram(0, 1)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaParallelogram(1, 0)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaTrapezium(0, 1, 1)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaTrapezium(1, 0, 1)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaTrapezium(1, 1, 0)),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaCircle(0)),
+            () -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaHemisphere(0)), () -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaCone(1, 0)), () -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Area.surfaceAreaCone(0, 1)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ArmstrongTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ArmstrongTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e5d0d9eb3c43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ArmstrongTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author satyabarghav
+ * @since 4/10/2023
+ */
+class ArmstrongTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsArmstrong() {
+        Armstrong armstrong = new Armstrong();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(0)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(1)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(153)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(371)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(1634)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(200)).isFalse();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(548834)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(9474)).isTrue();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutoCorrelationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutoCorrelationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cacfe5904faa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutoCorrelationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for AutoCorrelation class
+ *
+ * @author Athina-Frederiki Swinkels
+ * @version 2.0
+ */
+
+public class AutoCorrelationTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"1;2;1;1, 1;3;5;7;5;3;1", "1;2;3, 3;8;14;8;3", "1.5;2.3;3.1;4.2, 6.3;14.31;23.6;34.79;23.6;14.31;6.3"})
+
+    public void testAutoCorrelationParameterized(String input, String expected) {
+        double[] array = convertStringToArray(input);
+        double[] expectedResult = convertStringToArray(expected);
+
+        double[] result = AutoCorrelation.autoCorrelation(array);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedResult, result, 0.0001);
+    }
+
+    private double[] convertStringToArray(String input) {
+        String[] elements = input.split(";");
+        double[] result = new double[elements.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < elements.length; i++) {
+            result[i] = Double.parseDouble(elements[i]);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0a366cd1adbe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AutomorphicNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AutomorphicNumberTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testAutomorphicNumber() {
+        int[] trueTestCases = {0, 1, 25, 625, 12890625};
+        int[] falseTestCases = {-5, 2, 26, 1234};
+        for (Integer n : trueTestCases) {
+            assertTrue(AutomorphicNumber.isAutomorphic(n));
+            assertTrue(AutomorphicNumber.isAutomorphic2(n));
+            assertTrue(AutomorphicNumber.isAutomorphic3(String.valueOf(n)));
+        }
+        for (Integer n : falseTestCases) {
+            assertFalse(AutomorphicNumber.isAutomorphic(n));
+            assertFalse(AutomorphicNumber.isAutomorphic2(n));
+            assertFalse(AutomorphicNumber.isAutomorphic3(String.valueOf(n)));
+        }
+        assertTrue(AutomorphicNumber.isAutomorphic3("59918212890625")); // Special case for BigInteger
+        assertFalse(AutomorphicNumber.isAutomorphic3("12345678912345")); // Special case for BigInteger
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AverageTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AverageTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..638739bc4fda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AverageTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class AverageTest {
+
+    private static final double SMALL_VALUE = 0.00001d;
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "average({0}) should be approximately {1}")
+    @MethodSource("provideDoubleArrays")
+    void testAverageDouble(double[] numbers, double expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Average.average(numbers), SMALL_VALUE);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "average({0}) should be {1}")
+    @MethodSource("provideIntArrays")
+    void testAverageInt(int[] numbers, long expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Average.average(numbers));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAverageDoubleThrowsExceptionOnNullOrEmpty() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Average.average((double[]) null));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Average.average(new double[0]));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAverageIntThrowsExceptionOnNullOrEmpty() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Average.average((int[]) null));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Average.average(new int[0]));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideDoubleArrays() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new double[] {3d, 6d, 9d, 12d, 15d, 18d, 21d}, 12d), Arguments.of(new double[] {5d, 10d, 15d, 20d, 25d, 30d, 35d}, 20d), Arguments.of(new double[] {1d, 2d, 3d, 4d, 5d, 6d, 7d, 8d}, 4.5d), Arguments.of(new double[] {0d, 0d, 0d}, 0d),
+            Arguments.of(new double[] {-1d, -2d, -3d}, -2d), Arguments.of(new double[] {1e-10, 1e-10, 1e-10}, 1e-10));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideIntArrays() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 4, 10}, 5L), Arguments.of(new int[] {0, 0, 0}, 0L), Arguments.of(new int[] {-1, -2, -3}, -2L), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 1, 1, 1, 1}, 1L));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPowTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPowTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..632dfbd1d65e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinaryPowTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BinaryPowTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testBinPow() {
+        assertEquals(4, BinaryPow.binPow(2, 2));
+        assertEquals(256, BinaryPow.binPow(4, 4));
+        assertEquals(729, BinaryPow.binPow(9, 3));
+        assertEquals(262144, BinaryPow.binPow(8, 6));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroExponent() {
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryPow.binPow(2, 0));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryPow.binPow(100, 0));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryPow.binPow(-5, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroBase() {
+        assertEquals(0, BinaryPow.binPow(0, 5));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryPow.binPow(0, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOneBase() {
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryPow.binPow(1, 100));
+        assertEquals(1, BinaryPow.binPow(1, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeBase() {
+        assertEquals(-8, BinaryPow.binPow(-2, 3));
+        assertEquals(16, BinaryPow.binPow(-2, 4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeExponent() {
+        assertEquals(1073741824, BinaryPow.binPow(2, 30));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficientTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficientTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..58cfcbad57fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/BinomialCoefficientTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BinomialCoefficientTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testBinomialCoefficient() {
+        assertEquals(190, BinomialCoefficient.binomialCoefficient(20, 2));
+        assertEquals(792, BinomialCoefficient.binomialCoefficient(12, 5));
+        assertEquals(84, BinomialCoefficient.binomialCoefficient(9, 3));
+        assertEquals(1, BinomialCoefficient.binomialCoefficient(17, 17));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CatalanNumbersTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CatalanNumbersTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2248ffd93732
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CatalanNumbersTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for CatalanNumbers
+ */
+class CatalanNumbersTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test data for the parameterized Catalan number test.
+     * Each array contains two elements:
+     * [input number, expected Catalan number for that input]
+     */
+    static Stream<Object[]> catalanNumbersProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {0, 1}, new Object[] {1, 1}, new Object[] {2, 2}, new Object[] {3, 5}, new Object[] {4, 14}, new Object[] {5, 42}, new Object[] {6, 132}, new Object[] {7, 429}, new Object[] {8, 1430}, new Object[] {9, 4862}, new Object[] {10, 16796});
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Parameterized test for checking the correctness of Catalan numbers.
+     * Uses the data from the provider method 'catalanNumbersProvider'.
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("catalanNumbersProvider")
+    void testCatalanNumbers(int input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, CatalanNumbers.catalan(input), () -> String.format("Catalan number for input %d should be %d", input, expected));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for invalid inputs which should throw an IllegalArgumentException.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIllegalInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> CatalanNumbers.catalan(-1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> CatalanNumbers.catalan(-5));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CeilTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CeilTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ddd0deed41d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CeilTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class CeilTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"7.057, 8", "7.004, 8", "-13.004, -13", "0.98, 1", "-11.357, -11"})
+    void testCeil(double input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Ceil.ceil(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("edgeCaseProvider")
+    void testEdgeCases(TestData data) {
+        assertEquals(Ceil.ceil(data.input), data.expected);
+    }
+
+    record TestData(double input, double expected) {
+    }
+
+    static Stream<TestData> edgeCaseProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(new TestData(Double.MAX_VALUE, Double.MAX_VALUE), new TestData(Double.MIN_VALUE, Math.ceil(Double.MIN_VALUE)), new TestData(0.0, Math.ceil(0.0)), new TestData(-0.0, Math.ceil(-0.0)), new TestData(Double.NaN, Math.ceil(Double.NaN)),
+            new TestData(Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, Math.ceil(Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY)), new TestData(Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Math.ceil(Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChineseRemainderTheoremTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChineseRemainderTheoremTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7c153ae4cdda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChineseRemainderTheoremTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ChineseRemainderTheoremTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testCRTSimpleCase() {
+        List<Integer> remainders = Arrays.asList(2, 3, 2);
+        List<Integer> moduli = Arrays.asList(3, 5, 7);
+        int expected = 23;
+        int result = ChineseRemainderTheorem.solveCRT(remainders, moduli);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCRTLargeModuli() {
+        List<Integer> remainders = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3);
+        List<Integer> moduli = Arrays.asList(5, 7, 9);
+        int expected = 156;
+        int result = ChineseRemainderTheorem.solveCRT(remainders, moduli);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCRTWithSingleCongruence() {
+        List<Integer> remainders = singletonList(4);
+        List<Integer> moduli = singletonList(7);
+        int expected = 4;
+        int result = ChineseRemainderTheorem.solveCRT(remainders, moduli);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCRTWithMultipleSolutions() {
+        List<Integer> remainders = Arrays.asList(0, 3);
+        List<Integer> moduli = Arrays.asList(4, 5);
+        int expected = 8;
+        int result = ChineseRemainderTheorem.solveCRT(remainders, moduli);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCRTLargeNumbers() {
+        List<Integer> remainders = Arrays.asList(0, 4, 6);
+        List<Integer> moduli = Arrays.asList(11, 13, 17);
+        int expected = 550;
+        int result = ChineseRemainderTheorem.solveCRT(remainders, moduli);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CollatzConjectureTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CollatzConjectureTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4e88d1e91bac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CollatzConjectureTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertIterableEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeAll;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class CollatzConjectureTest {
+
+    static CollatzConjecture cConjecture;
+
+    @BeforeAll
+    static void setUp() {
+        cConjecture = new CollatzConjecture();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void nextNumberFromEvenNumber() {
+        assertEquals(25, cConjecture.nextNumber(50));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void nextNumberFromOddNumber() {
+        assertEquals(154, cConjecture.nextNumber(51));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void collatzConjecture() {
+        final List<Integer> expected = List.of(35, 106, 53, 160, 80, 40, 20, 10, 5, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1);
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, cConjecture.collatzConjecture(35));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void sequenceOfNotNaturalFirstNumber() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cConjecture.collatzConjecture(0));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> cConjecture.collatzConjecture(-1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CombinationsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CombinationsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f260b1e11494
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CombinationsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CombinationsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testCombination() {
+        assertEquals(1, Combinations.combinations(1, 1));
+        assertEquals(252, Combinations.combinations(10, 5));
+        assertEquals(20, Combinations.combinations(6, 3));
+        assertEquals(15504, Combinations.combinations(20, 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCombinationOptimised() {
+        assertEquals(100, Combinations.combinationsOptimized(100, 1));
+        assertEquals(1, Combinations.combinationsOptimized(1, 1));
+        assertEquals(252, Combinations.combinationsOptimized(10, 5));
+        assertEquals(20, Combinations.combinationsOptimized(6, 3));
+        assertEquals(15504, Combinations.combinationsOptimized(20, 5));
+        assertEquals(2535650040L, Combinations.combinationsOptimized(200, 5));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFTTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFTTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4d627f939d42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFTTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class ConvolutionFFTTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to create a complex signal from an array of doubles.
+     */
+    private ArrayList<FFT.Complex> createComplexSignal(double[] values) {
+        ArrayList<FFT.Complex> signal = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (double value : values) {
+            signal.add(new FFT.Complex(value, 0));
+        }
+        return signal;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Helper method to compare two complex signals for equality within a small margin of error.
+     */
+    private void assertComplexArrayEquals(List<FFT.Complex> expected, List<FFT.Complex> result, double delta) {
+        assertEquals(expected.size(), result.size(), "Signal lengths are not equal.");
+        for (int i = 0; i < expected.size(); i++) {
+            FFT.Complex expectedValue = expected.get(i);
+            FFT.Complex resultValue = result.get(i);
+            assertEquals(expectedValue.real(), resultValue.real(), delta, "Real part mismatch at index " + i);
+            assertEquals(expectedValue.imaginary(), resultValue.imaginary(), delta, "Imaginary part mismatch at index " + i);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Test case {index}: {3}")
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testConvolutionFFT(double[] a, double[] b, double[] expectedOutput, String testDescription) {
+        ArrayList<FFT.Complex> signalA = createComplexSignal(a);
+        ArrayList<FFT.Complex> signalB = createComplexSignal(b);
+
+        ArrayList<FFT.Complex> expected = createComplexSignal(expectedOutput);
+        ArrayList<FFT.Complex> result = ConvolutionFFT.convolutionFFT(signalA, signalB);
+
+        assertComplexArrayEquals(expected, result, 1e-9); // Allow small margin of error
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new double[] {1, 2, 3}, new double[] {4, 5, 6}, new double[] {4, 13, 28, 27, 18}, "Basic test"), Arguments.of(new double[] {0, 0, 0}, new double[] {1, 2, 3}, new double[] {0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, "Test with zero elements"),
+            Arguments.of(new double[] {1, 2}, new double[] {3, 4, 5}, new double[] {3, 10, 13, 10}, "Test with different sizes"), Arguments.of(new double[] {5}, new double[] {2}, new double[] {10}, "Test with single element"),
+            Arguments.of(new double[] {1, -2, 3}, new double[] {-1, 2, -3}, new double[] {-1, 4, -10, 12, -9}, "Test with negative values"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d57b3b3ca4e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class ConvolutionTest {
+
+    record ConvolutionTestCase(String description, double[] signalA, double[] signalB, double[] expected) {
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "{0}")
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testConvolution(ConvolutionTestCase testCase) {
+        double[] result = Convolution.convolution(testCase.signalA, testCase.signalB);
+        assertArrayEquals(testCase.expected, result, 1e-9, testCase.description);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<ConvolutionTestCase> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new ConvolutionTestCase("Basic convolution", new double[] {1, 2, 3}, new double[] {4, 5, 6}, new double[] {4, 13, 28, 27, 18}), new ConvolutionTestCase("Convolution with zero elements", new double[] {0, 0, 0}, new double[] {1, 2, 3}, new double[] {0, 0, 0, 0, 0}),
+            new ConvolutionTestCase("Convolution with single element", new double[] {2}, new double[] {3}, new double[] {6}), new ConvolutionTestCase("Convolution with different sizes", new double[] {1, 2}, new double[] {3, 4, 5}, new double[] {3, 10, 13, 10}),
+            new ConvolutionTestCase("Convolution with negative values", new double[] {1, -2, 3}, new double[] {-1, 2, -3}, new double[] {-1, 4, -10, 12, -9}),
+            new ConvolutionTestCase("Convolution with large numbers", new double[] {1e6, 2e6}, new double[] {3e6, 4e6}, new double[] {3e12, 1e13, 8e12}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CrossCorrelationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CrossCorrelationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a7e4f14fb3af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CrossCorrelationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for CrossCorrelation class
+ *
+ * @author Athina-Frederiki Swinkels
+ * @version 2.0
+ */
+public class CrossCorrelationTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"1;2;1;1, 1;1;2;1, 1;4;6;6;5;2;1", "1;2;3, 1;2;3;4;5, 5;14;26;20;14;8;3", "1;2;3;4;5, 1;2;3, 3;8;14;20;26;14;5", "1.5;2.3;3.1;4.2, 1.1;2.2;3.3, 4.95;10.89;16.94;23.21;12.65;4.62"})
+
+    public void testCrossCorrelationParameterized(String input1, String input2, String expected) {
+        double[] array1 = convertStringToArray(input1);
+        double[] array2 = convertStringToArray(input2);
+        double[] expectedResult = convertStringToArray(expected);
+
+        double[] result = CrossCorrelation.crossCorrelation(array1, array2);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedResult, result, 0.0001);
+    }
+
+    private double[] convertStringToArray(String input) {
+        String[] elements = input.split(";");
+        double[] result = new double[elements.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < elements.length; i++) {
+            result[i] = Double.parseDouble(elements[i]);
+        }
+        return result;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dd1c3ac4e605
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DeterminantOfMatrixTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeterminant2x2Matrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}};
+        int expected = -2;
+        assertEquals(expected, DeterminantOfMatrix.determinant(matrix, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeterminant3x3Matrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}};
+        int expected = 0;
+        assertEquals(expected, DeterminantOfMatrix.determinant(matrix, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeterminant3x3MatrixNonZero() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 2, 3}, {0, 1, 4}, {5, 6, 0}};
+        int expected = 1;
+        assertEquals(expected, DeterminantOfMatrix.determinant(matrix, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeterminant1x1Matrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{7}};
+        int expected = 7;
+        assertEquals(expected, DeterminantOfMatrix.determinant(matrix, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeterminant4x4Matrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 0, 0, 1}, {0, 1, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 1, 0}, {1, 0, 0, 1}};
+        int expected = 0;
+        assertEquals(expected, DeterminantOfMatrix.determinant(matrix, 4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDeterminant4x4MatrixZero() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}, {13, 14, 15, 16}};
+        int expected = 0;
+        assertEquals(expected, DeterminantOfMatrix.determinant(matrix, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRootTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRootTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..eeeeb5431507
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRootTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DigitalRootTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testDigitalroot() {
+        assertEquals(4, DigitalRoot.digitalRoot(4));
+        assertEquals(9, DigitalRoot.digitalRoot(9));
+        assertEquals(4, DigitalRoot.digitalRoot(49));
+        assertEquals(6, DigitalRoot.digitalRoot(78));
+        assertEquals(4, DigitalRoot.digitalRoot(1228));
+        assertEquals(5, DigitalRoot.digitalRoot(71348));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormulaTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormulaTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3a14b80dd4f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormulaTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DistanceFormulaTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void euclideanTest1() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(DistanceFormula.euclideanDistance(1, 1, 2, 2), 1.4142135623730951);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void euclideanTest2() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(DistanceFormula.euclideanDistance(1, 3, 8, 0), 7.0710678118654755);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void euclideanTest3() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(DistanceFormula.euclideanDistance(2.4, 9.1, 55.1, 100), 110.91911467371168);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void euclideanTest4() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(DistanceFormula.euclideanDistance(1000, 13, 20000, 84), 19022.067605809836);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void manhattantest1() {
+        assertEquals(DistanceFormula.manhattanDistance(1, 2, 3, 4), 4);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void manhattantest2() {
+        assertEquals(DistanceFormula.manhattanDistance(6.5, 8.4, 20.1, 13.6), 18.8);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void manhattanTest3() {
+        assertEquals(DistanceFormula.manhattanDistance(10.112, 50, 8, 25.67), 26.442);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void hammingTest1() {
+        int[] array1 = {1, 1, 1, 1};
+        int[] array2 = {0, 0, 0, 0};
+        assertEquals(DistanceFormula.hammingDistance(array1, array2), 4);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void hammingTest2() {
+        int[] array1 = {1, 1, 1, 1};
+        int[] array2 = {1, 1, 1, 1};
+        assertEquals(DistanceFormula.hammingDistance(array1, array2), 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void hammingTest3() {
+        int[] array1 = {1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0};
+        int[] array2 = {0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0};
+        assertEquals(DistanceFormula.hammingDistance(array1, array2), 5);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void minkowskiTest1() {
+        double[] array1 = {1, 3, 8, 5};
+        double[] array2 = {4, 2, 6, 9};
+        assertEquals(DistanceFormula.minkowskiDistance(array1, array2, 1), 10);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void minkowskiTest2() {
+        double[] array1 = {1, 3, 8, 5};
+        double[] array2 = {4, 2, 6, 9};
+        assertEquals(DistanceFormula.minkowskiDistance(array1, array2, 2), 5.477225575051661);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void minkowskiTest3() {
+        double[] array1 = {1, 3, 8, 5};
+        double[] array2 = {4, 2, 6, 9};
+        assertEquals(DistanceFormula.minkowskiDistance(array1, array2, 3), 4.641588833612778);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cd93edfae61d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DudeneyNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class DudeneyNumberTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"1", "512", "4913", "5832", "17576", "19683"})
+    void positiveDudeneyBase10Power3(final int n) {
+        assertTrue(DudeneyNumber.isDudeney(n));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"2", "19", "21", "125", "27", "343", "729", "19682", "19684"})
+    void negativeDudeneyBase10Power3(final int n) {
+        assertFalse(DudeneyNumber.isDudeney(n));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0", "-1"})
+    void throwsInputLessThanOne(final int n) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DudeneyNumber.isDudeney(n));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethodTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethodTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5ae5ac70b1df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethodTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.function.BiFunction;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class EulerMethodTest {
+
+    private static class EulerFullTestCase {
+        double[] params;
+        BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> equation;
+        int expectedSize;
+        double[] expectedFirstPoint;
+        double[] expectedLastPoint;
+
+        EulerFullTestCase(double[] params, BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> equation, int expectedSize, double[] expectedFirstPoint, double[] expectedLastPoint) {
+            this.params = params;
+            this.equation = equation;
+            this.expectedSize = expectedSize;
+            this.expectedFirstPoint = expectedFirstPoint;
+            this.expectedLastPoint = expectedLastPoint;
+        }
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("eulerStepTestCases")
+    void testEulerStep(double x, double h, double y, BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> equation, double expected) {
+        double result = EulerMethod.eulerStep(x, h, y, equation);
+        assertEquals(expected, result, 1e-9, "Euler step failed for the given equation.");
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> eulerStepTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0.0, 0.1, 1.0, (BiFunction<Double, Double, Double>) ((x, y) -> x + y), 1.1));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("eulerStepInvalidCases")
+    void testEulerStepInvalidInput(double x, double h, double y, BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> equation, Class<? extends Exception> expectedExceptionClass) {
+        assertThrows(expectedExceptionClass, () -> EulerMethod.eulerStep(x, h, y, equation));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> eulerStepInvalidCases() {
+        BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> dummyEquation = (x, y) -> x + y;
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0.0, -0.1, 1.0, dummyEquation, IllegalArgumentException.class), Arguments.of(0.0, 0.0, 1.0, dummyEquation, IllegalArgumentException.class));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("eulerFullTestCases")
+    void testEulerFull(EulerFullTestCase testCase) {
+        ArrayList<double[]> result = EulerMethod.eulerFull(testCase.params[0], testCase.params[1], testCase.params[2], testCase.params[3], testCase.equation);
+        assertEquals(testCase.expectedSize, result.size(), "Incorrect number of points in the result.");
+        assertArrayEquals(testCase.expectedFirstPoint, result.get(0), 1e-9, "Incorrect first point.");
+        assertArrayEquals(testCase.expectedLastPoint, result.get(result.size() - 1), 1e-9, "Incorrect last point.");
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> eulerFullTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new EulerFullTestCase(new double[] {0.0, 1.0, 0.5, 0.0}, (x, y) -> x, 3, new double[] {0.0, 0.0}, new double[] {1.0, 0.25})),
+            Arguments.of(new EulerFullTestCase(new double[] {0.0, 1.0, 0.1, 1.0}, (x, y) -> y, 12, new double[] {0.0, 1.0}, new double[] {1.0999999999999999, 2.8531167061100002})),
+            Arguments.of(new EulerFullTestCase(new double[] {0.0, 0.1, 0.1, 1.0}, (x, y) -> x + y, 2, new double[] {0.0, 1.0}, new double[] {0.1, 1.1})));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("eulerFullInvalidCases")
+    void testEulerFullInvalidInput(double xStart, double xEnd, double stepSize, double yInitial, BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> equation, Class<? extends Exception> expectedExceptionClass) {
+        assertThrows(expectedExceptionClass, () -> EulerMethod.eulerFull(xStart, xEnd, stepSize, yInitial, equation));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> eulerFullInvalidCases() {
+        BiFunction<Double, Double, Double> dummyEquation = (x, y) -> x + y;
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(1.0, 0.0, 0.1, 1.0, dummyEquation, IllegalArgumentException.class), Arguments.of(0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0, dummyEquation, IllegalArgumentException.class), Arguments.of(0.0, 1.0, -0.1, 1.0, dummyEquation, IllegalArgumentException.class));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprimeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprimeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b4ee0cf0659c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprimeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+import static org.mockito.ArgumentMatchers.any;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.mockito.MockedStatic;
+import org.mockito.Mockito;
+
+class EulerPseudoprimeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testPrimeNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(7), 5));
+        assertTrue(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(13), 5));
+        assertTrue(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(101), 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCompositeNumbers() {
+        assertFalse(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(9), 5));
+        assertFalse(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(21), 5));
+        assertFalse(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(221), 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEvenNumbers() {
+        assertFalse(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(4), 5));
+        assertFalse(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(100), 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCases() {
+        assertFalse(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(0), 5));
+        assertFalse(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(1), 5));
+        assertTrue(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(2), 5));
+        assertTrue(EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(3), 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsProbablePrimeWhenJacobiSymbolIsZero() {
+        try (MockedStatic<EulerPseudoprime> mockedPrimality = Mockito.mockStatic(EulerPseudoprime.class, Mockito.CALLS_REAL_METHODS)) {
+
+            // Mock jacobiSymbol to return 0 to test the branch
+            mockedPrimality.when(() -> EulerPseudoprime.jacobiSymbol(any(BigInteger.class), any(BigInteger.class))).thenReturn(0);
+
+            boolean result = EulerPseudoprime.isProbablePrime(BigInteger.valueOf(15), 1);
+
+            assertFalse(result);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testJacobiSymbolThrowsForEvenOrNonPositiveN() throws Exception {
+        var method = EulerPseudoprime.class.getDeclaredMethod("jacobiSymbol", BigInteger.class, BigInteger.class);
+
+        // Helper lambda to unwrap InvocationTargetException
+        Runnable invokeJacobi = () -> {
+            try {
+                method.invoke(null, BigInteger.valueOf(2), BigInteger.valueOf(8));
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+                // unwrap
+                Throwable cause = e.getCause();
+                if (cause instanceof IllegalArgumentException) {
+                    throw (IllegalArgumentException) cause;
+                } else {
+                    throw new RuntimeException(e);
+                }
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Now check that it actually throws
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, invokeJacobi::run);
+
+        // Another case: non-positive n
+        Runnable invokeJacobi2 = () -> {
+            try {
+                method.invoke(null, BigInteger.valueOf(5), BigInteger.valueOf(-3));
+            } catch (Exception e) {
+                Throwable cause = e.getCause();
+                if (cause instanceof IllegalArgumentException) {
+                    throw (IllegalArgumentException) cause;
+                } else {
+                    throw new RuntimeException(e);
+                }
+            }
+        };
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, invokeJacobi2::run);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulersFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulersFunctionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9048a711d0d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulersFunctionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class EulersFunctionTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersForGetEuler")
+    void testGetEuler(int input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, EulersFunction.getEuler(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideInvalidNumbersForGetEuler")
+    void testGetEulerThrowsExceptionForNonPositiveInput(int input) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> EulersFunction.getEuler(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersForGetEuler() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(1, 1), Arguments.of(2, 1), Arguments.of(3, 2), Arguments.of(4, 2), Arguments.of(5, 4), Arguments.of(6, 2), Arguments.of(10, 4), Arguments.of(21, 12), Arguments.of(69, 44), Arguments.of(47, 46), Arguments.of(46, 22), Arguments.of(55, 40), Arguments.of(34, 16),
+            Arguments.of(20, 8), Arguments.of(1024, 512));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideInvalidNumbersForGetEuler() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0), Arguments.of(-1), Arguments.of(-10));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8d78fb0f2a16
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class FFTTest {
+
+    // Testing the simple function getReal
+    @Test
+    void getRealtest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex = new FFT.Complex(1.0, 1.0);
+        assertEquals(1.0, complex.getReal());
+    }
+
+    // Testing the simple function getImaginary
+    @Test
+    void getImaginaryTest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex = new FFT.Complex();
+        assertEquals(0.0, complex.getImaginary());
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function add, assertEqual test
+    @Test
+    void addTest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(1.0, 1.0);
+        FFT.Complex complex2 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+        double add = complex1.add(complex2).getReal();
+        assertEquals(3.0, add);
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function add, assertNotEqual test
+    @Test
+    void addFalseTest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(1.0, 1.0);
+        FFT.Complex complex2 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+        double add = complex1.add(complex2).getReal();
+        assertNotEquals(2.0, add);
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function subtract, assertEqual test
+    @Test
+    void subtractTest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+        FFT.Complex complex2 = new FFT.Complex(1.0, 1.0);
+        double sub = complex1.subtract(complex2).getReal();
+        assertEquals(1.0, sub);
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function multiply complex, assertEqual test
+    @Test
+    void multiplyWithComplexTest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+        FFT.Complex complex2 = new FFT.Complex(1.0, 1.0);
+        double multiReal = complex1.multiply(complex2).getReal();
+        double multiImg = complex1.multiply(complex2).getImaginary();
+        assertEquals(0.0, multiReal);
+        assertEquals(4.0, multiImg);
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function multiply scalar, assertEqual test
+    @Test
+    void multiplyWithScalarTest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+
+        double multiReal = complex1.multiply(2).getReal();
+        double multiImg = complex1.multiply(3).getImaginary();
+        assertEquals(4.0, multiReal);
+        assertEquals(6.0, multiImg);
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function conjugate, assertEqual test
+    @Test
+    void conjugateTest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+        double conReal = complex1.conjugate().getReal();
+        double conImg = complex1.conjugate().getImaginary();
+        assertEquals(2.0, conReal);
+        assertEquals(-2.0, conImg);
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function abs, assertEqual test
+    @Test
+    void abs() {
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 3.0);
+        double abs = complex1.abs();
+        assertEquals(Math.sqrt(13), abs);
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function divide complex, assertEqual test.
+    @Test
+    void divideWithComplexTest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+        FFT.Complex complex2 = new FFT.Complex(1.0, 2.0);
+        double divReal = complex1.divide(complex2).getReal();
+        double divImg = complex1.divide(complex2).getImaginary();
+        assertEquals(1.2, divReal);
+        assertEquals(-0.4, divImg);
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function divide scalar, assertEqual test.
+    @Test
+    void divideWithScalarTest() {
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+        double divReal = complex1.divide(2).getReal();
+        double divImg = complex1.divide(2).getImaginary();
+        assertEquals(1, divReal);
+        assertEquals(1, divImg);
+    }
+
+    // Testing the function fft, assertEqual test.
+    // https://scistatcalc.blogspot.com/2013/12/fft-calculator.html used this link to
+    // ensure the result
+    @Test
+    void fft() {
+        ArrayList<FFT.Complex> arr = new ArrayList<FFT.Complex>();
+        FFT.Complex complex1 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+        FFT.Complex complex2 = new FFT.Complex(1.0, 3.0);
+        FFT.Complex complex3 = new FFT.Complex(3.0, 1.0);
+        FFT.Complex complex4 = new FFT.Complex(2.0, 2.0);
+
+        arr.add(complex1);
+        arr.add(complex2);
+        arr.add(complex3);
+        arr.add(complex4);
+        arr = FFT.fft(arr, false);
+        double realV1 = arr.get(0).getReal();
+        double realV2 = arr.get(2).getReal();
+        double imgV1 = arr.get(0).getImaginary();
+        double imgV2 = arr.get(2).getImaginary();
+        assertEquals(8.0, realV1);
+        assertEquals(2.0, realV2);
+        assertEquals(8.0, imgV1);
+        assertEquals(-2.0, imgV2);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..db18b46356b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialRecursionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class FactorialRecursionTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStream")
+    void testFactorialRecursion(long expected, int number) {
+        assertEquals(expected, FactorialRecursion.factorial(number));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(1, 0), Arguments.of(1, 1), Arguments.of(2, 2), Arguments.of(6, 3), Arguments.of(120, 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testThrowsForNegativeInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FactorialRecursion.factorial(-1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b38dc45589ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FactorialTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FactorialTest {
+    private static final String EXCEPTION_MESSAGE = "Input number cannot be negative";
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWhenInvalidInoutProvidedShouldThrowException() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Factorial.factorial(-1));
+        assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), EXCEPTION_MESSAGE);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCorrectFactorialCalculation() {
+        assertEquals(1, Factorial.factorial(0));
+        assertEquals(1, Factorial.factorial(1));
+        assertEquals(120, Factorial.factorial(5));
+        assertEquals(3628800, Factorial.factorial(10));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f117f90233e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the {@link FastExponentiation} class.
+ *
+ * <p>This class contains various test cases to verify the correctness of the fastExponentiation method.
+ * It covers basic functionality, edge cases, and exceptional cases.
+ */
+class FastExponentiationTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Tests fast exponentiation with small numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSmallNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(1024, FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(2, 10, 10000), "2^10 mod 10000 should be 1024");
+        assertEquals(81, FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(3, 4, 1000), "3^4 mod 1000 should be 81");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the behavior of the fast exponentiation method when using a modulus.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testWithModulo() {
+        assertEquals(24, FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(2, 10, 1000), "2^10 mod 1000 should be 24");
+        assertEquals(0, FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(10, 5, 10), "10^5 mod 10 should be 0");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the edge cases where base or exponent is 0.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBaseCases() {
+        assertEquals(1, FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(2, 0, 1000), "Any number raised to the power 0 mod anything should be 1");
+        assertEquals(0, FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(0, 10, 1000), "0 raised to any power should be 0");
+        assertEquals(1, FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(0, 0, 1000), "0^0 is considered 0 in modular arithmetic.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests fast exponentiation with a negative base to ensure correctness under modular arithmetic.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeBase() {
+        assertEquals(9765625, FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(-5, 10, 1000000007), "-5^10 mod 1000000007 should be 9765625");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests that a negative exponent throws an ArithmeticException.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeExponent() {
+        assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> { FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(2, -5, 1000); });
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests that the method throws an IllegalArgumentException for invalid modulus values.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidModulus() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { FastExponentiation.fastExponentiation(2, 5, 0); });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrtTests.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrtTests.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a3416a6bc871
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrtTests.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FastInverseSqrtTests {
+
+    @Test
+    void testForOneElement() {
+        assertFalse(FastInverseSqrt.inverseSqrt(1332));
+        // calls for the 2nd inverse method
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForsecond() {
+        assertFalse(FastInverseSqrt.inverseSqrt(1332f));
+        // calls for the 1st inverse method
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForThird() {
+        assertFalse(FastInverseSqrt.inverseSqrt(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFourth() {
+        assertFalse(FastInverseSqrt.inverseSqrt(1f));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFifth() {
+        assertFalse(FastInverseSqrt.inverseSqrt(4522));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSixth() {
+        assertFalse(FastInverseSqrt.inverseSqrt(4522f));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSeventh() {
+        assertFalse(FastInverseSqrt.inverseSqrt(21));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEighth() {
+        assertFalse(FastInverseSqrt.inverseSqrt(21f));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreamsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreamsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5cfb304ae471
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreamsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 25/07/2023
+ */
+public class FibonacciJavaStreamsTest {
+    private static final String EXCEPTION_MESSAGE = "Input index cannot be null or negative!";
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithNegativeIndexShouldThrowException() {
+        Exception exception = Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FibonacciJavaStreams.calculate(new BigDecimal(-1)));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(EXCEPTION_MESSAGE, exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCheckTheFirst4SequenceElements() {
+        checkElement(BigDecimal.ZERO, BigDecimal.ZERO);
+        checkElement(BigDecimal.ONE, BigDecimal.ONE);
+        checkElement(BigDecimal.TWO, BigDecimal.ONE);
+        checkElement(new BigDecimal(3), BigDecimal.TWO);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCheck10thSequenceElement() {
+        checkElement(BigDecimal.TEN, new BigDecimal(55));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCheck20thSequenceElement() {
+        checkElement(new BigDecimal(20), new BigDecimal(6765));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCheck30thSequenceElement() {
+        checkElement(new BigDecimal(30), new BigDecimal(832040));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCheck40thSequenceElement() {
+        checkElement(new BigDecimal(40), new BigDecimal(102334155));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCheck50thSequenceElement() {
+        checkElement(new BigDecimal(50), new BigDecimal(12586269025L));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCheck100thSequenceElement() {
+        checkElement(new BigDecimal(100), new BigDecimal("354224848179261915075"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCheck200thSequenceElement() {
+        checkElement(new BigDecimal(200), new BigDecimal("280571172992510140037611932413038677189525"));
+    }
+
+    private static void checkElement(BigDecimal index, BigDecimal expected) {
+        // when
+        Optional<BigDecimal> result = FibonacciJavaStreams.calculate(index);
+
+        // then
+        Assertions.assertTrue(result.isPresent());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(result.get(), expected);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciLoopTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciLoopTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..93aec39765d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciLoopTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FibonacciLoopTest {
+    @Test
+    public void checkValueAtZero() {
+        assertEquals(BigInteger.ZERO, FibonacciLoop.compute(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void checkValueAtOne() {
+        assertEquals(BigInteger.ONE, FibonacciLoop.compute(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void checkValueAtTwo() {
+        assertEquals(BigInteger.ONE, FibonacciLoop.compute(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void checkRecurrenceRelation() {
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; ++i) {
+            assertEquals(FibonacciLoop.compute(i + 2), FibonacciLoop.compute(i + 1).add(FibonacciLoop.compute(i)));
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void checkNegativeInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { FibonacciLoop.compute(-1); });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheckTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheckTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6ba81639a11a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheckTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Fibonacci Sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144...
+ *
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 01/07/2023
+ */
+public class FibonacciNumberCheckTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testNumberIsFibonacciNumber() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(1));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(2));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(21));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(6765)); // 20th number
+        Assertions.assertTrue(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(832040)); // 30th number
+        Assertions.assertTrue(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(102334155)); // 40th number
+        Assertions.assertTrue(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(701408733)); // 45th number
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNumberIsNotFibonacciNumber() {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(9));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(10));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(145));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(FibonacciNumberCheck.isFibonacciNumber(701408734));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberGoldenRationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberGoldenRationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e3f7bf3e0fed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberGoldenRationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FibonacciNumberGoldenRationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void returnsCorrectValues() {
+        for (int n = 0; n <= FibonacciNumberGoldenRation.MAX_ARG; ++n) {
+            final var actual = FibonacciNumberGoldenRation.compute(n);
+            final var expected = FibonacciLoop.compute(n);
+            assertEquals(expected, BigInteger.valueOf(actual));
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void throwsIllegalArgumentExceptionForNegativeInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { FibonacciNumberGoldenRation.compute(-1); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void throwsIllegalArgumentExceptionForLargeInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { FibonacciNumberGoldenRation.compute(FibonacciNumberGoldenRation.MAX_ARG + 1); });
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindKthNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindKthNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ca69e66c9f6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindKthNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Random;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FindKthNumberTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testFindKthMaxTypicalCases() {
+        int[] array1 = {3, 2, 1, 4, 5};
+        assertEquals(3, FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array1, 3));
+        assertEquals(4, FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array1, 2));
+        assertEquals(5, FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array1, 1));
+        assertEquals(3, FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array1, 3));
+        assertEquals(4, FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array1, 2));
+        assertEquals(5, FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array1, 1));
+
+        int[] array2 = {7, 5, 8, 2, 1, 6};
+        assertEquals(5, FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array2, 4));
+        assertEquals(6, FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array2, 3));
+        assertEquals(8, FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array2, 1));
+        assertEquals(5, FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array2, 4));
+        assertEquals(6, FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array2, 3));
+        assertEquals(8, FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array2, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindKthMaxEdgeCases() {
+        int[] array1 = {1};
+        assertEquals(1, FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array1, 1));
+        assertEquals(1, FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array1, 1));
+
+        int[] array2 = {5, 3};
+        assertEquals(5, FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array2, 1));
+        assertEquals(3, FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array2, 2));
+        assertEquals(5, FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array2, 1));
+        assertEquals(3, FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array2, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindKthMaxInvalidK() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array, 0));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array, 6));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array, 0));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array, 6));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindKthMaxLargeArray() {
+        int[] array = generateArray(1000);
+        int k = new Random().nextInt(1, array.length);
+        int result = FindKthNumber.findKthMax(array, k);
+        int maxK = FindKthNumber.findKthMaxUsingHeap(array, k);
+        Arrays.sort(array);
+        assertEquals(array[array.length - k], result);
+        assertEquals(array[array.length - k], maxK);
+    }
+
+    public static int[] generateArray(int capacity) {
+        int size = new Random().nextInt(2, capacity);
+        int[] array = new int[size];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+            array[i] = new Random().nextInt(100); // Ensure positive values for testing
+        }
+        return array;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d54cae67209f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxRecursionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class FindMaxRecursionTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStream")
+    void numberTests(int expected, int[] input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, FindMaxRecursion.max(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(5, new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}), Arguments.of(0, new int[] {-1, 0}), Arguments.of(-1, new int[] {-10, -9, -8, -7, -6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1}), Arguments.of(9, new int[] {3, -2, 3, 9, -4, -4, 8}), Arguments.of(3, new int[] {3}));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindMaxThrowsExceptionForEmptyInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FindMaxRecursion.max(new int[] {}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a863a2c8586b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMaxTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class FindMaxTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStream")
+    void numberTests(int expected, int[] input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, FindMax.findMax(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(10, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}), Arguments.of(5, new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}), Arguments.of(0, new int[] {-1, 0}), Arguments.of(-1, new int[] {-10, -9, -8, -7, -6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1}), Arguments.of(9, new int[] {3, -2, 3, 9, -4, -4, 8}));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindMaxThrowsExceptionForEmptyInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FindMax.findMax(new int[] {}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3c36702b881d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinRecursionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class FindMinRecursionTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStream")
+    void numberTests(int expected, int[] input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, FindMinRecursion.min(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(5, new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}), Arguments.of(-1, new int[] {-1, 0}), Arguments.of(-10, new int[] {-10, -9, -8, -7, -6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1}), Arguments.of(-4, new int[] {3, -2, 3, 9, -4, -4, 8}), Arguments.of(3, new int[] {3}));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindMaxThrowsExceptionForEmptyInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FindMinRecursion.min(new int[] {}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e713c0191ea1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FindMinTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class FindMinTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStream")
+    void numberTests(int expected, int[] input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, FindMin.findMin(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(1, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}), Arguments.of(5, new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}), Arguments.of(0, new int[] {0, 192, 384, 576}), Arguments.of(-1, new int[] {-1, 2, 5, 10}), Arguments.of(-10, new int[] {-10, -9, -8, -7, -6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1}),
+            Arguments.of(-4, new int[] {4, -3, 8, 9, -4, -4, 10}));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindMinThrowsExceptionForEmptyInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FindMin.findMin(new int[] {}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FloorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FloorTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..19aed70ccb71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FloorTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+public class FloorTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testFloorWholeNumber() {
+        assertEquals(0, Floor.floor(0));
+        assertEquals(1, Floor.floor(1));
+        assertEquals(-1, Floor.floor(-1));
+        assertEquals(42, Floor.floor(42));
+        assertEquals(-42, Floor.floor(-42));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFloorDoubleNumber() {
+        assertEquals(0, Floor.floor(0.1));
+        assertEquals(1, Floor.floor(1.9));
+        assertEquals(-2, Floor.floor(-1.1));
+        assertEquals(-43, Floor.floor(-42.7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFloorNegativeZero() {
+        assertEquals(-0.0, Floor.floor(-0.0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FrizzyNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FrizzyNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a5fd867e900e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FrizzyNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+public class FrizzyNumberTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testFrizziesForBase2() {
+        assertEquals(1, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(2, 1));
+        assertEquals(3, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(2, 3));
+        assertEquals(1000, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(2, 1000));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFrizziesForBase3() {
+        assertEquals(1, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(3, 1));
+        assertEquals(3, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(3, 2));
+        assertEquals(29430, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(3, 1000));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFrizziesForBase69() {
+        assertEquals(1, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(69, 1));
+        assertEquals(69, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(69, 2));
+        assertEquals(328510, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(69, 9));
+        assertEquals(333340, FrizzyNumber.getNthFrizzy(69, 15));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6b6ea2f85164
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
+
+public class GCDRecursionTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"7, 5, 1", "9, 12, 3", "18, 24, 6", "36, 60, 12"})
+    void testGcdPositiveNumbers(int a, int b, int expectedGcd) {
+        assertEquals(expectedGcd, GCDRecursion.gcd(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 5, 5", "8, 0, 8"})
+    void testGcdOneZero(int a, int b, int expectedGcd) {
+        assertEquals(expectedGcd, GCDRecursion.gcd(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGcdBothZero() {
+        assertEquals(0, GCDRecursion.gcd(0, 0));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @ValueSource(ints = {-5, -15})
+    void testGcdNegativeNumbers(int negativeValue) {
+        assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> GCDRecursion.gcd(negativeValue, 15));
+        assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> GCDRecursion.gcd(15, negativeValue));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"5, 5, 5", "8, 8, 8"})
+    void testGcdWithSameNumbers(int a, int b, int expectedGcd) {
+        assertEquals(expectedGcd, GCDRecursion.gcd(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"7, 13, 1", "11, 17, 1"})
+    void testGcdWithPrimeNumbers(int a, int b, int expectedGcd) {
+        assertEquals(expectedGcd, GCDRecursion.gcd(a, b));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bac3f8f7596c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GCDTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void test1() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> GCD.gcd(-1, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test2() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> GCD.gcd(10, -2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test3() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> GCD.gcd(-5, -3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test4() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(GCD.gcd(0, 2), 2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test5() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(GCD.gcd(10, 0), 10);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test6() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(GCD.gcd(1, 0), 1);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test7() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(GCD.gcd(9, 6), 3);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test8() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(GCD.gcd(48, 18, 30, 12), 6);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayGcd1() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(GCD.gcd(new int[] {9, 6}), 3);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayGcd2() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(GCD.gcd(new int[] {2 * 3 * 5 * 7, 2 * 5 * 5 * 5, 2 * 5 * 11, 5 * 5 * 5 * 13}), 5);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayGcdForEmptyInput() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(GCD.gcd(new int[] {}), 0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GaussianTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GaussianTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fe900fa22d26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GaussianTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static com.thealgorithms.maths.Gaussian.gaussian;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GaussianTest {
+
+    // easy pass test for the whole class. Matrix of 2*3.
+    @Test
+    void passTest1() {
+        ArrayList<Double> list = new ArrayList<Double>();
+        ArrayList<Double> answer = new ArrayList<Double>();
+        answer.add(0.0);
+        answer.add(1.0);
+
+        int matrixSize = 2;
+        list.add(1.0);
+        list.add(1.0);
+        list.add(1.0);
+        list.add(2.0);
+        list.add(1.0);
+        list.add(1.0);
+
+        assertEquals(answer, gaussian(matrixSize, list));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRootTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRootTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2578cfe82305
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRootTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class GenericRootTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("tcStream")
+    public void testGenericRoot(final int input, final int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, GenericRoot.genericRoot(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("tcStream")
+    public void testGenericRootWithNegativeInputs(final int input, final int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, GenericRoot.genericRoot(-input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> tcStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, 0), Arguments.of(1, 1), Arguments.of(12345, 6), Arguments.of(123, 6), Arguments.of(15937, 7), Arguments.of(222222, 3), Arguments.of(99999, 9));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GermainPrimeAndSafePrimeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GermainPrimeAndSafePrimeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..069d1156295f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GermainPrimeAndSafePrimeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class GermainPrimeAndSafePrimeTest {
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersForGermainPrimes() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(2, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(3, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(5, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(11, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(23, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(293, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(4, Boolean.FALSE), Arguments.of(7, Boolean.FALSE),
+            Arguments.of(9, Boolean.FALSE), Arguments.of(1, Boolean.FALSE));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersForSafePrimes() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(5, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(7, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(11, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(23, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(1283, Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of(4, Boolean.FALSE), Arguments.of(13, Boolean.FALSE), Arguments.of(9, Boolean.FALSE),
+            Arguments.of(1, Boolean.FALSE));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Integer> provideNegativeNumbers() {
+        return Stream.of(-10, -1, 0);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersForGermainPrimes")
+    @DisplayName("Check whether a number is a Germain prime")
+    void testValidGermainPrimes(int number, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, GermainPrimeAndSafePrime.isGermainPrime(number));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersForSafePrimes")
+    @DisplayName("Check whether a number is a Safe prime")
+    void testValidSafePrimes(int number, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, GermainPrimeAndSafePrime.isSafePrime(number));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNegativeNumbers")
+    @DisplayName("Negative numbers and zero should throw IllegalArgumentException")
+    void testNegativeNumbersThrowException(int number) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> GermainPrimeAndSafePrime.isGermainPrime(number));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> GermainPrimeAndSafePrime.isSafePrime(number));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjectureTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjectureTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..84c5824d26ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjectureTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static com.thealgorithms.maths.GoldbachConjecture.getPrimeSum;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GoldbachConjectureTest {
+    @Test
+    void testValidEvenNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(new GoldbachConjecture.Result(3, 7), getPrimeSum(10)); // 10 = 3 + 7
+        assertEquals(new GoldbachConjecture.Result(5, 7), getPrimeSum(12)); // 12 = 5 + 7
+        assertEquals(new GoldbachConjecture.Result(3, 11), getPrimeSum(14)); // 14 = 3 + 11
+        assertEquals(new GoldbachConjecture.Result(5, 13), getPrimeSum(18)); // 18 = 5 + 13
+    }
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidOddNumbers() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> getPrimeSum(7));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> getPrimeSum(15));
+    }
+    @Test
+    void testLesserThanTwo() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> getPrimeSum(1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> getPrimeSum(2));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> getPrimeSum(-5));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> getPrimeSum(-26));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4b7cb795406f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class HappyNumberTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testHappyNumbers() {
+        // Known happy numbers
+        assertTrue(HappyNumber.isHappy(1));
+        assertTrue(HappyNumber.isHappy(7));
+        assertTrue(HappyNumber.isHappy(19));
+        assertTrue(HappyNumber.isHappy(100));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUnhappyNumbers() {
+        // Known unhappy numbers
+        assertFalse(HappyNumber.isHappy(2));
+        assertFalse(HappyNumber.isHappy(4));
+        assertFalse(HappyNumber.isHappy(20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeNumber() {
+        // Just to check behavior with larger input
+        assertTrue(HappyNumber.isHappy(1000000)); // reduces to 1 eventually
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..299e6bd78a99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HarshadNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for {@link HarshadNumber}.
+ * Tests various scenarios including positive cases, edge cases, and exception
+ * handling.
+ */
+class HarshadNumberTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testValidHarshadNumbers() {
+        // Single digit Harshad numbers (all single digits except 0 are Harshad numbers)
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(1));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(2));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(3));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(4));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(5));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(6));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(7));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(8));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(9));
+
+        // Two digit Harshad numbers
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(10)); // 10 / (1 + 0) = 10
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(12)); // 12 / (1 + 2) = 4
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(18)); // 18 / (1 + 8) = 2
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(20)); // 20 / (2 + 0) = 10
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(21)); // 21 / (2 + 1) = 7
+
+        // Three digit Harshad numbers
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(100)); // 100 / (1 + 0 + 0) = 100
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(102)); // 102 / (1 + 0 + 2) = 34
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(108)); // 108 / (1 + 0 + 8) = 12
+
+        // Large Harshad numbers
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(1000)); // 1000 / (1 + 0 + 0 + 0) = 1000
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(1002)); // 1002 / (1 + 0 + 0 + 2) = 334
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(999999999)); // 999999999 / (9*9) = 12345679
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidHarshadNumbers() {
+        // Numbers that are not Harshad numbers
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(11)); // 11 / (1 + 1) = 5.5
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(13)); // 13 / (1 + 3) = 3.25
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(17)); // 17 / (1 + 7) = 2.125
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(19)); // 19 / (1 + 9) = 1.9
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(23)); // 23 / (2 + 3) = 4.6
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad(101)); // 101 / (1 + 0 + 1) = 50.5
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeNumbersThrowException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad(-1));
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad(-18));
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad(-100));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testValidHarshadNumbersWithString() {
+        // Single digit Harshad numbers
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("1"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("2"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("9"));
+
+        // Two digit Harshad numbers
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("10"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("12"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("18"));
+
+        // Large Harshad numbers
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("1000"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("999999999"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("99999999999100"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidHarshadNumbersWithString() {
+        // Numbers that are not Harshad numbers
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("11"));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("13"));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("19"));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(HarshadNumber.isHarshad("23"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringWithZeroThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad("0"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringWithNegativeNumbersThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad("-1"));
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad("-18"));
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad("-100"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullStringThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyStringThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidStringThrowsException() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad("abc"));
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad("12.5"));
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad("12a"));
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HarshadNumber.isHarshad(" 12 "));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMaxLongValue() {
+        // Test with a large number close to Long.MAX_VALUE
+        long largeHarshadCandidate = 9223372036854775800L;
+        // This specific number may or may not be Harshad, just testing it doesn't crash
+        try {
+            HarshadNumber.isHarshad(largeHarshadCandidate);
+        } catch (Exception e) {
+            Assertions.fail("Should not throw exception for valid large numbers");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HeronsFormulaTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HeronsFormulaTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5175c6348c9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HeronsFormulaTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test cases for {@link HeronsFormula}.
+ */
+class HeronsFormulaTest {
+
+    private static final double EPSILON = 1e-10;
+
+    @Test
+    void testRightTriangleThreeFourFive() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(6.0, HeronsFormula.herons(3, 4, 5), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTriangleTwentyFourThirtyEighteen() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(216.0, HeronsFormula.herons(24, 30, 18), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEquilateralTriangle() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0.4330127018922193, HeronsFormula.herons(1, 1, 1), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testScaleneTriangleFourFiveEight() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(8.181534085976786, HeronsFormula.herons(4, 5, 8), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEquilateralTriangleLargeSides() {
+        final double side = 10.0;
+        final double expectedArea = Math.sqrt(3) / 4 * side * side;
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedArea, HeronsFormula.herons(side, side, side), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsoscelesTriangle() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(12.0, HeronsFormula.herons(5, 5, 6), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSmallTriangle() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0.4330127018922193, HeronsFormula.herons(1.0, 1.0, 1.0), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeTriangle() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(600.0, HeronsFormula.herons(30, 40, 50), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDecimalSides() {
+        final double area = HeronsFormula.herons(2.5, 3.5, 4.0);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(area > 0);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4.330127018922194, area, EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDegenerateTriangleEqualToSumOfOtherTwo() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(1, 2, 3); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDegenerateTriangleVariant2() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(2, 1, 3); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDegenerateTriangleVariant3() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(3, 2, 1); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDegenerateTriangleVariant4() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(1, 3, 2); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidTriangleSideGreaterThanSum() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(1, 1, 5); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroFirstSide() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(0, 1, 1); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroSecondSide() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(1, 0, 1); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroThirdSide() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(1, 1, 0); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeFirstSide() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(-1, 2, 2); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeSecondSide() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(2, -1, 2); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeThirdSide() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(2, 2, -1); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAllNegativeSides() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(-1, -2, -3); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAllZeroSides() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HeronsFormula.herons(0, 0, 0); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testVerySmallTriangle() {
+        final double result = HeronsFormula.herons(0.001, 0.001, 0.001);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(result > 0);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(result < 0.001);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRightTriangleFiveTwelveThirteen() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(30.0, HeronsFormula.herons(5, 12, 13), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRightTriangleEightFifteenSeventeen() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(60.0, HeronsFormula.herons(8, 15, 17), EPSILON);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblemTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..650b8dd578f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblemTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class JosephusProblemTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testJosephusProblem() {
+        assertEquals(3, JosephusProblem.findTheWinner(5, 2));
+        assertEquals(5, JosephusProblem.findTheWinner(6, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JugglerSequenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JugglerSequenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9f3e80eee2b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JugglerSequenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
+import java.io.PrintStream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class JugglerSequenceTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testJugglerSequenceWithThree() {
+        ByteArrayOutputStream outContent = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+        System.setOut(new PrintStream(outContent));
+        JugglerSequence.jugglerSequence(3);
+        assertEquals("3,5,11,36,6,2,1\n", outContent.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testJugglerSequenceWithTwo() {
+        ByteArrayOutputStream outContent = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+        System.setOut(new PrintStream(outContent));
+        JugglerSequence.jugglerSequence(2);
+        assertEquals("2,1\n", outContent.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testJugglerSequenceWithNine() {
+        ByteArrayOutputStream outContent = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+        System.setOut(new PrintStream(outContent));
+        JugglerSequence.jugglerSequence(9);
+        assertEquals("9,27,140,11,36,6,2,1\n", outContent.toString());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testJugglerSequenceWithOne() {
+        ByteArrayOutputStream outContent = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+        System.setOut(new PrintStream(outContent));
+        JugglerSequence.jugglerSequence(1);
+        assertEquals("1\n", outContent.toString());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java
index 04f8cc09b670..a3cd7500b30c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java
@@ -1,58 +1,188 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
-
-public class KaprekarNumbersTest {
-
-	@Test
-	void testFor1() 
-	{
-		assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(1));
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testFor45() 
-	{
-		assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(45));
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testFor297() 
-	{
-		assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(297));
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testFor2223() 
-	{
-		assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(2223));
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testFor857143() 
-	{
-		assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(857143));
-	}
-
-
-	@Test
-	void testFor3() 
-	{
-		assertFalse(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(3));
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testFor26() 
-	{
-		assertFalse(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(26));
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testFor98() 
-	{
-		assertFalse(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(98));
-	}
-
-}
\ No newline at end of file
+/**
+ * Test class for {@link KaprekarNumbers}.
+ * Tests various Kaprekar numbers and edge cases to ensure full coverage.
+ */
+class KaprekarNumbersTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOneIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNineIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        // 9^2 = 81, 8 + 1 = 9
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(9));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFortyFiveIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        // 45^2 = 2025, 20 + 25 = 45
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(45));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFiftyFiveIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        // 55^2 = 3025, 30 + 25 = 55
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(55));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNinetyNineIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        // 99^2 = 9801, 98 + 01 = 99
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(99));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoNinetySevenIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        // 297^2 = 88209, 88 + 209 = 297
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(297));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSevenZeroThreeIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        // 703^2 = 494209, 494 + 209 = 703
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(703));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNineNineNineIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        // 999^2 = 998001, 998 + 001 = 999
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(999));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoTwoTwoThreeIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        // 2223^2 = 4941729, 4941 + 729 = 5670 (not directly obvious)
+        // Actually: 494 + 1729 = 2223
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(2223));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEightFiveSevenOneFortyThreeIsKaprekarNumber() {
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(857143));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoIsNotKaprekarNumber() {
+        assertFalse(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testThreeIsNotKaprekarNumber() {
+        assertFalse(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTenIsNotKaprekarNumber() {
+        assertFalse(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwentySixIsNotKaprekarNumber() {
+        assertFalse(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(26));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNinetyEightIsNotKaprekarNumber() {
+        assertFalse(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(98));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOneHundredIsNotKaprekarNumber() {
+        assertFalse(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(100));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeNumberThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(-5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKaprekarNumbersInSmallRange() {
+        List<Long> result = KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(1, 10);
+        List<Long> expected = Arrays.asList(1L, 9L);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKaprekarNumbersInMediumRange() {
+        List<Long> result = KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(1, 100);
+        List<Long> expected = Arrays.asList(1L, 9L, 45L, 55L, 99L);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKaprekarNumbersInLargeRange() {
+        List<Long> rangedNumbers = KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(1, 100000);
+        List<Long> expectedNumbers = Arrays.asList(1L, 9L, 45L, 55L, 99L, 297L, 703L, 999L, 2223L, 2728L, 4950L, 5050L, 7272L, 7777L, 9999L, 17344L, 22222L, 77778L, 82656L, 95121L, 99999L);
+        assertEquals(expectedNumbers, rangedNumbers);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKaprekarNumbersInSingleElementRange() {
+        List<Long> result = KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(9, 9);
+        List<Long> expected = Arrays.asList(9L);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKaprekarNumbersInRangeWithNoKaprekarNumbers() {
+        List<Long> result = KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(2, 8);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testKaprekarNumbersInRangeStartingFromZero() {
+        List<Long> result = KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(0, 5);
+        List<Long> expected = Arrays.asList(0L, 1L);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidRangeThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(100, 50));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeStartThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(-10, 100));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyRange() {
+        List<Long> result = KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(10, 44);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeKaprekarNumber() {
+        // Test a larger known Kaprekar number
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(142857));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFourDigitKaprekarNumbers() {
+        // Test some 4-digit Kaprekar numbers
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(2728));
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(4950));
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(5050));
+        assertTrue(KaprekarNumbers.isKaprekarNumber(7272));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaratsubaMultiplicationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaratsubaMultiplicationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e184d998724a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaratsubaMultiplicationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Unit test class for {@link KaratsubaMultiplication} class.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * This class tests various edge cases and normal cases for the
+ * Karatsuba multiplication algorithm implemented in the KaratsubaMultiplication class.
+ * It uses parameterized tests to handle multiple test cases.
+ * </p>
+ */
+class KaratsubaMultiplicationTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test data for the parameterized test.
+     * Each entry in the stream contains three elements: x, y, and the expected result.
+     *
+     * @return a stream of arguments for the parameterized test
+     */
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Test case 1: Two small numbers
+            Arguments.of(new BigInteger("1234"), new BigInteger("5678"), new BigInteger("7006652")),
+            // Test case 2: Two large numbers
+            Arguments.of(new BigInteger("342364"), new BigInteger("393958"), new BigInteger("134877036712")),
+            // Test case 3: One number is zero
+            Arguments.of(BigInteger.ZERO, new BigInteger("5678"), BigInteger.ZERO),
+            // Test case 4: Both numbers are zero
+            Arguments.of(BigInteger.ZERO, BigInteger.ZERO, BigInteger.ZERO),
+            // Test case 5: Single-digit numbers
+            Arguments.of(new BigInteger("9"), new BigInteger("8"), new BigInteger("72")));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Parameterized test for Karatsuba multiplication.
+     *
+     * <p>
+     * This method runs the Karatsuba multiplication algorithm for multiple test cases.
+     * </p>
+     *
+     * @param x the first number to multiply
+     * @param y the second number to multiply
+     * @param expected the expected result of x * y
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testKaratsubaMultiplication(BigInteger x, BigInteger y, BigInteger expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, KaratsubaMultiplication.karatsuba(x, y));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cac6b925e5c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KeithNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,153 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test cases for {@link KeithNumber}.
+ */
+class KeithNumberTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Tests single-digit Keith numbers.
+     * All single-digit numbers (1-9) are Keith numbers by definition.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSingleDigitKeithNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(1));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(2));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(3));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(4));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(5));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(6));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(7));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(8));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(9));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests two-digit Keith numbers.
+     * Known two-digit Keith numbers: 14, 19, 28, 47, 61, 75.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTwoDigitKeithNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(14));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(19));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(28));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(47));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(61));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(75));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests three-digit Keith numbers.
+     * Known three-digit Keith numbers: 197, 742.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testThreeDigitKeithNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(197));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(742));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests four-digit Keith numbers.
+     * Known four-digit Keith numbers: 1104, 1537, 2208, 2580, 3684, 4788, 7385,
+     * 7647, 7909.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFourDigitKeithNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(1104));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(1537));
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(2208));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests two-digit non-Keith numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTwoDigitNonKeithNumbers() {
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(10));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(11));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(12));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(13));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(15));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(20));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(30));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(50));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests three-digit non-Keith numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testThreeDigitNonKeithNumbers() {
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(100));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(123));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(196));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(198));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(456));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(741));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(743));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(999));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests validation for edge case 14 in detail.
+     * 14 is a Keith number: 1, 4, 5 (1+4), 9 (4+5), 14 (5+9).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testKeithNumber14() {
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(14));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests validation for edge case 197 in detail.
+     * 197 is a Keith number: 1, 9, 7, 17, 33, 57, 107, 197.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testKeithNumber197() {
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(197));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests that zero throws an IllegalArgumentException.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testZeroThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KeithNumber.isKeith(0));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests that negative numbers throw an IllegalArgumentException.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeNumbersThrowException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KeithNumber.isKeith(-1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KeithNumber.isKeith(-14));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> KeithNumber.isKeith(-100));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests various edge cases with larger numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLargerNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(2208));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(2207));
+        assertFalse(KeithNumber.isKeith(2209));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the expected behavior with all two-digit Keith numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testAllKnownTwoDigitKeithNumbers() {
+        int[] knownKeithNumbers = {14, 19, 28, 47, 61, 75};
+        for (int number : knownKeithNumbers) {
+            assertTrue(KeithNumber.isKeith(number), "Expected " + number + " to be a Keith number");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3c9d4f886b3d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KrishnamurthyNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the {@link KrishnamurthyNumber} class.
+ */
+class KrishnamurthyNumberTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test with known Krishnamurthy number 145.
+     * 1! + 4! + 5! = 1 + 24 + 120 = 145
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIsKrishnamurthyWith145() {
+        assertTrue(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(145));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with a number that is not a Krishnamurthy number.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIsKrishnamurthyWithNonKrishnamurthyNumber() {
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(123));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with zero, which is not a Krishnamurthy number.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIsKrishnamurthyWithZero() {
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(0));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with negative numbers, which cannot be Krishnamurthy numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIsKrishnamurthyWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(-1));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(-145));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(-100));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with single-digit Krishnamurthy numbers.
+     * 1! = 1 and 2! = 2, so both 1 and 2 are Krishnamurthy numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIsKrishnamurthyWithSingleDigitKrishnamurthyNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(1));
+        assertTrue(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(2));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with single-digit numbers that are not Krishnamurthy numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIsKrishnamurthyWithSingleDigitNonKrishnamurthyNumbers() {
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(3));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(4));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(5));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(6));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(7));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(8));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(9));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with the largest Krishnamurthy number: 40585.
+     * 4! + 0! + 5! + 8! + 5! = 24 + 1 + 120 + 40320 + 120 = 40585
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIsKrishnamurthyWithLargestKrishnamurthyNumber() {
+        assertTrue(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(40585));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with various non-Krishnamurthy numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIsKrishnamurthyWithVariousNonKrishnamurthyNumbers() {
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(10));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(50));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(100));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(144));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(146));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(150));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(200));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(999));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(1000));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(40584));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(40586));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with numbers close to known Krishnamurthy numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testIsKrishnamurthyWithNumbersCloseToKrishnamurthy() {
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(144));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(146));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(40584));
+        assertFalse(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(40586));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with all known Krishnamurthy numbers in base 10.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testAllKnownKrishnamurthyNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(1));
+        assertTrue(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(2));
+        assertTrue(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(145));
+        assertTrue(KrishnamurthyNumber.isKrishnamurthy(40585));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultipleTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultipleTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..73da509723c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultipleTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class LeastCommonMultipleTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testLcm(int num1, int num2, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, LeastCommonMultiple.lcm(num1, num2));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(12, 18, 36), Arguments.of(5, 10, 10), Arguments.of(7, 3, 21), Arguments.of(21, 6, 42), Arguments.of(1, 1, 1), Arguments.of(8, 12, 24), Arguments.of(14, 35, 70), Arguments.of(15, 25, 75), Arguments.of(100, 25, 100), Arguments.of(0, 10, 0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..baf4540cf239
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeonardoNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,171 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test cases for {@link LeonardoNumber} class.
+ * <p>
+ * Tests both recursive and iterative implementations with various input values
+ * including edge cases and boundary conditions.
+ */
+class LeonardoNumberTest {
+
+    // Tests for recursive implementation
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberNegative() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(-1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberNegativeLarge() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(-100));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberZero() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberOne() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberTwo() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberThree() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberFour() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(9, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberFive() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(15, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberSix() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(25, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(6));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberSeven() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(41, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberEight() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(67, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(8));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberTen() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(177, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberFifteen() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1973, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(15));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberTwenty() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(21891, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(20));
+    }
+
+    // Tests for iterative implementation
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeNegative() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(-1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeNegativeLarge() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(-50));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeZero() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeOne() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeTwo() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeThree() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeFour() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(9, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeFive() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(15, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeSix() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(25, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(6));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeSeven() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(41, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeEight() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(67, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(8));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeTen() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(177, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeFifteen() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1973, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(15));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeTwenty() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(21891, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLeonardoNumberIterativeTwentyFive() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(242785, LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(25));
+    }
+
+    // Consistency tests between recursive and iterative implementations
+
+    @Test
+    void testConsistencyBetweenImplementations() {
+        for (int i = 0; i <= 15; i++) {
+            Assertions.assertEquals(LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumber(i), LeonardoNumber.leonardoNumberIterative(i), "Mismatch at index " + i);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolverTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolverTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c4205985dbfd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LinearDiophantineEquationsSolverTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,330 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.
+ * Tests various cases including:
+ * - Equations with solutions
+ * - Equations with no solutions
+ * - Special cases (zero coefficients, infinite solutions)
+ * - Edge cases (negative coefficients, large numbers)
+ */
+class LinearDiophantineEquationsSolverTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the example equation 3x + 4y = 7.
+     * Expected solution: x = -9, y = 8 (or other valid solutions).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBasicEquation() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(3, 4, 7);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        // Verify that the solution satisfies the equation
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation with no solution: 2x + 4y = 5.
+     * Since gcd(2, 4) = 2 and 2 does not divide 5, no solution exists.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNoSolution() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(2, 4, 5);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertEquals(LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution.NO_SOLUTION, solution);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the trivial equation 0x + 0y = 0.
+     * This has infinite solutions.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInfiniteSolutions() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(0, 0, 0);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertEquals(LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution.INFINITE_SOLUTIONS, solution);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation where a = 0: 0x + 5y = 10.
+     * Expected solution: x = 0, y = 2.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testZeroCoefficient() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(0, 5, 10);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation where b = 0: 3x + 0y = 9.
+     * Expected solution: x = 3, y can be anything (solver will return y = 0).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testZeroCoefficientB() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(3, 0, 9);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation with negative coefficients: -3x + 4y = 7.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeCoefficients() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(-3, 4, 7);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation with negative result: 3x + 4y = -7.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeResult() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(3, 4, -7);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation with coprime coefficients: 7x + 11y = 1.
+     * Since gcd(7, 11) = 1, a solution exists.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCoprimeCoefficients() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(7, 11, 1);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation with larger coefficients: 12x + 18y = 30.
+     * Since gcd(12, 18) = 6 and 6 divides 30, a solution exists.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLargerCoefficients() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(12, 18, 30);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation that has no solution due to GCD: 6x + 9y = 5.
+     * Since gcd(6, 9) = 3 and 3 does not divide 5, no solution exists.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNoSolutionGcdCheck() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(6, 9, 5);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertEquals(LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution.NO_SOLUTION, solution);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the equation x + y = 1.
+     * Simple case where gcd(1, 1) = 1.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSimpleCase() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(1, 1, 1);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Solution equality.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSolutionEquality() {
+        final var solution1 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(3, 5);
+        final var solution2 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(3, 5);
+        final var solution3 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(3, 6);
+
+        assertEquals(solution1, solution2);
+        assertNotEquals(solution3, solution1);
+        assertEquals(solution1, solution1);
+        assertNotEquals(null, solution1);
+        assertNotEquals("string", solution1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Solution hashCode.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSolutionHashCode() {
+        final var solution1 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(3, 5);
+        final var solution2 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(3, 5);
+
+        assertEquals(solution1.hashCode(), solution2.hashCode());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Solution toString.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSolutionToString() {
+        final var solution = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(3, 5);
+        final var str = solution.toString();
+
+        assertTrue(str.contains("3"));
+        assertTrue(str.contains("5"));
+        assertTrue(str.contains("Solution"));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests GcdSolutionWrapper equality.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGcdSolutionWrapperEquality() {
+        final var solution = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(1, 2);
+        final var wrapper1 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.GcdSolutionWrapper(5, solution);
+        final var wrapper2 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.GcdSolutionWrapper(5, solution);
+        final var wrapper3 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.GcdSolutionWrapper(6, solution);
+
+        assertEquals(wrapper1, wrapper2);
+        assertNotEquals(wrapper3, wrapper1);
+        assertEquals(wrapper1, wrapper1);
+        assertNotEquals(null, wrapper1);
+        assertNotEquals("string", wrapper1);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests GcdSolutionWrapper hashCode.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGcdSolutionWrapperHashCode() {
+        final var solution = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(1, 2);
+        final var wrapper1 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.GcdSolutionWrapper(5, solution);
+        final var wrapper2 = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.GcdSolutionWrapper(5, solution);
+
+        assertEquals(wrapper1.hashCode(), wrapper2.hashCode());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests GcdSolutionWrapper toString.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGcdSolutionWrapperToString() {
+        final var solution = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(1, 2);
+        final var wrapper = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.GcdSolutionWrapper(5, solution);
+        final var str = wrapper.toString();
+
+        assertTrue(str.contains("5"));
+        assertTrue(str.contains("GcdSolutionWrapper"));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Equation record functionality.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testEquationRecord() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(3, 4, 7);
+
+        assertEquals(3, equation.a());
+        assertEquals(4, equation.b());
+        assertEquals(7, equation.c());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation with c = 0: 3x + 4y = 0.
+     * Expected solution: x = 0, y = 0.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testZeroResult() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(3, 4, 0);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests Solution setters.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSolutionSetters() {
+        final var solution = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(1, 2);
+
+        solution.setX(10);
+        solution.setY(20);
+
+        assertEquals(10, solution.getX());
+        assertEquals(20, solution.getY());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests GcdSolutionWrapper setters.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGcdSolutionWrapperSetters() {
+        final var solution = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(1, 2);
+        final var wrapper = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.GcdSolutionWrapper(5, solution);
+
+        final var newSolution = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Solution(3, 4);
+        wrapper.setGcd(10);
+        wrapper.setSolution(newSolution);
+
+        assertEquals(10, wrapper.getGcd());
+        assertEquals(newSolution, wrapper.getSolution());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation with both coefficients negative: -3x - 4y = -7.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBothCoefficientsNegative() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(-3, -4, -7);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests an equation with large prime coefficients: 97x + 101y = 198.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLargePrimeCoefficients() {
+        final var equation = new LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.Equation(97, 101, 198);
+        final var solution = LinearDiophantineEquationsSolver.findAnySolution(equation);
+
+        assertNotNull(solution);
+        int result = equation.a() * solution.getX() + equation.b() * solution.getY();
+        assertEquals(equation.c(), result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivisionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivisionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..24f757f8f3ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivisionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class LongDivisionTest {
+
+    // Requirement: Dividend (positive) is  greater than divisor (positive), returns correct integer
+    // after division
+    @Test
+    void testOne() {
+        assertEquals(3, LongDivision.divide(10, 3));
+    }
+
+    // Requirement: Dividend (positive) is  greater than divisor (negative), returns correct integer
+    // after division
+    @Test
+    void testTwo() {
+        assertEquals(-2, LongDivision.divide(7, -3));
+    }
+
+    // Requirement: Dividend (positive) is  greater than divisor (negative), returns correct integer
+    // after division Basically the same as in the first test
+    @Test
+    void testThree() {
+        assertEquals(10, LongDivision.divide(105, 10));
+    }
+
+    // Requirement: Dividend (negative), divisor (positive), returns correct integer after division
+    // Tests the case where the dividend is less than 0.
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeDividend() {
+        assertEquals(-1, LongDivision.divide(-5, 3));
+    }
+
+    // Requirement: Dividend (positive), divisor (positive), returns correct integer after division
+    // Tests the case where the dividend is less than the divisor. The test should return 0 in this
+    // case.
+    @Test
+    void testDividendLessThanDivisor() {
+        assertEquals(0, LongDivision.divide(3, 5));
+    }
+
+    // Requirement: Dividend (neither), divisor (positive), returns correct integer after division
+    // Tests the case where the dividend is 0. This should return a 0.
+    @Test
+    void testDividendIsZero() {
+        assertEquals(0, LongDivision.divide(0, 5));
+    }
+
+    // Requirement: Dividend (positive), divisor (neither), returns correct integer after division
+    // Tests the case where the divisor is 0. This should return a 0.
+    @Test
+    void testDivisionByZero() {
+        assertEquals(0, LongDivision.divide(5, 0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeriesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeriesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4b6c1e41ecb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LucasSeriesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,158 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test cases for {@link LucasSeries} class.
+ * Tests both recursive and iterative implementations for correctness,
+ * edge cases, and error handling.
+ */
+class LucasSeriesTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test the first Lucas number L(1) = 2
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFirstLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(2, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(1));
+        assertEquals(2, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(1));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the second Lucas number L(2) = 1
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSecondLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(1, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(2));
+        assertEquals(1, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(2));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the third Lucas number L(3) = 3
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testThirdLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(3, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(3));
+        assertEquals(3, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(3));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the fourth Lucas number L(4) = 4
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFourthLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(4, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(4));
+        assertEquals(4, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(4));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the fifth Lucas number L(5) = 7
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFifthLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(7, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(5));
+        assertEquals(7, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(5));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the sixth Lucas number L(6) = 11
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSixthLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(11, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(6));
+        assertEquals(11, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(6));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the seventh Lucas number L(7) = 18
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSeventhLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(18, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(7));
+        assertEquals(18, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(7));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the eighth Lucas number L(8) = 29
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testEighthLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(29, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(8));
+        assertEquals(29, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(8));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the ninth Lucas number L(9) = 47
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNinthLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(47, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(9));
+        assertEquals(47, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(9));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the tenth Lucas number L(10) = 76
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTenthLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(76, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(10));
+        assertEquals(76, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(10));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the eleventh Lucas number L(11) = 123
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testEleventhLucasNumber() {
+        assertEquals(123, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(11));
+        assertEquals(123, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(11));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test larger Lucas numbers to ensure correctness
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLargerLucasNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(199, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(12));
+        assertEquals(199, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(12));
+        assertEquals(322, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(13));
+        assertEquals(322, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(13));
+        assertEquals(521, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(14));
+        assertEquals(521, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(14));
+        assertEquals(843, LucasSeries.lucasSeries(15));
+        assertEquals(843, LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(15));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test that both methods produce the same results
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testRecursiveAndIterativeConsistency() {
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 15; i++) {
+            assertEquals(LucasSeries.lucasSeries(i), LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(i), "Mismatch at position " + i);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test invalid input: zero
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testZeroInputThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LucasSeries.lucasSeries(0));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(0));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test invalid input: negative number
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeInputThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LucasSeries.lucasSeries(-1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(-1));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LucasSeries.lucasSeries(-5));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LucasSeries.lucasSeriesIteration(-5));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dc381bfca5d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MathBuilderTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void simpleMath() {
+        double result = new MathBuilder.Builder(100).add(200).multiply(10).print().divideIf(20, (a, b) -> a % 2 == 0).sqrt().print().ceil().build().get();
+        assertEquals(13, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void memoryTest() {
+        long result = new MathBuilder.Builder().set(100).sqrt().remember().add(21).recallIf(a -> a < 50, true).mod(2).build().toLong();
+        assertEquals(0, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void freeFallDistance() {
+        long distance = new MathBuilder.Builder(9.81).multiply(0.5).multiply(5 * 5).round().build().toLong();
+        assertEquals(123, distance); // Expected result: 0.5 * 9.81 * 25 = 122.625 ≈ 123
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void batchSalaryProcessing() {
+        double[] salaries = {2000, 3000, 4000, 5000};
+        long[] processedSalaries = new long[salaries.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < salaries.length; i++) {
+            processedSalaries[i] = new MathBuilder.Builder(salaries[i]).addIf(salaries[i] * 0.1, (sal, bonus) -> sal > 2500).multiply(0.92).round().build().toLong();
+        }
+        long[] expectedSalaries = {1840, 3036, 4048, 5060};
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedSalaries, processedSalaries);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void parenthesis() {
+        // 10 + (20*5) - 40 + (100 / 10) = 80
+        double result = new MathBuilder.Builder(10).openParenthesis(20).multiply(5).closeParenthesisAndPlus().minus(40).openParenthesis(100).divide(10).closeParenthesisAndPlus().build().get();
+        assertEquals(80, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void areaOfCircle() {
+        // Radius is 4
+        double area = new MathBuilder.Builder().pi().openParenthesis(4).multiply(4).closeParenthesisAndMultiply().build().get();
+        assertEquals(Math.PI * 4 * 4, area);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValueTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3c0fe8447c12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MaxValueTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MaxValueTest {
+    @Test
+    public void maxTest() {
+        assertEquals(-1, MaxValue.max(-1, -3));
+        assertEquals(3, MaxValue.max(3, 2));
+        assertEquals(5, MaxValue.max(5, 5));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MeansTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MeansTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..deee0a931910
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MeansTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.TreeSet;
+import java.util.Vector;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for {@link Means}.
+ * <p>
+ * This class provides comprehensive test coverage for all mean calculation
+ * methods,
+ * including edge cases, various collection types, and error conditions.
+ * </p>
+ */
+class MeansTest {
+
+    private static final double EPSILON = 1e-9;
+
+    // ========== Arithmetic Mean Tests ==========
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanThrowsExceptionForEmptyList() {
+        List<Double> numbers = new ArrayList<>();
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Means.arithmetic(numbers));
+        assertTrue(exception.getMessage().contains("Empty list"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanSingleNumber() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(2.5);
+        assertEquals(2.5, Means.arithmetic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanTwoNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(2.0, 4.0);
+        assertEquals(3.0, Means.arithmetic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanMultipleNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0);
+        assertEquals(3.0, Means.arithmetic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanWithTreeSet() {
+        Set<Double> numbers = new TreeSet<>(Arrays.asList(1.0, 2.5, 83.3, 25.9999, 46.0001, 74.7, 74.5));
+        assertEquals(44.0, Means.arithmetic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(-5.0, -3.0, -1.0, 1.0, 3.0, 5.0);
+        assertEquals(0.0, Means.arithmetic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanWithDecimalNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(1.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.4, 5.5);
+        assertEquals(3.3, Means.arithmetic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanWithVector() {
+        Vector<Double> numbers = new Vector<>(Arrays.asList(10.0, 20.0, 30.0));
+        assertEquals(20.0, Means.arithmetic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    // ========== Geometric Mean Tests ==========
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeometricMeanThrowsExceptionForEmptyList() {
+        List<Double> numbers = new ArrayList<>();
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Means.geometric(numbers));
+        assertTrue(exception.getMessage().contains("Empty list"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeometricMeanSingleNumber() {
+        Set<Double> numbers = new LinkedHashSet<>(Arrays.asList(2.5));
+        assertEquals(2.5, Means.geometric(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeometricMeanTwoNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(2.0, 8.0);
+        assertEquals(4.0, Means.geometric(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeometricMeanMultipleNumbers() {
+        LinkedList<Double> numbers = new LinkedList<>(Arrays.asList(1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 1.25));
+        assertEquals(2.6426195539300585, Means.geometric(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeometricMeanPerfectSquares() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(1.0, 4.0, 9.0, 16.0);
+        double expected = Math.pow(1.0 * 4.0 * 9.0 * 16.0, 1.0 / 4.0);
+        assertEquals(expected, Means.geometric(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeometricMeanIdenticalNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(5.0, 5.0, 5.0, 5.0);
+        assertEquals(5.0, Means.geometric(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeometricMeanWithLinkedHashSet() {
+        LinkedHashSet<Double> numbers = new LinkedHashSet<>(Arrays.asList(2.0, 4.0, 8.0));
+        double expected = Math.pow(2.0 * 4.0 * 8.0, 1.0 / 3.0);
+        assertEquals(expected, Means.geometric(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    // ========== Harmonic Mean Tests ==========
+
+    @Test
+    void testHarmonicMeanThrowsExceptionForEmptyList() {
+        List<Double> numbers = new ArrayList<>();
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Means.harmonic(numbers));
+        assertTrue(exception.getMessage().contains("Empty list"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHarmonicMeanSingleNumber() {
+        LinkedHashSet<Double> numbers = new LinkedHashSet<>(Arrays.asList(2.5));
+        assertEquals(2.5, Means.harmonic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHarmonicMeanTwoNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(2.0, 4.0);
+        double expected = 2.0 / (1.0 / 2.0 + 1.0 / 4.0);
+        assertEquals(expected, Means.harmonic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHarmonicMeanMultipleNumbers() {
+        Vector<Double> numbers = new Vector<>(Arrays.asList(1.0, 2.5, 83.3, 25.9999, 46.0001, 74.7, 74.5));
+        assertEquals(4.6697322801074135, Means.harmonic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHarmonicMeanThreeNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(1.0, 2.0, 4.0);
+        double expected = 3.0 / (1.0 / 1.0 + 1.0 / 2.0 + 1.0 / 4.0);
+        assertEquals(expected, Means.harmonic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHarmonicMeanIdenticalNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(6.0, 6.0, 6.0);
+        assertEquals(6.0, Means.harmonic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHarmonicMeanWithLinkedList() {
+        LinkedList<Double> numbers = new LinkedList<>(Arrays.asList(3.0, 6.0, 9.0));
+        double expected = 3.0 / (1.0 / 3.0 + 1.0 / 6.0 + 1.0 / 9.0);
+        assertEquals(expected, Means.harmonic(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    // ========== Additional Edge Case Tests ==========
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanWithVeryLargeNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(1e100, 2e100, 3e100);
+        assertEquals(2e100, Means.arithmetic(numbers), 1e90);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArithmeticMeanWithVerySmallNumbers() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(1e-100, 2e-100, 3e-100);
+        assertEquals(2e-100, Means.arithmetic(numbers), 1e-110);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeometricMeanWithOnes() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0);
+        assertEquals(1.0, Means.geometric(numbers), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAllMeansConsistencyForIdenticalValues() {
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(7.5, 7.5, 7.5, 7.5);
+        double arithmetic = Means.arithmetic(numbers);
+        double geometric = Means.geometric(numbers);
+        double harmonic = Means.harmonic(numbers);
+
+        assertEquals(7.5, arithmetic, EPSILON);
+        assertEquals(7.5, geometric, EPSILON);
+        assertEquals(7.5, harmonic, EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMeansRelationship() {
+        // For positive numbers, harmonic mean ≤ geometric mean ≤ arithmetic mean
+        List<Double> numbers = Arrays.asList(2.0, 4.0, 8.0);
+        double arithmetic = Means.arithmetic(numbers);
+        double geometric = Means.geometric(numbers);
+        double harmonic = Means.harmonic(numbers);
+
+        assertTrue(harmonic <= geometric, "Harmonic mean should be ≤ geometric mean");
+        assertTrue(geometric <= arithmetic, "Geometric mean should be ≤ arithmetic mean");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MedianTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MedianTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f42fe8bb17ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MedianTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for {@link Median}.
+ * Tests various scenarios including edge cases, odd/even length arrays,
+ * negative values, and unsorted inputs.
+ */
+class MedianTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianSingleValue() {
+        int[] arr = {0};
+        assertEquals(0, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianSinglePositiveValue() {
+        int[] arr = {42};
+        assertEquals(42, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianSingleNegativeValue() {
+        int[] arr = {-15};
+        assertEquals(-15, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianTwoValues() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2};
+        assertEquals(1.5, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianTwoIdenticalValues() {
+        int[] arr = {5, 5};
+        assertEquals(5.0, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianThreeValues() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3};
+        assertEquals(2, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianThreeUnsortedValues() {
+        int[] arr = {3, 1, 2};
+        assertEquals(2, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianDecimalValueReturn() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9};
+        assertEquals(4.5, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianNegativeValues() {
+        int[] arr = {-27, -16, -7, -4, -2, -1};
+        assertEquals(-5.5, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianMixedPositiveAndNegativeValues() {
+        int[] arr = {-10, -5, 0, 5, 10};
+        assertEquals(0, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianMixedUnsortedValues() {
+        int[] arr = {10, -5, 0, 5, -10};
+        assertEquals(0, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianLargeOddArray() {
+        int[] arr = {9, 7, 5, 3, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8};
+        assertEquals(5, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianLargeEvenArray() {
+        int[] arr = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100};
+        assertEquals(55.0, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianAllSameValues() {
+        int[] arr = {7, 7, 7, 7, 7};
+        assertEquals(7.0, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianWithZeros() {
+        int[] arr = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0};
+        assertEquals(0.0, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianAlreadySorted() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        assertEquals(3, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianReverseSorted() {
+        int[] arr = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1};
+        assertEquals(3, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianWithDuplicates() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4};
+        assertEquals(3, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianEmptyArrayThrows() {
+        int[] arr = {};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianNullArrayThrows() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Median.median(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianExtremeValues() {
+        int[] arr = {Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MIN_VALUE};
+        assertEquals(-0.5, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianTwoNegativeValues() {
+        int[] arr = {-10, -20};
+        assertEquals(-15.0, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianFourValuesEven() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4};
+        assertEquals(2.5, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMedianFiveValuesOdd() {
+        int[] arr = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
+        assertEquals(30.0, Median.median(arr));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValueTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..beb0ccb1a571
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MinValueTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MinValueTest {
+    @Test
+    public void minTest() {
+        assertEquals(-1, MinValue.min(-1, 3));
+        assertEquals(2, MinValue.min(3, 2));
+        assertEquals(5, MinValue.min(5, 5));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ModeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ModeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..629fd8bd580a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ModeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class ModeTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("tcStream")
+    void basicTest(final int[] expected, final int[] numbers) {
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, Mode.mode(numbers));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> tcStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(null, new int[] {}), Arguments.of(new int[] {5}, new int[] {5}), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {7}, new int[] {7, 9, 9, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8}), Arguments.of(new int[] {7, 9}, new int[] {7, 9, 9, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 9}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElementTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5f35cfe68a7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElementTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class NonRepeatingElementTest {
+
+    private record TestData(int[] input, int[] expected) {
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<TestData> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new TestData(new int[] {1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 4}, new int[] {3, 4}), new TestData(new int[] {-1, -2, -1, -3, -2, -4}, new int[] {-3, -4}), new TestData(new int[] {-1, 2, 2, -3, -1, 4}, new int[] {-3, 4}));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testFindNonRepeatingElements(TestData testData) {
+        int[] result = NonRepeatingElement.findNonRepeatingElements(testData.input);
+        assertArrayEquals(testData.expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindNonRepeatingElementsWithLargeNumbers() {
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {200000, 400000}, NonRepeatingElement.findNonRepeatingElements(new int[] {100000, 200000, 100000, 300000, 400000, 300000}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3fe58dadf8a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class NthUglyNumberTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testGetWithNewObject() {
+        HashMap<Integer, Long> testCases = new HashMap<>();
+        testCases.put(0, 1L);
+        testCases.put(1, 2L);
+        testCases.put(2, 3L);
+        testCases.put(3, 4L);
+        testCases.put(4, 5L);
+        testCases.put(5, 6L);
+        testCases.put(9, 12L);
+        testCases.put(19, 36L);
+        testCases.put(52, 270L);
+        testCases.put(1078, 84934656L);
+        testCases.put(1963, 6973568802L);
+
+        for (final var tc : testCases.entrySet()) {
+            var uglyNumbers = new NthUglyNumber(new int[] {2, 3, 5});
+            assertEquals(uglyNumbers.get(tc.getKey()), tc.getValue());
+
+            var otherUglyNumbers = new NthUglyNumber(new int[] {5, 25, 6, 2, 3, 5});
+            assertEquals(otherUglyNumbers.get(tc.getKey()), tc.getValue());
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetWithSameObject() {
+        HashMap<Integer, Long> testCases = new HashMap<>();
+        testCases.put(0, 1L);
+        testCases.put(1, 2L);
+        testCases.put(2, 3L);
+        testCases.put(3, 4L);
+        testCases.put(4, 5L);
+        testCases.put(5, 6L);
+        testCases.put(6, 7L);
+        testCases.put(1499, 1984500L);
+        testCases.put(1572, 2449440L);
+        testCases.put(1658, 3072000L);
+        testCases.put(6625, 4300800000L);
+
+        var uglyNumbers = new NthUglyNumber(new int[] {7, 2, 5, 3});
+        for (final var tc : testCases.entrySet()) {
+            assertEquals(uglyNumbers.get(tc.getKey()), tc.getValue());
+        }
+
+        assertEquals(uglyNumbers.get(999), 385875);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetWithBase1() {
+        var uglyNumbers = new NthUglyNumber(new int[] {1});
+        assertEquals(uglyNumbers.get(10), 1);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetWithBase2() {
+        var uglyNumbers = new NthUglyNumber(new int[] {2});
+        assertEquals(uglyNumbers.get(5), 32);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetThrowsAnErrorForNegativeInput() {
+        var uglyNumbers = new NthUglyNumber(new int[] {1, 2});
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> uglyNumbers.get(-1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testConstructorThrowsAnErrorForEmptyInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new NthUglyNumber(new int[] {}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigitsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigitsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..153ab3347f1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberOfDigitsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.function.IntFunction;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
+public class NumberOfDigitsTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    void testNumberOfDigits(final int expected, final int number, final IntFunction<Integer> methodUnderTest) {
+        assertEquals(expected, methodUnderTest.apply(number));
+        assertEquals(expected, methodUnderTest.apply(-number));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> testCases() {
+        final Integer[][] inputs = new Integer[][] {
+            {3, 100},
+            {1, 0},
+            {2, 12},
+            {3, 123},
+            {4, 1234},
+            {5, 12345},
+            {6, 123456},
+            {7, 1234567},
+            {8, 12345678},
+            {9, 123456789},
+            {9, 987654321},
+        };
+
+        final IntFunction<Integer>[] methods = new IntFunction[] {NumberOfDigits::numberOfDigits, NumberOfDigits::numberOfDigitsFast, NumberOfDigits::numberOfDigitsFaster, NumberOfDigits::numberOfDigitsRecursion};
+
+        return Stream.of(inputs).flatMap(input -> Stream.of(methods).map(method -> Arguments.of(input[0], input[1], method)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberPersistenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberPersistenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3f7e70167fc2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NumberPersistenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
+
+class NumberPersistenceTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "multiplicativePersistence({0}) = {1}")
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "7, 0", "217, 2", "39, 3", "999, 4"})
+    @DisplayName("Test multiplicative persistence with valid inputs")
+    void testMultiplicativePersistenceValid(int input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, NumberPersistence.multiplicativePersistence(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "multiplicativePersistence({0}) throws IllegalArgumentException")
+    @ValueSource(ints = {-1, -100, -9999})
+    @DisplayName("Test multiplicative persistence with negative numbers")
+    void testMultiplicativePersistenceNegative(int input) {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> NumberPersistence.multiplicativePersistence(input));
+        assertEquals("multiplicativePersistence() does not accept negative values", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "additivePersistence({0}) = {1}")
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "5, 0", "199, 3", "999, 2", "1234, 2"})
+    @DisplayName("Test additive persistence with valid inputs")
+    void testAdditivePersistenceValid(int input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, NumberPersistence.additivePersistence(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "additivePersistence({0}) throws IllegalArgumentException")
+    @ValueSource(ints = {-1, -100, -9999})
+    @DisplayName("Test additive persistence with negative numbers")
+    void testAdditivePersistenceNegative(int input) {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> NumberPersistence.additivePersistence(input));
+        assertEquals("additivePersistence() does not accept negative values", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a70100c0b913
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PalindromeNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 01/07/2023
+ */
+public class PalindromeNumberTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testNumbersArePalindromes() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PalindromeNumber.isPalindrome(0));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PalindromeNumber.isPalindrome(1));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PalindromeNumber.isPalindrome(2332));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PalindromeNumber.isPalindrome(12321));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNumbersAreNotPalindromes() {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PalindromeNumber.isPalindrome(12));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PalindromeNumber.isPalindrome(990));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PalindromeNumber.isPalindrome(1234));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIfNegativeInputThenExceptionExpected() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PalindromeNumber.isPalindrome(-1));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), "Input parameter must not be negative!");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseIntegerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseIntegerTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7649e21eb231
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ParseIntegerTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Albina Gimaletdinova on 01/07/2023
+ */
+public class ParseIntegerTest {
+    private static final String NULL_PARAMETER_MESSAGE = "Input parameter must not be null!";
+    private static final String EMPTY_PARAMETER_MESSAGE = "Input parameter must not be empty!";
+    private static final String INCORRECT_FORMAT_MESSAGE = "Input parameter of incorrect format";
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNullInput() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ParseInteger.parseInt(null));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), NULL_PARAMETER_MESSAGE);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyInput() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ParseInteger.parseInt(""));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), EMPTY_PARAMETER_MESSAGE);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInputOfIncorrectFormat() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = Assertions.assertThrows(NumberFormatException.class, () -> ParseInteger.parseInt("+0a123"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(exception.getMessage().contains(INCORRECT_FORMAT_MESSAGE));
+
+        exception = Assertions.assertThrows(NumberFormatException.class, () -> ParseInteger.parseInt("b"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(exception.getMessage().contains(INCORRECT_FORMAT_MESSAGE));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPositiveValueIsSuccessfullyConverted() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ParseInteger.parseInt("0"), Integer.parseInt("0"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ParseInteger.parseInt("123"), Integer.parseInt("123"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ParseInteger.parseInt("0123"), Integer.parseInt("0123"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ParseInteger.parseInt("+0123"), Integer.parseInt("+0123"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ParseInteger.parseInt("+123"), Integer.parseInt("+123"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNegativeValueIsSuccessfullyConverted() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ParseInteger.parseInt("-1"), Integer.parseInt("-1"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ParseInteger.parseInt("-123"), Integer.parseInt("-123"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ParseInteger.parseInt("-0123"), Integer.parseInt("-0123"));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ParseInteger.parseInt("-00123"), Integer.parseInt("-00123"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangleTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangleTest.java
index 93c87bd25926..a1512aacb30d 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangleTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangleTest.java
@@ -1,42 +1,51 @@
-
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 class PascalTriangleTest {
 
-	@Test
-	void testForOne() 
-	{
-		int[][] result = PascalTriangle.pascal(1);
+    @Test
+    void testForOne() {
+        int[][] result = PascalTriangle.pascal(1);
         int[][] expected = {{1}};
-		assertArrayEquals(result,expected);
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testForTwo() 
-	{
-		int[][] result = PascalTriangle.pascal(2);
-    	int[][] expected = {{1,0},{1,1}};
-		assertArrayEquals(result,expected);
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testForFive() 
-	{
-		int[][] result = PascalTriangle.pascal(5);
-    	int[][] expected = {{1,0,0,0,0},{1,1,0,0,0},{1,2,1,0,0},{1,3,3,1,0},{1,4,6,4,1}};
-		assertArrayEquals(result,expected);
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testForEight() {
-		int[][] result = PascalTriangle.pascal(8);
-    	int[][] expected = {{1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0},{1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0},{1,2,1,0,0,0,0,0},{1,3,3,1,0,0,0,0},{1,4,6,4,1,0,0,0},{1,5,10,10,5,1,0,0},{1,6,15,20,15,6,1,0},{1,7,21,35,35,21,7,1}};
-		assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
-	}
-
-
+        assertArrayEquals(result, expected);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForTwo() {
+        int[][] result = PascalTriangle.pascal(2);
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 0}, {1, 1}};
+        assertArrayEquals(result, expected);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFive() {
+        int[][] result = PascalTriangle.pascal(5);
+        int[][] expected = {
+            {1, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {1, 1, 0, 0, 0},
+            {1, 2, 1, 0, 0},
+            {1, 3, 3, 1, 0},
+            {1, 4, 6, 4, 1},
+        };
+        assertArrayEquals(result, expected);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEight() {
+        int[][] result = PascalTriangle.pascal(8);
+        int[][] expected = {
+            {1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {1, 2, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {1, 3, 3, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {1, 4, 6, 4, 1, 0, 0, 0},
+            {1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1, 0, 0},
+            {1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1, 0},
+            {1, 7, 21, 35, 35, 21, 7, 1},
+        };
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCubeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCubeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..806f5493918c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCubeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PerfectCubeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void perfectCube() {
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(-27));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(-27));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(-1));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(-1));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(0));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(0));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(1));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(1));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(8));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(8));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(27));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(27));
+
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(-9));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(-9));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(2));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(2));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(4));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(4));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectCube.isPerfectCube(30));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectCube.isPerfectCubeMathCbrt(30));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0433ba80cfa4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PerfectNumberTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void perfectNumber() {
+        int[] trueTestCases = {6, 28, 496, 8128, 33550336};
+        int[] falseTestCases = {-6, 0, 1, 9, 123};
+        for (Integer n : trueTestCases) {
+            assertTrue(PerfectNumber.isPerfectNumber(n));
+            assertTrue(PerfectNumber.isPerfectNumber2(n));
+        }
+        for (Integer n : falseTestCases) {
+            assertFalse(PerfectNumber.isPerfectNumber(n));
+            assertFalse(PerfectNumber.isPerfectNumber2(n));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquareTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquareTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2bda5bfd6cf8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquareTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
+
+public class PerfectSquareTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @ValueSource(ints = {0, 1, 2 * 2, 3 * 3, 4 * 4, 5 * 5, 6 * 6, 7 * 7, 8 * 8, 9 * 9, 10 * 10, 11 * 11, 123 * 123})
+    void positiveTest(final int number) {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectSquare.isPerfectSquare(number));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PerfectSquare.isPerfectSquareUsingPow(number));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @ValueSource(ints = {-1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -100, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 99, 101, 257, 999, 1001})
+    void negativeTest(final int number) {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectSquare.isPerfectSquare(number));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PerfectSquare.isPerfectSquareUsingPow(number));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerimeterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerimeterTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..94d3d3ae0577
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerimeterTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PerimeterTest {
+
+    // Perimeter of Regular polygon
+    @Test
+    void testcase1() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(20.0, Perimeter.perimeterRegularPolygon(4, 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testcase2() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(30.0, Perimeter.perimeterRegularPolygon(5, 6));
+    }
+
+    // Perimeter of Rectangle
+    @Test
+    void testcase3() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(18.0, Perimeter.perimeterRectangle(4, 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testcase4() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(14.0, Perimeter.perimeterRectangle(4, 3));
+    }
+
+    // Circumference/Perimeter of a circle
+    @Test
+    void testcase5() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(31.41592653589793, Perimeter.perimeterCircle(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testcase6() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(43.982297150257104, Perimeter.perimeterCircle(7));
+    }
+
+    // Perimeter of Irregular polygon
+    @Test
+    void testcase7() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(12.0, Perimeter.perimeterIrregularPolygon(4, 5, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testcase8() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(21.0, Perimeter.perimeterIrregularPolygon(3, 4, 5, 3, 6));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..47da3b46a336
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PiApproximationTest {
+
+    private static final double DELTA = 0.5; // Tolerance for Pi approximation
+    private static final double TIGHT_DELTA = 0.1; // Tighter tolerance for large samples
+
+    /**
+     * Test with known points that are all inside the quarter circle.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testAllPointsInside() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(0.0, 0.0)); // Origin
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(0.5, 0.5)); // Inside
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(0.3, 0.3)); // Inside
+
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+        // All points inside, so result should be 4.0
+        assertEquals(4.0, result, 0.001);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with known points that are all outside the quarter circle.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testAllPointsOutside() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(1.0, 1.0)); // Corner - outside
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(0.9, 0.9)); // Outside
+
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+        // No points inside, so result should be 0.0
+        assertEquals(0.0, result, 0.001);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with mixed points (some inside, some outside).
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testMixedPoints() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        // Inside points
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(0.0, 0.0));
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(0.5, 0.5));
+        // Outside points
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(1.0, 1.0));
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(0.9, 0.9));
+
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+        // 2 out of 4 points inside: 4 * 2/4 = 2.0
+        assertEquals(2.0, result, 0.001);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with boundary point (on the circle).
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testBoundaryPoint() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(1.0, 0.0)); // On circle: x² + y² = 1
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(0.0, 1.0)); // On circle
+
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+        // Boundary points should be counted as inside (≤ 1)
+        assertEquals(4.0, result, 0.001);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with small random sample (moderate accuracy expected).
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testSmallRandomSample() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = PiApproximation.generateRandomPoints(1000);
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+
+        // With 1000 points, result should be reasonably close to π
+        assertEquals(Math.PI, result, DELTA);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with large random sample (better accuracy expected).
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testLargeRandomSample() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = PiApproximation.generateRandomPoints(100000);
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+
+        // With 100000 points, result should be very close to π
+        assertEquals(Math.PI, result, TIGHT_DELTA);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test that result is always positive.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testResultIsPositive() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = PiApproximation.generateRandomPoints(1000);
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+
+        assertTrue(result >= 0, "Pi approximation should be positive");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test that result is bounded (0 ≤ result ≤ 4).
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testResultIsBounded() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = PiApproximation.generateRandomPoints(1000);
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+
+        assertTrue(result >= 0 && result <= 4, "Pi approximation should be between 0 and 4");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with single point inside.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testSinglePointInside() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(0.0, 0.0));
+
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+        assertEquals(4.0, result, 0.001);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with single point outside.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testSinglePointOutside() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = new ArrayList<>();
+        points.add(new PiApproximation.Point(1.0, 1.0));
+
+        double result = PiApproximation.approximatePi(points);
+        assertEquals(0.0, result, 0.001);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test that generated points are within valid range [0, 1].
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testGeneratedPointsInRange() {
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = PiApproximation.generateRandomPoints(100);
+
+        for (PiApproximation.Point p : points) {
+            assertTrue(p.x >= 0 && p.x <= 1, "X coordinate should be between 0 and 1");
+            assertTrue(p.y >= 0 && p.y <= 1, "Y coordinate should be between 0 and 1");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test that the correct number of points are generated.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testCorrectNumberOfPointsGenerated() {
+        int expectedSize = 500;
+        List<PiApproximation.Point> points = PiApproximation.generateRandomPoints(expectedSize);
+
+        assertEquals(expectedSize, points.size());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PollardRhoTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PollardRhoTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3e2270a66a98
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PollardRhoTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PollardRhoTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testPollardRhoForNumber315MustReturn5() {
+        // given
+        int number = 315;
+        int expectedResult = 5;
+
+        // when
+        int actualResult = PollardRho.pollardRho(number);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPollardRhoForNumber187MustReturn11() {
+        // given
+        int number = 187;
+        int expectedResult = 11;
+
+        // when
+        int actualResult = PollardRho.pollardRho(number);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPollardRhoForNumber239MustThrowException() {
+        // given
+        int number = 239;
+        String expectedMessage = "GCD cannot be found.";
+
+        // when
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> { PollardRho.pollardRho(number); });
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedMessage, actualMessage);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4309b0f10ed5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class PowTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"2, 0, 1", "0, 2, 0", "2, 10, 1024", "10, 2, 100", "5, 3, 125", "3, 4, 81"})
+    void testPow(int base, int exponent, long expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Pow.pow(base, exponent), "Failed for base: " + base + " and exponent: " + exponent);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPowThrowsExceptionForNegativeExponent() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Pow.pow(2, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPowHandlesLargeNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(1048576, Pow.pow(2, 20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPowHandlesZeroBase() {
+        assertEquals(0, Pow.pow(0, 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPowHandlesOneBase() {
+        assertEquals(1, Pow.pow(1, 100));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNotTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNotTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ac8d2be17d7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfTwoOrNotTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PowerOfTwoOrNotTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testPowerOfTwoOrNotForPowersOfTwo() {
+        final var powersOfTwo = new int[] {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64};
+        for (final var n : powersOfTwo) {
+            assertTrue(PowerOfTwoOrNot.checkIfPowerOfTwoOrNot(n));
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPowerOfTwoOrNotForNotPowersOfTwo() {
+        final var notPowersOfTwo = new int[] {-16, -8, -6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 33, 63, 65, 1000, 9999};
+        for (final var n : notPowersOfTwo) {
+            assertFalse(PowerOfTwoOrNot.checkIfPowerOfTwoOrNot(n));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..705cc6672818
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for Power using Recursion
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+
+class PowerUsingRecursionTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testPowerUsingRecursion() {
+        assertEquals(32.0, PowerUsingRecursion.power(2.0, 5));
+        assertEquals(97.65625, PowerUsingRecursion.power(2.5, 5));
+        assertEquals(81, PowerUsingRecursion.power(3, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumberTest.java
index 9c735c6b8966..8bf2b1852652 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumberTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PronicNumberTest.java
@@ -1,34 +1,22 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
-
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
 
 public class PronicNumberTest {
 
-    @Test
-    void testForPronicNumber() {
-
-        //given
-        int number = 30;
-
-        //when
-        boolean result = PronicNumber.isPronic(number);
-        
-        //then
-        assertTrue(result);
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @ValueSource(ints = {0, 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, 110, 272, 380, 420, 1260, 2550})
+    void testForPronicNumber(final int number) {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PronicNumber.isPronic(number));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PronicNumber.isPronicNumber(number));
     }
 
-    @Test
-    void testForNonPronicNumber() {
-        
-        //given
-        int number = 21;
-
-        //when
-        boolean result = PronicNumber.isPronic(number);
-        
-        //then
-        assertFalse(result);
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @ValueSource(ints = {1, 4, 21, 36, 150, 2500})
+    void testForNonPronicNumber(final int number) {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PronicNumber.isPronic(number));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PronicNumber.isPronicNumber(number));
     }
-}
\ No newline at end of file
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTripleTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTripleTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..75219dc47b47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTripleTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class PythagoreanTripleTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"3, 4, 5, true", "6, 8, 10, true", "9, 12, 15, true", "12, 16, 20, true", "15, 20, 25, true", "18, 24, 30, true", "5, 20, 30, false", "6, 8, 100, false", "-2, -2, 2, false", "0, 0, 0, false", "5, 5, 5, false"})
+    void testIsPythagoreanTriple(int a, int b, int c, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, PythagoreanTriple.isPythagTriple(a, b, c));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUnorderedInputStillValid() {
+        // Should still detect Pythagorean triples regardless of argument order
+        assertTrue(PythagoreanTriple.isPythagTriple(5, 3, 4));
+        assertTrue(PythagoreanTriple.isPythagTriple(13, 12, 5));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolverTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolverTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a2046511ddf5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolverTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class QuadraticEquationSolverTest {
+    private final QuadraticEquationSolver quadraticEquationSolver = new QuadraticEquationSolver();
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSolveEquationRealRoots() {
+        // 4.2x^2 + 8x + 1.9 = 0
+        double a = 4.2;
+        double b = 8;
+        double c = 1.9;
+
+        ComplexNumber[] roots = quadraticEquationSolver.solveEquation(a, b, c);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots.length, 2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots[0].real, -0.27810465435684306);
+        Assertions.assertNull(roots[0].imaginary);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots[1].real, -1.6266572504050616);
+        Assertions.assertNull(roots[1].imaginary);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSolveEquationEqualRoots() {
+        // x^2 + 2x + 1 = 0
+        double a = 1;
+        double b = 2;
+        double c = 1;
+
+        ComplexNumber[] roots = quadraticEquationSolver.solveEquation(a, b, c);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots.length, 1);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots[0].real, -1);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSolveEquationComplexRoots() {
+        // 2.3x^2 + 4x + 5.6 = 0
+        double a = 2.3;
+        double b = 4;
+        double c = 5.6;
+
+        ComplexNumber[] roots = quadraticEquationSolver.solveEquation(a, b, c);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots.length, 2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots[0].real, -0.8695652173913044);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots[0].imaginary, 1.2956229935435948);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots[1].real, -0.8695652173913044);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(roots[1].imaginary, -1.2956229935435948);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f9538b9fd829
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ReverseNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
+
+public class ReverseNumberTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"0, 0", "1, 1", "10, 1", "123, 321", "7890, 987"})
+    public void testReverseNumber(int input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, ReverseNumber.reverseNumber(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @ValueSource(ints = {-1, -123, -7890})
+    public void testReverseNumberThrowsExceptionForNegativeInput(int input) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ReverseNumber.reverseNumber(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMaxTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMaxTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c744614e5cfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMaxTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class SecondMinMaxTest {
+
+    private static final String EXP_MSG_ARR_LEN_LESS_2 = "Input array must have length of at least two";
+    private static final String EXP_MSG_ARR_SAME_ELE = "Input array should have at least 2 distinct elements";
+
+    public static class TestCase {
+        public TestCase(final int[] inInputArray, final int inSecondMin, final int inSecondMax) {
+            inputArray = inInputArray;
+            secondMin = inSecondMin;
+            secondMax = inSecondMax;
+        }
+        final int[] inputArray;
+        final int secondMin;
+        final int secondMax;
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testForEmptyInputArray() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> SecondMinMax.findSecondMin(new int[] {}));
+        assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), EXP_MSG_ARR_LEN_LESS_2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testForArrayWithSingleElement() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> SecondMinMax.findSecondMax(new int[] {1}));
+        assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), EXP_MSG_ARR_LEN_LESS_2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testForArrayWithSameElements() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> SecondMinMax.findSecondMin(new int[] {1, 1, 1, 1}));
+        assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), EXP_MSG_ARR_SAME_ELE);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStream")
+    void numberTests(final TestCase tc) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(tc.secondMax, SecondMinMax.findSecondMax(tc.inputArray));
+        Assertions.assertEquals(tc.secondMin, SecondMinMax.findSecondMin(tc.inputArray));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new TestCase(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, 2, 9)), Arguments.of(new TestCase(new int[] {5, 4, 5, 5, 5}, 5, 4)), Arguments.of(new TestCase(new int[] {-1, 0}, 0, -1)),
+            Arguments.of(new TestCase(new int[] {-10, -9, -8, -7, -6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1}, -9, -2)), Arguments.of(new TestCase(new int[] {3, -2, 3, 9, -4, -4, 8}, -2, 8)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkinTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkinTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8eca45c9abb8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkinTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the {@code SieveOfAtkin} class.
+ */
+class SieveOfAtkinTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeneratePrimesLimit10() {
+        List<Integer> primes = SieveOfAtkin.generatePrimes(10);
+        // Assert the full expected list of primes
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(2, 3, 5, 7);
+        assertEquals(expected, primes, "Primes up to 10 should match expected list");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeneratePrimesLimit2() {
+        List<Integer> primes = SieveOfAtkin.generatePrimes(2);
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(2);
+        assertEquals(expected, primes, "Primes up to 2 should include 2");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeneratePrimesLimit1() {
+        List<Integer> primes = SieveOfAtkin.generatePrimes(1);
+        assertTrue(primes.isEmpty(), "Primes list should be empty when limit < 2");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeneratePrimesLimit50() {
+        List<Integer> primes = SieveOfAtkin.generatePrimes(50);
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47);
+        assertEquals(expected, primes, "Primes up to 50 should match expected list");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGeneratePrimesNegativeLimit() {
+        List<Integer> primes = SieveOfAtkin.generatePrimes(-10);
+        assertTrue(primes.isEmpty(), "Primes list should be empty for negative limit");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ebbd5df712fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SieveOfEratosthenesTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testfFindPrimesTill1() {
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {}, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testfFindPrimesTill2() {
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {2}, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testfFindPrimesTill4() {
+        var primesTill4 = new int[] {2, 3};
+        assertArrayEquals(primesTill4, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(3));
+        assertArrayEquals(primesTill4, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testfFindPrimesTill40() {
+        var primesTill40 = new int[] {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37};
+        assertArrayEquals(primesTill40, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(37));
+        assertArrayEquals(primesTill40, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(38));
+        assertArrayEquals(primesTill40, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(39));
+        assertArrayEquals(primesTill40, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(40));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testfFindPrimesTill240() {
+        var primesTill240 = new int[] {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101, 103, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151, 157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191, 193, 197, 199, 211, 223, 227, 229, 233, 239};
+        assertArrayEquals(primesTill240, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(239));
+        assertArrayEquals(primesTill240, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(240));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindPrimesTillThrowsExceptionForNonPositiveInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimesTill(0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTestTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTestTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..18cc35266c8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTestTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,122 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the {@link SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest} class.
+ * This class tests the functionality of the Solovay-Strassen primality test implementation.
+ */
+class SolovayStrassenPrimalityTestTest {
+
+    private static final int RANDOM_SEED = 123; // Seed for reproducibility
+    private SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest testInstance;
+
+    /**
+     * Sets up a new instance of {@link SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest}
+     * before each test case, using a fixed random seed for consistency.
+     */
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        testInstance = SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.getSolovayStrassenPrimalityTest(RANDOM_SEED);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test cases for prime numbers with various values of n and k (iterations).
+     *
+     * @return an array of objects containing pairs of n and k values
+     */
+    static Object[][] primeNumbers() {
+        return new Object[][] {{2, 1}, {3, 1}, {5, 5}, {7, 10}, {11, 20}, {13, 10}, {17, 5}, {19, 1}};
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests known prime numbers with various values of n and k (iterations).
+     *
+     * @param n the number to be tested for primality
+     * @param k the number of iterations to use in the primality test
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("primeNumbers")
+    void testPrimeNumbersWithDifferentNAndK(int n, int k) {
+        assertTrue(testInstance.solovayStrassen(n, k), n + " should be prime");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test cases for composite numbers with various values of n and k (iterations).
+     *
+     * @return an array of objects containing pairs of n and k values
+     */
+    static Object[][] compositeNumbers() {
+        return new Object[][] {{4, 1}, {6, 5}, {8, 10}, {9, 20}, {10, 1}, {12, 5}, {15, 10}};
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests known composite numbers with various values of n and k (iterations).
+     *
+     * @param n the number to be tested for primality
+     * @param k the number of iterations to use in the primality test
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("compositeNumbers")
+    void testCompositeNumbersWithDifferentNAndK(int n, int k) {
+        assertFalse(testInstance.solovayStrassen(n, k), n + " should be composite");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests edge cases for the primality test.
+     * This includes negative numbers and small integers (0 and 1).
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCases() {
+        assertFalse(testInstance.solovayStrassen(-1, 10), "-1 should not be prime");
+        assertFalse(testInstance.solovayStrassen(0, 10), "0 should not be prime");
+        assertFalse(testInstance.solovayStrassen(1, 10), "1 should not be prime");
+
+        // Test small primes and composites
+        assertTrue(testInstance.solovayStrassen(2, 1), "2 is a prime number (single iteration)");
+        assertFalse(testInstance.solovayStrassen(9, 1), "9 is a composite number (single iteration)");
+
+        // Test larger primes and composites
+        long largePrime = 104729; // Known large prime number
+        long largeComposite = 104730; // Composite number (even)
+
+        assertTrue(testInstance.solovayStrassen(largePrime, 20), "104729 is a prime number");
+        assertFalse(testInstance.solovayStrassen(largeComposite, 20), "104730 is a composite number");
+
+        // Test very large numbers (may take longer)
+        long veryLargePrime = 512927357; // Known very large prime number
+        long veryLargeComposite = 512927358; // Composite number (even)
+
+        assertTrue(testInstance.solovayStrassen(veryLargePrime, 20), Long.MAX_VALUE - 1 + " is likely a prime number.");
+
+        assertFalse(testInstance.solovayStrassen(veryLargeComposite, 20), Long.MAX_VALUE + " is a composite number.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the Jacobi symbol calculation directly for known values.
+     * This verifies that the Jacobi symbol method behaves as expected.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testJacobiSymbolCalculation() {
+        // Jacobi symbol (a/n) where n is odd and positive
+        int jacobi1 = testInstance.calculateJacobi(6, 11); // Should return -1
+        int jacobi2 = testInstance.calculateJacobi(5, 11); // Should return +1
+
+        assertEquals(-1, jacobi1);
+        assertEquals(+1, jacobi2);
+
+        // Edge case: Jacobi symbol with even n or non-positive n
+        int jacobi4 = testInstance.calculateJacobi(5, -11); // Should return 0 (invalid)
+        int jacobi5 = testInstance.calculateJacobi(5, 0); // Should return 0 (invalid)
+
+        assertEquals(0, jacobi4);
+        assertEquals(0, jacobi5);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareFreeIntegerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareFreeIntegerTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5b35ee7bd9d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareFreeIntegerTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.SquareFreeInteger;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SquareFreeIntegerTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsSquareFreeInteger() {
+
+        // given
+        List<Integer> listOfSquareFreeIntegers = List.of(1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 51, 53, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97, 101,
+            102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 118, 119, 122, 123, 127, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 149, 151, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 170, 173, 174, 177, 178, 179, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 190, 191, 193, 194,
+            195, 197, 199, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206, 209, 210, 211, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 221, 222, 223, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 233, 235, 237, 238, 239, 241, 246, 247, 249, 251, 253, 254, 255, 257, 258, 259, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267, 269, 271, 273, 274, 277, 278, 281, 282, 283, 285, 286,
+            287, 290, 291, 293, 295, 298, 299, 301, 302, 303, 305, 307, 309, 310, 311, 313, 314, 317, 318, 319, 321, 322, 323, 326, 327, 329, 330, 331, 334, 335, 337, 339, 341, 345, 346, 347, 349, 353, 354, 355, 357, 358, 359, 362, 365, 366, 367, 370, 371, 373, 374, 377, 379, 381, 382, 383, 385,
+            386, 389, 390, 391, 393, 394, 395, 397, 398, 399, 401, 402, 403, 406, 407, 409, 410, 411, 413, 415, 417, 418, 419, 421, 422, 426, 427, 429, 430, 431, 433, 434, 435, 437, 438, 439, 442, 443, 445, 446, 447, 449, 451, 453, 454, 455, 457, 458, 461, 462, 463, 465, 466, 467, 469, 470, 471,
+            473, 474, 478, 479, 481, 482, 483, 485, 487, 489, 491, 493, 494, 497, 498, 499, 501, 502, 503, 505, 506, 509, 510, 511, 514, 515, 517, 518, 519, 521, 523, 526, 527, 530, 533, 534, 535, 537, 538, 541, 542, 543, 545, 546, 547, 551, 553, 554, 555, 557, 559, 561, 562, 563, 565, 566, 569,
+            570, 571, 573, 574, 577, 579, 581, 582, 583, 586, 587, 589, 590, 591, 593, 595, 597, 598, 599, 601, 602, 606, 607, 609, 610, 611, 613, 614, 615, 617, 618, 619, 622, 623, 626, 627, 629, 631, 633, 634, 635, 638, 641, 642, 643, 645, 646, 647, 649, 651, 653, 654, 655, 658, 659, 661, 662,
+            663, 665, 667, 669, 670, 671, 673, 674, 677, 678, 679, 681, 682, 683, 685, 687, 689, 690, 691, 694, 695, 697, 698, 699, 701, 703, 705, 706, 707, 709, 710, 713, 714, 715, 717, 718, 719, 721, 723, 727, 730, 731, 733, 734, 737, 739, 741, 742, 743, 745, 746, 749, 751, 753, 754, 755, 757,
+            758, 759, 761, 762, 763, 766, 767, 769, 770, 771, 773, 777, 778, 779, 781, 782, 785, 786, 787, 789, 790, 791, 793, 794, 795, 797, 798, 799, 802, 803, 805, 806, 807, 809, 811, 813, 814, 815, 817, 818, 821, 822, 823, 826, 827, 829, 830, 831, 834, 835, 838, 839, 842, 843, 849, 851, 853,
+            854, 857, 858, 859, 861, 862, 863, 865, 866, 869, 870, 871, 874, 877, 878, 879, 881, 883, 885, 886, 887, 889, 890, 893, 894, 895, 897, 898, 899, 901, 902, 903, 905, 906, 907, 910, 911, 913, 914, 915, 917, 919, 921, 922, 923, 926, 929, 930, 933, 934, 935, 937, 938, 939, 941, 942, 943,
+            946, 947, 949, 951, 953, 955, 957, 958, 959, 962, 965, 966, 967, 969, 970, 971, 973, 974, 977, 978, 979, 982, 983, 985, 986, 987, 989, 991, 993, 994, 995, 997, 998, 1001, 1002, 1003, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1009, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1015, 1018, 1019, 1021, 1022, 1023, 1027, 1030, 1031, 1033,
+            1034, 1037, 1038, 1039, 1041, 1042, 1043, 1045, 1046, 1047, 1049, 1051, 1054, 1055, 1057, 1059, 1061, 1063, 1065, 1066, 1067, 1069, 1070, 1073, 1074, 1077, 1079, 1081, 1082, 1085, 1086, 1087, 1090, 1091, 1093, 1094, 1095, 1097, 1099, 1101, 1102, 1103, 1105, 1106, 1109, 1110, 1111, 1113,
+            1114, 1115, 1117, 1118, 1119, 1121, 1122, 1123, 1126, 1129, 1130, 1131, 1133, 1135, 1137, 1138, 1139, 1141, 1142, 1145, 1146, 1147, 1149, 1151, 1153, 1154, 1155, 1157, 1158, 1159, 1162, 1163, 1165, 1166, 1167, 1169, 1171, 1173, 1174, 1177, 1178, 1181, 1182, 1185, 1186, 1187, 1189, 1190,
+            1191, 1193, 1194, 1195, 1198, 1199, 1201, 1202, 1203, 1205, 1207, 1209, 1211, 1213, 1214, 1217, 1218, 1219, 1221, 1222, 1223, 1226, 1227, 1229, 1230, 1231, 1234, 1235, 1237, 1238, 1239, 1241, 1243, 1245, 1246, 1247, 1249, 1253, 1254, 1255, 1257, 1258, 1259, 1261, 1262, 1263, 1265, 1266,
+            1267, 1270, 1271, 1273, 1277, 1279, 1281, 1282, 1283, 1285, 1286, 1289, 1290, 1291, 1293, 1294, 1295, 1297, 1298, 1299, 1301, 1302, 1303, 1306, 1307, 1309, 1310, 1311, 1313, 1315, 1317, 1318, 1319, 1321, 1322, 1326, 1327, 1329, 1330, 1333, 1334, 1335, 1337, 1338, 1339, 1342, 1343, 1345,
+            1346, 1347, 1349, 1351, 1353, 1354, 1355, 1357, 1358, 1361, 1362, 1363, 1365, 1366, 1367, 1370, 1371, 1373, 1374, 1378, 1379, 1381, 1382, 1383, 1385, 1387, 1389, 1390, 1391, 1393, 1394, 1397, 1398, 1399, 1401, 1402, 1403, 1405, 1406, 1407, 1409, 1410, 1411, 1414, 1415, 1417, 1418, 1419,
+            1423, 1426, 1427, 1429, 1430, 1433, 1434, 1435, 1437, 1438, 1439, 1441, 1442, 1443, 1446, 1447, 1451, 1453, 1454, 1455, 1457, 1459, 1461, 1462, 1463, 1465, 1466, 1469, 1471, 1473, 1474, 1477, 1478, 1479, 1481, 1482, 1483, 1486, 1487, 1489, 1490, 1491, 1493, 1495, 1497, 1498, 1499, 1501,
+            1502, 1505, 1506, 1507, 1509, 1510, 1511, 1513, 1514, 1515, 1517, 1518, 1522, 1523, 1526, 1527, 1529, 1531, 1533, 1534, 1535, 1537, 1538, 1541, 1542, 1543, 1545, 1546, 1547, 1549, 1551, 1553, 1554, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1561, 1562, 1563, 1565, 1567, 1569, 1570, 1571, 1574, 1577, 1578, 1579,
+            1581, 1582, 1583, 1585, 1586, 1589, 1590, 1591, 1594, 1595, 1597, 1598, 1599, 1601, 1603, 1605, 1606, 1607, 1609, 1610, 1613, 1614, 1615, 1618, 1619, 1621, 1622, 1623, 1626, 1627, 1630, 1631, 1633, 1634, 1635, 1637, 1639, 1641, 1642, 1643, 1645, 1646, 1649, 1651, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1657,
+            1658, 1659, 1661, 1662, 1663, 1667, 1669, 1670, 1671, 1673, 1677, 1678, 1679, 1685, 1686, 1687, 1689, 1691, 1693, 1695, 1697, 1698, 1699, 1702, 1703, 1705, 1706, 1707, 1709, 1711, 1713, 1714, 1717, 1718, 1721, 1722, 1723, 1726, 1727, 1729, 1730, 1731, 1733, 1735, 1738, 1739, 1741, 1742,
+            1743, 1745, 1747, 1749, 1751, 1753, 1754, 1757, 1758, 1759, 1761, 1762, 1763, 1765, 1766, 1767, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1774, 1777, 1778, 1779, 1781, 1783, 1785, 1786, 1787, 1789, 1790, 1793, 1794, 1795, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1801, 1802, 1803, 1806, 1807, 1810, 1811, 1814, 1817, 1819, 1821, 1822,
+            1823, 1826, 1829, 1830, 1831, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1837, 1838, 1839, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1846, 1847, 1851, 1853, 1855, 1857, 1858, 1861, 1865, 1866, 1867, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1873, 1874, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1882, 1883, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1889, 1891, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1897, 1898, 1901, 1902, 1903,
+            1905, 1906, 1907, 1909, 1910, 1913, 1914, 1915, 1918, 1919, 1921, 1923, 1927, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1933, 1934, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1949, 1951, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1969, 1970, 1973, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1981, 1982,
+            1983, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021, 2022, 2026, 2027, 2029, 2030, 2031, 2033, 2035, 2037, 2038, 2039, 2041, 2042, 2045, 2046, 2047, 2049, 2051, 2053, 2054, 2055, 2059, 2062,
+            2063, 2065, 2066, 2067, 2069, 2071, 2073, 2074, 2077, 2078, 2081, 2082, 2083, 2085, 2086, 2087, 2089, 2090, 2091, 2093, 2094, 2095, 2098, 2099, 2101, 2102, 2103, 2105, 2109, 2110, 2111, 2113, 2114, 2117, 2118, 2119, 2121, 2122, 2123, 2126, 2127, 2129, 2130, 2131, 2134, 2135, 2137, 2138,
+            2139, 2141, 2143, 2145, 2146, 2147, 2149, 2153, 2154, 2155, 2157, 2158, 2159, 2161, 2162, 2163, 2165, 2167, 2170, 2171, 2173, 2174, 2177, 2179, 2181, 2182, 2183, 2185, 2186, 2189, 2190, 2191, 2193, 2194, 2195, 2198, 2199, 2201, 2202, 2203, 2206, 2207, 2210, 2211, 2213, 2215, 2217, 2218,
+            2219, 2221, 2222, 2226, 2227, 2229, 2230, 2231, 2233, 2234, 2235, 2237, 2238, 2239, 2242, 2243, 2245, 2246, 2247, 2249, 2251, 2253, 2255, 2257, 2258, 2261, 2262, 2263, 2265, 2266, 2267, 2269, 2270, 2271, 2273, 2274, 2278, 2279, 2281, 2282, 2283, 2285, 2287, 2289, 2290, 2291, 2293, 2294,
+            2297, 2298, 2301, 2302, 2305, 2306, 2307, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2314, 2315, 2317, 2318, 2319, 2321, 2323, 2326, 2327, 2329, 2330, 2333, 2334, 2335, 2337, 2338, 2339, 2341, 2342, 2343, 2345, 2346, 2347, 2351, 2353, 2354, 2355, 2357, 2359, 2361, 2362, 2363, 2365, 2369, 2370, 2371, 2373, 2374,
+            2377, 2378, 2379, 2381, 2382, 2383, 2386, 2387, 2389, 2390, 2391, 2393, 2395, 2397, 2398, 2399, 2402, 2405, 2406, 2407, 2409, 2410, 2411, 2413, 2414, 2415, 2417, 2418, 2419, 2422, 2423, 2426, 2427, 2429, 2431, 2433, 2434, 2435, 2437, 2438, 2441, 2442, 2443, 2445, 2446, 2447, 2449, 2451,
+            2453, 2454, 2455, 2458, 2459, 2461, 2462, 2463, 2465, 2467, 2469, 2470, 2471, 2473, 2474, 2477, 2478, 2479, 2481, 2482, 2483, 2485, 2486, 2487, 2489, 2490, 2491, 2494, 2495, 2497, 2498);
+
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 2500; i++) {
+            // when
+            boolean isNumberSquareFree = SquareFreeInteger.isSquareFreeInteger(i);
+            boolean isNumberPresentInList = listOfSquareFreeIntegers.contains(i);
+
+            // then
+            assertEquals(isNumberSquareFree, isNumberPresentInList);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsSquareFreeIntegerThrowExceptionIfNumberIsZero() {
+        // given
+        int number = 0;
+        String expectedMessage = "Number must be greater than zero.";
+
+        // when
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { SquareFreeInteger.isSquareFreeInteger(number); });
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedMessage, actualMessage);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsSquareFreeIntegerMustThrowExceptionIfNumberIsNegative() {
+        // given
+        int number = -1;
+        String expectedMessage = "Number must be greater than zero.";
+
+        // when
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { SquareFreeInteger.isSquareFreeInteger(number); });
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedMessage, actualMessage);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..067b68962bdb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod {
+
+    @Test
+    void testfor1() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.squareRoot(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testfor2() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1.414213562373095, SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.squareRoot(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testfor625() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(25.0, SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.squareRoot(625));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootwithBabylonianMethodTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootwithBabylonianMethodTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..77446d30df32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootwithBabylonianMethodTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SquareRootwithBabylonianMethodTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testfor4() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod.squareRoot(4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testfor1() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod.squareRoot(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testfor2() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1.4142135381698608, SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod.squareRoot(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testfor625() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(25, SquareRootWithBabylonianMethod.squareRoot(625));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardDeviationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardDeviationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2c10d2d14f3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardDeviationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class StandardDeviationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void test1() {
+        double[] t1 = new double[] {1, 1, 1, 1, 1};
+        Assertions.assertEquals(StandardDeviation.stdDev(t1), 0.0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test2() {
+        double[] t2 = new double[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Assertions.assertEquals(StandardDeviation.stdDev(t2), 2.8722813232690143);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test3() {
+        double[] t3 = new double[] {1.1, 8.5, 20.3, 2.4, 6.2};
+        Assertions.assertEquals(StandardDeviation.stdDev(t3), 6.8308125431752265);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test4() {
+        double[] t4 = new double[] {
+            3.14,
+            2.22222,
+            9.89898989,
+            100.00045,
+            56.7,
+        };
+        Assertions.assertEquals(StandardDeviation.stdDev(t4), 38.506117353865775);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardScoreTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardScoreTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..436b1fd011c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StandardScoreTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class StandardScoreTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void test1() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(StandardScore.zScore(2, 0, 5), 0.4);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test2() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(StandardScore.zScore(1, 1, 1), 0.0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test3() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(StandardScore.zScore(2.5, 1.8, 0.7), 1.0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test4() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(StandardScore.zScore(8.9, 3, 4.2), 1.4047619047619049);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StrobogrammaticNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StrobogrammaticNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2269291e06c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/StrobogrammaticNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class StrobogrammaticNumberTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsStrobogrammatic() {
+        StrobogrammaticNumber strobogrammaticNumber = new StrobogrammaticNumber();
+        assertThat(strobogrammaticNumber.isStrobogrammatic("69")).isTrue();
+        assertThat(strobogrammaticNumber.isStrobogrammatic("88")).isTrue();
+        assertThat(strobogrammaticNumber.isStrobogrammatic("818")).isTrue();
+        assertThat(strobogrammaticNumber.isStrobogrammatic("101")).isTrue();
+        assertThat(strobogrammaticNumber.isStrobogrammatic("609")).isTrue();
+        assertThat(strobogrammaticNumber.isStrobogrammatic("120")).isFalse();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeriesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeriesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..527cef2c187d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeriesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SumOfArithmeticSeriesTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testSumFrom1To10() {
+        assertEquals(55.0, SumOfArithmeticSeries.sumOfSeries(1.0, 1.0, 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSumOfOddNumbers1To19() {
+        assertEquals(100.0, SumOfArithmeticSeries.sumOfSeries(1.0, 2.0, 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testA() {
+        assertEquals(460.0, SumOfArithmeticSeries.sumOfSeries(1.0, 10.0, 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testB() {
+        assertEquals(5.5, SumOfArithmeticSeries.sumOfSeries(0.1, 0.1, 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testC() {
+        assertEquals(49600.0, SumOfArithmeticSeries.sumOfSeries(1, 10, 100));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testForZeroTerms() {
+        assertEquals(0.0, SumOfArithmeticSeries.sumOfSeries(1.0, 100.0, 0), 0.00001);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIfThrowsExceptionForNegativeNumberOfTerms() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> SumOfArithmeticSeries.sumOfSeries(1.0, 1.0, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithSingleTerm() {
+        assertEquals(123.0, SumOfArithmeticSeries.sumOfSeries(123.0, 5.0, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithZeroCommonDiff() {
+        assertEquals(100.0, SumOfArithmeticSeries.sumOfSeries(1.0, 0.0, 100));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigitsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigitsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..76aca44a2220
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfDigitsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class SumOfDigitsTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    void sumOfDigitsTest(final int expected, final int input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, SumOfDigits.sumOfDigits(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    void sumOfDigitsRecursionTest(final int expected, final int input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, SumOfDigits.sumOfDigitsRecursion(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    void sumOfDigitsFastTest(final int expected, final int input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, SumOfDigits.sumOfDigitsFast(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> testCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, 0), Arguments.of(1, 1), Arguments.of(15, 12345), Arguments.of(6, -123), Arguments.of(1, -100000), Arguments.of(8, 512));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbersTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbersTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6470d7983888
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbersTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class SumOfOddNumbersTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStream")
+    void sumOfFirstNOddNumbersTests(int expected, int input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, SumOfOddNumbers.sumOfFirstNOddNumbers(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(1, 1), Arguments.of(4, 2), Arguments.of(9, 3), Arguments.of(16, 4), Arguments.of(25, 5), Arguments.of(100, 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSumOfFirstNOddNumbersThrowsExceptionForNegativeInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> SumOfOddNumbers.sumOfFirstNOddNumbers(-1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfSquaresTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfSquaresTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..834fe61a049e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfSquaresTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for SumOfSquares
+ *
+ * @author BEASTSHRIRAM
+ */
+class SumOfSquaresTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testPerfectSquares() {
+        // Perfect squares should return 1
+        assertEquals(1, SumOfSquares.minSquares(1)); // 1^2
+        assertEquals(1, SumOfSquares.minSquares(4)); // 2^2
+        assertEquals(1, SumOfSquares.minSquares(9)); // 3^2
+        assertEquals(1, SumOfSquares.minSquares(16)); // 4^2
+        assertEquals(1, SumOfSquares.minSquares(25)); // 5^2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoSquares() {
+        // Numbers that can be expressed as sum of two squares
+        assertEquals(2, SumOfSquares.minSquares(2)); // 1^2 + 1^2
+        assertEquals(2, SumOfSquares.minSquares(5)); // 1^2 + 2^2
+        assertEquals(2, SumOfSquares.minSquares(8)); // 2^2 + 2^2
+        assertEquals(2, SumOfSquares.minSquares(10)); // 1^2 + 3^2
+        assertEquals(2, SumOfSquares.minSquares(13)); // 2^2 + 3^2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testThreeSquares() {
+        // Numbers that require exactly three squares
+        assertEquals(3, SumOfSquares.minSquares(3)); // 1^2 + 1^2 + 1^2
+        assertEquals(3, SumOfSquares.minSquares(6)); // 1^2 + 1^2 + 2^2
+        assertEquals(3, SumOfSquares.minSquares(11)); // 1^2 + 1^2 + 3^2
+        assertEquals(3, SumOfSquares.minSquares(12)); // 2^2 + 2^2 + 2^2
+        assertEquals(3, SumOfSquares.minSquares(14)); // 1^2 + 2^2 + 3^2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFourSquares() {
+        // Numbers that require exactly four squares (form 4^a * (8b + 7))
+        assertEquals(4, SumOfSquares.minSquares(7)); // 1^2 + 1^2 + 1^2 + 2^2
+        assertEquals(4, SumOfSquares.minSquares(15)); // 1^2 + 1^2 + 2^2 + 3^2
+        assertEquals(4, SumOfSquares.minSquares(23)); // 1^2 + 1^2 + 3^2 + 3^2
+        assertEquals(4, SumOfSquares.minSquares(28)); // 4 * 7, so needs 4 squares
+        assertEquals(4, SumOfSquares.minSquares(31)); // 1^2 + 2^2 + 3^2 + 3^2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargerNumbers() {
+        // Test some larger numbers
+        assertEquals(1, SumOfSquares.minSquares(100)); // 10^2
+        assertEquals(2, SumOfSquares.minSquares(65)); // 1^2 + 8^2
+        assertEquals(3, SumOfSquares.minSquares(19)); // 1^2 + 3^2 + 3^2
+        assertEquals(4, SumOfSquares.minSquares(60)); // 4 * 15, and 15 = 8*1 + 7
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCases() {
+        // Test edge case
+        assertEquals(1, SumOfSquares.minSquares(0)); // 0^2
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1eab73c67642
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest {
+    SumWithoutArithmeticOperators obj = new SumWithoutArithmeticOperators();
+
+    @Test
+    void addZerotoZero() {
+        assertEquals(0, obj.getSum(0, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void addZerotoNumber() {
+        assertEquals(5, obj.getSum(0, 5));
+        assertEquals(28, obj.getSum(28, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void addOddtoEven() {
+        assertEquals(13, obj.getSum(3, 10));
+        assertEquals(55, obj.getSum(49, 6));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void addEventoOdd() {
+        assertEquals(13, obj.getSum(10, 3));
+        assertEquals(41, obj.getSum(40, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void addRandoms() {
+        assertEquals(88, obj.getSum(44, 44));
+        assertEquals(370, obj.getSum(100, 270));
+        assertEquals(3, obj.getSum(1, 2));
+        assertEquals(5, obj.getSum(2, 3));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TestArmstrong.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TestArmstrong.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..60f4f2431189
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TestArmstrong.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TestArmstrong {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testArmstrong() {
+        Armstrong armstrong = new Armstrong();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(371)).isTrue();
+        assertThat(armstrong.isArmstrong(200)).isFalse();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TwinPrimeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TwinPrimeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e214b0ada347
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TwinPrimeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class TwinPrimeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldReturn7() {
+        // given
+        int number = 5;
+        int expectedResult = 7;
+
+        // when
+        int actualResult = TwinPrime.getTwinPrime(number);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldReturn5() {
+        // given
+        int number = 3;
+        int expectedResult = 5;
+
+        // when
+        int actualResult = TwinPrime.getTwinPrime(number);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldReturnNegative1() {
+        // given
+        int number = 4;
+        int expectedResult = -1;
+
+        // when
+        int actualResult = TwinPrime.getTwinPrime(number);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldReturn19() {
+        // given
+        int number = 17;
+        int expectedResult = 19;
+
+        // when
+        int actualResult = TwinPrime.getTwinPrime(number);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedResult, actualResult);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/UniformNumbersTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/UniformNumbersTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ac46c00014ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/UniformNumbersTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class UniformNumbersTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleUniformDigitRange() {
+        assertEquals(1, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(1, 1));
+        assertEquals(9, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(1, 9));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSmallRange() {
+        assertEquals(1, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(10, 11));
+        assertEquals(2, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(22, 33));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeWithNoUniformNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(0, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(12, 21));
+        assertEquals(0, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(123, 128));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeWithAllUniformNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(9, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(1, 9));
+        assertEquals(18, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(1, 99));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultiDigitRangeWithUniformNumbers() {
+        assertEquals(1, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(100, 111));
+        assertEquals(2, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(111, 222));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testExactUniformBoundary() {
+        assertEquals(1, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(111, 111));
+        assertEquals(2, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(111, 222));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeRange() {
+        assertEquals(27, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(1, 999));
+        assertEquals(36, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(1, 9999));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidRange() {
+        assertEquals(0, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(500, 100));
+        assertEquals(0, UniformNumbers.countUniformIntegers(-100, -1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6f331f1252cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VampireNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class VampireNumberTest {
+    @Test
+    void areVampireNumbers() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(VampireNumber.isVampireNumber(15, 93, true));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(VampireNumber.isVampireNumber(135, 801, true));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(VampireNumber.isVampireNumber(201, 600, true));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void arePseudoVampireNumbers() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(VampireNumber.isVampireNumber(150, 93, false));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(VampireNumber.isVampireNumber(546, 84, false));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(VampireNumber.isVampireNumber(641, 65, false));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void areNotVampireNumbers() {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(VampireNumber.isVampireNumber(51, 39, false));
+        Assertions.assertFalse(VampireNumber.isVampireNumber(51, 39, true));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSplitIntoSortedDigits() {
+        Assertions.assertEquals("123", VampireNumber.splitIntoSortedDigits(321));
+        Assertions.assertEquals("02234", VampireNumber.splitIntoSortedDigits(20, 324));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VolumeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VolumeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7cd0c6716147
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VolumeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class VolumeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void volume() {
+
+        /* test cube */
+        assertTrue(Volume.volumeCube(7) == 343.0);
+
+        /* test cuboid */
+        assertTrue(Volume.volumeCuboid(2, 5, 7) == 70.0);
+
+        /* test sphere */
+        assertTrue(Volume.volumeSphere(7) == 1436.7550402417319);
+
+        /* test cylinder */
+        assertTrue(Volume.volumeCylinder(3, 7) == 197.92033717615698);
+
+        /* test hemisphere */
+        assertTrue(Volume.volumeHemisphere(7) == 718.3775201208659);
+
+        /* test cone */
+        assertTrue(Volume.volumeCone(3, 7) == 65.97344572538566);
+
+        /* test prism */
+        assertTrue(Volume.volumePrism(10, 2) == 20.0);
+
+        /* test pyramid */
+        assertTrue(Volume.volumePyramid(10, 3) == 10.0);
+
+        /* test frustum */
+        assertTrue(Volume.volumeFrustumOfCone(3, 5, 7) == 359.188760060433);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ZellersCongruenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ZellersCongruenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..71bcbdc5ed9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ZellersCongruenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class ZellersCongruenceTest {
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> validDates() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("01-01-2000", "Saturday"), Arguments.of("12-25-2021", "Saturday"), Arguments.of("07-04-1776", "Thursday"), Arguments.of("02-29-2020", "Saturday"), Arguments.of("03-01-1900", "Thursday"), Arguments.of("03/01/1900", "Thursday"));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> invalidDates() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("13-01-2000", "Month must be between 1 and 12."), Arguments.of("02-30-2020", "Invalid date."), Arguments.of("00-15-2020", "Month must be between 1 and 12."), Arguments.of("01-01-0000", "Year must be between 46 and 8499."),
+            Arguments.of("01/01/200", "Input date must be 10 characters long in the format MM-DD-YYYY or MM/DD/YYYY."), Arguments.of("01@01>2000", "Date separator must be '-' or '/'."), Arguments.of("aa-01-1900", "Invalid numeric part: aa"),
+            Arguments.of(null, "Input date must be 10 characters long in the format MM-DD-YYYY or MM/DD/YYYY."));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("validDates")
+    void testValidDates(String inputDate, String expectedDay) {
+        String result = ZellersCongruence.calculateDay(inputDate);
+        assertEquals("The date " + inputDate + " falls on a " + expectedDay + ".", result);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("invalidDates")
+    void testInvalidDates(String inputDate, String expectedErrorMessage) {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ZellersCongruence.calculateDay(inputDate));
+        assertEquals(expectedErrorMessage, exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/LiouvilleLambdaFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/LiouvilleLambdaFunctionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d32815c0b8a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/LiouvilleLambdaFunctionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.prime;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.LiouvilleLambdaFunction;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LiouvilleLambdaFunctionTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testLiouvilleLambdaMustThrowExceptionIfNumberIsZero() {
+        // given
+        int number = 0;
+        String expectedMessage = "Number must be greater than zero.";
+
+        // when
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { LiouvilleLambdaFunction.liouvilleLambda(number); });
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedMessage, actualMessage);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLiouvilleLambdaMustThrowExceptionIfNumberIsNegative() {
+        // given
+        int number = -1;
+        String expectedMessage = "Number must be greater than zero.";
+
+        // when
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { LiouvilleLambdaFunction.liouvilleLambda(number); });
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedMessage, actualMessage);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLiouvilleLambdaMustReturnNegativeOne() {
+        // given
+        int number = 11;
+        int expectedOutput = -1;
+
+        // when
+        int actualOutput = LiouvilleLambdaFunction.liouvilleLambda(number);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, actualOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLiouvilleLambdaMustReturnPositiveOne() {
+        // given
+        int number = 10;
+        int expectedOutput = 1;
+
+        // when
+        int actualOutput = LiouvilleLambdaFunction.liouvilleLambda(number);
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, actualOutput);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheckTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheckTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4defcd587758
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheckTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.prime;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.MillerRabinPrimalityCheck;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MillerRabinPrimalityCheckTest {
+    @Test
+    void testDeterministicMillerRabinForPrimes() {
+        assertTrue(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.deterministicMillerRabin(2));
+        assertTrue(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.deterministicMillerRabin(37));
+        assertTrue(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.deterministicMillerRabin(123457));
+        assertTrue(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.deterministicMillerRabin(6472601713L));
+    }
+    @Test
+    void testDeterministicMillerRabinForNotPrimes() {
+        assertFalse(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.deterministicMillerRabin(1));
+        assertFalse(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.deterministicMillerRabin(35));
+        assertFalse(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.deterministicMillerRabin(123453));
+        assertFalse(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.deterministicMillerRabin(647260175));
+    }
+    @Test
+    void testMillerRabinForPrimes() {
+        assertTrue(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.millerRabin(11, 5));
+        assertTrue(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.millerRabin(97, 5));
+        assertTrue(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.millerRabin(6720589, 5));
+        assertTrue(MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.millerRabin(9549401549L, 5));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/MobiusFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/MobiusFunctionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..734d02477ba2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/MobiusFunctionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,155 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.prime;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.MobiusFunction;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MobiusFunctionTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testMobiusForZero() {
+        // given
+        int number = 0;
+        String expectedMessage = "Number must be greater than zero.";
+
+        // when
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { MobiusFunction.mobius(number); });
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedMessage, actualMessage);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMobiusForNegativeNumber() {
+        // given
+        int number = -1;
+        String expectedMessage = "Number must be greater than zero.";
+
+        // when
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { MobiusFunction.mobius(number); });
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals(expectedMessage, actualMessage);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMobiusFunction() {
+        int[] expectedResultArray = {
+            1,
+            -1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            0,
+            1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            1,
+            1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            1,
+            1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            0,
+            1,
+            0,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            -1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            1,
+            1,
+            1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            1,
+            1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            -1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            0,
+            1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            0,
+            0,
+            1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            1,
+            0,
+            1,
+            1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            1,
+            0,
+            0,
+            1,
+            -1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            1,
+            -1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            1,
+            0,
+            0,
+            1,
+            -1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            0,
+            1,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            1,
+            1,
+            1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            1,
+            0,
+            1,
+            1,
+            1,
+            0,
+            -1,
+            0,
+            0,
+            0,
+        };
+
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 100; i++) {
+            // given
+            int expectedValue = expectedResultArray[i - 1];
+
+            // when
+            int actualValue = MobiusFunction.mobius(i);
+
+            // then
+            assertEquals(expectedValue, actualValue);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/PrimeCheckTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/PrimeCheckTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2182bcd9cb16
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/PrimeCheckTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.prime;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.PrimeCheck;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PrimeCheckTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void test1() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PrimeCheck.isPrime(2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test2() {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PrimeCheck.isPrime(-1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test3() {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PrimeCheck.isPrime(4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test4() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PrimeCheck.isPrime(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test5() {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PrimeCheck.isPrime(15));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test6() {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(PrimeCheck.isPrime(11));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void test7() {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(PrimeCheck.isPrime(49));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/PrimeFactorizationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/PrimeFactorizationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..79d685726261
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/prime/PrimeFactorizationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths.prime;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.maths.Prime.PrimeFactorization;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class PrimeFactorizationTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersAndFactors")
+    void testPrimeFactorization(int number, List<Integer> expectedFactors) {
+        assertEquals(expectedFactors, PrimeFactorization.pfactors(number), "Prime factors for number: " + number);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersAndSizes")
+    void testPrimeFactorsSize(int number, int expectedSize) {
+        assertEquals(expectedSize, PrimeFactorization.pfactors(number).size(), "Size of prime factors list for number: " + number);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersAndFactors() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, List.of()), Arguments.of(1, List.of()), Arguments.of(2, List.of(2)), Arguments.of(3, List.of(3)), Arguments.of(4, List.of(2, 2)), Arguments.of(18, List.of(2, 3, 3)), Arguments.of(100, List.of(2, 2, 5, 5)), Arguments.of(198, List.of(2, 3, 3, 11)));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersAndSizes() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(2, 1), Arguments.of(3, 1), Arguments.of(4, 2), Arguments.of(18, 3), Arguments.of(100, 4), Arguments.of(198, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..930fb377cd32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class InverseOfMatrixTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testInvert(double[][] matrix, double[][] expectedInverse) {
+        double[][] result = InverseOfMatrix.invert(matrix);
+        assertMatrixEquals(expectedInverse, result);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new double[][] {{1, 0, 0}, {0, 1, 0}, {0, 0, 1}}, new double[][] {{1, 0, 0}, {0, 1, 0}, {0, 0, 1}}), Arguments.of(new double[][] {{4, 7}, {2, 6}}, new double[][] {{0.6, -0.7}, {-0.2, 0.4}}));
+    }
+
+    private void assertMatrixEquals(double[][] expected, double[][] actual) {
+        for (int i = 0; i < expected.length; i++) {
+            assertArrayEquals(expected[i], actual[i], 1.0E-10, "Row " + i + " is not equal");
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplicationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplicationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9463d33a18cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplicationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MatrixMultiplicationTest {
+
+    private static final double EPSILON = 1e-9; // for floating point comparison
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultiply1by1() {
+        double[][] matrixA = {{1.0}};
+        double[][] matrixB = {{2.0}};
+        double[][] expected = {{2.0}};
+
+        double[][] result = MatrixMultiplication.multiply(matrixA, matrixB);
+        assertMatrixEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultiply2by2() {
+        double[][] matrixA = {{1.0, 2.0}, {3.0, 4.0}};
+        double[][] matrixB = {{5.0, 6.0}, {7.0, 8.0}};
+        double[][] expected = {{19.0, 22.0}, {43.0, 50.0}};
+
+        double[][] result = MatrixMultiplication.multiply(matrixA, matrixB);
+        assertMatrixEquals(expected, result); // Use custom method due to floating point issues
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultiply3by2and2by1() {
+        double[][] matrixA = {{1.0, 2.0}, {3.0, 4.0}, {5.0, 6.0}};
+        double[][] matrixB = {{7.0}, {8.0}};
+        double[][] expected = {{23.0}, {53.0}, {83.0}};
+
+        double[][] result = MatrixMultiplication.multiply(matrixA, matrixB);
+        assertMatrixEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultiplyNonRectangularMatrices() {
+        double[][] matrixA = {{1.0, 2.0, 3.0}, {4.0, 5.0, 6.0}};
+        double[][] matrixB = {{7.0, 8.0}, {9.0, 10.0}, {11.0, 12.0}};
+        double[][] expected = {{58.0, 64.0}, {139.0, 154.0}};
+
+        double[][] result = MatrixMultiplication.multiply(matrixA, matrixB);
+        assertMatrixEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullMatrixA() {
+        double[][] b = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MatrixMultiplication.multiply(null, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullMatrixB() {
+        double[][] a = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MatrixMultiplication.multiply(a, null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultiplyNull() {
+        double[][] matrixA = {{1.0, 2.0}, {3.0, 4.0}};
+        double[][] matrixB = null;
+
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MatrixMultiplication.multiply(matrixA, matrixB));
+
+        String expectedMessage = "Input matrices cannot be null";
+        String actualMessage = exception.getMessage();
+
+        assertTrue(actualMessage.contains(expectedMessage));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIncompatibleDimensions() {
+        double[][] a = {{1.0, 2.0}};
+        double[][] b = {{1.0, 2.0}};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MatrixMultiplication.multiply(a, b));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyMatrices() {
+        double[][] a = new double[0][0];
+        double[][] b = new double[0][0];
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MatrixMultiplication.multiply(a, b));
+    }
+
+    private void assertMatrixEquals(double[][] expected, double[][] actual) {
+        assertEquals(expected.length, actual.length, "Row count mismatch");
+        for (int i = 0; i < expected.length; i++) {
+            assertEquals(expected[i].length, actual[i].length, "Column count mismatch at row " + i);
+            for (int j = 0; j < expected[i].length; j++) {
+                assertEquals(expected[i][j], actual[i][j], EPSILON, "Mismatch at (" + i + "," + j + ")");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRankTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRankTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..33a0196b7bf7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRankTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class MatrixRankTest {
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> validInputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(3, new double[][] {{1, 0, 0}, {0, 1, 0}, {0, 0, 1}}), Arguments.of(0, new double[][] {{0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}}), Arguments.of(1, new double[][] {{1}}), Arguments.of(2, new double[][] {{1, 2}, {3, 4}}),
+            Arguments.of(2, new double[][] {{3, -1, 2}, {-3, 1, 2}, {-6, 2, 4}}), Arguments.of(3, new double[][] {{2, 3, 0, 1}, {1, 0, 1, 2}, {-1, 1, 1, -2}, {1, 5, 3, -1}}), Arguments.of(1, new double[][] {{1, 2, 3}, {3, 6, 9}}),
+            Arguments.of(2, new double[][] {{0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 2}, {1.5, 3, 4.5, 6}, {1, 2, 3, 4}}));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> invalidInputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of((Object) new double[][] {{1, 2}, {10}, {100, 200, 300}}), // jagged array
+            Arguments.of((Object) new double[][] {}), // empty matrix
+            Arguments.of((Object) new double[][] {{}, {}}), // empty row
+            Arguments.of((Object) null), // null matrix
+            Arguments.of((Object) new double[][] {{1, 2}, null}) // null row
+        );
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("validInputStream")
+    void computeRankTests(int expectedRank, double[][] matrix) {
+        int originalHashCode = Arrays.deepHashCode(matrix);
+        int rank = MatrixRank.computeRank(matrix);
+        int newHashCode = Arrays.deepHashCode(matrix);
+
+        assertEquals(expectedRank, rank);
+        assertEquals(originalHashCode, newHashCode);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("invalidInputStream")
+    void computeRankWithInvalidMatrix(double[][] matrix) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MatrixRank.computeRank(matrix));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixTransposeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixTransposeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0457f31418cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixTransposeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class MatrixTransposeTest {
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideValidMatrixTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[][] {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}}, new int[][] {{1, 4, 7}, {2, 5, 8}, {3, 6, 9}}, "Transpose of square matrix"), Arguments.of(new int[][] {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6}}, new int[][] {{1, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6}}, "Transpose of rectangular matrix"),
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{1, 2, 3}}, new int[][] {{1}, {2}, {3}}, "Transpose of single-row matrix"), Arguments.of(new int[][] {{1}, {2}, {3}}, new int[][] {{1, 2, 3}}, "Transpose of single-column matrix"));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideInvalidMatrixTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[0][0], "Empty matrix should throw IllegalArgumentException"), Arguments.of(null, "Null matrix should throw IllegalArgumentException"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Test case {index}: {2}")
+    @MethodSource("provideValidMatrixTestCases")
+    void testValidMatrixTranspose(int[][] input, int[][] expected, String description) {
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, MatrixTranspose.transpose(input), description);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Test case {index}: {1}")
+    @MethodSource("provideInvalidMatrixTestCases")
+    void testInvalidMatrixTranspose(int[][] input, String description) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MatrixTranspose.transpose(input), description);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixUtilTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixUtilTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..78947b1e70cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixUtilTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.matrix.utils.MatrixUtil;
+import java.math.BigDecimal;
+import java.util.Objects;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MatrixUtilTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void add() {
+        final BigDecimal[][] matrix1 = {
+            {new BigDecimal(3), BigDecimal.TWO},
+            {BigDecimal.ZERO, BigDecimal.ONE},
+        };
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] matrix2 = {
+            {BigDecimal.ONE, new BigDecimal(3)},
+            {BigDecimal.TWO, BigDecimal.ZERO},
+        };
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] actual = MatrixUtil.add(matrix1, matrix2).orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Could not compute matrix!"));
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] expected = {
+            {new BigDecimal(4), new BigDecimal(5)},
+            {BigDecimal.TWO, BigDecimal.ONE},
+        };
+
+        assertTrue(Objects.deepEquals(actual, expected));
+    }
+    @Test
+    void subtract() {
+        final BigDecimal[][] matrix1 = {
+            {BigDecimal.ONE, new BigDecimal(4)},
+            {new BigDecimal(5), new BigDecimal(6)},
+        };
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] matrix2 = {
+            {BigDecimal.TWO, BigDecimal.ZERO},
+            {new BigDecimal(-2), new BigDecimal(-3)},
+        };
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] actual = MatrixUtil.subtract(matrix1, matrix2).orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Could not compute matrix!"));
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] expected = {
+            {new BigDecimal(-1), new BigDecimal(4)},
+            {new BigDecimal(7), new BigDecimal(9)},
+        };
+
+        assertTrue(Objects.deepEquals(actual, expected));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void multiply() {
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] matrix1 = {
+            {BigDecimal.ONE, BigDecimal.TWO, new BigDecimal(3)},
+            {new BigDecimal(4), new BigDecimal(5), new BigDecimal(6)},
+            {new BigDecimal(7), new BigDecimal(8), new BigDecimal(9)},
+        };
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] matrix2 = {
+            {BigDecimal.ONE, BigDecimal.TWO},
+            {new BigDecimal(3), new BigDecimal(4)},
+            {new BigDecimal(5), new BigDecimal(6)},
+        };
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] actual = MatrixUtil.multiply(matrix1, matrix2).orElseThrow(() -> new AssertionError("Could not compute matrix!"));
+
+        final BigDecimal[][] expected = {
+            {new BigDecimal(22), new BigDecimal(28)},
+            {new BigDecimal(49), new BigDecimal(64)},
+            {new BigDecimal(76), new BigDecimal(100)},
+        };
+
+        assertTrue(Objects.deepEquals(actual, expected));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b9b97014f3fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MedianOfMatrixTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMedianWithOddNumberOfElements() {
+        List<List<Integer>> matrix = new ArrayList<>();
+        matrix.add(Arrays.asList(1, 3, 5));
+        matrix.add(Arrays.asList(2, 4, 6));
+        matrix.add(Arrays.asList(7, 8, 9));
+
+        int result = MedianOfMatrix.median(matrix);
+
+        assertEquals(5, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMedianWithEvenNumberOfElements() {
+        List<List<Integer>> matrix = new ArrayList<>();
+        matrix.add(Arrays.asList(2, 4));
+        matrix.add(Arrays.asList(1, 3));
+
+        int result = MedianOfMatrix.median(matrix);
+
+        assertEquals(2, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMedianSingleElement() {
+        List<List<Integer>> matrix = new ArrayList<>();
+        matrix.add(List.of(1));
+
+        assertEquals(1, MedianOfMatrix.median(matrix));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyMatrixThrowsException() {
+        Iterable<List<Integer>> emptyMatrix = Collections.emptyList();
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MedianOfMatrix.median(emptyMatrix), "Expected median() to throw, but it didn't");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MirrorOfMatrixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MirrorOfMatrixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2e4370922370
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MirrorOfMatrixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MirrorOfMatrixTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testMirrorMatrixRegularMatrix() {
+        double[][] originalMatrix = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}};
+        double[][] expectedMirrorMatrix = {{3, 2, 1}, {6, 5, 4}, {9, 8, 7}};
+        double[][] mirroredMatrix = MirrorOfMatrix.mirrorMatrix(originalMatrix);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedMirrorMatrix, mirroredMatrix);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMirrorMatrixEmptyMatrix() {
+        double[][] originalMatrix = {};
+        Exception e = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MirrorOfMatrix.mirrorMatrix(originalMatrix));
+        assertEquals("The input matrix cannot be empty", e.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMirrorMatrixSingleElementMatrix() {
+        double[][] originalMatrix = {{42}};
+        double[][] expectedMirrorMatrix = {{42}};
+        double[][] mirroredMatrix = MirrorOfMatrix.mirrorMatrix(originalMatrix);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedMirrorMatrix, mirroredMatrix);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMirrorMatrixMultipleRowsOneColumnMatrix() {
+        double[][] originalMatrix = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}};
+        double[][] expectedMirrorMatrix = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}};
+        double[][] mirroredMatrix = MirrorOfMatrix.mirrorMatrix(originalMatrix);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedMirrorMatrix, mirroredMatrix);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMirrorMatrixNullInput() {
+        double[][] originalMatrix = null;
+        Exception e = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MirrorOfMatrix.mirrorMatrix(originalMatrix));
+        assertEquals("The input matrix cannot be null", e.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMirrorMatrixThrows() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MirrorOfMatrix.mirrorMatrix(new double[][] {{1}, {2, 3}}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..745fdf98f193
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrderTest {
+
+    private final PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder spiralPrinter = new PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder();
+
+    @Test
+    void testSquareMatrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}};
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 8, 7, 4, 5);
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 3, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRectangularMatrixMoreRows() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}, {10, 11, 12}};
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 11, 10, 7, 4, 5, 8);
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 4, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRectangularMatrixMoreCols() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 12, 11, 10, 9, 5, 6, 7);
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 3, 4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleRow() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 2, 3, 4}};
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3, 4);
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 1, 4));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleColumn() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1}, {2}, {3}};
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3);
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 3, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyMatrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = new int[0][0];
+        List<Integer> expected = Collections.emptyList();
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 0, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOneElementMatrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{42}};
+        List<Integer> expected = Collections.singletonList(42);
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 1, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMatrixWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{-1, -2}, {-3, -4}};
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(-1, -2, -4, -3);
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 2, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeSquareMatrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, {8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, {14, 15, 16, 17, 18}, {23, 24, 25, 26, 27}, {30, 31, 32, 33, 34}};
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 18, 27, 34, 33, 32, 31, 30, 23, 14, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17, 26, 25, 24, 15, 16);
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 5, 5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleRowWithTwoElements() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{2, 2}};
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(2, 2);
+        assertEquals(expected, spiralPrinter.print(matrix, 1, 2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/SolveSystemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/SolveSystemTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c8d289bd8339
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/SolveSystemTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.matrix;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class SolveSystemTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource({"matrixGenerator"})
+    void solveSystem(double[][] matrix, double[] constants, double[] solution) {
+        double[] expected = SolveSystem.solveSystem(matrix, constants);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, solution, 1.0E-10, "Solution does not match expected");
+    }
+    private static Stream<Arguments> matrixGenerator() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new double[][] {{-5, 8, -4}, {0, 6, 3}, {0, 0, -4}}, new double[] {38, -9, 20}, new double[] {-2, 1, -5}), Arguments.of(new double[][] {{-2, -1, -1}, {3, 4, 1}, {3, 6, 5}}, new double[] {-11, 19, 43}, new double[] {2, 2, 5}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatioTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatioTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6b80edf4b14c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ColorContrastRatioTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.awt.Color;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class ColorContrastRatioTest {
+    private final ColorContrastRatio colorContrastRationCalculator = new ColorContrastRatio();
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> relativeLuminanceProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(Color.BLACK, 0.0), Arguments.of(Color.WHITE, 1.0), Arguments.of(new Color(23, 103, 154), 0.12215748057375966), Arguments.of(new Color(226, 229, 248), 0.7898468477881603));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> contrastRatioProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(Color.BLACK, Color.WHITE, 21.0), Arguments.of(new Color(23, 103, 154), new Color(226, 229, 248), 4.878363954846178));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("relativeLuminanceProvider")
+    void testGetRelativeLuminance(Color color, double expectedLuminance) {
+        assertEquals(expectedLuminance, colorContrastRationCalculator.getRelativeLuminance(color), 1e-10);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("contrastRatioProvider")
+    void testGetContrastRatio(Color a, Color b, double expectedRatio) {
+        assertEquals(expectedRatio, colorContrastRationCalculator.getContrastRatio(a, b), 1e-10);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..748dd0a563cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class MapReduceTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'hello world', 'hello: 1,world: 1'", "'one one two', 'one: 2,two: 1'", "'a a a a', 'a: 4'", "'  spaced  out  ', 'spaced: 1,out: 1'"})
+    void testCountWordFrequencies(String input, String expected) {
+        String result = MapReduce.countWordFrequencies(input);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f41953035846
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,201 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for Median Of Running Array Problem.
+ * @author Ansh Shah (https://github.com/govardhanshah456)
+ */
+
+public class MedianOfRunningArrayTest {
+    private static final String EXCEPTION_MESSAGE = "Median is undefined for an empty data set.";
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWhenInvalidInoutProvidedShouldThrowException() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, stream::getMedian);
+        assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), EXCEPTION_MESSAGE);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithNegativeValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(-1);
+        assertEquals(-1, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(-2);
+        assertEquals(-1, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(-3);
+        assertEquals(-2, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithSingleValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(-1);
+        assertEquals(-1, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithRandomValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(10);
+        assertEquals(10, stream.getMedian());
+
+        stream.insert(5);
+        assertEquals(7, stream.getMedian());
+
+        stream.insert(20);
+        assertEquals(10, stream.getMedian());
+
+        stream.insert(15);
+        assertEquals(12, stream.getMedian());
+
+        stream.insert(25);
+        assertEquals(15, stream.getMedian());
+
+        stream.insert(30);
+        assertEquals(17, stream.getMedian());
+
+        stream.insert(35);
+        assertEquals(20, stream.getMedian());
+
+        stream.insert(1);
+        assertEquals(17, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithNegativeAndPositiveValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(-1);
+        assertEquals(-1, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(2);
+        assertEquals(0, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(-3);
+        assertEquals(-1, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithDuplicateValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(-1);
+        assertEquals(-1, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(-1);
+        assertEquals(-1, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(-1);
+        assertEquals(-1, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithDuplicateValuesB() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(10);
+        stream.insert(20);
+        stream.insert(10);
+        stream.insert(10);
+        stream.insert(20);
+        stream.insert(0);
+        stream.insert(50);
+        assertEquals(10, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithLargeValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(1000000);
+        assertEquals(1000000, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(12000);
+        assertEquals(506000, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(15000000);
+        assertEquals(1000000, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(2300000);
+        assertEquals(1650000, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithLargeCountOfValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 1000; i++) {
+            stream.insert(i);
+        }
+        assertEquals(500, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithThreeValuesInDescendingOrder() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(30);
+        stream.insert(20);
+        stream.insert(10);
+        assertEquals(20, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithThreeValuesInOrder() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(10);
+        stream.insert(20);
+        stream.insert(30);
+        assertEquals(20, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithThreeValuesNotInOrderA() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(30);
+        stream.insert(10);
+        stream.insert(20);
+        assertEquals(20, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithThreeValuesNotInOrderB() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayInteger();
+        stream.insert(20);
+        stream.insert(10);
+        stream.insert(30);
+        assertEquals(20, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithFloatValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayFloat();
+        stream.insert(20.0f);
+        assertEquals(20.0f, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(10.5f);
+        assertEquals(15.25f, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(30.0f);
+        assertEquals(20.0f, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithByteValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayByte();
+        stream.insert((byte) 120);
+        assertEquals((byte) 120, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert((byte) -120);
+        assertEquals((byte) 0, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert((byte) 127);
+        assertEquals((byte) 120, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithLongValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayLong();
+        stream.insert(120000000L);
+        assertEquals(120000000L, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(92233720368547757L);
+        assertEquals(46116860244273878L, stream.getMedian());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithDoubleValues() {
+        var stream = new MedianOfRunningArrayDouble();
+        stream.insert(12345.67891);
+        assertEquals(12345.67891, stream.getMedian());
+        stream.insert(23456789.98);
+        assertEquals(11734567.83, stream.getMedian(), .01);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrimeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrimeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..130cd19b47b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromePrimeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PalindromePrimeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPrimeWithPrimeNumbers() {
+        assertTrue(PalindromePrime.prime(2), "2 should be prime");
+        assertTrue(PalindromePrime.prime(3), "3 should be prime");
+        assertTrue(PalindromePrime.prime(5), "5 should be prime");
+        assertTrue(PalindromePrime.prime(11), "11 should be prime");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPrimeWithNonPrimeNumbers() {
+        assertFalse(PalindromePrime.prime(1), "1 is not prime");
+        assertFalse(PalindromePrime.prime(4), "4 is not prime");
+        assertFalse(PalindromePrime.prime(9), "9 is not prime");
+        assertFalse(PalindromePrime.prime(15), "15 is not prime");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testReverse() {
+        assertEquals(123, PalindromePrime.reverse(321), "Reverse of 321 should be 123");
+        assertEquals(7, PalindromePrime.reverse(7), "Reverse of 7 should be 7");
+        assertEquals(1221, PalindromePrime.reverse(1221), "Reverse of 1221 should be 1221");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGeneratePalindromePrimes() {
+        List<Integer> result = PalindromePrime.generatePalindromePrimes(5);
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(2, 3, 5, 7, 11);
+        assertEquals(expected, result, "The first 5 palindromic primes should be [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGeneratePalindromePrimesWithZero() {
+        List<Integer> result = PalindromePrime.generatePalindromePrimes(0);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty(), "Generating 0 palindromic primes should return an empty list");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGeneratePalindromePrimesWithNegativeInput() {
+        List<Integer> result = PalindromePrime.generatePalindromePrimes(-5);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty(), "Generating a negative number of palindromic primes should return an empty list");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedListTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0f0577d39094
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedListTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists.SinglyLinkedList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PalindromeSinglyLinkedListTest {
+
+    // Stack-based tests
+    @Test
+    public void testWithEmptyList() {
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindrome(new SinglyLinkedList()));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithSingleElement() {
+        var exampleList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        exampleList.insert(100);
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindrome(exampleList));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithListWithOddLengthPositive() {
+        var exampleList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        exampleList.insert(1);
+        exampleList.insert(2);
+        exampleList.insert(1);
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindrome(exampleList));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithListWithOddLengthPositive2() {
+        var exampleList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        exampleList.insert(3);
+        exampleList.insert(2);
+        exampleList.insert(1);
+        exampleList.insert(2);
+        exampleList.insert(3);
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindrome(exampleList));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithListWithEvenLengthPositive() {
+        var exampleList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        exampleList.insert(10);
+        exampleList.insert(20);
+        exampleList.insert(20);
+        exampleList.insert(10);
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindrome(exampleList));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithListWithOddLengthNegative() {
+        var exampleList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        exampleList.insert(1);
+        exampleList.insert(2);
+        exampleList.insert(2);
+        assertFalse(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindrome(exampleList));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithListWithEvenLengthNegative() {
+        var exampleList = new SinglyLinkedList();
+        exampleList.insert(10);
+        exampleList.insert(20);
+        exampleList.insert(20);
+        exampleList.insert(20);
+        assertFalse(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindrome(exampleList));
+    }
+
+    // Optimized approach tests
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimisedWithEmptyList() {
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindromeOptimised(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimisedWithSingleElement() {
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(100);
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindromeOptimised(node));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimisedWithOddLengthPositive() {
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node1 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(1);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node2 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(2);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node3 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(1);
+        node1.next = node2;
+        node2.next = node3;
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindromeOptimised(node1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimisedWithOddLengthPositive2() {
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node1 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(3);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node2 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(2);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node3 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(1);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node4 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(2);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node5 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(3);
+        node1.next = node2;
+        node2.next = node3;
+        node3.next = node4;
+        node4.next = node5;
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindromeOptimised(node1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimisedWithEvenLengthPositive() {
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node1 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(10);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node2 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(20);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node3 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(20);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node4 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(10);
+        node1.next = node2;
+        node2.next = node3;
+        node3.next = node4;
+        assertTrue(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindromeOptimised(node1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimisedWithOddLengthNegative() {
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node1 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(1);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node2 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(2);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node3 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(2);
+        node1.next = node2;
+        node2.next = node3;
+        assertFalse(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindromeOptimised(node1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOptimisedWithEvenLengthNegative() {
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node1 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(10);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node2 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(20);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node3 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(20);
+        PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node node4 = new PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.Node(20);
+        node1.next = node2;
+        node2.next = node3;
+        node3.next = node4;
+        assertFalse(PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.isPalindromeOptimised(node1));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..543c66130449
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/RangeInSortedArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class RangeInSortedArrayTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Test case {index}: {3}")
+    @MethodSource("provideSortedRangeTestCases")
+    void testSortedRange(int[] nums, int key, int[] expectedRange, String description) {
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedRange, RangeInSortedArray.sortedRange(nums, key), description);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideSortedRangeTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5}, 3, new int[] {2, 4}, "Range for key 3 with multiple occurrences"), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5}, 4, new int[] {5, 5}, "Range for key 4 with single occurrence"),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {0, 1, 2}, 3, new int[] {-1, -1}, "Range for non-existent key"), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, 1, new int[] {-1, -1}, "Range in empty array"), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5}, 1, new int[] {0, 2}, "Range for key at start"),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5}, 5, new int[] {6, 8}, "Range for key at end"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Test case {index}: {3}")
+    @MethodSource("provideGetCountLessThanTestCases")
+    void testGetCountLessThan(int[] nums, int key, int expectedCount, String description) {
+        assertEquals(expectedCount, RangeInSortedArray.getCountLessThan(nums, key), description);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideGetCountLessThanTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5}, 3, 4, "Count of elements less than existing key"), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5}, 4, 5, "Count of elements less than non-existing key"), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 2, 3}, 5, 4, "Count with all smaller elements"),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 3, 4, 5}, 1, 0, "Count with no smaller elements"), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, 1, 0, "Count in empty array"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Edge case {index}: {3}")
+    @MethodSource("provideEdgeCasesForSortedRange")
+    void testSortedRangeEdgeCases(int[] nums, int key, int[] expectedRange, String description) {
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedRange, RangeInSortedArray.sortedRange(nums, key), description);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideEdgeCasesForSortedRange() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, 5, new int[] {0, 4}, "All elements same as key"), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 1, new int[] {0, 0}, "Key is first element"), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 5, new int[] {4, 4}, "Key is last element"),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 0, new int[] {-1, -1}, "Key less than all elements"), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 6, new int[] {-1, -1}, "Key greater than all elements"),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4}, 3, new int[] {4, 6}, "Multiple occurrences spread"), Arguments.of(new int[] {2}, 2, new int[] {0, 0}, "Single element array key exists"), Arguments.of(new int[] {2}, 3, new int[] {-1, -1}, "Single element array key missing"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Edge case {index}: {3}")
+    @MethodSource("provideEdgeCasesForGetCountLessThan")
+    void testGetCountLessThanEdgeCases(int[] nums, int key, int expectedCount, String description) {
+        assertEquals(expectedCount, RangeInSortedArray.getCountLessThan(nums, key), description);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideEdgeCasesForGetCountLessThan() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 0, 0, "Key less than all elements"), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 6, 5, "Key greater than all elements"), Arguments.of(new int[] {1}, 0, 0, "Single element greater than key"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..915b83e376b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ShuffleArrayTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testShuffleBasic() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] originalArr = arr.clone(); // Clone original array for comparison
+        ShuffleArray.shuffle(arr);
+
+        // Check that the shuffled array is not the same as the original
+        assertNotEquals(originalArr, arr);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testShuffleSingleElement() {
+        int[] arr = {1};
+        int[] originalArr = arr.clone();
+        ShuffleArray.shuffle(arr);
+
+        // Check that the shuffled array is the same as the original
+        assertArrayEquals(originalArr, arr);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testShuffleTwoElements() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2};
+        int[] originalArr = arr.clone();
+        ShuffleArray.shuffle(arr);
+
+        // Check that the shuffled array is not the same as the original
+        assertNotEquals(originalArr, arr);
+        // Check that the shuffled array still contains the same elements
+        assertTrue(arr[0] == 1 || arr[0] == 2);
+        assertTrue(arr[1] == 1 || arr[1] == 2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testShuffleEmptyArray() {
+        int[] arr = {};
+        int[] originalArr = arr.clone();
+        ShuffleArray.shuffle(arr);
+
+        // Check that the shuffled array is the same as the original (still empty)
+        assertArrayEquals(originalArr, arr);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testShuffleLargeArray() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        int[] originalArr = arr.clone();
+        ShuffleArray.shuffle(arr);
+
+        // Check that the shuffled array is not the same as the original
+        assertNotEquals(originalArr, arr);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testShuffleRetainsElements() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        ShuffleArray.shuffle(arr);
+
+        // Check that the shuffled array contains the same elements
+        assertTrue(arr.length == 5);
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
+            assertTrue(contains(arr, i));
+        }
+    }
+
+    private boolean contains(int[] arr, int value) {
+        for (int num : arr) {
+            if (num == value) {
+                return true;
+            }
+        }
+        return false;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/SparsityTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/SparsityTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b93e4f44937d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/SparsityTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class SparsityTest {
+
+    private static final double DELTA = 1e-9;
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Test case {index}: {2}")
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testSparsity(double[][] matrix, double expectedSparsity, String description) {
+        assertEquals(expectedSparsity, Sparsity.sparsity(matrix), DELTA, description);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new double[][] {{0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}}, 1.0, "Matrix with all zero elements"), Arguments.of(new double[][] {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}}, 0.0, "Matrix with no zero elements"),
+            Arguments.of(new double[][] {{0, 2, 0}, {4, 0, 6}, {0, 8, 0}}, 5.0 / 9.0, "Matrix with mixed elements"), Arguments.of(new double[][] {{0, 1, 0, 2, 0}}, 3.0 / 5.0, "Single-row matrix"), Arguments.of(new double[][] {{1}, {0}, {0}, {2}}, 2.0 / 4.0, "Single-column matrix"),
+            Arguments.of(new double[][] {{0}}, 1.0, "Matrix with a single zero element"), Arguments.of(new double[][] {{5}}, 0.0, "Matrix with a single non-zero element"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Test case {index}: {1}")
+    @MethodSource("provideExceptionTestCases")
+    public void testSparsityExceptions(double[][] matrix, String description) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Sparsity.sparsity(matrix), description);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideExceptionTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new double[][] {}, "Empty matrix should throw IllegalArgumentException"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblemTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5353168216ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblemTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class ThreeSumProblemTest {
+
+    private ThreeSumProblem tsp;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        tsp = new ThreeSumProblem();
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("bruteForceTestProvider")
+    public void testBruteForce(int[] nums, int target, List<List<Integer>> expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, tsp.bruteForce(nums, target));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("twoPointerTestProvider")
+    public void testTwoPointer(int[] nums, int target, List<List<Integer>> expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, tsp.twoPointer(nums, target));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("hashMapTestProvider")
+    public void testHashMap(int[] nums, int target, List<List<Integer>> expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, tsp.hashMap(nums, target));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> bruteForceTestProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, -3, 4, -2, -1}, 0, Arrays.asList(Arrays.asList(-3, 1, 2), Arrays.asList(-3, -1, 4))), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 50, new ArrayList<>()));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> twoPointerTestProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {0, -1, 2, -3, 1}, 0, Arrays.asList(Arrays.asList(-3, 1, 2), Arrays.asList(-1, 0, 1))), Arguments.of(new int[] {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1}, -10, Arrays.asList(Arrays.asList(-5, -4, -1), Arrays.asList(-5, -3, -2))));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> hashMapTestProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, -1, -4, 3, 0}, 2, Arrays.asList(Arrays.asList(-1, 0, 3), Arrays.asList(-1, 1, 2))), Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 7, 9, 11}, 10, new ArrayList<>()), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, 0, new ArrayList<>()));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblemTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..86e73ac0547c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblemTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.misc;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+
+import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test case for Two sum Problem.
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+
+public class TwoSumProblemTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoSumExists() {
+        final int[] values = new int[] {2, 7, 11, 15};
+        final int target = 9;
+        final var expected = Pair.of(0, 1); // values[0] + values[1] = 2 + 7 = 9
+        assertEquals(expected, TwoSumProblem.twoSum(values, target).get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoSumNoSolution() {
+        final int[] values = new int[] {2, 7, 11, 15};
+        final int target = 3;
+        assertFalse(TwoSumProblem.twoSum(values, target).isPresent());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoSumMultipleSolutions() {
+        final int[] values = {3, 3};
+        final int target = 6;
+        final var expected = Pair.of(0, 1); // values[0] + values[1] = 3 + 3 = 6
+        assertEquals(expected, TwoSumProblem.twoSum(values, target).get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoSumMultipleSolution() {
+        final int[] values = {3, 4, 3, 3};
+        final int target = 6;
+        final var expected = Pair.of(0, 2); // values[0] + values[2] = 3 + 3 = 6
+        assertEquals(expected, TwoSumProblem.twoSum(values, target).get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoSumNegativeNumbers() {
+        final int[] values = {-1, -2, -3, -4, -5};
+        final int target = -8;
+        final var expected = Pair.of(2, 4); // values[2] + values[4] = -3 + (-5) = -8
+        assertEquals(expected, TwoSumProblem.twoSum(values, target).get());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoSumNoSolutionDuplicatedInputs() {
+        final int[] values = {0, 0, 0};
+        final int target = 100;
+        assertFalse(TwoSumProblem.twoSum(values, target).isPresent());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotationTest.java
index 773a5aabf5dc..b31b7d825ed5 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotationTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayLeftRotationTest.java
@@ -1,48 +1,54 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 class ArrayLeftRotationTest {
 
-	@Test
-	void testForOneElement() {
-		int[] arr = {3};
-		int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, 3);
-		assertArrayEquals(arr, result);
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testForZeroStep() {
-		int[] arr = {3, 1, 5, 8, 6};
-		int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, 0);
-		assertArrayEquals(arr, result);
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testForEqualSizeStep() {
-		int[] arr = {3, 1, 5, 8, 6};
-		int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, 5);
-		assertArrayEquals(arr, result);
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testForLowerSizeStep() {
-		int[] arr = {3, 1, 5, 8, 6};
-		int n = 2;
-		int[] expected = {5, 8, 6, 3, 1};
-		int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, n);
-		assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
-	}
-
-	@Test
-	void testForHigherSizeStep() {
-		int[] arr = {3, 1, 5, 8, 6};
-		int n = 7;
-		int[] expected = {5, 8, 6, 3, 1};
-		int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, n);
-		assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
-	}
-
-}
\ No newline at end of file
+    @Test
+    void testForOneElement() {
+        int[] arr = {3};
+        int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, 3);
+        assertArrayEquals(arr, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForZeroStep() {
+        int[] arr = {3, 1, 5, 8, 6};
+        int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(arr, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEqualSizeStep() {
+        int[] arr = {3, 1, 5, 8, 6};
+        int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, 5);
+        assertArrayEquals(arr, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForLowerSizeStep() {
+        int[] arr = {3, 1, 5, 8, 6};
+        int n = 2;
+        int[] expected = {5, 8, 6, 3, 1};
+        int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, n);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForHigherSizeStep() {
+        int[] arr = {3, 1, 5, 8, 6};
+        int n = 7;
+        int[] expected = {5, 8, 6, 3, 1};
+        int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, n);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEmptyArray() {
+        int[] arr = {};
+        int[] result = ArrayLeftRotation.rotateLeft(arr, 3);
+        assertArrayEquals(arr, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f132d56dd9cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class ArrayRightRotationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayRightRotation() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
+        int k = 3;
+        int[] expected = {5, 6, 7, 1, 2, 3, 4};
+        int[] result = ArrayRightRotation.rotateRight(arr, k);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayRightRotationWithZeroSteps() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
+        int k = 0;
+        int[] expected = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
+        int[] result = ArrayRightRotation.rotateRight(arr, k);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayRightRotationWithEqualSizeSteps() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
+        int k = arr.length;
+        int[] expected = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
+        int[] result = ArrayRightRotation.rotateRight(arr, k);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayRightRotationWithLowerSizeSteps() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
+        int k = 2;
+        int[] expected = {6, 7, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] result = ArrayRightRotation.rotateRight(arr, k);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayRightRotationWithHigherSizeSteps() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
+        int k = 10;
+        int[] expected = {5, 6, 7, 1, 2, 3, 4};
+        int[] result = ArrayRightRotation.rotateRight(arr, k);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRTTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRTTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bb7c8f074864
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BFPRTTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class BFPRTTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("minKNumsTestData")
+    void testGetMinKNumsByBFPRT(int[] arr, int k, int[] expected) {
+        int[] result = BFPRT.getMinKNumsByBFPRT(arr, k);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> minKNumsTestData() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {11, 9, 1, 3, 9, 2, 2, 5, 6, 5, 3, 5, 9, 7, 2, 5, 5, 1, 9}, 5, new int[] {1, 1, 2, 2, 2}), Arguments.of(new int[] {3, 2, 1}, 2, new int[] {1, 2}), Arguments.of(new int[] {7, 5, 9, 1, 3, 8, 2, 4, 6}, 3, new int[] {1, 2, 3}));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("minKthTestData")
+    void testGetMinKthByBFPRT(int[] arr, int k, int expected) {
+        int result = BFPRT.getMinKthByBFPRT(arr, k);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> minKthTestData() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {3, 2, 1}, 2, 2), Arguments.of(new int[] {7, 5, 9, 1, 3, 8, 2, 4, 6}, 3, 3), Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 8, 6, 3, 2, 7, 1, 4}, 4, 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFitCPUTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFitCPUTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..296cf1ca1c04
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFitCPUTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * author Alexandros Lemonaris
+ */
+class BestFitCPUTest {
+
+    int[] sizeOfBlocks;
+    int[] sizeOfProcesses;
+    ArrayList<Integer> memAllocation = new ArrayList<>();
+    ArrayList<Integer> testMemAllocation;
+    MemoryManagementAlgorithms bestFit = new BestFitCPU();
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForUseOfOneBlock() {
+        // test1 - 2 processes shall fit to one block instead of using a different block each
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17, 10};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 5, 15, 2};
+        memAllocation = bestFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(3, 0, 2, 2));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForEqualProcecesses() {
+        // test2
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17, 10};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 10, 10, 10};
+        memAllocation = bestFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(3, 1, 2, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForNoEmptyBlockCell() {
+        // test3 for more processes than blocks - no empty space left to none of the blocks
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {5, 12, 10, 7};
+        memAllocation = bestFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 2));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForSameInputDifferentQuery() {
+        // test4 for more processes than blocks - one element does not fit due to input series
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {5, 7, 10, 12};
+        memAllocation = bestFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForMoreBlocksNoFit() {
+        // test5 for more blocks than processes
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 4, -1, 3, 6};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 11};
+        memAllocation = bestFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(-255, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMooreTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMooreTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8416535b2111
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMooreTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class BoyerMooreTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStreamWithExistingMajority")
+    void checkWhenMajorityExists(int expected, int[] input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, BoyerMoore.findMajorityElement(input).get());
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStreamWithExistingMajority() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(5, new int[] {5, 5, 5, 2}), Arguments.of(10, new int[] {10, 10, 20}), Arguments.of(10, new int[] {10, 20, 10}), Arguments.of(10, new int[] {20, 10, 10}), Arguments.of(4, new int[] {1, 4, 2, 4, 4, 5, 4}), Arguments.of(-1, new int[] {-1}));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStreamWithoutMajority")
+    void checkWhenMajorityExists(int[] input) {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(BoyerMoore.findMajorityElement(input).isPresent());
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStreamWithoutMajority() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {10, 10, 20, 20, 30, 30}), Arguments.of(new int[] {10, 20, 30, 40, 50}), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2}), Arguments.of(new int[] {}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC16Test.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC16Test.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bf309928bbf4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC16Test.java
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class CRC16Test {
+    @Test
+    void testCRC16() {
+        // given
+        String textToCRC16 = "hacktoberfest!";
+
+        // when
+        String resultCRC16 = CRC16.crc16(textToCRC16); // Algorithm CRC16-CCITT-FALSE
+
+        // then
+        assertEquals("10FC", resultCRC16);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3dc61f2c6569
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CRCAlgorithmTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoErrorsWithZeroBER() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("10010101010100101010010000001010010101010", 10, 0.0);
+        c.generateRandomMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+        c.changeMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+        assertEquals(0, c.getWrongMess(), "BER=0 should produce no wrong messages");
+        assertEquals(0, c.getWrongMessCaught(), "No errors, so no caught wrong messages");
+        assertEquals(0, c.getWrongMessNotCaught(), "No errors, so no uncaught wrong messages");
+        assertTrue(c.getCorrectMess() > 0, "Should have some correct messages");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAllErrorsWithBEROne() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("10010101010100101010010000001010010101010", 10, 1.0);
+        c.generateRandomMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+        c.changeMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+        assertTrue(c.getWrongMess() > 0, "BER=1 should produce wrong messages");
+        assertEquals(0, c.getCorrectMess(), "BER=1 should produce no correct messages");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIntermediateBER() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("1101", 4, 0.5);
+        c.generateRandomMess();
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            c.refactor();
+            c.generateRandomMess();
+            c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+            c.changeMess();
+            c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+        }
+        assertTrue(c.getWrongMess() > 0, "Some wrong messages expected with BER=0.5");
+        assertTrue(c.getWrongMessCaught() >= 0, "Wrong messages caught counter >= 0");
+        assertTrue(c.getWrongMessNotCaught() >= 0, "Wrong messages not caught counter >= 0");
+        assertTrue(c.getCorrectMess() >= 0, "Correct messages counter >= 0");
+        assertEquals(c.getWrongMess(), c.getWrongMessCaught() + c.getWrongMessNotCaught(), "Sum of caught and not caught wrong messages should equal total wrong messages");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMessageChangedFlag() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("1010", 4, 1.0);
+        c.generateRandomMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+        c.changeMess();
+        assertTrue(c.getWrongMess() > 0, "Message should be marked as changed with BER=1");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSmallMessageSize() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("11", 2, 0.0);
+        c.generateRandomMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+        c.changeMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+        assertEquals(0, c.getWrongMess(), "No errors expected for BER=0 with small message");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeMessageSize() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("1101", 1000, 0.01);
+        c.generateRandomMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+        c.changeMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+        // Just ensure counters are updated, no exceptions
+        assertTrue(c.getWrongMess() >= 0);
+        assertTrue(c.getCorrectMess() >= 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleBitMessage() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("11", 1, 0.0);
+        c.generateRandomMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+        c.changeMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+
+        assertTrue(c.getCorrectMess() >= 0, "Single bit message should be handled");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPolynomialLongerThanMessage() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("11010101", 3, 0.0);
+        c.generateRandomMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+        c.changeMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+
+        // Should not crash, counters should be valid
+        assertTrue(c.getCorrectMess() + c.getWrongMess() >= 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPolynomialWithOnlyOnes() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("1111", 5, 0.1);
+        c.generateRandomMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+        c.changeMess();
+        c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+
+        assertTrue(c.getCorrectMess() + c.getWrongMess() >= 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleRefactorCalls() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("1101", 5, 0.2);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
+            c.refactor();
+            c.generateRandomMess();
+            c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+            c.changeMess();
+            c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+        }
+
+        // Counters should accumulate across multiple runs
+        assertTrue(c.getCorrectMess() + c.getWrongMess() > 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCounterConsistency() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("1101", 10, 0.3);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            c.refactor();
+            c.generateRandomMess();
+            c.divideMessageWithP(false);
+            c.changeMess();
+            c.divideMessageWithP(true);
+        }
+
+        // Total messages processed should equal correct + wrong
+        int totalProcessed = c.getCorrectMess() + c.getWrongMess();
+        assertEquals(100, totalProcessed, "Total processed messages should equal iterations");
+
+        // Wrong messages should equal caught + not caught
+        assertEquals(c.getWrongMess(), c.getWrongMessCaught() + c.getWrongMessNotCaught(), "Wrong messages should equal sum of caught and not caught");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetterMethodsInitialState() {
+        CRCAlgorithm c = new CRCAlgorithm("1101", 10, 0.1);
+
+        // Check initial state
+        assertEquals(0, c.getCorrectMess(), "Initial correct messages should be 0");
+        assertEquals(0, c.getWrongMess(), "Initial wrong messages should be 0");
+        assertEquals(0, c.getWrongMessCaught(), "Initial caught wrong messages should be 0");
+        assertEquals(0, c.getWrongMessNotCaught(), "Initial not caught wrong messages should be 0");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ConwayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ConwayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f4c3051a1fe2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ConwayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ConwayTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateWith1() {
+        assertEquals("31131211131221", Conway.generateList("1", 8).get(7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateWith123456() {
+        assertEquals(
+            "13211321322113311213212312311211131122211213211331121321122112133221123113112221131112212211131221121321131211132221123113112221131112311332211211131221131211132211121312211231131112311211232221143113112221131112311332111213122112311311123112112322211531131122211311123113321112131221123113111231121123222116",
+            Conway.generateList("123456", 20).get(11));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateWith1A1Z3E1R1T3G1F1D2E1S1C() {
+        assertEquals(
+            "311311222113111231133211121312211231131112311211133112111312211213211312111322211231131122111213122112311311222112111331121113112221121113122113121113222112132113213221232112111312111213322112311311222113111221221113122112132113121113222112311311222113111231133221121113311211131122211211131221131112311332211211131221131211132221232112111312111213322112132113213221133112132113221321123113213221121113122123211211131221222112112322211231131122211311123113321112132132112211131221131211132221121321132132212321121113121112133221123113112221131112311332111213211322111213111213211231131211132211121311222113321132211221121332211A311311222113111231133211121312211231131112311211133112111312211213211312111322211231131122111213122112311311222112111331121113112221121113122113121113222112132113213221232112111312111213322112311311222113111221221113122112132113121113222112311311222113111231133221121113311211131122211211131221131112311332211211131221131211132221232112111312111213322112132113213221133112132113221321123113213221121113122123211211131221222112112322211231131122211311123113321112132132112211131221131211132221121321132132212321121113121112133221123113112221131112311332111213211322111213111213211231131211132211121311222113321132211221121332211Z111312211312111322212321121113121112131112132112311321322112111312212321121113122112131112131221121321132132211231131122111213122112311311222113111221131221221321132132211331121321231231121113112221121321133112132112211213322112311311222113111231133211121312211231131122211322311311222112111312211311123113322112132113212231121113112221121321132122211322212221121123222112111312211312111322212321121113121112131112132112311321322112111312212321121113122112131112131221121321132132211231131122211331121321232221121113122113121122132112311321322112111312211312113221133211322112211213322112132113213221133112132123123112111311222112132113311213211231232112311311222112111312211311123113322112132113213221133112132123222113221321132132211331121321232221123113112221131112311322311211131122211213211331121321122112133221121113122113121113222123112221221321132132211231131122211331121321232221121113122113121113222123113221231231121113213221231221132221222112112322211E311311222113111231133211121312211231131112311211133112111312211213211312111322211231131122111213122112311311222112111331121113112221121113122113121113222112132113213221232112111312111213322112311311222113111221221113122112132113121113222112311311222113111231133221121113311211131122211211131221131112311332211211131221131211132221232112111312111213322112132113213221133112132113221321123113213221121113122123211211131221222112112322211231131122211311123113321112132132112211131221131211132221121321132132212321121113121112133221123113112221131112311332111213211322111213111213211231131211132211121311222113321132211221121332211R311311222113111231133211121312211231131112311211133112111312211213211312111322211231131122111213122112311311222112111331121113112221121113122113121113222112132113213221232112111312111213322112311311222113111221221113122112132113121113222112311311222113111231133221121113311211131122211211131221131112311332211211131221131211132221232112111312111213322112132113213221133112132113221321123113213221121113122123211211131221222112112322211231131122211311123113321112132132112211131221131211132221121321132132212321121113121112133221123113112221131112311332111213211322111213111213211231131211132211121311222113321132211221121332211T111312211312111322212321121113121112131112132112311321322112111312212321121113122112131112131221121321132132211231131122111213122112311311222113111221131221221321132132211331121321231231121113112221121321133112132112211213322112311311222113111231133211121312211231131122211322311311222112111312211311123113322112132113212231121113112221121321132122211322212221121123222112111312211312111322212321121113121112131112132112311321322112111312212321121113122112131112131221121321132132211231131122211331121321232221121113122113121122132112311321322112111312211312113221133211322112211213322112132113213221133112132123123112111311222112132113311213211231232112311311222112111312211311123113322112132113213221133112132123222113221321132132211331121321232221123113112221131112311322311211131122211213211331121321122112133221121113122113121113222123112221221321132132211231131122211331121321232221121113122113121113222123113221231231121113213221231221132221222112112322211G311311222113111231133211121312211231131112311211133112111312211213211312111322211231131122111213122112311311222112111331121113112221121113122113121113222112132113213221232112111312111213322112311311222113111221221113122112132113121113222112311311222113111231133221121113311211131122211211131221131112311332211211131221131211132221232112111312111213322112132113213221133112132113221321123113213221121113122123211211131221222112112322211231131122211311123113321112132132112211131221131211132221121321132132212321121113121112133221123113112221131112311332111213211322111213111213211231131211132211121311222113321132211221121332211F311311222113111231133211121312211231131112311211133112111312211213211312111322211231131122111213122112311311222112111331121113112221121113122113121113222112132113213221232112111312111213322112311311222113111221221113122112132113121113222112311311222113111231133221121113311211131122211211131221131112311332211211131221131211132221232112111312111213322112132113213221133112132113221321123113213221121113122123211211131221222112112322211231131122211311123113321112132132112211131221131211132221121321132132212321121113121112133221123113112221131112311332111213211322111213111213211231131211132211121311222113321132211221121332211D111312211312111322212321121113121112131112132112311321322112111312212321121113122112131112131221121321132132211231131122211331121321232221121113122113121122132112311321322112111312211312111322211213111213122112132113121113222112132113213221133112132123222112311311222113111231132231121113112221121321133112132112211213322112111312211312111322212311222122132113213221123113112221133112132123222112111312211312111322212311322123123112111321322123122113222122211211232221121113122113121113222123211211131211121311121321123113213221121113122123211211131221121311121312211213211321322112311311222113311213212322211211131221131211221321123113213221121113122113121113222112131112131221121321131211132221121321132132211331121321232221123113112221131112311322311211131122211213211331121321122112133221121113122113121113222123112221221321132132211231131122211331121321232221121113122113121113222123113221231231121113213221231221132221222112112322211E311311222113111231133211121312211231131112311211133112111312211213211312111322211231131122111213122112311311222112111331121113112221121113122113121113222112132113213221232112111312111213322112311311222113111221221113122112132113121113222112311311222113111231133221121113311211131122211211131221131112311332211211131221131211132221232112111312111213322112132113213221133112132113221321123113213221121113122123211211131221222112112322211231131122211311123113321112132132112211131221131211132221121321132132212321121113121112133221123113112221131112311332111213211322111213111213211231131211132211121311222113321132211221121332211S311311222113111231133211121312211231131112311211133112111312211213211312111322211231131122111213122112311311222112111331121113112221121113122113121113222112132113213221232112111312111213322112311311222113111221221113122112132113121113222112311311222113111231133221121113311211131122211211131221131112311332211211131221131211132221232112111312111213322112132113213221133112132113221321123113213221121113122123211211131221222112112322211231131122211311123113321112132132112211131221131211132221121321132132212321121113121112133221123113112221131112311332111213211322111213111213211231131211132211121311222113321132211221121332211C",
+            Conway.generateList("1A1Z3E1R1T3G1F1D2E1S1C", 20).get(19));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateNextElementWith1() {
+        assertEquals("11", Conway.generateNextElement("1"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateNextElementWith123456() {
+        assertEquals("111213141516", Conway.generateNextElement("123456"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateNextElementWith1A1Z3E1R1T3G1F1D2E1S1C() {
+        assertEquals("111A111Z131E111R111T131G111F111D121E111S111C", Conway.generateNextElement("1A1Z3E1R1T3G1F1D2E1S1C"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountFriendsPairingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountFriendsPairingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f2e6944c06d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CountFriendsPairingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming.CountFriendsPairing;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CountFriendsPairingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testForOneElement() {
+        int[] a = {1, 2, 2};
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(3, a));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForTwoElements() {
+        int[] a = {1, 2, 2, 3};
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(4, a));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForThreeElements() {
+        int[] a = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3};
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(5, a));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFourElements() {
+        int[] a = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4};
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(6, a));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFiveElements() {
+        int[] a = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4};
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(7, a));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSixElements() {
+        int[] a = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4};
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(8, a));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSevenElements() {
+        int[] a = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5};
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(9, a));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEightElements() {
+        int[] a = {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5};
+        assertTrue(CountFriendsPairing.countFriendsPairing(10, a));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFitCPUTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFitCPUTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..57b6e189b116
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFitCPUTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * author Alexandros Lemonaris
+ */
+class FirstFitCPUTest {
+
+    int[] sizeOfBlocks;
+    int[] sizeOfProcesses;
+    ArrayList<Integer> memAllocation = new ArrayList<>();
+    ArrayList<Integer> testMemAllocation;
+    MemoryManagementAlgorithms firstFit = new FirstFitCPU();
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForUseOfOneBlock() {
+        // test1 - no use of one block for two processes
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17, 10};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 5, 15, 2};
+        memAllocation = firstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 0, 2, 1));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForEqualProcecesses() {
+        // test2
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17, 10};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 10, 10, 10};
+        memAllocation = firstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForNoEmptyBlockCell() {
+        // test3 for more processes than blocks - no empty space left to none of the blocks
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {5, 12, 10, 7};
+        memAllocation = firstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 2));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForSameInputDifferentQuery() {
+        // test4 for more processes than blocks - one element does not fit due to input series
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {5, 7, 10, 12};
+        memAllocation = firstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForMoreBlocksNoFit() {
+        // test5 for more blocks than processes
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 4, -1, 3, 6};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 11};
+        memAllocation = firstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(-255, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangleTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangleTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b336ac4be51f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FloydTriangleTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.emptyList;
+import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FloydTriangleTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateFloydTriangleWithValidInput() {
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedOutput = Arrays.asList(singletonList(1), Arrays.asList(2, 3), Arrays.asList(4, 5, 6));
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, FloydTriangle.generateFloydTriangle(3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateFloydTriangleWithOneRow() {
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedOutput = singletonList(singletonList(1));
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, FloydTriangle.generateFloydTriangle(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateFloydTriangleWithZeroRows() {
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedOutput = emptyList();
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, FloydTriangle.generateFloydTriangle(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateFloydTriangleWithNegativeRows() {
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedOutput = emptyList();
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, FloydTriangle.generateFloydTriangle(-3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateFloydTriangleWithMultipleRows() {
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedOutput = Arrays.asList(singletonList(1), Arrays.asList(2, 3), Arrays.asList(4, 5, 6), Arrays.asList(7, 8, 9, 10), Arrays.asList(11, 12, 13, 14, 15));
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, FloydTriangle.generateFloydTriangle(5));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGenerateFloydTriangleWithMoreMultipleRows() {
+        List<List<Integer>> expectedOutput = Arrays.asList(singletonList(1), Arrays.asList(2, 3), Arrays.asList(4, 5, 6), Arrays.asList(7, 8, 9, 10), Arrays.asList(11, 12, 13, 14, 15), Arrays.asList(16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21), Arrays.asList(22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28));
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, FloydTriangle.generateFloydTriangle(7));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/HuffmanTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/HuffmanTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..aa16f6493506
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/HuffmanTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for Huffman coding algorithm.
+ * Tests various scenarios including normal cases, edge cases, and error
+ * conditions.
+ */
+class HuffmanTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testBuildHuffmanTreeWithBasicInput() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f'};
+        int[] charFreq = {5, 9, 12, 13, 16, 45};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(root);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(100, root.data); // Total frequency
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenerateCodesWithBasicInput() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f'};
+        int[] charFreq = {5, 9, 12, 13, 16, 45};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(root);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(codes);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(6, codes.size());
+
+        // Verify that all characters have codes
+        for (char c : charArray) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(codes.containsKey(c), "Missing code for character: " + c);
+            Assertions.assertNotNull(codes.get(c), "Null code for character: " + c);
+        }
+
+        // Verify that higher frequency characters have shorter codes
+        // 'f' has the highest frequency (45), so it should have one of the shortest
+        // codes
+        Assertions.assertTrue(codes.get('f').length() <= codes.get('a').length());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleCharacter() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a'};
+        int[] charFreq = {10};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(root);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(codes);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, codes.size());
+        Assertions.assertEquals("0", codes.get('a')); // Single character gets code "0"
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwoCharacters() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b'};
+        int[] charFreq = {3, 7};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(root);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(codes);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, codes.size());
+
+        // Verify both characters have codes
+        Assertions.assertTrue(codes.containsKey('a'));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(codes.containsKey('b'));
+
+        // Verify codes are different
+        Assertions.assertNotEquals(codes.get('a'), codes.get('b'));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEqualFrequencies() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c'};
+        int[] charFreq = {5, 5, 5};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(root);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(codes);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, codes.size());
+
+        // Verify all characters have codes
+        for (char c : charArray) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(codes.containsKey(c));
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeFrequencyDifference() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c'};
+        int[] charFreq = {1, 10, 100};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(root);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(codes);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, codes.size());
+
+        // Character 'c' with highest frequency should have shortest code
+        Assertions.assertTrue(codes.get('c').length() <= codes.get('b').length());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(codes.get('c').length() <= codes.get('a').length());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullCharacterArray() {
+        int[] charFreq = {5, 9, 12};
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(null, charFreq); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullFrequencyArray() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c'};
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, null); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyArrays() {
+        char[] charArray = {};
+        int[] charFreq = {};
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMismatchedArrayLengths() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c'};
+        int[] charFreq = {5, 9};
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeFrequency() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c'};
+        int[] charFreq = {5, -9, 12};
+
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroFrequency() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c'};
+        int[] charFreq = {0, 5, 10};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(root);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(codes);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, codes.size());
+        Assertions.assertTrue(codes.containsKey('a')); // Even with 0 frequency, character should have a code
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGenerateCodesWithNullRoot() {
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(null);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(codes);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(codes.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPrefixProperty() {
+        // Verify that no code is a prefix of another (Huffman property)
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'};
+        int[] charFreq = {5, 9, 12, 13, 16};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(root);
+
+        // Check that no code is a prefix of another
+        for (Map.Entry<Character, String> entry1 : codes.entrySet()) {
+            for (Map.Entry<Character, String> entry2 : codes.entrySet()) {
+                if (!entry1.getKey().equals(entry2.getKey())) {
+                    String code1 = entry1.getValue();
+                    String code2 = entry2.getValue();
+                    Assertions.assertTrue(!code1.startsWith(code2) && !code2.startsWith(code1), "Code " + code1 + " is a prefix of " + code2);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBinaryCodesOnly() {
+        // Verify that all codes contain only '0' and '1'
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd'};
+        int[] charFreq = {1, 2, 3, 4};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(root);
+
+        for (String code : codes.values()) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(code.matches("[01]+"), "Code contains non-binary characters: " + code);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleCharactersWithLargeAlphabet() {
+        char[] charArray = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'};
+        int[] charFreq = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29};
+
+        HuffmanNode root = Huffman.buildHuffmanTree(charArray, charFreq);
+        Map<Character, String> codes = Huffman.generateCodes(root);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(codes);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, codes.size());
+
+        // Verify all characters have codes
+        for (char c : charArray) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(codes.containsKey(c));
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e8e49980de13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/InsertDeleteInArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test cases for {@link InsertDeleteInArray} class.
+ * <p>
+ * Tests cover:
+ * <ul>
+ * <li>Insert operations at various positions</li>
+ * <li>Delete operations at various positions</li>
+ * <li>Edge cases (empty arrays, single element, boundary positions)</li>
+ * <li>Error conditions (null arrays, invalid positions)</li>
+ * </ul>
+ * </p>
+ */
+class InsertDeleteInArrayTest {
+
+    // ========== Insert Element Tests ==========
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertAtBeginning() {
+        int[] array = {2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 1, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertAtEnd() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 5, 4);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertInMiddle() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 4, 5};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 3, 2);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertIntoEmptyArray() {
+        int[] array = {};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 42, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {42}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertIntoSingleElementArray() {
+        int[] array = {5};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 3, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {3, 5}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertNegativeNumber() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, -10, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, -10, 2, 3}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertZero() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 0, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 0, 2, 3}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertWithNullArray() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(null, 5, 0));
+        assertEquals("Array cannot be null", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertWithNegativePosition() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 5, -1));
+        assertEquals("Position must be between 0 and 3", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertWithPositionTooLarge() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 5, 4));
+        assertEquals("Position must be between 0 and 3", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    // ========== Delete Element Tests ==========
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteFromBeginning() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {2, 3, 4, 5}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteFromEnd() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 4);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteFromMiddle() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 2);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 4, 5}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteFromSingleElementArray() {
+        int[] array = {42};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteFromTwoElementArray() {
+        int[] array = {10, 20};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {10}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteWithNullArray() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(null, 0));
+        assertEquals("Array cannot be null", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteFromEmptyArray() {
+        int[] array = {};
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 0));
+        assertEquals("Array is empty", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteWithNegativePosition() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, -1));
+        assertEquals("Position must be between 0 and 2", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteWithPositionTooLarge() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 3));
+        assertEquals("Position must be between 0 and 2", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDeleteWithPositionEqualToLength() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 5));
+        assertEquals("Position must be between 0 and 4", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    // ========== Combined Operations Tests ==========
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertThenDelete() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
+        int[] afterInsert = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 99, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 99, 2, 3}, afterInsert);
+        int[] afterDelete = InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(afterInsert, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 3}, afterDelete);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleInsertions() {
+        int[] array = {1, 3, 5};
+        array = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 2, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 5}, array);
+        array = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 4, 3);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, array);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleDeletions() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        array = InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 2);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 4, 5}, array);
+        array = InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {2, 4, 5}, array);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeArray() {
+        int[] array = new int[100];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            array[i] = i;
+        }
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, 999, 50);
+        assertEquals(101, result.length);
+        assertEquals(999, result[50]);
+        assertEquals(49, result[49]);
+        assertEquals(50, result[51]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayWithDuplicates() {
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 2, 3, 2};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.deleteElement(array, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 2}, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeNumbers() {
+        int[] array = {-5, -3, -1, 0, 1};
+        int[] result = InsertDeleteInArray.insertElement(array, -2, 2);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {-5, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1}, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFillTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFillTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..560f1df68e81
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFillTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertDoesNotThrow;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class IterativeFloodFillTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEmptyImage() {
+        int[][] image = {};
+        int[][] expected = {};
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 4, 5, 3, 2);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSingleElementImage() {
+        int[][] image = {{1}};
+        int[][] expected = {{3}};
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 0, 0, 3, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEmptyRow() {
+        int[][] image = {{}};
+        int[][] expected = {{}};
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 4, 5, 3, 2);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForImageOne() {
+        int[][] image = {
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 1, 1, 5, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 1, 1, 5, 5, 3},
+            {0, 3, 5, 5, 1, 1, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 5, 1, 1, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3, 3},
+        };
+
+        int[][] expected = {
+            {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 2, 2, 5, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 2, 2, 5, 5, 3},
+            {0, 3, 5, 5, 2, 2, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 5, 2, 2, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 3, 3, 3, 3},
+        };
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 2, 2, 2, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForImageTwo() {
+        int[][] image = {
+            {0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0},
+            {1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0},
+            {1, 3, 1, 1, 5, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 1, 1, 5, 5, 3},
+            {0, 3, 5, 5, 1, 1, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 5, 1, 1, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 1, 3, 1, 3},
+        };
+
+        int[][] expected = {
+            {0, 0, 2, 2, 0, 0, 0},
+            {2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 0, 0},
+            {2, 3, 2, 2, 5, 0, 0},
+            {0, 3, 2, 2, 5, 5, 3},
+            {0, 3, 5, 5, 2, 2, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 5, 2, 2, 3},
+            {0, 0, 0, 2, 3, 2, 3},
+        };
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 2, 2, 2, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForImageThree() {
+        int[][] image = {
+            {1, 1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1},
+            {1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1},
+            {1, 1, 1, 0, 3, 1, 2},
+        };
+
+        int[][] expected = {
+            {4, 4, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4},
+            {4, 0, 0, 4, 0, 0, 4},
+            {4, 4, 4, 0, 3, 4, 2},
+        };
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 0, 1, 4, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSameNewAndOldColor() {
+        int[][] image = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 0, 1, 1, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForBigImage() {
+        int[][] image = new int[100][100];
+
+        assertDoesNotThrow(() -> IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 0, 0, 1, 0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForBelowZeroX() {
+        int[][] image = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, -1, 1, 1, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForBelowZeroY() {
+        int[][] image = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 1, -1, 1, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForAboveBoundaryX() {
+        int[][] image = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 100, 1, 1, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForAboveBoundaryY() {
+        int[][] image = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        int[][] expected = {{1, 1, 2}, {1, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 1}};
+
+        IterativeFloodFill.floodFill(image, 1, 100, 1, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, image);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KadaneAlogrithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KadaneAlogrithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..25b211657c5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KadaneAlogrithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming.KadaneAlgorithm;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KadaneAlogrithmTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testForOneElement() {
+        int[] a = {-1};
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(a, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForTwoElements() {
+        int[] a = {-2, 1};
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(a, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForThreeElements() {
+        int[] a = {5, 3, 12};
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(a, 20));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFourElements() {
+        int[] a = {-1, -3, -7, -4};
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(a, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFiveElements() {
+        int[] a = {4, 5, 3, 0, 2};
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(a, 14));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSixElements() {
+        int[] a = {-43, -45, 47, 12, 87, -13};
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(a, 146));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSevenElements() {
+        int[] a = {9, 8, 2, 23, 13, 6, 7};
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(a, 68));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEightElements() {
+        int[] a = {9, -5, -5, -2, 4, 5, 0, 1};
+        assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(a, 10));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweepTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweepTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..59fd0fafb068
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweepTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LineSweepTest {
+    private record OverlapTestCase(int[][] ranges, boolean expected) {
+    }
+
+    private record MaximumEndPointTestCase(int[][] ranges, int expected) {
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideOverlapTestData")
+    void testIsOverlap(OverlapTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), LineSweep.isOverlap(testCase.ranges()));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideOverlapTestData() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new OverlapTestCase(new int[][] {{0, 10}, {7, 20}, {15, 24}}, true)), Arguments.of(new OverlapTestCase(new int[][] {{0, 10}, {11, 20}, {21, 24}}, false)), Arguments.of(new OverlapTestCase(new int[][] {{0, 10}, {10, 20}, {21, 24}}, true)),
+            Arguments.of(new OverlapTestCase(new int[][] {{5, 10}}, false)), Arguments.of(new OverlapTestCase(new int[][] {{1, 5}, {1, 5}, {1, 5}}, true)), Arguments.of(new OverlapTestCase(new int[][] {{1, 1}, {2, 2}, {3, 3}}, false)), Arguments.of(new OverlapTestCase(new int[][] {}, false)));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideMaximumEndPointTestData")
+    void testFindMaximumEndPoint(MaximumEndPointTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), LineSweep.findMaximumEndPoint(testCase.ranges()));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideMaximumEndPointTestData() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new MaximumEndPointTestCase(new int[][] {{10, 20}, {1, 100}, {14, 16}, {1, 8}}, 100)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinkListSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinkListSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..100593b1f756
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LinkListSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.sorts.LinkListSort;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class LinkListSortTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testForOneElement() {
+        int[] a = {56};
+        assertTrue(LinkListSort.isSorted(a, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForTwoElements() {
+        int[] a = {6, 4};
+        assertTrue(LinkListSort.isSorted(a, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForThreeElements() {
+        int[] a = {875, 253, 12};
+        assertTrue(LinkListSort.isSorted(a, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFourElements() {
+        int[] a = {86, 32, 87, 13};
+        assertTrue(LinkListSort.isSorted(a, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForFiveElements() {
+        int[] a = {6, 5, 3, 0, 9};
+        assertTrue(LinkListSort.isSorted(a, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSixElements() {
+        int[] a = {9, 65, 432, 32, 47, 327};
+        assertTrue(LinkListSort.isSorted(a, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForSevenElements() {
+        int[] a = {6, 4, 2, 1, 3, 6, 7};
+        assertTrue(LinkListSort.isSorted(a, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testForEightElements() {
+        int[] a = {123, 234, 145, 764, 322, 367, 768, 34};
+        assertTrue(LinkListSort.isSorted(a, 2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindromeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindromeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7c3ce6635aa0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LowestBasePalindromeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Comprehensive test suite for {@link LowestBasePalindrome}.
+ * Tests all public methods including edge cases and exception handling.
+ *
+ * @author TheAlgorithms Contributors
+ */
+public class LowestBasePalindromeTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideListsForIsPalindromicPositive")
+    public void testIsPalindromicPositive(List<Integer> list) {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(LowestBasePalindrome.isPalindromic(list));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideListsForIsPalindromicNegative")
+    public void testIsPalindromicNegative(List<Integer> list) {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(LowestBasePalindrome.isPalindromic(list));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersAndBasesForIsPalindromicInBasePositive")
+    public void testIsPalindromicInBasePositive(int number, int base) {
+        Assertions.assertTrue(LowestBasePalindrome.isPalindromicInBase(number, base));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersAndBasesForIsPalindromicInBaseNegative")
+    public void testIsPalindromicInBaseNegative(int number, int base) {
+        Assertions.assertFalse(LowestBasePalindrome.isPalindromicInBase(number, base));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersAndBasesForExceptions")
+    public void testIsPalindromicInBaseThrowsException(int number, int base) {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LowestBasePalindrome.isPalindromicInBase(number, base));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersForLowestBasePalindrome")
+    public void testLowestBasePalindrome(int number, int expectedBase) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedBase, LowestBasePalindrome.lowestBasePalindrome(number));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNumbersForComputeDigitsInBase")
+    public void testComputeDigitsInBase(int number, int base, List<Integer> expectedDigits) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expectedDigits, LowestBasePalindrome.computeDigitsInBase(number, base));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideInvalidNumbersForComputeDigits")
+    public void testComputeDigitsInBaseThrowsExceptionForNegativeNumber(int number, int base) {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LowestBasePalindrome.computeDigitsInBase(number, base));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideInvalidBasesForComputeDigits")
+    public void testComputeDigitsInBaseThrowsExceptionForInvalidBase(int number, int base) {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LowestBasePalindrome.computeDigitsInBase(number, base));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNegativeNumbersForLowestBasePalindrome")
+    public void testLowestBasePalindromeThrowsExceptionForNegativeNumber(int number) {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LowestBasePalindrome.lowestBasePalindrome(number));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideListsForIsPalindromicPositive() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new ArrayList<>()), Arguments.of(new ArrayList<>(List.of(1))), Arguments.of(new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 1))), Arguments.of(new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 1))), Arguments.of(new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 2, 1))));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideListsForIsPalindromicNegative() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 2))), Arguments.of(new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 1, 1))));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersAndBasesForIsPalindromicInBasePositive() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(101, 10), Arguments.of(1, 190), Arguments.of(0, 11), Arguments.of(10101, 10), Arguments.of(23, 22));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersAndBasesForIsPalindromicInBaseNegative() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(1010, 10), Arguments.of(123, 10));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersAndBasesForExceptions() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(-1, 5), Arguments.of(10, 1));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersForLowestBasePalindrome() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, 2), Arguments.of(1, 2), Arguments.of(2, 3), Arguments.of(3, 2), Arguments.of(10, 3), Arguments.of(11, 10), Arguments.of(15, 2), Arguments.of(39, 12), Arguments.of(44, 10), Arguments.of(58, 28), Arguments.of(69, 22), Arguments.of(79, 78), Arguments.of(87, 28),
+            Arguments.of(90, 14), Arguments.of(5591, 37), Arguments.of(5895, 130), Arguments.of(9950, 198), Arguments.of(9974, 4986));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNumbersForComputeDigitsInBase() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, 2, new ArrayList<>()), Arguments.of(5, 2, Arrays.asList(1, 0, 1)), Arguments.of(13, 2, Arrays.asList(1, 0, 1, 1)), Arguments.of(10, 3, Arrays.asList(1, 0, 1)), Arguments.of(15, 2, Arrays.asList(1, 1, 1, 1)), Arguments.of(101, 10, Arrays.asList(1, 0, 1)),
+            Arguments.of(255, 16, Arrays.asList(15, 15)), Arguments.of(100, 10, Arrays.asList(0, 0, 1)));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideInvalidNumbersForComputeDigits() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(-1, 2), Arguments.of(-10, 10), Arguments.of(-100, 5));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideInvalidBasesForComputeDigits() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(10, 1), Arguments.of(5, 0), Arguments.of(100, -1));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNegativeNumbersForLowestBasePalindrome() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(-1), Arguments.of(-10), Arguments.of(-100));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1a42f1815a96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for {@link MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK}.
+ *
+ * This class contains comprehensive test cases to verify the correctness of the
+ * maximum subarray sum algorithm with distinct elements constraint.
+ */
+class MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Parameterized test for various input scenarios.
+     *
+     * @param expected the expected maximum sum
+     * @param k        the subarray size
+     * @param arr      the input array
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStream")
+    void testMaximumSubarraySum(long expected, int k, int[] arr) {
+        assertEquals(expected, MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.maximumSubarraySum(k, arr));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test cases for the parameterized test.
+     *
+     * Test cases cover:
+     * - Normal cases with distinct and duplicate elements
+     * - Edge cases (empty array, k = 0, k > array length)
+     * - Single element arrays
+     * - Arrays with all duplicates
+     * - Negative numbers
+     * - Large sums
+     *
+     * @return stream of test arguments
+     */
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Normal case: [5, 4, 2] has distinct elements with sum 11, but [4, 2, 9] also
+            // distinct with sum 15
+            Arguments.of(15L, 3, new int[] {1, 5, 4, 2, 9, 9, 9}),
+            // All elements are same, no distinct subarray of size 3
+            Arguments.of(0L, 3, new int[] {4, 4, 4}),
+            // First three have duplicates, but [1, 2, 3] are distinct with sum 6, wait
+            // [9,1,2] has sum 12
+            Arguments.of(12L, 3, new int[] {9, 9, 9, 1, 2, 3}),
+            // k = 0, should return 0
+            Arguments.of(0L, 0, new int[] {9, 9, 9}),
+            // k > array length, should return 0
+            Arguments.of(0L, 5, new int[] {9, 9, 9}),
+            // k = 1, single element (always distinct)
+            Arguments.of(9L, 1, new int[] {9, 2, 3, 7}),
+            // All distinct elements, size matches array
+            Arguments.of(15L, 5, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}),
+            // Array with negative numbers
+            Arguments.of(6L, 3, new int[] {-1, 2, 3, 1, -2, 4}),
+            // Single element array
+            Arguments.of(10L, 1, new int[] {10}),
+            // All duplicates with k = 2
+            Arguments.of(0L, 2, new int[] {7, 7, 7, 7}),
+            // Empty array
+            Arguments.of(0L, 3, new int[] {}),
+            // k much larger than array length
+            Arguments.of(0L, 10, new int[] {1, 2, 3}));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with a larger array and larger k value.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLargerArray() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        long result = MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.maximumSubarraySum(5, arr);
+        // Maximum sum with 5 distinct elements: [6,7,8,9,10] = 40
+        assertEquals(40L, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with negative k value.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeK() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        long result = MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.maximumSubarraySum(-1, arr);
+        assertEquals(0L, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with null array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNullArray() {
+        int[] nullArray = null;
+        long result = MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.maximumSubarraySum(3, new int[][] {nullArray}[0]);
+        assertEquals(0L, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with array containing duplicates at boundaries.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testDuplicatesAtBoundaries() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4};
+        // [2, 3, 4] is the only valid window with sum 9
+        long result = MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.maximumSubarraySum(3, arr);
+        assertEquals(9L, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with large numbers to verify long return type.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLargeNumbers() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {1000000, 2000000, 3000000, 4000000};
+        // All elements are distinct, max sum with k=3 is [2000000, 3000000, 4000000] =
+        // 9000000
+        long result = MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.maximumSubarraySum(3, arr);
+        assertEquals(9000000L, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test where multiple windows have the same maximum sum.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleMaxWindows() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1};
+        // Windows [1,2,3], [2,3,4], [4,3,2], [3,2,1] - max is [2,3,4] = 9
+        long result = MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.maximumSubarraySum(3, arr);
+        assertEquals(9L, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with only two elements and k=2.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTwoElementsDistinct() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {5, 10};
+        long result = MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.maximumSubarraySum(2, arr);
+        assertEquals(15L, result);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with only two elements (duplicates) and k=2.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTwoElementsDuplicate() {
+        int[] arr = new int[] {5, 5};
+        long result = MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.maximumSubarraySum(2, arr);
+        assertEquals(0L, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4e81c8b7e34f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,344 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
+import java.io.PrintStream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.AfterEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for MiniMaxAlgorithm
+ * Tests the minimax algorithm implementation for game tree evaluation
+ */
+class MiniMaxAlgorithmTest {
+
+    private MiniMaxAlgorithm miniMax;
+    private final ByteArrayOutputStream outputStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+    private final PrintStream originalOut = System.out;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        miniMax = new MiniMaxAlgorithm();
+        System.setOut(new PrintStream(outputStream));
+    }
+
+    @AfterEach
+    void tearDown() {
+        System.setOut(originalOut);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorCreatesValidScores() {
+        // The default constructor should create scores array of length 8 (2^3)
+        Assertions.assertEquals(8, miniMax.getScores().length);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, miniMax.getHeight());
+
+        // All scores should be positive (between 1 and 99)
+        for (int score : miniMax.getScores()) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(score >= 1 && score <= 99);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithValidScores() {
+        int[] validScores = {10, 20, 30, 40};
+        MiniMaxAlgorithm customMiniMax = new MiniMaxAlgorithm(validScores);
+
+        Assertions.assertArrayEquals(validScores, customMiniMax.getScores());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, customMiniMax.getHeight()); // log2(4) = 2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorWithInvalidScoresThrowsException() {
+        int[] invalidScores = {10, 20, 30}; // Length 3 is not a power of 2
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new MiniMaxAlgorithm(invalidScores));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstructorDoesNotModifyOriginalArray() {
+        int[] originalScores = {10, 20, 30, 40};
+        int[] copyOfOriginal = {10, 20, 30, 40};
+        MiniMaxAlgorithm customMiniMax = new MiniMaxAlgorithm(originalScores);
+
+        // Modify the original array
+        originalScores[0] = 999;
+
+        // Constructor should have made a copy, so internal state should be unchanged
+        Assertions.assertArrayEquals(copyOfOriginal, customMiniMax.getScores());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetScoresWithValidPowerOfTwo() {
+        int[] validScores = {10, 20, 30, 40};
+        miniMax.setScores(validScores);
+
+        Assertions.assertArrayEquals(validScores, miniMax.getScores());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, miniMax.getHeight()); // log2(4) = 2
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetScoresWithInvalidLength() {
+        int[] invalidScores = {10, 20, 30}; // Length 3 is not a power of 2
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> miniMax.setScores(invalidScores));
+
+        // Scores should remain unchanged (original length 8)
+        Assertions.assertEquals(8, miniMax.getScores().length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetScoresWithZeroLength() {
+        int[] emptyScores = {}; // Length 0 is not a power of 2
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> miniMax.setScores(emptyScores));
+
+        // Scores should remain unchanged (original length 8)
+        Assertions.assertEquals(8, miniMax.getScores().length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetScoresWithVariousInvalidLengths() {
+        // Test multiple invalid lengths to ensure isPowerOfTwo function is fully
+        // covered
+        int[][] invalidScoreArrays = {
+            {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, // Length 5
+            {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, // Length 6
+            {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, // Length 7
+            new int[9], // Length 9
+            new int[10], // Length 10
+            new int[15] // Length 15
+        };
+
+        for (int[] invalidScores : invalidScoreArrays) {
+            Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> miniMax.setScores(invalidScores), "Failed for array length: " + invalidScores.length);
+        }
+
+        // Scores should remain unchanged (original length 8)
+        Assertions.assertEquals(8, miniMax.getScores().length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetScoresWithSingleElement() {
+        int[] singleScore = {42};
+        miniMax.setScores(singleScore);
+
+        Assertions.assertArrayEquals(singleScore, miniMax.getScores());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, miniMax.getHeight()); // log2(1) = 0
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMiniMaxWithKnownScores() {
+        // Test with a known game tree: [3, 12, 8, 2]
+        int[] testScores = {3, 12, 8, 2};
+        miniMax.setScores(testScores);
+
+        // Maximizer starts: should choose max(min(3,12), min(8,2)) = max(3, 2) = 3
+        int result = miniMax.miniMax(0, true, 0, false);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(3, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMiniMaxWithMinimizerFirst() {
+        // Test with minimizer starting first
+        int[] testScores = {3, 12, 8, 2};
+        miniMax.setScores(testScores);
+
+        // Minimizer starts: should choose min(max(3,12), max(8,2)) = min(12, 8) = 8
+        int result = miniMax.miniMax(0, false, 0, false);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(8, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMiniMaxWithLargerTree() {
+        // Test with 8 elements: [5, 6, 7, 4, 5, 3, 6, 2]
+        int[] testScores = {5, 6, 7, 4, 5, 3, 6, 2};
+        miniMax.setScores(testScores);
+
+        // Maximizer starts
+        int result = miniMax.miniMax(0, true, 0, false);
+        // Expected: max(min(max(5,6), max(7,4)), min(max(5,3), max(6,2)))
+        // = max(min(6, 7), min(5, 6)) = max(6, 5) = 6
+        Assertions.assertEquals(6, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMiniMaxVerboseOutput() {
+        int[] testScores = {3, 12, 8, 2};
+        miniMax.setScores(testScores);
+
+        miniMax.miniMax(0, true, 0, true);
+
+        String output = outputStream.toString();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(output.contains("Maximizer"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(output.contains("Minimizer"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(output.contains("chooses"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetRandomScoresLength() {
+        int[] randomScores = MiniMaxAlgorithm.getRandomScores(4, 50);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(16, randomScores.length); // 2^4 = 16
+
+        // All scores should be between 1 and 50
+        for (int score : randomScores) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(score >= 1 && score <= 50);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetRandomScoresWithDifferentParameters() {
+        int[] randomScores = MiniMaxAlgorithm.getRandomScores(2, 10);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, randomScores.length); // 2^2 = 4
+
+        // All scores should be between 1 and 10
+        for (int score : randomScores) {
+            Assertions.assertTrue(score >= 1 && score <= 10);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMainMethod() {
+        // Test that main method runs without errors
+        Assertions.assertDoesNotThrow(() -> MiniMaxAlgorithm.main(new String[] {}));
+
+        String output = outputStream.toString();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(output.contains("The best score for"));
+        Assertions.assertTrue(output.contains("Maximizer"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHeightCalculation() {
+        // Test height calculation for different array sizes
+        int[] scores2 = {1, 2};
+        miniMax.setScores(scores2);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1, miniMax.getHeight()); // log2(2) = 1
+
+        int[] scores16 = new int[16];
+        miniMax.setScores(scores16);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(4, miniMax.getHeight()); // log2(16) = 4
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCaseWithZeroScores() {
+        int[] zeroScores = {0, 0, 0, 0};
+        miniMax.setScores(zeroScores);
+
+        int result = miniMax.miniMax(0, true, 0, false);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCaseWithNegativeScores() {
+        int[] negativeScores = {-5, -2, -8, -1};
+        miniMax.setScores(negativeScores);
+
+        // Tree evaluation with maximizer first:
+        // Level 1 (minimizer): min(-5,-2) = -5, min(-8,-1) = -8
+        // Level 0 (maximizer): max(-5, -8) = -5
+        int result = miniMax.miniMax(0, true, 0, false);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(-5, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetScoresWithNegativeLength() {
+        // This test ensures the first condition of isPowerOfTwo (n > 0) is tested
+        // Although we can't directly create an array with negative length,
+        // we can test edge cases around zero and ensure proper validation
+
+        // Test with array length 0 (edge case for n > 0 condition)
+        int[] emptyArray = new int[0];
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> miniMax.setScores(emptyArray));
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(8, miniMax.getScores().length); // Should remain unchanged
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetScoresWithLargePowerOfTwo() {
+        // Test with a large power of 2 to ensure the algorithm works correctly
+        int[] largeValidScores = new int[32]; // 32 = 2^5
+        for (int i = 0; i < largeValidScores.length; i++) {
+            largeValidScores[i] = i + 1;
+        }
+
+        miniMax.setScores(largeValidScores);
+        Assertions.assertArrayEquals(largeValidScores, miniMax.getScores());
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, miniMax.getHeight()); // log2(32) = 5
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetScoresValidEdgeCases() {
+        // Test valid powers of 2 to ensure isPowerOfTwo returns true correctly
+        int[][] validPowersOf2 = {
+            new int[1], // 1 = 2^0
+            new int[2], // 2 = 2^1
+            new int[4], // 4 = 2^2
+            new int[8], // 8 = 2^3
+            new int[16], // 16 = 2^4
+            new int[64] // 64 = 2^6
+        };
+
+        int[] expectedHeights = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6};
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < validPowersOf2.length; i++) {
+            miniMax.setScores(validPowersOf2[i]);
+            Assertions.assertEquals(validPowersOf2[i].length, miniMax.getScores().length, "Failed for array length: " + validPowersOf2[i].length);
+            Assertions.assertEquals(expectedHeights[i], miniMax.getHeight(), "Height calculation failed for array length: " + validPowersOf2[i].length);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetScoresReturnsDefensiveCopy() {
+        int[] originalScores = {10, 20, 30, 40};
+        miniMax.setScores(originalScores);
+
+        // Get the scores and modify them
+        int[] retrievedScores = miniMax.getScores();
+        retrievedScores[0] = 999;
+
+        // Internal state should remain unchanged
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, miniMax.getScores()[0]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSetScoresCreatesDefensiveCopy() {
+        int[] originalScores = {10, 20, 30, 40};
+        miniMax.setScores(originalScores);
+
+        // Modify the original array after setting
+        originalScores[0] = 999;
+
+        // Internal state should remain unchanged
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10, miniMax.getScores()[0]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMiniMaxWithAllSameScores() {
+        int[] sameScores = {5, 5, 5, 5};
+        miniMax.setScores(sameScores);
+
+        // When all scores are the same, result should be that score
+        int result = miniMax.miniMax(0, true, 0, false);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(5, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMiniMaxAtDifferentDepths() {
+        int[] testScores = {3, 12, 8, 2, 14, 5, 2, 9};
+        miniMax.setScores(testScores);
+
+        // Test maximizer first
+        int result = miniMax.miniMax(0, true, 0, false);
+        // Expected: max(min(max(3,12), max(8,2)), min(max(14,5), max(2,9)))
+        // = max(min(12, 8), min(14, 9)) = max(8, 9) = 9
+        Assertions.assertEquals(9, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMiniMaxWithMinIntAndMaxInt() {
+        int[] extremeScores = {Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 0, 1};
+        miniMax.setScores(extremeScores);
+
+        int result = miniMax.miniMax(0, true, 0, false);
+        // Expected: max(min(MIN, MAX), min(0, 1)) = max(MIN, 0) = 0
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ac931eb0a2b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,202 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
+import java.io.PrintStream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for MosAlgorithm
+ *
+ * @author BEASTSHRIRAM
+ */
+class MosAlgorithmTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeSumQueriesBasic() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 3, 5, 2, 7};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 2, 0), // Sum of [1, 3, 5] = 9
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(1, 3, 1), // Sum of [3, 5, 2] = 10
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(2, 4, 2) // Sum of [5, 2, 7] = 14
+        };
+
+        int[] expected = {9, 10, 14};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeSumQueries(arr, queries);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeSumQueriesSingleElement() {
+        int[] arr = {5, 10, 15, 20};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 0, 0), // Sum of [5] = 5
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(1, 1, 1), // Sum of [10] = 10
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(2, 2, 2), // Sum of [15] = 15
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(3, 3, 3) // Sum of [20] = 20
+        };
+
+        int[] expected = {5, 10, 15, 20};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeSumQueries(arr, queries);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeSumQueriesFullArray() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 4, 0) // Sum of entire array = 15
+        };
+
+        int[] expected = {15};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeSumQueries(arr, queries);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeSumQueriesOverlapping() {
+        int[] arr = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 2, 0), // Sum of [2, 4, 6] = 12
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(1, 3, 1), // Sum of [4, 6, 8] = 18
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(2, 4, 2) // Sum of [6, 8, 10] = 24
+        };
+
+        int[] expected = {12, 18, 24};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeSumQueries(arr, queries);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeFrequencyQueriesBasic() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 2, 1, 3, 2, 1};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 3, 0), // Count of 2 in [1, 2, 2, 1] = 2
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(1, 5, 1), // Count of 2 in [2, 2, 1, 3, 2] = 3
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(4, 6, 2) // Count of 2 in [3, 2, 1] = 1
+        };
+
+        int[] expected = {2, 3, 1};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeFrequencyQueries(arr, queries, 2);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeFrequencyQueriesNoMatch() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 2, 0), // Count of 2 in [1, 3, 5] = 0
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(1, 4, 1) // Count of 2 in [3, 5, 7, 9] = 0
+        };
+
+        int[] expected = {0, 0};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeFrequencyQueries(arr, queries, 2);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeFrequencyQueriesAllMatch() {
+        int[] arr = {5, 5, 5, 5, 5};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 2, 0), // Count of 5 in [5, 5, 5] = 3
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(1, 3, 1), // Count of 5 in [5, 5, 5] = 3
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 4, 2) // Count of 5 in [5, 5, 5, 5, 5] = 5
+        };
+
+        int[] expected = {3, 3, 5};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeFrequencyQueries(arr, queries, 5);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyArray() {
+        int[] arr = {};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {};
+
+        int[] expected = {};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeSumQueries(arr, queries);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInputs() {
+        int[] results1 = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeSumQueries(null, null);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[0], results1);
+
+        int[] results2 = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeFrequencyQueries(null, null, 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[0], results2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQueryStructure() {
+        MosAlgorithm.Query query = new MosAlgorithm.Query(1, 5, 0);
+
+        assertEquals(1, query.left);
+        assertEquals(5, query.right);
+        assertEquals(0, query.index);
+        assertEquals(0, query.result); // Default value
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargerArray() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 4, 2, 8, 5, 7, 3, 6, 9, 10};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 4, 0), // Sum of [1, 4, 2, 8, 5] = 20
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(2, 7, 1), // Sum of [2, 8, 5, 7, 3, 6] = 31
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(5, 9, 2), // Sum of [7, 3, 6, 9, 10] = 35
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(1, 8, 3) // Sum of [4, 2, 8, 5, 7, 3, 6, 9] = 44
+        };
+
+        int[] expected = {20, 31, 35, 44};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeSumQueries(arr, queries);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRangeFrequencyWithDuplicates() {
+        int[] arr = {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3};
+        MosAlgorithm.Query[] queries = {
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 5, 0), // Count of 1 in [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9] = 2
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(3, 9, 1), // Count of 1 in [1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3] = 1
+            new MosAlgorithm.Query(0, 9, 2) // Count of 1 in entire array = 2
+        };
+
+        int[] expected = {2, 1, 2};
+        int[] results = MosAlgorithm.solveRangeFrequencyQueries(arr, queries, 1);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, results);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMainMethod() {
+        // Capture System.out
+        ByteArrayOutputStream outputStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+        PrintStream originalOut = System.out;
+        System.setOut(new PrintStream(outputStream));
+
+        try {
+            // Test main method
+            MosAlgorithm.main(new String[] {});
+            String output = outputStream.toString();
+
+            // Verify expected output contains demonstration
+            assertTrue(output.contains("Range Sum Queries:"));
+            assertTrue(output.contains("Range Frequency Queries (count of value 3):"));
+            assertTrue(output.contains("Array: [1, 3, 5, 2, 7, 6, 3, 1, 4, 8]"));
+        } finally {
+            System.setOut(originalOut);
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NewManShanksPrimeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NewManShanksPrimeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3b657e441b1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NewManShanksPrimeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming.NewManShanksPrime;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class NewManShanksPrimeTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testOne() {
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(1, 1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTwo() {
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(2, 3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testThree() {
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(3, 7));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFour() {
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(4, 17));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFive() {
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(5, 41));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSix() {
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(6, 99));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSeven() {
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(7, 239));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEight() {
+        assertTrue(NewManShanksPrime.nthManShanksPrime(8, 577));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NextFitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NextFitTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..75fb3ab7c261
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NextFitTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * author Alexandros Lemonaris
+ */
+class NextFitCPUTest {
+
+    int[] sizeOfBlocks;
+    int[] sizeOfProcesses;
+    ArrayList<Integer> memAllocation = new ArrayList<>();
+    ArrayList<Integer> testMemAllocation;
+    MemoryManagementAlgorithms nextFit = new NextFit();
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForUseOfOneBlock() {
+        // test1 - third process does not fit because of algorithms procedure
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17, 10};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 5, 15, 2};
+        memAllocation = nextFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 2, -255, 2));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForEqualProcecesses() {
+        // test2
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17, 10};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 10, 10, 10};
+        memAllocation = nextFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 2, 3, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForNoEmptyBlockCell() {
+        // test3 for more processes than blocks - no empty space left to none of the blocks
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {5, 12, 10, 7};
+        memAllocation = nextFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 2));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForSameInputDifferentQuery() {
+        // test4 for more processes than blocks - one element does not fit due to input series
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {5, 7, 10, 12};
+        memAllocation = nextFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForMoreBlocksNoFit() {
+        // test5 for more blocks than processes
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 4, -1, 3, 6};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 11};
+        memAllocation = nextFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(-255, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRankTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRankTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..de96403dd1fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRankTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,319 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for PageRank algorithm implementation
+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+class PageRankTest {
+
+    private static final double EPSILON = 0.0001; // Tolerance for floating point comparisons
+
+    /**
+     * Test basic PageRank calculation with a simple 3-node graph
+     * Graph: 1 -> 2, 2 -> 3, 3 -> 1
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSimpleThreeNodeGraph() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(3);
+
+        // Create a simple circular graph: 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 1
+        int[][] adjacencyMatrix = new int[10][10];
+        adjacencyMatrix[1][2] = 1; // Node 1 links to Node 2
+        adjacencyMatrix[2][3] = 1; // Node 2 links to Node 3
+        adjacencyMatrix[3][1] = 1; // Node 3 links to Node 1
+
+        pageRank.setAdjacencyMatrix(adjacencyMatrix);
+        double[] result = pageRank.calculatePageRank(3);
+
+        // All nodes should have equal PageRank in a circular graph
+        assertNotNull(result);
+        assertEquals(result[1], result[2], EPSILON);
+        assertEquals(result[2], result[3], EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test PageRank with a two-node graph where one node points to another
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTwoNodeGraph() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+
+        // Node 1 links to Node 2
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+
+        double[] result = pageRank.calculatePageRank(2);
+
+        // Node 2 should have higher PageRank than Node 1 (after 2 iterations)
+        assertNotNull(result);
+        assertEquals(0.2775, result[2], EPSILON);
+        assertEquals(0.15, result[1], EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test PageRank with a single node (no links)
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSingleNode() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(1);
+
+        double[] result = pageRank.calculatePageRank(1);
+
+        // Single node should have (1-d) = 0.15 after applying damping
+        assertNotNull(result);
+        assertEquals(0.15, result[1], EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test PageRank with a hub-and-spoke configuration
+     * Node 1 is the hub, pointing to nodes 2, 3, and 4
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testHubAndSpokeGraph() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(4);
+
+        // Hub node (1) links to all other nodes
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 3, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 4, 1);
+
+        // All spokes link back to hub
+        pageRank.setEdge(2, 1, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(3, 1, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(4, 1, 1);
+
+        double[] result = pageRank.calculatePageRank(4);
+
+        assertNotNull(result);
+        // Hub should have higher PageRank
+        assertEquals(result[2], result[3], EPSILON);
+        assertEquals(result[3], result[4], EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test PageRank with multiple iterations
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleIterations() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(3);
+
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(2, 3, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(3, 1, 1);
+
+        double[] result2Iterations = pageRank.calculatePageRank(3, 0.85, 2, false);
+        double[] result5Iterations = pageRank.calculatePageRank(3, 0.85, 5, false);
+
+        assertNotNull(result2Iterations);
+        assertNotNull(result5Iterations);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test getPageRank method for individual node
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGetPageRank() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+        pageRank.calculatePageRank(2);
+
+        double node1PageRank = pageRank.getPageRank(1);
+        double node2PageRank = pageRank.getPageRank(2);
+
+        assertEquals(0.15, node1PageRank, EPSILON);
+        assertEquals(0.2775, node2PageRank, EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test getAllPageRanks method
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGetAllPageRanks() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+        pageRank.calculatePageRank(2);
+
+        double[] allPageRanks = pageRank.getAllPageRanks();
+
+        assertNotNull(allPageRanks);
+        assertEquals(0.15, allPageRanks[1], EPSILON);
+        assertEquals(0.2775, allPageRanks[2], EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test that self-loops are not allowed
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNoSelfLoops() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+
+        // Try to set a self-loop
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 1, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+
+        double[] result = pageRank.calculatePageRank(2);
+
+        assertNotNull(result);
+        // Self-loop should be ignored
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test exception when node count is too small
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidNodeCountTooSmall() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new PageRank(0));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test exception when node count is too large
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidNodeCountTooLarge() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new PageRank(11));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test exception for invalid damping factor (negative)
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidDampingFactorNegative() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> pageRank.calculatePageRank(2, -0.1, 2, false));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test exception for invalid damping factor (greater than 1)
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidDampingFactorTooLarge() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> pageRank.calculatePageRank(2, 1.5, 2, false));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test exception for invalid iterations (less than 1)
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidIterations() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> pageRank.calculatePageRank(2, 0.85, 0, false));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test exception when getting PageRank for invalid node
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGetPageRankInvalidNode() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+        pageRank.calculatePageRank(2);
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> pageRank.getPageRank(3));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test exception when getting PageRank for node less than 1
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGetPageRankNodeLessThanOne() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+        pageRank.calculatePageRank(2);
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> pageRank.getPageRank(0));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test complex graph with multiple incoming and outgoing links
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testComplexGraph() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(4);
+
+        // Create a more complex graph
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 3, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(2, 3, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(3, 4, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(4, 1, 1);
+
+        double[] result = pageRank.calculatePageRank(4);
+
+        assertNotNull(result);
+        // Node 3 should have high PageRank (receives links from nodes 1 and 2)
+        // After 2 iterations, the sum will not equal total nodes
+        double sum = result[1] + result[2] + result[3] + result[4];
+        assertEquals(1.8325, sum, EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test that PageRank values sum after 2 iterations
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testPageRankSum() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(5);
+
+        // Create arbitrary graph
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(2, 3, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(3, 4, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(4, 5, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(5, 1, 1);
+
+        double[] result = pageRank.calculatePageRank(5);
+
+        double sum = 0;
+        for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
+            sum += result[i];
+        }
+
+        // Sum after 2 iterations with default damping factor
+        assertEquals(2.11, sum, EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test graph with isolated node (no incoming or outgoing links)
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGraphWithIsolatedNode() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(3);
+
+        // Node 1 and 2 are connected, Node 3 is isolated
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+        pageRank.setEdge(2, 1, 1);
+
+        double[] result = pageRank.calculatePageRank(3);
+
+        assertNotNull(result);
+        // Isolated node should have some PageRank due to damping factor
+        assertEquals(0.15, result[3], EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test verbose mode (should not throw exception)
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testVerboseMode() {
+        PageRank pageRank = new PageRank(2);
+
+        pageRank.setEdge(1, 2, 1);
+
+        // This should execute without throwing an exception
+        double[] result = pageRank.calculatePageRank(2, 0.85, 2, true);
+
+        assertNotNull(result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGenTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGenTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..76492556e75f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGenTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PasswordGenTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void failGenerationWithSameMinMaxLengthTest() {
+        int length = 10;
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PasswordGen.generatePassword(length, length));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void generateOneCharacterPassword() {
+        String tempPassword = PasswordGen.generatePassword(1, 2);
+        assertTrue(tempPassword.length() == 1);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void failGenerationWithMinLengthSmallerThanMaxLengthTest() {
+        int minLength = 10;
+        int maxLength = 5;
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PasswordGen.generatePassword(minLength, maxLength));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void generatePasswordNonEmptyTest() {
+        String tempPassword = PasswordGen.generatePassword(8, 16);
+        assertTrue(tempPassword.length() != 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGeneratePasswordWithMinGreaterThanMax() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PasswordGen.generatePassword(12, 8));
+        assertEquals("Incorrect length parameters: minLength must be <= maxLength and both must be > 0", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGeneratePasswordWithNegativeLength() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PasswordGen.generatePassword(-5, 10));
+        assertEquals("Incorrect length parameters: minLength must be <= maxLength and both must be > 0", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGeneratePasswordWithZeroLength() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PasswordGen.generatePassword(0, 0));
+        assertEquals("Incorrect length parameters: minLength must be <= maxLength and both must be > 0", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoiseTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoiseTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..88c043ad9aa3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PerlinNoiseTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThatThrownBy;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PerlinNoiseTest {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("generatePerlinNoise returns array with correct dimensions")
+    void testDimensions() {
+        int w = 8;
+        int h = 6;
+        float[][] noise = PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(w, h, 4, 0.6f, 123L);
+        assertThat(noise).hasDimensions(w, h);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("All values are within [0,1] after normalization")
+    void testRange() {
+        int w = 16;
+        int h = 16;
+        float[][] noise = PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(w, h, 5, 0.7f, 42L);
+        for (int x = 0; x < w; x++) {
+            for (int y = 0; y < h; y++) {
+                assertThat(noise[x][y]).isBetween(0f, 1f);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Deterministic for same parameters and seed")
+    void testDeterminism() {
+        int w = 10;
+        int h = 10;
+        long seed = 98765L;
+        float[][] a = PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(w, h, 3, 0.5f, seed);
+        float[][] b = PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(w, h, 3, 0.5f, seed);
+        for (int x = 0; x < w; x++) {
+            for (int y = 0; y < h; y++) {
+                assertThat(a[x][y]).isEqualTo(b[x][y]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Different seeds produce different outputs (probabilistically)")
+    void testDifferentSeeds() {
+        int w = 12;
+        int h = 12;
+        float[][] a = PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(w, h, 4, 0.8f, 1L);
+        float[][] b = PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(w, h, 4, 0.8f, 2L);
+
+        // Count exact equalities; expect very few or none.
+        int equalCount = 0;
+        for (int x = 0; x < w; x++) {
+            for (int y = 0; y < h; y++) {
+                if (Float.compare(a[x][y], b[x][y]) == 0) {
+                    equalCount++;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        assertThat(equalCount).isLessThan(w * h / 10); // less than 10% equal exact values
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Interpolation endpoints are respected")
+    void testInterpolateEndpoints() {
+        assertThat(PerlinNoise.interpolate(0f, 1f, 0f)).isEqualTo(0f);
+        assertThat(PerlinNoise.interpolate(0f, 1f, 1f)).isEqualTo(1f);
+        assertThat(PerlinNoise.interpolate(0.2f, 0.8f, 0.5f)).isEqualTo(0.5f);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Single octave reduces to bilinear interpolation of base grid")
+    void testSingleOctaveLayer() {
+        int w = 8;
+        int h = 8;
+        long seed = 7L;
+        float[][] base = PerlinNoise.createBaseGrid(w, h, seed);
+        float[][] layer = PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoiseLayer(base, w, h, 0); // period=1
+        // With period = 1, x0=x, x1=(x+1)%w etc. Values should be smooth and within
+        // [0,1]
+        for (int x = 0; x < w; x++) {
+            for (int y = 0; y < h; y++) {
+                assertThat(layer[x][y]).isBetween(0f, 1f);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Invalid inputs are rejected")
+    void testInvalidInputs() {
+        assertThatThrownBy(() -> PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(0, 5, 1, 0.5f, 1L)).isInstanceOf(IllegalArgumentException.class);
+        assertThatThrownBy(() -> PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(5, -1, 1, 0.5f, 1L)).isInstanceOf(IllegalArgumentException.class);
+        assertThatThrownBy(() -> PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(5, 5, 0, 0.5f, 1L)).isInstanceOf(IllegalArgumentException.class);
+        assertThatThrownBy(() -> PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(5, 5, 1, 0f, 1L)).isInstanceOf(IllegalArgumentException.class);
+        assertThatThrownBy(() -> PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(5, 5, 1, Float.NaN, 1L)).isInstanceOf(IllegalArgumentException.class);
+        assertThatThrownBy(() -> PerlinNoise.generatePerlinNoise(5, 5, 1, 1.1f, 1L)).isInstanceOf(IllegalArgumentException.class);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacksTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacksTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4901b9c0d3a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacksTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.EmptyStackException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class QueueUsingTwoStacksTest {
+
+    private QueueUsingTwoStacks queue;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        queue = new QueueUsingTwoStacks();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmptyInitially() {
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty initially");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInsertSingleElement() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        assertFalse(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should not be empty after inserting an element");
+        assertEquals(1, queue.peekFront(), "The front element should be the inserted element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveSingleElement() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        assertEquals(1, queue.remove(), "Removing should return the first inserted element");
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty after removing the only element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveMultipleElements() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.insert(3);
+        assertEquals(1, queue.remove(), "First removed element should be the first inserted element");
+        assertEquals(2, queue.remove(), "Second removed element should be the second inserted element");
+        assertEquals(3, queue.remove(), "Third removed element should be the third inserted element");
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty after removing all elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekFrontWithMultipleElements() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.insert(3);
+        assertEquals(1, queue.peekFront(), "The front element should be the first inserted element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekBackWithMultipleElements() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.insert(3);
+        assertEquals(3, queue.peekBack(), "The back element should be the last inserted element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekFrontAfterRemovals() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.insert(3);
+        queue.remove();
+        assertEquals(2, queue.peekFront(), "After removing one element, the front should be the second element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsEmptyAfterRemovals() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.remove();
+        queue.remove();
+        assertTrue(queue.isEmpty(), "Queue should be empty after removing all elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRemoveFromEmptyQueue() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, queue::remove, "Removing from an empty queue should throw an exception");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekFrontFromEmptyQueue() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, queue::peekFront, "Peeking front from an empty queue should throw an exception");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPeekBackFromEmptyQueue() {
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, queue::peekBack, "Peeking back from an empty queue should throw an exception");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsInStackEmptyInitially() {
+        assertTrue(queue.isInStackEmpty(), "inStack should be empty initially");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsOutStackEmptyInitially() {
+        assertTrue(queue.isOutStackEmpty(), "outStack should be empty initially");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsInStackEmptyAfterInsertion() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        assertFalse(queue.isInStackEmpty(), "inStack should not be empty after an insertion");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsOutStackEmptyAfterInsertion() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        assertTrue(queue.isOutStackEmpty(), "outStack should still be empty after an insertion");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsOutStackEmptyAfterRemoval() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.remove();
+        assertTrue(queue.isOutStackEmpty(), "outStack should be empty after removing the only element");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsInStackEmptyAfterMultipleRemovals() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.remove();
+        queue.remove();
+        assertTrue(queue.isInStackEmpty(), "inStack should be empty after removing all elements");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsOutStackEmptyAfterMultipleRemovals() {
+        queue.insert(1);
+        queue.insert(2);
+        queue.remove();
+        queue.remove();
+        assertTrue(queue.isOutStackEmpty(), "outStack should be empty after removing all elements");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblemTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1ed5ced709c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblemTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SkylineProblemTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleBuildingSkyline() {
+        SkylineProblem skylineProblem = new SkylineProblem();
+        skylineProblem.building = new SkylineProblem.Building[1];
+        skylineProblem.add(2, 10, 9);
+
+        ArrayList<SkylineProblem.Skyline> result = skylineProblem.findSkyline(0, 0);
+
+        assertEquals(2, result.get(0).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(10, result.get(0).height);
+        assertEquals(9, result.get(1).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(0, result.get(1).height);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTwoBuildingsSkyline() {
+        SkylineProblem skylineProblem = new SkylineProblem();
+        skylineProblem.building = new SkylineProblem.Building[2];
+        skylineProblem.add(1, 11, 5);
+        skylineProblem.add(2, 6, 7);
+
+        ArrayList<SkylineProblem.Skyline> result = skylineProblem.findSkyline(0, 1);
+
+        // Expected skyline points: (1, 11), (5, 6), (7, 0)
+        assertEquals(1, result.get(0).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(11, result.get(0).height);
+        assertEquals(5, result.get(1).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(6, result.get(1).height);
+        assertEquals(7, result.get(2).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(0, result.get(2).height);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMergeSkyline() {
+        SkylineProblem skylineProblem = new SkylineProblem();
+        ArrayList<SkylineProblem.Skyline> sky1 = new ArrayList<>();
+        ArrayList<SkylineProblem.Skyline> sky2 = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        sky1.add(skylineProblem.new Skyline(2, 10));
+        sky1.add(skylineProblem.new Skyline(9, 0));
+
+        sky2.add(skylineProblem.new Skyline(3, 15));
+        sky2.add(skylineProblem.new Skyline(7, 0));
+
+        ArrayList<SkylineProblem.Skyline> result = skylineProblem.mergeSkyline(sky1, sky2);
+
+        // Expected merged skyline: (2, 10), (3, 15), (7, 10), (9, 0)
+        assertEquals(2, result.get(0).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(10, result.get(0).height);
+        assertEquals(3, result.get(1).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(15, result.get(1).height);
+        assertEquals(7, result.get(2).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(10, result.get(2).height);
+        assertEquals(9, result.get(3).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(0, result.get(3).height);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleBuildingsSkyline() {
+        SkylineProblem skylineProblem = new SkylineProblem();
+        skylineProblem.building = new SkylineProblem.Building[3];
+        skylineProblem.add(1, 10, 5);
+        skylineProblem.add(2, 15, 7);
+        skylineProblem.add(3, 12, 9);
+
+        ArrayList<SkylineProblem.Skyline> result = skylineProblem.findSkyline(0, 2);
+
+        assertEquals(1, result.get(0).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(10, result.get(0).height);
+        assertEquals(2, result.get(1).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(15, result.get(1).height);
+        assertEquals(7, result.get(2).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(12, result.get(2).height);
+        assertEquals(9, result.get(3).coordinates);
+        assertEquals(0, result.get(3).height);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointersTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointersTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6e0d2b22d280
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/TwoPointersTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TwoPointersTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testPositivePairExists() {
+        int[] arr = {2, 6, 9, 22, 121};
+        int key = 28;
+        assertTrue(TwoPointers.isPairedSum(arr, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativePairExists() {
+        int[] arr = {-12, -1, 0, 8, 12};
+        int key = 0;
+        assertTrue(TwoPointers.isPairedSum(arr, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPairDoesNotExist() {
+        int[] arr = {0, 12, 12, 35, 152};
+        int key = 13;
+        assertFalse(TwoPointers.isPairedSum(arr, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeSumPair() {
+        int[] arr = {-10, -3, 1, 2, 5, 9};
+        int key = -8;
+        assertTrue(TwoPointers.isPairedSum(arr, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPairDoesNotExistWithPositiveSum() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int key = 10;
+        assertFalse(TwoPointers.isPairedSum(arr, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyArray() {
+        int[] arr = {};
+        int key = 5;
+        assertFalse(TwoPointers.isPairedSum(arr, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementArray() {
+        int[] arr = {5};
+        int key = 5;
+        assertFalse(TwoPointers.isPairedSum(arr, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayWithDuplicateElements() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 1, 3, 5, 5};
+        int key = 6;
+        assertTrue(TwoPointers.isPairedSum(arr, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPairExistsAtEdges() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 3, 4, 7, 8};
+        int key = 9;
+        assertTrue(TwoPointers.isPairedSum(arr, key));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void isPairedSumShouldThrowExceptionWhenArrayIsNull() {
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> TwoPointers.isPairedSum(null, 10));
+        assertEquals("Input array must not be null.", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFitCPUTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFitCPUTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..eb69f6056132
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFitCPUTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * author Alexandros Lemonaris
+ */
+class WorstFitCPUTest {
+
+    int[] sizeOfBlocks;
+    int[] sizeOfProcesses;
+    ArrayList<Integer> memAllocation = new ArrayList<>();
+    ArrayList<Integer> testMemAllocation;
+    MemoryManagementAlgorithms worstFit = new WorstFitCPU();
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForUseOfOneBlock() {
+        // test1
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17, 10};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 5, 15, 2};
+        memAllocation = worstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(2, 1, -255, 3));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForEqualProcecesses() {
+        // test2
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17, 10};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 10, 10, 10};
+        memAllocation = worstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(2, 1, 3, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForNoEmptyBlockCell() {
+        // test3 - could suits best, bad use of memory allocation due to worstFit algorithm
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {5, 12, 10, 7};
+        memAllocation = worstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(2, 1, 2, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForSameInputDifferentQuery() {
+        // test4 same example different series - same results
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 12, 17};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {5, 7, 10, 12};
+        memAllocation = worstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(2, 1, 2, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitForMoreBlocksNoFit() {
+        // test5 for more blocks than processes
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {5, 4, -1, 3, 6};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {10, 11};
+        memAllocation = worstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(-255, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFitBadCase() {
+        // test6 for only two process fit
+        sizeOfBlocks = new int[] {7, 17, 7, 5, 6};
+        sizeOfProcesses = new int[] {8, 10, 10, 8, 8, 8};
+        memAllocation = worstFit.fitProcess(sizeOfBlocks, sizeOfProcesses);
+        testMemAllocation = new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, -255, -255, 1, -255, -255));
+        assertEquals(testMemAllocation, memAllocation);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/cn/HammingDistanceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/cn/HammingDistanceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..669f928cd247
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/cn/HammingDistanceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others.cn;
+
+import org.assertj.core.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class HammingDistanceTest {
+    @Test
+    public void checkForDifferentBits() {
+        int answer = HammingDistance.compute("000", "011");
+        Assertions.assertThat(answer).isEqualTo(2);
+    }
+
+    /*
+
+    1 0 1 0 1
+    1 1 1 1 0
+    ----------
+    0 1 0 1 1
+
+
+ */
+    @Test
+    public void checkForDifferentBitsLength() {
+        int answer = HammingDistance.compute("10101", "11110");
+        Assertions.assertThat(answer).isEqualTo(3);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void checkForSameBits() {
+        String someBits = "111";
+        int answer = HammingDistance.compute(someBits, someBits);
+        Assertions.assertThat(answer).isEqualTo(0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void checkForLongDataBits() {
+        int answer = HammingDistance.compute("10010101101010000100110100", "00110100001011001100110101");
+        Assertions.assertThat(answer).isEqualTo(7);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void mismatchDataBits() {
+        Exception ex = org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HammingDistance.compute("100010", "00011"); });
+
+        Assertions.assertThat(ex.getMessage()).contains("must have the same length");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void mismatchDataBits2() {
+        Exception ex = org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HammingDistance.compute("1", "11"); });
+
+        Assertions.assertThat(ex.getMessage()).contains("must have the same length");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void checkForLongDataBitsSame() {
+        String someBits = "10010101101010000100110100";
+        int answer = HammingDistance.compute(someBits, someBits);
+        Assertions.assertThat(answer).isEqualTo(0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void checkForEmptyInput() {
+        String someBits = "";
+        int answer = HammingDistance.compute(someBits, someBits);
+        Assertions.assertThat(answer).isEqualTo(0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void checkForInputOfLength1() {
+        String someBits = "0";
+        int answer = HammingDistance.compute(someBits, someBits);
+        Assertions.assertThat(answer).isEqualTo(0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void computeThrowsExceptionWhenInputsAreNotBitStrs() {
+        Exception ex = org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { HammingDistance.compute("1A", "11"); });
+
+        Assertions.assertThat(ex.getMessage()).contains("must be a binary string");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/DampedOscillatorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/DampedOscillatorTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4b3e9fafe063
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/DampedOscillatorTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertAll;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for {@link DampedOscillator}.
+ *
+ * <p>Tests focus on:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Constructor validation</li>
+ *   <li>Analytical displacement for underdamped and overdamped parameterizations</li>
+ *   <li>Basic numeric integration sanity using explicit Euler for small step sizes</li>
+ *   <li>Method argument validation (null/invalid inputs)</li>
+ * </ul>
+ */
+@DisplayName("DampedOscillator — unit tests")
+public class DampedOscillatorTest {
+
+    private static final double TOLERANCE = 1e-3;
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Constructor rejects invalid parameters")
+    void constructorValidation() {
+        assertAll("invalid-constructor-params",
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new DampedOscillator(0.0, 0.1), "omega0 == 0 should throw"),
+            () -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new DampedOscillator(-1.0, 0.1), "negative omega0 should throw"), () -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new DampedOscillator(1.0, -0.1), "negative gamma should throw"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Analytical displacement matches expected formula for underdamped case")
+    void analyticalUnderdamped() {
+        double omega0 = 10.0;
+        double gamma = 0.5;
+        DampedOscillator d = new DampedOscillator(omega0, gamma);
+
+        double a = 1.0;
+        double phi = 0.2;
+        double t = 0.123;
+
+        // expected: a * exp(-gamma * t) * cos(omega_d * t + phi)
+        double omegaD = Math.sqrt(Math.max(0.0, omega0 * omega0 - gamma * gamma));
+        double expected = a * Math.exp(-gamma * t) * Math.cos(omegaD * t + phi);
+
+        double actual = d.displacementAnalytical(a, phi, t);
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, 1e-12, "Analytical underdamped displacement should match closed-form value");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Analytical displacement gracefully handles overdamped parameters (omegaD -> 0)")
+    void analyticalOverdamped() {
+        double omega0 = 1.0;
+        double gamma = 2.0; // gamma > omega0 => omega_d = 0 in our implementation (Math.max)
+        DampedOscillator d = new DampedOscillator(omega0, gamma);
+
+        double a = 2.0;
+        double phi = Math.PI / 4.0;
+        double t = 0.5;
+
+        // With omegaD forced to 0 by implementation, expected simplifies to:
+        double expected = a * Math.exp(-gamma * t) * Math.cos(phi);
+        double actual = d.displacementAnalytical(a, phi, t);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, 1e-12, "Overdamped handling should reduce to exponential * cos(phase)");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Explicit Euler step approximates analytical solution for small dt over short time")
+    void eulerApproximatesAnalyticalSmallDt() {
+        double omega0 = 10.0;
+        double gamma = 0.5;
+        DampedOscillator d = new DampedOscillator(omega0, gamma);
+
+        double a = 1.0;
+        double phi = 0.0;
+
+        // initial conditions consistent with amplitude a and zero phase:
+        // x(0) = a, v(0) = -a * gamma * cos(phi) + a * omegaD * sin(phi)
+        double omegaD = Math.sqrt(Math.max(0.0, omega0 * omega0 - gamma * gamma));
+        double x0 = a * Math.cos(phi);
+        double v0 = -a * gamma * Math.cos(phi) - a * omegaD * Math.sin(phi); // small general form
+
+        double dt = 1e-4;
+        int steps = 1000; // simulate to t = 0.1s
+        double tFinal = steps * dt;
+
+        double[] state = new double[] {x0, v0};
+        for (int i = 0; i < steps; i++) {
+            state = d.stepEuler(state, dt);
+        }
+
+        double analyticAtT = d.displacementAnalytical(a, phi, tFinal);
+        double numericAtT = state[0];
+
+        // Euler is low-order — allow a small tolerance but assert it remains close for small dt + short time.
+        assertEquals(analyticAtT, numericAtT, TOLERANCE, String.format("Numeric Euler should approximate analytical solution at t=%.6f (tolerance=%g)", tFinal, TOLERANCE));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("stepEuler validates inputs and throws on null/invalid dt/state")
+    void eulerInputValidation() {
+        DampedOscillator d = new DampedOscillator(5.0, 0.1);
+
+        assertAll("invalid-stepEuler-args",
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> d.stepEuler(null, 0.01), "null state should throw"),
+            ()
+                -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> d.stepEuler(new double[] {1.0}, 0.01), "state array with invalid length should throw"),
+            () -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> d.stepEuler(new double[] {1.0, 0.0}, 0.0), "non-positive dt should throw"), () -> assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> d.stepEuler(new double[] {1.0, 0.0}, -1e-3), "negative dt should throw"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Getter methods return configured parameters")
+    void gettersReturnConfiguration() {
+        double omega0 = Math.PI;
+        double gamma = 0.01;
+        DampedOscillator d = new DampedOscillator(omega0, gamma);
+
+        assertAll("getters", () -> assertEquals(omega0, d.getOmega0(), 0.0, "getOmega0 should return configured omega0"), () -> assertEquals(gamma, d.getGamma(), 0.0, "getGamma should return configured gamma"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Analytical displacement at t=0 returns initial amplitude * cos(phase)")
+    void analyticalAtZeroTime() {
+        double omega0 = 5.0;
+        double gamma = 0.2;
+        DampedOscillator d = new DampedOscillator(omega0, gamma);
+
+        double a = 2.0;
+        double phi = Math.PI / 3.0;
+        double t = 0.0;
+
+        double expected = a * Math.cos(phi);
+        double actual = d.displacementAnalytical(a, phi, t);
+
+        assertEquals(expected, actual, 1e-12, "Displacement at t=0 should be a * cos(phase)");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2DTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2DTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..480e5da23db1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2DTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class ElasticCollision2DTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testEqualMassHeadOnCollision() {
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body a = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(0, 0, 1, 0, 1.0, 0.5);
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body b = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(1, 0, -1, 0, 1.0, 0.5);
+
+        ElasticCollision2D.resolveCollision(a, b);
+
+        assertEquals(-1.0, a.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, a.vy, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(1.0, b.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, b.vy, 1e-6);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUnequalMassHeadOnCollision() {
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body a = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(0, 0, 2, 0, 2.0, 0.5);
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body b = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(1, 0, -1, 0, 1.0, 0.5);
+
+        ElasticCollision2D.resolveCollision(a, b);
+
+        // 1D head-on collision results
+        assertEquals(0.0, a.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, a.vy, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(3.0, b.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, b.vy, 1e-6);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMovingApartNoCollision() {
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body a = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(0, 0, -1, 0, 1.0, 0.5);
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body b = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(1, 0, 1, 0, 1.0, 0.5);
+
+        ElasticCollision2D.resolveCollision(a, b);
+
+        assertEquals(-1.0, a.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, a.vy, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(1.0, b.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, b.vy, 1e-6);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGlancingCollision() {
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body a = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(0, 0, 1, 1, 1.0, 0.5);
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body b = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(1, 1, -1, -0.5, 1.0, 0.5);
+
+        ElasticCollision2D.resolveCollision(a, b);
+
+        // Ensure relative velocity along normal is reversed
+        double nx = (b.x - a.x) / Math.hypot(b.x - a.x, b.y - a.y);
+        double ny = (b.y - a.y) / Math.hypot(b.x - a.x, b.y - a.y);
+        double relVelAfter = (b.vx - a.vx) * nx + (b.vy - a.vy) * ny;
+
+        assertTrue(relVelAfter > 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOverlappingBodies() {
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body a = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(0, 0, 1, 0, 1.0, 0.5);
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body b = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(0, 0, -1, 0, 1.0, 0.5);
+
+        ElasticCollision2D.resolveCollision(a, b);
+
+        // Should not crash, velocities may remain unchanged
+        assertEquals(1.0, a.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, a.vy, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(-1.0, b.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, b.vy, 1e-6);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStationaryBodyHit() {
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body a = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(0, 0, 2, 0, 1.0, 0.5);
+        ElasticCollision2D.Body b = new ElasticCollision2D.Body(1, 0, 0, 0, 1.0, 0.5);
+
+        ElasticCollision2D.resolveCollision(a, b);
+
+        assertEquals(0.0, a.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, a.vy, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(2.0, b.vx, 1e-6);
+        assertEquals(0.0, b.vy, 1e-6);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GravitationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GravitationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9094e289e79a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GravitationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the Gravitation utility class.
+ */
+final class GravitationTest {
+
+    // A small tolerance (delta) for comparing floating-point numbers
+    private static final double DELTA = 1e-9;
+    private static final double G = Gravitation.GRAVITATIONAL_CONSTANT;
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test gravitational force between two bodies on the x-axis")
+    void testSimpleForceCalculation() {
+        // Force on body 2 should be F = G*1*1 / 1^2 = G, directed towards body 1 (negative x)
+        double[] forceOnB = Gravitation.calculateGravitationalForce(1.0, 0, 0, 1.0, 1, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new double[] {-G, 0.0}, forceOnB, DELTA);
+
+        // Force on body 1 should be equal and opposite (positive x)
+        double[] forceOnA = Gravitation.calculateGravitationalForce(1.0, 1, 0, 1.0, 0, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(new double[] {G, 0.0}, forceOnA, DELTA);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test gravitational force in a 2D plane")
+    void test2DForceCalculation() {
+        // Body 1 at (0,0) with mass 2kg
+        // Body 2 at (3,4) with mass 1kg
+        // Distance is sqrt(3^2 + 4^2) = 5 meters
+        double magnitude = 2.0 * G / 25.0; // G * 2 * 1 / 5^2
+        // Unit vector from 2 to 1 is (-3/5, -4/5)
+        double expectedFx = magnitude * -3.0 / 5.0; // -6G / 125
+        double expectedFy = magnitude * -4.0 / 5.0; // -8G / 125
+
+        double[] forceOnB = Gravitation.calculateGravitationalForce(2.0, 0, 0, 1.0, 3, 4);
+        assertArrayEquals(new double[] {expectedFx, expectedFy}, forceOnB, DELTA);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test overlapping bodies should result in zero force")
+    void testOverlappingBodies() {
+        double[] force = Gravitation.calculateGravitationalForce(1000.0, 1.5, -2.5, 500.0, 1.5, -2.5);
+        assertArrayEquals(new double[] {0.0, 0.0}, force, DELTA);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test circular orbit velocity with simple values")
+    void testCircularOrbitVelocity() {
+        // v = sqrt(G*1/1) = sqrt(G)
+        double velocity = Gravitation.calculateCircularOrbitVelocity(1.0, 1.0);
+        assertEquals(Math.sqrt(G), velocity, DELTA);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test orbital velocity with real-world-ish values (LEO)")
+    void testEarthOrbitVelocity() {
+        // Mass of Earth ~5.972e24 kg
+        // Radius of LEO ~6,771,000 m (Earth radius + 400km)
+        double earthMass = 5.972e24;
+        double leoRadius = 6.771e6;
+        // FIX: Updated expected value to match the high-precision calculation
+        double expectedVelocity = 7672.4904;
+
+        double velocity = Gravitation.calculateCircularOrbitVelocity(earthMass, leoRadius);
+        assertEquals(expectedVelocity, velocity, 0.0001); // Use a larger delta for big numbers
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test invalid inputs for orbital velocity throw exception")
+    void testInvalidOrbitalVelocityInputs() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Gravitation.calculateCircularOrbitVelocity(0, 100));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Gravitation.calculateCircularOrbitVelocity(-1000, 100));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Gravitation.calculateCircularOrbitVelocity(1000, 0));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Gravitation.calculateCircularOrbitVelocity(1000, -100));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9d7e11777983
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * JUnit test class for GroundToGroundProjectileMotion
+ *
+ * Contains unit tests for projectile motion calculations using JUnit 5
+ */
+public class GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest {
+
+    private static final double EPSILON = 0.001; // Tolerance for floating point comparison
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test time of flight calculation")
+    public void testTimeOfFlight() {
+        // Arrange
+        double initialVelocity = 5.0;
+        double angle = 40.0;
+        double expectedTimeOfFlight = 0.655;
+
+        // Act
+        double flightTimeOutput = GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.timeOfFlight(initialVelocity, angle);
+        flightTimeOutput = Math.round(flightTimeOutput * 1000.0) / 1000.0;
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(expectedTimeOfFlight, flightTimeOutput, EPSILON, "Time of flight should be " + expectedTimeOfFlight + " seconds");
+
+        System.out.println("Projectile Flight Time Test");
+        System.out.println("Input Initial Velocity: " + initialVelocity + " m/s");
+        System.out.println("Input Angle: " + angle + " degrees");
+        System.out.println("Expected Output: " + expectedTimeOfFlight + " seconds");
+        System.out.println("Actual Output: " + flightTimeOutput + " seconds");
+        System.out.println("TEST PASSED\n");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test horizontal range calculation")
+    public void testHorizontalRange() {
+        // Arrange
+        double initialVelocity = 5.0;
+        double angle = 40.0;
+        double flightTime = 0.655;
+        double expectedHorizontalRange = 2.51;
+
+        // Act
+        double horizontalRangeOutput = GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.horizontalRange(initialVelocity, angle, flightTime);
+        horizontalRangeOutput = Math.round(horizontalRangeOutput * 100.0) / 100.0;
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(expectedHorizontalRange, horizontalRangeOutput, EPSILON, "Horizontal range should be " + expectedHorizontalRange + " meters");
+
+        System.out.println("Projectile Horizontal Range Test");
+        System.out.println("Input Initial Velocity: " + initialVelocity + " m/s");
+        System.out.println("Input Angle: " + angle + " degrees");
+        System.out.println("Input Time Of Flight: " + flightTime + " seconds");
+        System.out.println("Expected Output: " + expectedHorizontalRange + " meters");
+        System.out.println("Actual Output: " + horizontalRangeOutput + " meters");
+        System.out.println("TEST PASSED\n");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test max height calculation")
+    public void testMaxHeight() {
+        // Arrange
+        double initialVelocity = 5.0;
+        double angle = 40.0;
+        double expectedMaxHeight = 0.527; // Updated to match actual calculation
+
+        // Act
+        double maxHeightOutput = GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.maxHeight(initialVelocity, angle);
+        maxHeightOutput = Math.round(maxHeightOutput * 1000.0) / 1000.0;
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(expectedMaxHeight, maxHeightOutput, EPSILON, "Max height should be " + expectedMaxHeight + " meters");
+
+        System.out.println("Projectile Max Height Test");
+        System.out.println("Input Initial Velocity: " + initialVelocity + " m/s");
+        System.out.println("Input Angle: " + angle + " degrees");
+        System.out.println("Expected Output: " + expectedMaxHeight + " meters");
+        System.out.println("Actual Output: " + maxHeightOutput + " meters");
+        System.out.println("TEST PASSED\n");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test time of flight with custom gravity")
+    public void testTimeOfFlightWithCustomGravity() {
+        // Arrange
+        double initialVelocity = 10.0;
+        double angle = 45.0;
+        double customGravity = 1.62; // Moon gravity (m/s^2)
+
+        // Act
+        double flightTime = GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.timeOfFlight(initialVelocity, angle, customGravity);
+
+        // Assert
+        assertTrue(flightTime > 0, "Flight time should be positive");
+        assertTrue(flightTime > 8.0, "Flight time on moon should be longer than on Earth");
+
+        System.out.println("Custom Gravity Test (Moon)");
+        System.out.println("Input Initial Velocity: " + initialVelocity + " m/s");
+        System.out.println("Input Angle: " + angle + " degrees");
+        System.out.println("Gravity: " + customGravity + " m/s^2");
+        System.out.println("Flight Time: " + flightTime + " seconds");
+        System.out.println("TEST PASSED\n");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test projectile at 90 degrees (straight up)")
+    public void testVerticalProjectile() {
+        // Arrange
+        double initialVelocity = 20.0;
+        double angle = 90.0;
+
+        // Act
+        double horizontalRange = GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.horizontalRange(initialVelocity, angle, 1.0);
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(0.0, horizontalRange, EPSILON, "Horizontal range should be zero for vertical launch");
+
+        System.out.println("Vertical Projectile Test");
+        System.out.println("Input Angle: " + angle + " degrees");
+        System.out.println("Horizontal Range: " + horizontalRange + " meters");
+        System.out.println("TEST PASSED\n");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test projectile at 0 degrees (horizontal)")
+    public void testHorizontalProjectile() {
+        // Arrange
+        double initialVelocity = 15.0;
+        double angle = 0.0;
+
+        // Act
+        double maxHeight = GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.maxHeight(initialVelocity, angle);
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(0.0, maxHeight, EPSILON, "Max height should be zero for horizontal launch");
+
+        System.out.println("Horizontal Projectile Test");
+        System.out.println("Input Angle: " + angle + " degrees");
+        System.out.println("Max Height: " + maxHeight + " meters");
+        System.out.println("TEST PASSED\n");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ProjectileMotionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ProjectileMotionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..25e7cfa87f9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ProjectileMotionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for the general-purpose ProjectileMotion calculator.
+ *
+ */
+final class ProjectileMotionTest {
+
+    private static final double DELTA = 1e-4; // Tolerance for comparing double values
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test ground-to-ground launch (initial height is zero)")
+    void testGroundToGroundLaunch() {
+        ProjectileMotion.Result result = ProjectileMotion.calculateTrajectory(50, 30, 0);
+        assertEquals(5.0986, result.getTimeOfFlight(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(220.7750, result.getHorizontalRange(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(31.8661, result.getMaxHeight(), DELTA);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test launch from an elevated position")
+    void testElevatedLaunch() {
+        ProjectileMotion.Result result = ProjectileMotion.calculateTrajectory(30, 45, 100);
+        assertEquals(7.1705, result.getTimeOfFlight(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(152.1091, result.getHorizontalRange(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(122.9436, result.getMaxHeight(), DELTA); // Final corrected value
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test launch straight up (90 degrees)")
+    void testVerticalLaunch() {
+        ProjectileMotion.Result result = ProjectileMotion.calculateTrajectory(40, 90, 20);
+        assertEquals(8.6303, result.getTimeOfFlight(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(0.0, result.getHorizontalRange(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(101.5773, result.getMaxHeight(), DELTA);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test horizontal launch from a height (0 degrees)")
+    void testHorizontalLaunch() {
+        ProjectileMotion.Result result = ProjectileMotion.calculateTrajectory(25, 0, 80);
+        assertEquals(4.0392, result.getTimeOfFlight(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(100.9809, result.getHorizontalRange(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(80.0, result.getMaxHeight(), DELTA);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test downward launch from a height (negative angle)")
+    void testDownwardLaunchFromHeight() {
+        ProjectileMotion.Result result = ProjectileMotion.calculateTrajectory(20, -30, 100);
+        assertEquals(3.6100, result.getTimeOfFlight(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(62.5268, result.getHorizontalRange(), DELTA);
+        assertEquals(100.0, result.getMaxHeight(), DELTA);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test invalid arguments throw an exception")
+    void testInvalidInputs() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ProjectileMotion.calculateTrajectory(-10, 45, 100));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ProjectileMotion.calculateTrajectory(10, 45, -100));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ProjectileMotion.calculateTrajectory(10, 45, 100, 0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4Test.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4Test.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bec4ad8cbbd7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4Test.java
@@ -0,0 +1,261 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.physics;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for SimplePendulumRK4.
+ * Tests numerical accuracy, physical correctness, and edge cases.
+ */
+class SimplePendulumRK4Test {
+
+    private static final double EPSILON = 1e-6;
+    private static final double ENERGY_DRIFT_TOLERANCE = 1e-3;
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test constructor creates valid pendulum")
+    void testConstructor() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.5, 9.81);
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(pendulum);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(1.5, pendulum.getLength(), EPSILON);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(9.81, pendulum.getGravity(), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test constructor rejects negative length")
+    void testConstructorNegativeLength() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { new SimplePendulumRK4(-1.0, 9.81); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test constructor rejects negative gravity")
+    void testConstructorNegativeGravity() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, -9.81); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test constructor rejects zero length")
+    void testConstructorZeroLength() {
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { new SimplePendulumRK4(0.0, 9.81); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test getters return correct values")
+    void testGetters() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(2.5, 10.0);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2.5, pendulum.getLength(), EPSILON);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(10.0, pendulum.getGravity(), EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test single RK4 step returns valid state")
+    void testSingleStep() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {0.1, 0.0};
+        double[] newState = pendulum.stepRK4(state, 0.01);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(newState);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(2, newState.length);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test equilibrium stability (pendulum at rest stays at rest)")
+    void testEquilibrium() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {0.0, 0.0};
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+            state = pendulum.stepRK4(state, 0.01);
+        }
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0.0, state[0], EPSILON, "Theta should remain at equilibrium");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0.0, state[1], EPSILON, "Omega should remain zero");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test small angle oscillation returns to initial position")
+    void testSmallAngleOscillation() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double initialAngle = Math.toRadians(5.0);
+        double[] state = {initialAngle, 0.0};
+        double dt = 0.01;
+
+        // Theoretical period for small angles
+        double expectedPeriod = 2 * Math.PI * Math.sqrt(1.0 / 9.81);
+        int stepsPerPeriod = (int) (expectedPeriod / dt);
+
+        double[][] trajectory = pendulum.simulate(state, dt, stepsPerPeriod);
+        double finalTheta = trajectory[stepsPerPeriod][0];
+
+        // After one period, should return close to initial position
+        double error = Math.abs(finalTheta - initialAngle) / Math.abs(initialAngle);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(error < 0.05, "Small angle approximation error should be < 5%");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test large angle oscillation is symmetric")
+    void testLargeAngleOscillation() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {Math.toRadians(120.0), 0.0};
+
+        double[][] trajectory = pendulum.simulate(state, 0.01, 500);
+
+        double maxTheta = Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+        double minTheta = Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+
+        for (double[] s : trajectory) {
+            maxTheta = Math.max(maxTheta, s[0]);
+            minTheta = Math.min(minTheta, s[0]);
+        }
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(maxTheta > 0, "Should have positive excursions");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(minTheta < 0, "Should have negative excursions");
+
+        // Check symmetry
+        double asymmetry = Math.abs((maxTheta + minTheta) / maxTheta);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(asymmetry < 0.1, "Oscillation should be symmetric");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test energy conservation for small angle")
+    void testEnergyConservationSmallAngle() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {Math.toRadians(15.0), 0.0};
+
+        double initialEnergy = pendulum.calculateEnergy(state);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            state = pendulum.stepRK4(state, 0.01);
+        }
+
+        double finalEnergy = pendulum.calculateEnergy(state);
+        double drift = Math.abs(finalEnergy - initialEnergy) / initialEnergy;
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(drift < ENERGY_DRIFT_TOLERANCE, "Energy drift should be < 0.1%, got: " + (drift * 100) + "%");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test energy conservation for large angle")
+    void testEnergyConservationLargeAngle() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {Math.toRadians(90.0), 0.0};
+
+        double initialEnergy = pendulum.calculateEnergy(state);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            state = pendulum.stepRK4(state, 0.01);
+        }
+
+        double finalEnergy = pendulum.calculateEnergy(state);
+        double drift = Math.abs(finalEnergy - initialEnergy) / initialEnergy;
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(drift < ENERGY_DRIFT_TOLERANCE, "Energy drift should be < 0.1%, got: " + (drift * 100) + "%");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test simulate method returns correct trajectory")
+    void testSimulate() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] initialState = {Math.toRadians(20.0), 0.0};
+        int steps = 100;
+
+        double[][] trajectory = pendulum.simulate(initialState, 0.01, steps);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(steps + 1, trajectory.length, "Trajectory should have steps + 1 entries");
+        Assertions.assertArrayEquals(initialState, trajectory[0], EPSILON, "First entry should match initial state");
+
+        // Verify state changes over time
+        boolean changed = false;
+        for (int i = 1; i <= steps; i++) {
+            if (Math.abs(trajectory[i][0] - initialState[0]) > EPSILON) {
+                changed = true;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        Assertions.assertTrue(changed, "Simulation should progress from initial state");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test energy calculation at equilibrium")
+    void testEnergyAtEquilibrium() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {0.0, 0.0};
+        double energy = pendulum.calculateEnergy(state);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(0.0, energy, EPSILON, "Energy at equilibrium should be zero");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test energy calculation at maximum angle")
+    void testEnergyAtMaxAngle() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {Math.PI / 2, 0.0};
+        double energy = pendulum.calculateEnergy(state);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(energy > 0, "Energy should be positive at max angle");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test energy calculation with angular velocity")
+    void testEnergyWithVelocity() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {0.0, 1.0};
+        double energy = pendulum.calculateEnergy(state);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(energy > 0, "Energy should be positive with velocity");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test stepRK4 rejects null state")
+    void testStepRejectsNullState() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { pendulum.stepRK4(null, 0.01); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test stepRK4 rejects invalid state length")
+    void testStepRejectsInvalidStateLength() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { pendulum.stepRK4(new double[] {0.1}, 0.01); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test stepRK4 rejects negative time step")
+    void testStepRejectsNegativeTimeStep() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { pendulum.stepRK4(new double[] {0.1, 0.2}, -0.01); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test extreme condition: very large angle")
+    void testExtremeLargeAngle() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {Math.toRadians(179.0), 0.0};
+        double[] result = pendulum.stepRK4(state, 0.01);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(result);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(Double.isFinite(result[0]), "Should handle large angles without NaN");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(Double.isFinite(result[1]), "Should handle large angles without NaN");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test extreme condition: high angular velocity")
+    void testExtremeHighVelocity() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {0.0, 10.0};
+        double[] result = pendulum.stepRK4(state, 0.01);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(result);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(Double.isFinite(result[0]), "Should handle high velocity without NaN");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(Double.isFinite(result[1]), "Should handle high velocity without NaN");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test extreme condition: very small time step")
+    void testExtremeSmallTimeStep() {
+        SimplePendulumRK4 pendulum = new SimplePendulumRK4(1.0, 9.81);
+        double[] state = {Math.toRadians(10.0), 0.0};
+        double[] result = pendulum.stepRK4(state, 1e-6);
+
+        Assertions.assertNotNull(result);
+        Assertions.assertTrue(Double.isFinite(result[0]), "Should handle small time steps without NaN");
+        Assertions.assertTrue(Double.isFinite(result[1]), "Should handle small time steps without NaN");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/SudokuTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/SudokuTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7fb96dcf805f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/SudokuTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.puzzlesandgames;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SudokuTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsSafe2() {
+        int[][] board = {{3, 0, 6, 5, 0, 8, 4, 0, 0}, {5, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 8, 7, 0, 0, 0, 0, 3, 1}, {0, 0, 3, 0, 1, 0, 0, 8, 0}, {9, 0, 0, 8, 6, 3, 0, 0, 5}, {0, 5, 0, 0, 9, 0, 6, 0, 0}, {1, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 5, 0}, {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 7, 4}, {0, 0, 5, 2, 0, 6, 3, 0, 0}};
+
+        assertFalse(Sudoku.isSafe(board, 0, 1, 3));
+        assertTrue(Sudoku.isSafe(board, 1, 2, 1));
+        assertThrows(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> { Sudoku.isSafe(board, 10, 10, 5); });
+        assertThrows(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> { Sudoku.isSafe(board, -1, 0, 5); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSolveSudoku() {
+        int[][] board = {{3, 0, 6, 5, 0, 8, 4, 0, 0}, {5, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 8, 7, 0, 0, 0, 0, 3, 1}, {0, 0, 3, 0, 1, 0, 0, 8, 0}, {9, 0, 0, 8, 6, 3, 0, 0, 5}, {0, 5, 0, 0, 9, 0, 6, 0, 0}, {1, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 5, 0}, {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 7, 4}, {0, 0, 5, 2, 0, 6, 3, 0, 0}};
+
+        assertTrue(Sudoku.solveSudoku(board, board.length));
+        assertEquals(1, board[0][1]);
+        assertThrows(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> { Sudoku.solveSudoku(board, 10); });
+        assertTrue(Sudoku.solveSudoku(board, -1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUnsolvableSudoku() {
+        int[][] unsolvableBoard = {{5, 1, 6, 8, 4, 9, 7, 3, 2}, {3, 0, 7, 6, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0}, {8, 0, 9, 7, 0, 0, 0, 6, 5}, {1, 3, 5, 0, 6, 0, 9, 0, 7}, {4, 7, 2, 5, 9, 1, 0, 0, 6}, {9, 6, 8, 3, 7, 0, 0, 5, 0}, {2, 5, 3, 1, 8, 6, 0, 7, 4}, {6, 8, 4, 2, 5, 7, 3, 9, 0}, {7, 9, 1, 4, 3, 0, 5, 0, 0}};
+
+        assertFalse(Sudoku.solveSudoku(unsolvableBoard, unsolvableBoard.length));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/TowerOfHanoiTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/TowerOfHanoiTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..42669eb03bb4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/TowerOfHanoiTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.puzzlesandgames;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TowerOfHanoiTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testHanoiWithOneDisc() {
+        List<String> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        TowerOfHanoi.shift(1, "Pole1", "Pole2", "Pole3", result);
+
+        // Expected output for 1 disc
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Move 1 from Pole1 to Pole3");
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testHanoiWithTwoDiscs() {
+        List<String> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        TowerOfHanoi.shift(2, "Pole1", "Pole2", "Pole3", result);
+
+        // Expected output for 2 discs
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Move 1 from Pole1 to Pole2", "Move 2 from Pole1 to Pole3", "Move 1 from Pole2 to Pole3");
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testHanoiWithThreeDiscs() {
+        List<String> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        TowerOfHanoi.shift(3, "Pole1", "Pole2", "Pole3", result);
+
+        // Expected output for 3 discs
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Move 1 from Pole1 to Pole3", "Move 2 from Pole1 to Pole2", "Move 1 from Pole3 to Pole2", "Move 3 from Pole1 to Pole3", "Move 1 from Pole2 to Pole1", "Move 2 from Pole2 to Pole3", "Move 1 from Pole1 to Pole3");
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testHanoiWithZeroDiscs() {
+        List<String> result = new ArrayList<>();
+        TowerOfHanoi.shift(0, "Pole1", "Pole2", "Pole3", result);
+
+        // There should be no moves if there are 0 discs
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggleTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggleTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ef5d3c92eb5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggleTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.puzzlesandgames;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class WordBoggleTest {
+    private char[][] board;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setup() {
+        board = new char[][] {
+            {'t', 'h', 'i', 's', 'i', 's', 'a'},
+            {'s', 'i', 'm', 'p', 'l', 'e', 'x'},
+            {'b', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'e', 'b'},
+            {'x', 'o', 'g', 'g', 'l', 'x', 'o'},
+            {'x', 'x', 'x', 'D', 'T', 'r', 'a'},
+            {'R', 'E', 'P', 'E', 'A', 'd', 'x'},
+            {'x', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'x', 'x'},
+            {'N', 'O', 'T', 'R', 'E', '_', 'P'},
+            {'x', 'x', 'D', 'E', 'T', 'A', 'E'},
+        };
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testBoggleBoard(String[] words, List<String> expectedWords, String testDescription) {
+        List<String> result = WordBoggle.boggleBoard(board, words);
+        assertEquals(expectedWords.size(), result.size(), "Test failed for: " + testDescription);
+        assertTrue(expectedWords.containsAll(result), "Test failed for: " + testDescription);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new String[] {"this", "is", "not", "a", "simple", "test", "boggle", "board", "REPEATED", "NOTRE_PEATED"}, Arrays.asList("this", "is", "a", "simple", "board", "boggle", "NOTRE_PEATED"), "All words"),
+            Arguments.of(new String[] {"xyz", "hello", "world"}, List.of(), "No matching words"), Arguments.of(new String[] {}, List.of(), "Empty words array"), Arguments.of(new String[] {"this", "this", "board", "board"}, Arrays.asList("this", "board"), "Duplicate words in input"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideSpecialCases")
+    void testBoggleBoardSpecialCases(char[][] specialBoard, String[] words, Collection<String> expectedWords, String testDescription) {
+        List<String> result = WordBoggle.boggleBoard(specialBoard, words);
+        assertEquals(expectedWords.size(), result.size(), "Test failed for: " + testDescription);
+        assertTrue(expectedWords.containsAll(result), "Test failed for: " + testDescription);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideSpecialCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new char[0][0], new String[] {"this", "is", "a", "test"}, List.of(), "Empty board"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCutTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCutTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..876b6bf45eaf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCutTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class KargerMinCutTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSimpleGraph() {
+        // Graph: 0 -- 1
+        Collection<Integer> nodes = Arrays.asList(0, 1);
+        List<int[]> edges = List.of(new int[] {0, 1});
+
+        KargerMinCut.KargerOutput result = KargerMinCut.findMinCut(nodes, edges);
+
+        assertEquals(1, result.minCut());
+        assertTrue(result.first().contains(0) || result.first().contains(1));
+        assertTrue(result.second().contains(0) || result.second().contains(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTriangleGraph() {
+        // Graph: 0 -- 1 -- 2 -- 0
+        Collection<Integer> nodes = Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2);
+        List<int[]> edges = List.of(new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {1, 2}, new int[] {2, 0});
+
+        KargerMinCut.KargerOutput result = KargerMinCut.findMinCut(nodes, edges);
+
+        assertEquals(2, result.minCut());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSquareGraph() {
+        // Graph: 0 -- 1
+        //        |    |
+        //        3 -- 2
+        Collection<Integer> nodes = Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3);
+        List<int[]> edges = List.of(new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {1, 2}, new int[] {2, 3}, new int[] {3, 0});
+
+        KargerMinCut.KargerOutput result = KargerMinCut.findMinCut(nodes, edges);
+
+        assertEquals(2, result.minCut());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDisconnectedGraph() {
+        // Graph: 0 -- 1   2 -- 3
+        Collection<Integer> nodes = Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3);
+        List<int[]> edges = List.of(new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {2, 3});
+
+        KargerMinCut.KargerOutput result = KargerMinCut.findMinCut(nodes, edges);
+
+        assertEquals(0, result.minCut());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCompleteGraph() {
+        // Complete Graph: 0 -- 1 -- 2 -- 3 (all nodes connected to each other)
+        Collection<Integer> nodes = Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3);
+        List<int[]> edges = List.of(new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {0, 2}, new int[] {0, 3}, new int[] {1, 2}, new int[] {1, 3}, new int[] {2, 3});
+
+        KargerMinCut.KargerOutput result = KargerMinCut.findMinCut(nodes, edges);
+
+        assertEquals(3, result.minCut());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleNodeGraph() {
+        // Graph: Single node with no edges
+        Collection<Integer> nodes = List.of(0);
+        List<int[]> edges = List.of();
+
+        KargerMinCut.KargerOutput result = KargerMinCut.findMinCut(nodes, edges);
+
+        assertEquals(0, result.minCut());
+        assertTrue(result.first().contains(0));
+        assertTrue(result.second().isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTwoNodesNoEdge() {
+        // Graph: 0   1 (no edges)
+        Collection<Integer> nodes = Arrays.asList(0, 1);
+        List<int[]> edges = List.of();
+
+        KargerMinCut.KargerOutput result = KargerMinCut.findMinCut(nodes, edges);
+
+        assertEquals(0, result.minCut());
+        assertTrue(result.first().contains(0) || result.first().contains(1));
+        assertTrue(result.second().contains(0) || result.second().contains(1));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testComplexGraph() {
+        // Nodes: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
+        // Edges: Fully connected graph with additional edges for complexity
+        Collection<Integer> nodes = Arrays.asList(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8);
+        List<int[]> edges = List.of(new int[] {0, 1}, new int[] {0, 2}, new int[] {0, 3}, new int[] {0, 4}, new int[] {0, 5}, new int[] {1, 2}, new int[] {1, 3}, new int[] {1, 4}, new int[] {1, 5}, new int[] {1, 6}, new int[] {2, 3}, new int[] {2, 4}, new int[] {2, 5}, new int[] {2, 6},
+            new int[] {2, 7}, new int[] {3, 4}, new int[] {3, 5}, new int[] {3, 6}, new int[] {3, 7}, new int[] {3, 8}, new int[] {4, 5}, new int[] {4, 6}, new int[] {4, 7}, new int[] {4, 8}, new int[] {5, 6}, new int[] {5, 7}, new int[] {5, 8}, new int[] {6, 7}, new int[] {6, 8}, new int[] {7, 8},
+            new int[] {0, 6}, new int[] {1, 7}, new int[] {2, 8});
+
+        KargerMinCut.KargerOutput result = KargerMinCut.findMinCut(nodes, edges);
+
+        // The exact minimum cut value depends on the randomization, but it should be consistent
+        // for this graph structure. For a fully connected graph, the minimum cut is typically
+        // determined by the smallest number of edges connecting two partitions.
+        assertTrue(result.minCut() > 0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/MonteCarloIntegrationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/MonteCarloIntegrationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2a3a84b5ceea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/MonteCarloIntegrationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import static com.thealgorithms.randomized.MonteCarloIntegration.approximate;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.function.Function;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MonteCarloIntegrationTest {
+
+    private static final double EPSILON = 0.03; // Allow 3% error margin
+
+    @Test
+    void testConstantFunction() {
+        // Integral of f(x) = 2 from 0 to 1 is 2
+        Function<Double, Double> constant = x -> 2.0;
+        double result = approximate(constant, 0, 1, 10000);
+        assertEquals(2.0, result, EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLinearFunction() {
+        // Integral of f(x) = x from 0 to 1 is 0.5
+        Function<Double, Double> linear = Function.identity();
+        double result = approximate(linear, 0, 1, 10000);
+        assertEquals(0.5, result, EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testQuadraticFunction() {
+        // Integral of f(x) = x^2 from 0 to 1 is 1/3
+        Function<Double, Double> quadratic = x -> x * x;
+        double result = approximate(quadratic, 0, 1, 10000);
+        assertEquals(1.0 / 3.0, result, EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeSampleSize() {
+        // Integral of f(x) = x^2 from 0 to 1 is 1/3
+        Function<Double, Double> quadratic = x -> x * x;
+        double result = approximate(quadratic, 0, 1, 50000000);
+        assertEquals(1.0 / 3.0, result, EPSILON / 2); // Larger sample size, smaller error margin
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testReproducibility() {
+        Function<Double, Double> linear = Function.identity();
+        double result1 = approximate(linear, 0, 1, 10000, 42L);
+        double result2 = approximate(linear, 0, 1, 10000, 42L);
+        assertEquals(result1, result2, 0.0); // Exactly equal
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeInterval() {
+        // Integral of f(x) = x from -1 to 1 is 0
+        Function<Double, Double> linear = Function.identity();
+        double result = approximate(linear, -1, 1, 10000);
+        assertEquals(0.0, result, EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullFunction() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> approximate(null, 0, 1, 1000));
+        assertNotNull(exception);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidInterval() {
+        Function<Double, Double> linear = Function.identity();
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
+            approximate(linear, 2, 1, 1000); // b <= a
+        });
+        assertNotNull(exception);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZeroSampleSize() {
+        Function<Double, Double> linear = Function.identity();
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> approximate(linear, 0, 1, 0));
+        assertNotNull(exception);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeSampleSize() {
+        Function<Double, Double> linear = Function.identity();
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> approximate(linear, 0, 1, -100));
+        assertNotNull(exception);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPairTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPairTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fd739b743989
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPairTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.randomized.RandomizedClosestPair.Point;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class RandomizedClosestPairTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFindClosestPairDistance() {
+        Point[] points = {new Point(1, 1), new Point(2, 2), new Point(3, 3), new Point(8, 8), new Point(13, 13)};
+        double result = RandomizedClosestPair.findClosestPairDistance(points);
+        assertEquals(Math.sqrt(2), result, 0.00001);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithIdenticalPoints() {
+        Point[] points = {new Point(0, 0), new Point(0, 0), new Point(1, 1)};
+        double result = RandomizedClosestPair.findClosestPairDistance(points);
+        assertEquals(0.0, result, 0.00001);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithDistantPoints() {
+        Point[] points = {new Point(0, 0), new Point(5, 0), new Point(10, 0)};
+        double result = RandomizedClosestPair.findClosestPairDistance(points);
+        assertEquals(5.0, result, 0.00001);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerificationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerificationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..330662ac2c52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerificationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerificationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testCorrectMultiplication() {
+        int[][] a = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}};
+        int[][] b = {{5, 6}, {7, 8}};
+        int[][] c = {{19, 22}, {43, 50}};
+        assertTrue(RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.verify(a, b, c, 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIncorrectMultiplication() {
+        int[][] a = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}};
+        int[][] b = {{5, 6}, {7, 8}};
+        int[][] wrongC = {{20, 22}, {43, 51}};
+        assertFalse(RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.verify(a, b, wrongC, 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeMatrix() {
+        int size = 100;
+        int[][] a = new int[size][size];
+        int[][] b = new int[size][size];
+        int[][] c = new int[size][size];
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+            a[i][i] = 1;
+            b[i][i] = 1;
+            c[i][i] = 1;
+        }
+
+        assertTrue(RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.verify(a, b, c, 15));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedQuickSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedQuickSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ec3d5a0b3546
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedQuickSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the RandomizedQuickSort class.
+ */
+public class RandomizedQuickSortTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Tests sorting of an array with multiple elements, including duplicates.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testRandomizedQuickSortMultipleElements() {
+        int[] arr = {3, 6, 8, 10, 1, 2, 1};
+        int[] expected = {1, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10};
+        RandomizedQuickSort.randomizedQuickSort(arr, 0, arr.length - 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, arr);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests sorting of an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testRandomizedQuickSortEmptyArray() {
+        int[] arr = {};
+        int[] expected = {};
+        RandomizedQuickSort.randomizedQuickSort(arr, 0, arr.length - 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, arr);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests sorting of an array with a single element.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testRandomizedQuickSortSingleElement() {
+        int[] arr = {5};
+        int[] expected = {5};
+        RandomizedQuickSort.randomizedQuickSort(arr, 0, arr.length - 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, arr);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSamplingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSamplingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0c6061fcde2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSamplingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.randomized;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ReservoirSamplingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSampleSizeEqualsStreamLength() {
+        int[] stream = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int sampleSize = 5;
+
+        List<Integer> result = ReservoirSampling.sample(stream, sampleSize);
+
+        assertEquals(sampleSize, result.size());
+        assertTrue(Arrays.stream(stream).allMatch(result::contains));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSampleSizeLessThanStreamLength() {
+        int[] stream = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60};
+        int sampleSize = 3;
+
+        List<Integer> result = ReservoirSampling.sample(stream, sampleSize);
+
+        assertEquals(sampleSize, result.size());
+        for (int value : result) {
+            assertTrue(Arrays.stream(stream).anyMatch(x -> x == value));
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSampleSizeGreaterThanStreamLengthThrowsException() {
+        int[] stream = {1, 2, 3};
+
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ReservoirSampling.sample(stream, 5));
+
+        assertEquals("Sample size cannot exceed stream size.", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrowerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrowerTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0804e9bfff25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrowerTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.recursion;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
+import java.io.PrintStream;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test class for DiceThrower
+ *
+ * @author BEASTSHRIRAM
+ */
+class DiceThrowerTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testTargetZero() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(0);
+        assertEquals(1, result.size());
+        assertEquals("", result.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTargetOne() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(1);
+        assertEquals(1, result.size());
+        assertEquals("1", result.get(0));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTargetTwo() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(2);
+        assertEquals(2, result.size());
+        assertTrue(result.contains("11"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("2"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTargetThree() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(3);
+        assertEquals(4, result.size());
+        assertTrue(result.contains("111"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("12"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("21"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("3"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTargetFour() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(4);
+        assertEquals(8, result.size());
+        assertTrue(result.contains("1111"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("112"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("121"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("13"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("211"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("22"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("31"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("4"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTargetSix() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(6);
+        assertEquals(32, result.size());
+        assertTrue(result.contains("6"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("33"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("222"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("111111"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTargetSeven() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(7);
+        // Should include combinations like 61, 52, 43, 331, 322, 2221, etc.
+        assertTrue(result.size() > 0);
+        assertTrue(result.contains("61"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("16"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("52"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("43"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargerTarget() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(10);
+        assertTrue(result.size() > 0);
+        // All results should sum to 10
+        for (String combination : result) {
+            int sum = 0;
+            for (char c : combination.toCharArray()) {
+                sum += Character.getNumericValue(c);
+            }
+            assertEquals(10, sum);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeTarget() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(-1); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeTargetPrint() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { DiceThrower.printDiceCombinations(-1); });
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAllCombinationsValid() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(5);
+
+        for (String combination : result) {
+            // Check that each character is a valid dice face (1-6)
+            for (char c : combination.toCharArray()) {
+                int face = Character.getNumericValue(c);
+                assertTrue(face >= 1 && face <= 6, "Invalid dice face: " + face);
+            }
+
+            // Check that the sum equals the target
+            int sum = 0;
+            for (char c : combination.toCharArray()) {
+                sum += Character.getNumericValue(c);
+            }
+            assertEquals(5, sum, "Combination " + combination + " does not sum to 5");
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPrintDiceCombinations() {
+        // Capture System.out
+        ByteArrayOutputStream outputStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+        PrintStream originalOut = System.out;
+        System.setOut(new PrintStream(outputStream));
+
+        try {
+            // Test printing combinations for target 3
+            DiceThrower.printDiceCombinations(3);
+            String output = outputStream.toString();
+
+            // Verify all expected combinations are printed
+            assertTrue(output.contains("111"));
+            assertTrue(output.contains("12"));
+            assertTrue(output.contains("21"));
+            assertTrue(output.contains("3"));
+
+            // Count number of lines (combinations)
+            String[] lines = output.trim().split("\n");
+            assertEquals(4, lines.length);
+        } finally {
+            // Restore System.out
+            System.setOut(originalOut);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testPrintDiceCombinationsZero() {
+        // Capture System.out
+        ByteArrayOutputStream outputStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+        PrintStream originalOut = System.out;
+        System.setOut(new PrintStream(outputStream));
+
+        try {
+            DiceThrower.printDiceCombinations(0);
+            String output = outputStream.toString();
+
+            // Should print empty string (one line)
+            assertEquals("", output.trim());
+        } finally {
+            System.setOut(originalOut);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMainMethod() {
+        // Capture System.out
+        ByteArrayOutputStream outputStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
+        PrintStream originalOut = System.out;
+        System.setOut(new PrintStream(outputStream));
+
+        try {
+            // Test main method
+            DiceThrower.main(new String[] {});
+            String output = outputStream.toString();
+
+            // Verify expected output contains header and combinations
+            assertTrue(output.contains("All dice combinations that sum to 4:"));
+            assertTrue(output.contains("Total combinations: 8"));
+            assertTrue(output.contains("1111"));
+            assertTrue(output.contains("22"));
+            assertTrue(output.contains("4"));
+        } finally {
+            System.setOut(originalOut);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCaseTargetFive() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(5);
+        assertEquals(16, result.size());
+
+        // Test specific combinations exist
+        assertTrue(result.contains("11111"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("1112"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("122"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("14"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("23"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("5"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testTargetGreaterThanSix() {
+        List<String> result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(8);
+        assertTrue(result.size() > 0);
+
+        // Verify some expected combinations
+        assertTrue(result.contains("62"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("53"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("44"));
+        assertTrue(result.contains("2222"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/FibonacciSeriesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/FibonacciSeriesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f8b59f7e9ac6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/FibonacciSeriesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.recursion;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FibonacciSeriesTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testFibonacci() {
+        assertEquals(0, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(0));
+        assertEquals(1, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(1));
+        assertEquals(1, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(2));
+        assertEquals(2, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(3));
+        assertEquals(3, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(4));
+        assertEquals(5, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(5));
+        assertEquals(8, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(6));
+        assertEquals(13, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(7));
+        assertEquals(21, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(8));
+        assertEquals(34, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(9));
+        assertEquals(55, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(10));
+        assertEquals(89, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(11));
+        assertEquals(144, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(12));
+        assertEquals(233, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(13));
+        assertEquals(377, FibonacciSeries.fibonacci(14));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/GenerateSubsetsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/GenerateSubsetsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..983552722781
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/GenerateSubsetsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.recursion;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertIterableEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public final class GenerateSubsetsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Subsets of 'abc'")
+    void testSubsetsOfABC() {
+        assertSubsets("abc", Arrays.asList("abc", "ab", "ac", "a", "bc", "b", "c", ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Subsets of 'cbf'")
+    void testSubsetsOfCBF() {
+        assertSubsets("cbf", Arrays.asList("cbf", "cb", "cf", "c", "bf", "b", "f", ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Subsets of 'aba' with duplicates")
+    void testSubsetsWithDuplicateChars() {
+        assertSubsets("aba", Arrays.asList("aba", "ab", "aa", "a", "ba", "b", "a", ""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Subsets of empty string")
+    void testEmptyInput() {
+        assertSubsets("", List.of(""));
+    }
+
+    private void assertSubsets(String input, Iterable<String> expected) {
+        List<String> actual = GenerateSubsets.subsetRecursion(input);
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, actual, "Subsets do not match for input: " + input);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/SylvesterSequenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/SylvesterSequenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3ea5641ac484
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/SylvesterSequenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.recursion;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
+
+class SylvesterSequenceTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Provides test cases for valid Sylvester sequence numbers.
+     * Format: { n, expectedValue }
+     */
+    static Stream<Object[]> validSylvesterNumbers() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {1, BigInteger.valueOf(2)}, new Object[] {2, BigInteger.valueOf(3)}, new Object[] {3, BigInteger.valueOf(7)}, new Object[] {4, BigInteger.valueOf(43)}, new Object[] {5, BigInteger.valueOf(1807)}, new Object[] {6, new BigInteger("3263443")},
+            new Object[] {7, new BigInteger("10650056950807")}, new Object[] {8, new BigInteger("113423713055421844361000443")});
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("validSylvesterNumbers")
+    void testSylvesterValidNumbers(int n, BigInteger expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, SylvesterSequence.sylvester(n), "Sylvester sequence value mismatch for n=" + n);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test edge case for n <= 0 which should throw IllegalArgumentException
+     */
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @ValueSource(ints = {0, -1, -10, -100})
+    void testSylvesterInvalidZero(int n) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> SylvesterSequence.sylvester(n));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test a larger number to ensure no overflow occurs.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSylvesterLargeNumber() {
+        int n = 10;
+        BigInteger result = SylvesterSequence.sylvester(n);
+        assertNotNull(result);
+        assertTrue(result.compareTo(BigInteger.ZERO) > 0, "Result should be positive");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cab78e4d1c58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AgingSchedulingTest {
+
+    private AgingScheduling scheduler;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        scheduler = new AgingScheduling();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddAndScheduleSingleTask() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 5);
+        assertEquals("Task1", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddMultipleTasks() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 1);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task2", 1);
+        assertEquals("Task1", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+        assertEquals("Task2", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPriorityAdjustmentWithWait() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 1);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task2", 1);
+        scheduler.scheduleNext();
+        scheduler.scheduleNext();
+        assertEquals("Task1", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyScheduler() {
+        assertNull(scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleRounds() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 1);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task2", 2);
+        scheduler.scheduleNext();
+        scheduler.scheduleNext();
+        assertEquals("Task1", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8ce290cb246f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class EDFSchedulingTest {
+
+    private List<EDFScheduling.Process> processes;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        processes = createProcesses();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEDFScheduling() {
+        EDFScheduling edfScheduling = new EDFScheduling(processes);
+        List<EDFScheduling.Process> executedProcesses = edfScheduling.scheduleProcesses();
+
+        // Assert the correct number of processes
+        assertEquals(3, executedProcesses.size());
+
+        // Assert that processes are executed in order of earliest deadline first
+        EDFScheduling.Process process1 = executedProcesses.get(0);
+        assertEquals("P2", process1.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(0, process1.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(3, process1.getTurnAroundTime());
+
+        EDFScheduling.Process process2 = executedProcesses.get(1);
+        assertEquals("P1", process2.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(3, process2.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(10, process2.getTurnAroundTime());
+
+        EDFScheduling.Process process3 = executedProcesses.get(2);
+        assertEquals("P3", process3.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(10, process3.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(18, process3.getTurnAroundTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testProcessMissedDeadline() {
+        // Modify the deadline of a process to ensure it will miss its deadline
+        processes.get(1).setTurnAroundTime(5); // Set P1's deadline to 5 (which it will miss)
+
+        EDFScheduling edfScheduling = new EDFScheduling(processes);
+        edfScheduling.scheduleProcesses();
+
+        // Check if the process with ID "P1" missed its deadline
+        assertEquals("P1", processes.get(1).getProcessId());
+    }
+
+    private List<EDFScheduling.Process> createProcesses() {
+        // Process ID, Burst Time, Deadline
+        EDFScheduling.Process process1 = new EDFScheduling.Process("P1", 7, 10); // 7 burst time, 10 deadline
+        EDFScheduling.Process process2 = new EDFScheduling.Process("P2", 3, 5); // 3 burst time, 5 deadline
+        EDFScheduling.Process process3 = new EDFScheduling.Process("P3", 8, 18); // 8 burst time, 18 deadline
+
+        List<EDFScheduling.Process> processes = new ArrayList<>();
+        processes.add(process1);
+        processes.add(process2);
+        processes.add(process3);
+
+        return processes;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..87b3d12c8dcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FCFSSchedulingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testingProcesses() {
+        List<ProcessDetails> processes = addProcessesForFCFS();
+        final FCFSScheduling fcfsScheduling = new FCFSScheduling(processes); // for sending to FCFS
+
+        fcfsScheduling.scheduleProcesses();
+
+        assertEquals(3, processes.size());
+
+        assertEquals("P1", processes.get(0).getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(0, processes.get(0).getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(10, processes.get(0).getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        assertEquals("P2", processes.get(1).getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(10, processes.get(1).getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(15, processes.get(1).getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        assertEquals("P3", processes.get(2).getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(15, processes.get(2).getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(23, processes.get(2).getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+    }
+
+    private List<ProcessDetails> addProcessesForFCFS() {
+        final ProcessDetails process1 = new ProcessDetails("P1", 0, 10);
+        final ProcessDetails process2 = new ProcessDetails("P2", 1, 5);
+        final ProcessDetails process3 = new ProcessDetails("P3", 2, 8);
+
+        final List<ProcessDetails> processDetails = new ArrayList<>();
+        processDetails.add(process1);
+        processDetails.add(process2);
+        processDetails.add(process3);
+
+        return processDetails;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7aa6e061c497
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class FairShareSchedulingTest {
+
+    private FairShareScheduling scheduler;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        scheduler = new FairShareScheduling();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllocateResourcesSingleUser() {
+        scheduler.addUser("User1");
+        scheduler.addTask("User1", 5);
+        scheduler.allocateResources(100);
+        Map<String, Integer> expected = Map.of("User1", 100);
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getAllocatedResources());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllocateResourcesMultipleUsers() {
+        scheduler.addUser("User1");
+        scheduler.addUser("User2");
+        scheduler.addUser("User3");
+        scheduler.addTask("User1", 2);
+        scheduler.addTask("User2", 3);
+        scheduler.addTask("User3", 5);
+        scheduler.allocateResources(100);
+        Map<String, Integer> expected = Map.of("User1", 20, "User2", 30, "User3", 50);
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getAllocatedResources());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllocateResourcesZeroWeightUser() {
+        scheduler.addUser("User1");
+        scheduler.addUser("User2");
+        scheduler.addTask("User2", 5);
+        scheduler.allocateResources(100);
+        Map<String, Integer> expected = Map.of("User1", 0, "User2", 100);
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getAllocatedResources());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllocateResourcesEqualWeights() {
+        scheduler.addUser("User1");
+        scheduler.addUser("User2");
+        scheduler.addTask("User1", 1);
+        scheduler.addTask("User2", 1);
+        scheduler.allocateResources(100);
+        Map<String, Integer> expected = Map.of("User1", 50, "User2", 50);
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getAllocatedResources());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2e1bb4cd0e20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GangSchedulingTest {
+
+    private GangScheduling scheduler;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        scheduler = new GangScheduling();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddGangAndTask() {
+        scheduler.addGang("Gang1");
+        scheduler.addTaskToGang("Gang1", "Task1");
+        Map<String, List<String>> expected = Map.of("Gang1", List.of("Task1"));
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getGangSchedules());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleGangs() {
+        scheduler.addGang("Gang1");
+        scheduler.addGang("Gang2");
+        scheduler.addTaskToGang("Gang1", "Task1");
+        scheduler.addTaskToGang("Gang2", "Task2");
+        Map<String, List<String>> expected = Map.of("Gang1", List.of("Task1"), "Gang2", List.of("Task2"));
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getGangSchedules());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGangWithMultipleTasks() {
+        scheduler.addGang("Gang1");
+        scheduler.addTaskToGang("Gang1", "Task1");
+        scheduler.addTaskToGang("Gang1", "Task2");
+        Map<String, List<String>> expected = Map.of("Gang1", List.of("Task1", "Task2"));
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getGangSchedules());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyGangSchedule() {
+        scheduler.addGang("Gang1");
+        Map<String, List<String>> expected = Map.of("Gang1", List.of());
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getGangSchedules());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d225d76b82c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class HighestResponseRatioNextSchedulingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCalculateTurnAroundTime() {
+        String[] processNames = {"A", "B", "C"};
+        int[] arrivalTimes = {0, 2, 4};
+        int[] burstTimes = {3, 1, 2};
+        int noOfProcesses = 3;
+
+        int[] expectedTurnAroundTimes = {3, 2, 2};
+        int[] actualTurnAroundTimes = HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.calculateTurnAroundTime(processNames, arrivalTimes, burstTimes, noOfProcesses);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedTurnAroundTimes, actualTurnAroundTimes, "Turn Around Times do not match");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCalculateWaitingTime() {
+        int[] turnAroundTimes = {3, 1, 5};
+        int[] burstTimes = {3, 1, 2};
+
+        int[] expectedWaitingTimes = {0, 0, 3};
+        int[] actualWaitingTimes = HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.calculateWaitingTime(turnAroundTimes, burstTimes);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedWaitingTimes, actualWaitingTimes, "Waiting Times do not match");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCompleteSchedulingScenario() {
+        String[] processNames = {"A", "B", "C"};
+        int[] arrivalTimes = {0, 1, 2};
+        int[] burstTimes = {5, 2, 1};
+
+        int[] expectedTurnAroundTimes = {5, 7, 4};
+        int[] turnAroundTimes = HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.calculateTurnAroundTime(processNames, arrivalTimes, burstTimes, processNames.length);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedTurnAroundTimes, turnAroundTimes, "Turn Around Times do not match");
+
+        int[] expectedWaitingTimes = {0, 5, 3};
+        int[] waitingTimes = HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.calculateWaitingTime(turnAroundTimes, burstTimes);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedWaitingTimes, waitingTimes, "Waiting Times do not match");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testZeroProcesses() {
+        String[] processNames = {};
+        int[] arrivalTimes = {};
+        int[] burstTimes = {};
+        int noOfProcesses = 0;
+
+        int[] expectedTurnAroundTimes = {};
+        int[] actualTurnAroundTimes = HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.calculateTurnAroundTime(processNames, arrivalTimes, burstTimes, noOfProcesses);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedTurnAroundTimes, actualTurnAroundTimes, "Turn Around Times for zero processes should be an empty array");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllProcessesArriveAtSameTime() {
+        String[] processNames = {"A", "B", "C", "D"};
+        int[] arrivalTimes = {0, 0, 0, 0};
+        int[] burstTimes = {4, 3, 1, 2};
+        int noOfProcesses = 4;
+
+        int[] expectedTurnAroundTimes = {4, 10, 5, 7};
+        int[] actualTurnAroundTimes = HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.calculateTurnAroundTime(processNames, arrivalTimes, burstTimes, noOfProcesses);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedTurnAroundTimes, actualTurnAroundTimes, "Turn Around Times for processes arriving at the same time do not match");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testProcessesWithZeroBurstTime() {
+        String[] processNames = {"A", "B", "C"};
+        int[] arrivalTimes = {0, 1, 2};
+        int[] burstTimes = {3, 0, 2};
+        int noOfProcesses = 3;
+
+        int[] expectedTurnAroundTimes = {3, 2, 3};
+        int[] actualTurnAroundTimes = HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.calculateTurnAroundTime(processNames, arrivalTimes, burstTimes, noOfProcesses);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedTurnAroundTimes, actualTurnAroundTimes, "Turn Around Times for processes with zero burst time do not match");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testProcessesWithLargeGapsBetweenArrivals() {
+        String[] processNames = {"A", "B", "C"};
+        int[] arrivalTimes = {0, 100, 200};
+        int[] burstTimes = {10, 10, 10};
+        int noOfProcesses = 3;
+
+        int[] expectedTurnAroundTimes = {10, 10, 10};
+        int[] actualTurnAroundTimes = HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.calculateTurnAroundTime(processNames, arrivalTimes, burstTimes, noOfProcesses);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedTurnAroundTimes, actualTurnAroundTimes, "Turn Around Times for processes with large gaps between arrivals do not match");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testProcessesWithVeryLargeBurstTimes() {
+        String[] processNames = {"A", "B"};
+        int[] arrivalTimes = {0, 1};
+        int[] burstTimes = {Integer.MAX_VALUE / 2, Integer.MAX_VALUE / 2};
+        int noOfProcesses = 2;
+
+        int[] expectedTurnAroundTimes = {Integer.MAX_VALUE / 2, Integer.MAX_VALUE - 2};
+        int[] actualTurnAroundTimes = HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.calculateTurnAroundTime(processNames, arrivalTimes, burstTimes, noOfProcesses);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedTurnAroundTimes, actualTurnAroundTimes, "Turn Around Times for processes with very large burst times do not match");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadlineTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadlineTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..538db92a1f26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadlineTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class JobSchedulingWithDeadlineTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testJobSequencingWithDeadlines1() {
+        JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job[] jobs = {new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(1, 1, 4, 20), new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(2, 1, 1, 10), new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(3, 1, 1, 40), new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(4, 1, 1, 30)};
+        int[] result = JobSchedulingWithDeadline.jobSequencingWithDeadlines(jobs);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {2, 60}, result); // Expected output: 2 jobs, 60 profit
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testJobSequencingWithDeadlines2() {
+        JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job[] jobs = {new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(1, 1, 2, 100), new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(2, 1, 1, 19), new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(3, 1, 2, 27), new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(4, 1, 1, 25), new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(5, 1, 1, 15)};
+        int[] result = JobSchedulingWithDeadline.jobSequencingWithDeadlines(jobs);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {2, 127}, result); // Expected output: 2 jobs, 127 profit
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testJobSequencingWithDeadlinesWithArrivalTimes() {
+        JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job[] jobs = {new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(1, 2, 5, 50), new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(2, 3, 4, 60), new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(3, 1, 3, 20)};
+        int[] result = JobSchedulingWithDeadline.jobSequencingWithDeadlines(jobs);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {3, 130}, result); // All 3 jobs fit within their deadlines
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testJobSequencingWithDeadlinesNoJobs() {
+        JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job[] jobs = {};
+        int[] result = JobSchedulingWithDeadline.jobSequencingWithDeadlines(jobs);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0, 0}, result); // No jobs, 0 profit
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testJobSequencingWithDeadlinesSingleJob() {
+        JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job[] jobs = {new JobSchedulingWithDeadline.Job(1, 1, 1, 50)};
+        int[] result = JobSchedulingWithDeadline.jobSequencingWithDeadlines(jobs);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {1, 50}, result); // 1 job scheduled, 50 profit
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotterySchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotterySchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..00fd8adcde27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotterySchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.mockito.Mockito.mock;
+import static org.mockito.Mockito.when;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class LotterySchedulingTest {
+
+    private Random mockRandom;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        mockRandom = mock(Random.class);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLotterySchedulingWithMockedRandom() {
+        List<LotteryScheduling.Process> processes = createProcesses();
+        LotteryScheduling lotteryScheduling = new LotteryScheduling(processes, mockRandom);
+
+        // Mock the sequence of random numbers (winning tickets)
+        // This sequence ensures that P1 (10 tickets), P3 (8 tickets), and P2 (5 tickets) are selected.
+        when(mockRandom.nextInt(23)).thenReturn(5, 18, 11); // winning tickets for P1, P3, and P2
+
+        List<LotteryScheduling.Process> executedProcesses = lotteryScheduling.scheduleProcesses();
+
+        assertEquals(3, executedProcesses.size());
+
+        // Assert the process execution order and properties
+        LotteryScheduling.Process process1 = executedProcesses.get(0);
+        assertEquals("P1", process1.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(0, process1.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(10, process1.getTurnAroundTime());
+
+        LotteryScheduling.Process process2 = executedProcesses.get(1);
+        assertEquals("P2", process2.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(10, process2.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(15, process2.getTurnAroundTime());
+
+        LotteryScheduling.Process process3 = executedProcesses.get(2);
+        assertEquals("P3", process3.getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(15, process3.getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(23, process3.getTurnAroundTime());
+    }
+
+    private List<LotteryScheduling.Process> createProcesses() {
+        LotteryScheduling.Process process1 = new LotteryScheduling.Process("P1", 10, 10); // 10 tickets
+        LotteryScheduling.Process process2 = new LotteryScheduling.Process("P2", 5, 5); // 5 tickets
+        LotteryScheduling.Process process3 = new LotteryScheduling.Process("P3", 8, 8); // 8 tickets
+
+        List<LotteryScheduling.Process> processes = new ArrayList<>();
+        processes.add(process1);
+        processes.add(process2);
+        processes.add(process3);
+
+        return processes;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQSchedulerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQSchedulerTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d7d27e9b32b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQSchedulerTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MLFQSchedulerTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testMLFQScheduling() {
+        // Create MLFQ Scheduler with 3 levels and time quantum for each level
+        int[] timeQuantums = {4, 8, 12}; // Example of different quantum for each queue
+        MLFQScheduler scheduler = new MLFQScheduler(3, timeQuantums);
+
+        // Add processes to the scheduler
+        scheduler.addProcess(new Process(1, 10, 0)); // pid=1, burstTime=10, arrivalTime=0
+        scheduler.addProcess(new Process(2, 15, 0)); // pid=2, burstTime=15, arrivalTime=0
+        scheduler.addProcess(new Process(3, 25, 0)); // pid=3, burstTime=25, arrivalTime=0
+
+        // Run the scheduler
+        scheduler.run();
+
+        // Check current time after all processes are finished
+        assertEquals(50, scheduler.getCurrentTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testProcessCompletionOrder() {
+        int[] timeQuantums = {3, 6, 9};
+        MLFQScheduler scheduler = new MLFQScheduler(3, timeQuantums);
+
+        Process p1 = new Process(1, 10, 0);
+        Process p2 = new Process(2, 5, 0);
+        Process p3 = new Process(3, 20, 0);
+
+        scheduler.addProcess(p1);
+        scheduler.addProcess(p2);
+        scheduler.addProcess(p3);
+
+        scheduler.run();
+
+        // After running, current time should match the total burst time for all
+        // processes
+        assertEquals(35, scheduler.getCurrentTime());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..16067fa8c22a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MultiAgentSchedulingTest {
+
+    private MultiAgentScheduling scheduler;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        scheduler = new MultiAgentScheduling();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddAgentAndAssignTask() {
+        scheduler.addAgent("Agent1");
+        scheduler.assignTask("Agent1", "Task1");
+        Map<String, List<String>> expected = Map.of("Agent1", List.of("Task1"));
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getScheduledTasks());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMultipleAgentsWithTasks() {
+        scheduler.addAgent("Agent1");
+        scheduler.addAgent("Agent2");
+        scheduler.assignTask("Agent1", "Task1");
+        scheduler.assignTask("Agent2", "Task2");
+        Map<String, List<String>> expected = Map.of("Agent1", List.of("Task1"), "Agent2", List.of("Task2"));
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getScheduledTasks());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAgentWithMultipleTasks() {
+        scheduler.addAgent("Agent1");
+        scheduler.assignTask("Agent1", "Task1");
+        scheduler.assignTask("Agent1", "Task2");
+        Map<String, List<String>> expected = Map.of("Agent1", List.of("Task1", "Task2"));
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getScheduledTasks());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyAgentSchedule() {
+        scheduler.addAgent("Agent1");
+        Map<String, List<String>> expected = Map.of("Agent1", List.of());
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getScheduledTasks());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d28dcfeaaea3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCalculateAverageWaitingTime() {
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] processes = {new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(1, 0, 10, 2), // id, arrivalTime, burstTime, priority
+            new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(2, 0, 5, 1), new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(3, 0, 8, 3)};
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] executionOrder = NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.scheduleProcesses(processes);
+
+        double expectedAvgWaitingTime = (0 + 5 + 15) / 3.0; // Waiting times: 0 for P2, 5 for P1, 15 for P3
+        double actualAvgWaitingTime = NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.calculateAverageWaitingTime(processes, executionOrder);
+
+        assertEquals(expectedAvgWaitingTime, actualAvgWaitingTime, 0.01, "Average waiting time should be calculated correctly.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCalculateAverageTurnaroundTime() {
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] processes = {new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(1, 0, 10, 2), // id, arrivalTime, burstTime, priority
+            new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(2, 0, 5, 1), new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(3, 0, 8, 3)};
+
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] executionOrder = NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.scheduleProcesses(processes);
+
+        double expectedAvgTurnaroundTime = (5 + 15 + 23) / 3.0; // Turnaround times: 5 for P2, 15 for P1, 23 for P3
+        double actualAvgTurnaroundTime = NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.calculateAverageTurnaroundTime(processes, executionOrder);
+
+        assertEquals(expectedAvgTurnaroundTime, actualAvgTurnaroundTime, 0.01, "Average turnaround time should be calculated correctly.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStartTimeIsCorrect() {
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] processes = {new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(1, 0, 10, 2), // id, arrivalTime, burstTime, priority
+            new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(2, 0, 5, 1), new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(3, 0, 8, 3)};
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] executionOrder = NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.scheduleProcesses(processes);
+
+        // Check that the start time for each process is correctly set
+        assertEquals(0, executionOrder[0].startTime, "First process (P2) should start at time 0."); // Process 2 has the highest priority
+        assertEquals(5, executionOrder[1].startTime, "Second process (P1) should start at time 5.");
+        assertEquals(15, executionOrder[2].startTime, "Third process (P3) should start at time 15.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithDelayedArrivalTimes() {
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] processes = {new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(1, 0, 4, 1), // id, arrivalTime, burstTime, priority
+            new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(2, 2, 3, 2), new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(3, 4, 2, 3)};
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] executionOrder = NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.scheduleProcesses(processes);
+
+        // Test the start times considering delayed arrivals
+        assertEquals(0, executionOrder[0].startTime, "First process (P1) should start at time 0.");
+        assertEquals(4, executionOrder[1].startTime, "Second process (P2) should start at time 4."); // After P1 finishes
+        assertEquals(7, executionOrder[2].startTime, "Third process (P3) should start at time 7."); // After P2 finishes
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithGapsInArrivals() {
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] processes = {new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(1, 0, 6, 2), // id, arrivalTime, burstTime, priority
+            new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(2, 8, 4, 1), new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(3, 12, 5, 3)};
+
+        NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] executionOrder = NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.scheduleProcesses(processes);
+
+        // Test the start times for processes with gaps in arrival times
+        assertEquals(0, executionOrder[0].startTime, "First process (P1) should start at time 0.");
+        assertEquals(8, executionOrder[1].startTime, "Second process (P2) should start at time 8."); // After P1 finishes, arrives at 8
+        assertEquals(12, executionOrder[2].startTime, "Third process (P3) should start at time 12."); // After P2 finishes, arrives at 12
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/PreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/PreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ea692686afd2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/PreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+/**
+ * Test Cases of Preemptive Priority Scheduling Algorithm
+ *
+ * @author [Bama Charan Chhandogi](https://www.github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ */
+class PreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideProcessesAndExpectedSchedules")
+    void testPreemptivePriorityScheduling(Collection<ProcessDetails> processes, List<String> expectedSchedule) {
+        PreemptivePriorityScheduling scheduler = new PreemptivePriorityScheduling(processes);
+        scheduler.scheduleProcesses();
+        assertEquals(expectedSchedule, scheduler.ganttChart);
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideProcessesAndExpectedSchedules() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(List.of(new ProcessDetails("P1", 0, 5, 2), new ProcessDetails("P2", 1, 4, 4), new ProcessDetails("P3", 2, 2, 6), new ProcessDetails("P4", 4, 1, 8)), List.of("P1", "P2", "P3", "P3", "P4", "P2", "P2", "P2", "P1", "P1", "P1", "P1")),
+            Arguments.of(List.of(new ProcessDetails("P1", 2, 5, 3), new ProcessDetails("P2", 5, 3, 5), new ProcessDetails("P3", 7, 1, 9)), List.of("Idle", "Idle", "P1", "P1", "P1", "P2", "P2", "P3", "P2", "P1", "P1")));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0d379ee90b0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ProportionalFairSchedulingTest {
+
+    private ProportionalFairScheduling scheduler;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        scheduler = new ProportionalFairScheduling();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllocateResourcesSingleProcess() {
+        scheduler.addProcess("Process1", 5);
+        scheduler.allocateResources(100);
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Process1: 100");
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getAllocatedResources());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllocateResourcesMultipleProcesses() {
+        scheduler.addProcess("Process1", 2);
+        scheduler.addProcess("Process2", 3);
+        scheduler.addProcess("Process3", 5);
+        scheduler.allocateResources(100);
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Process1: 20", "Process2: 30", "Process3: 50");
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getAllocatedResources());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllocateResourcesZeroWeightProcess() {
+        scheduler.addProcess("Process1", 0);
+        scheduler.addProcess("Process2", 5);
+        scheduler.allocateResources(100);
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Process1: 0", "Process2: 100");
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getAllocatedResources());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAllocateResourcesEqualWeights() {
+        scheduler.addProcess("Process1", 1);
+        scheduler.addProcess("Process2", 1);
+        scheduler.allocateResources(100);
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Process1: 50", "Process2: 50");
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.getAllocatedResources());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3da526601f5f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class RRSchedulingTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testingProcesses() {
+        List<ProcessDetails> processes = addProcessesForRR();
+        final RRScheduling rrScheduling = new RRScheduling(processes, 4); // for sending to RR with quantum value 4
+
+        rrScheduling.scheduleProcesses();
+
+        assertEquals(6, processes.size());
+
+        assertEquals("P1", processes.get(0).getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(12, processes.get(0).getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(17, processes.get(0).getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        assertEquals("P2", processes.get(1).getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(16, processes.get(1).getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(22, processes.get(1).getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        assertEquals("P3", processes.get(2).getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(6, processes.get(2).getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(9, processes.get(2).getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        assertEquals("P4", processes.get(3).getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(8, processes.get(3).getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(9, processes.get(3).getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        assertEquals("P5", processes.get(4).getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(15, processes.get(4).getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(20, processes.get(4).getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+
+        assertEquals("P6", processes.get(5).getProcessId());
+        assertEquals(11, processes.get(5).getWaitingTime());
+        assertEquals(15, processes.get(5).getTurnAroundTimeTime());
+    }
+
+    private List<ProcessDetails> addProcessesForRR() {
+        final ProcessDetails process1 = new ProcessDetails("P1", 0, 5);
+        final ProcessDetails process2 = new ProcessDetails("P2", 1, 6);
+        final ProcessDetails process3 = new ProcessDetails("P3", 2, 3);
+        final ProcessDetails process4 = new ProcessDetails("P4", 3, 1);
+        final ProcessDetails process5 = new ProcessDetails("P5", 4, 5);
+        final ProcessDetails process6 = new ProcessDetails("P6", 6, 4);
+
+        final List<ProcessDetails> processDetails = new ArrayList<>();
+        processDetails.add(process1);
+        processDetails.add(process2);
+        processDetails.add(process3);
+        processDetails.add(process4);
+        processDetails.add(process5);
+        processDetails.add(process6);
+
+        return processDetails;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e2c8777d892f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.mockito.Mockito.anyInt;
+import static org.mockito.Mockito.mock;
+import static org.mockito.Mockito.when;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class RandomSchedulingTest {
+
+    private RandomScheduling randomScheduling;
+    private Random mockRandom;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        mockRandom = mock(Random.class); // Mocking Random for predictable behavior
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRandomOrder1() {
+        // Arrange
+        List<String> tasks = List.of("Task1", "Task2", "Task3");
+        // Mock the random sequence to control shuffling: swap 0 <-> 1, and 1 <-> 2.
+        when(mockRandom.nextInt(anyInt())).thenReturn(1, 2, 0);
+        randomScheduling = new RandomScheduling(tasks, mockRandom);
+
+        // Act
+        List<String> result = randomScheduling.schedule();
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(List.of("Task1", "Task2", "Task3"), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRandomOrder2() {
+        // Arrange
+        List<String> tasks = List.of("A", "B", "C", "D");
+        // Mocking predictable swaps for the sequence: [C, B, D, A]
+        when(mockRandom.nextInt(anyInt())).thenReturn(2, 1, 3, 0);
+        randomScheduling = new RandomScheduling(tasks, mockRandom);
+
+        // Act
+        List<String> result = randomScheduling.schedule();
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(List.of("A", "C", "B", "D"), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleTask() {
+        // Arrange
+        List<String> tasks = List.of("SingleTask");
+        when(mockRandom.nextInt(anyInt())).thenReturn(0); // No real shuffle
+        randomScheduling = new RandomScheduling(tasks, mockRandom);
+
+        // Act
+        List<String> result = randomScheduling.schedule();
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(List.of("SingleTask"), result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyTaskList() {
+        // Arrange
+        List<String> tasks = List.of();
+        randomScheduling = new RandomScheduling(tasks, mockRandom);
+
+        // Act
+        List<String> result = randomScheduling.schedule();
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(List.of(), result); // Should return an empty list
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSameTasksMultipleTimes() {
+        // Arrange
+        List<String> tasks = List.of("X", "X", "Y", "Z");
+        when(mockRandom.nextInt(anyInt())).thenReturn(3, 0, 1, 2);
+        randomScheduling = new RandomScheduling(tasks, mockRandom);
+
+        // Act
+        List<String> result = randomScheduling.schedule();
+
+        // Assert
+        assertEquals(List.of("Y", "X", "X", "Z"), result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SJFSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SJFSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..660a53299ab0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SJFSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class SJFSchedulingTest {
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> schedulingTestData() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(List.of(new ProcessDetails("1", 0, 6), new ProcessDetails("2", 1, 2)), List.of("1", "2")),
+            Arguments.of(List.of(new ProcessDetails("1", 0, 6), new ProcessDetails("2", 1, 2), new ProcessDetails("3", 4, 3), new ProcessDetails("4", 3, 1), new ProcessDetails("5", 6, 4), new ProcessDetails("6", 5, 5)), List.of("1", "4", "2", "3", "5", "6")),
+            Arguments.of(List.of(new ProcessDetails("1", 0, 3), new ProcessDetails("2", 1, 2), new ProcessDetails("3", 2, 1)), List.of("1", "3", "2")), Arguments.of(List.of(new ProcessDetails("1", 0, 3), new ProcessDetails("2", 5, 2), new ProcessDetails("3", 9, 1)), List.of("1", "2", "3")),
+            Arguments.of(Collections.emptyList(), List.of()));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Test SJF schedule: {index}")
+    @MethodSource("schedulingTestData")
+    void testSJFScheduling(List<ProcessDetails> inputProcesses, List<String> expectedSchedule) {
+        SJFScheduling scheduler = new SJFScheduling(inputProcesses);
+        scheduler.scheduleProcesses();
+        assertEquals(expectedSchedule, scheduler.getSchedule());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test sorting by arrival order")
+    void testProcessArrivalOrderIsSorted() {
+        List<ProcessDetails> processes = List.of(new ProcessDetails("1", 0, 6), new ProcessDetails("2", 1, 2), new ProcessDetails("4", 3, 1), new ProcessDetails("3", 4, 3), new ProcessDetails("6", 5, 5), new ProcessDetails("5", 6, 4));
+        SJFScheduling scheduler = new SJFScheduling(processes);
+        List<String> actualOrder = scheduler.getProcesses().stream().map(ProcessDetails::getProcessId).toList();
+
+        assertEquals(List.of("1", "2", "4", "3", "6", "5"), actualOrder);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSchedulingEmptyList() {
+        SJFScheduling scheduler = new SJFScheduling(Collections.emptyList());
+        scheduler.scheduleProcesses();
+        assertTrue(scheduler.getSchedule().isEmpty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9cec31130164
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.devutils.entities.ProcessDetails;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SRTFSchedulingTest {
+    ArrayList<ProcessDetails> processes;
+
+    public void initialization() {
+        processes = new ArrayList<>();
+        processes.add(new ProcessDetails("4", 0, 3));
+        processes.add(new ProcessDetails("3", 1, 8));
+        processes.add(new ProcessDetails("1", 2, 6));
+        processes.add(new ProcessDetails("5", 4, 4));
+        processes.add(new ProcessDetails("2", 5, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void constructor() {
+        initialization();
+        SRTFScheduling s = new SRTFScheduling(processes);
+        assertEquals(3, s.processes.get(0).getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(8, s.processes.get(1).getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(6, s.processes.get(2).getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(4, s.processes.get(3).getBurstTime());
+        assertEquals(2, s.processes.get(4).getBurstTime());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void evaluateScheduling() {
+        initialization();
+        SRTFScheduling s = new SRTFScheduling(processes);
+        s.evaluateScheduling();
+        assertEquals("4", s.ready.get(0));
+        assertEquals("4", s.ready.get(1));
+        assertEquals("4", s.ready.get(2));
+        assertEquals("1", s.ready.get(3));
+        assertEquals("5", s.ready.get(4));
+        assertEquals("2", s.ready.get(5));
+        assertEquals("2", s.ready.get(6));
+        assertEquals("5", s.ready.get(7));
+        assertEquals("5", s.ready.get(8));
+        assertEquals("5", s.ready.get(9));
+        assertEquals("1", s.ready.get(10));
+        assertEquals("1", s.ready.get(11));
+        assertEquals("1", s.ready.get(12));
+        assertEquals("1", s.ready.get(13));
+        assertEquals("1", s.ready.get(14));
+        assertEquals("3", s.ready.get(15));
+        assertEquals("3", s.ready.get(16));
+        assertEquals("3", s.ready.get(17));
+        assertEquals("3", s.ready.get(18));
+        assertEquals("3", s.ready.get(19));
+        assertEquals("3", s.ready.get(20));
+        assertEquals("3", s.ready.get(21));
+        assertEquals("3", s.ready.get(22));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8675a1ec397d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SelfAdjustingSchedulingTest {
+
+    private SelfAdjustingScheduling scheduler;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        scheduler = new SelfAdjustingScheduling();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddAndScheduleSingleTask() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 5);
+        assertEquals("Task1", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddMultipleTasks() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 5);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task2", 1);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task3", 3);
+        assertEquals("Task2", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+        assertEquals("Task2", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+        assertEquals("Task3", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPriorityAdjustment() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 1);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task2", 1);
+        scheduler.scheduleNext();
+        scheduler.scheduleNext();
+        scheduler.scheduleNext();
+        assertEquals("Task2", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyScheduler() {
+        assertNull(scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTaskReschedulingAfterWait() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 1);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task2", 2);
+        scheduler.scheduleNext();
+        scheduler.scheduleNext();
+        assertEquals("Task1", scheduler.scheduleNext());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..555a0941e7f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SlackTimeSchedulingTest {
+
+    private SlackTimeScheduling scheduler;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setup() {
+        scheduler = new SlackTimeScheduling();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAddAndScheduleSingleTask() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 2, 5);
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Task1");
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.scheduleTasks());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testScheduleMultipleTasks() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 2, 5);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task2", 1, 4);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task3", 3, 7);
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Task1", "Task2", "Task3");
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.scheduleTasks());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testScheduleTasksWithSameSlackTime() {
+        scheduler.addTask("Task1", 2, 5);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task2", 3, 6);
+        scheduler.addTask("Task3", 1, 4);
+        List<String> expected = List.of("Task1", "Task2", "Task3");
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.scheduleTasks());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyScheduler() {
+        List<String> expected = List.of();
+        assertEquals(expected, scheduler.scheduleTasks());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..55429e41b84d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.emptyList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CircularLookSchedulingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCircularLookSchedulingMovingUp() {
+        CircularLookScheduling scheduling = new CircularLookScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 90, 150, 160, 18, 39);
+
+        List<Integer> result = scheduling.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCircularLookSchedulingMovingDown() {
+        CircularLookScheduling scheduling = new CircularLookScheduling(50, false, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(39, 18, 160, 150, 90, 58, 55);
+
+        List<Integer> result = scheduling.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCircularLookSchedulingEmptyRequests() {
+        CircularLookScheduling scheduling = new CircularLookScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = emptyList();
+        List<Integer> expected = emptyList();
+
+        List<Integer> result = scheduling.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCircularLookSchedulingPrintStatus() {
+        CircularLookScheduling scheduling = new CircularLookScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+        List<Integer> result = scheduling.execute(requests);
+
+        // Print the final status
+        System.out.println("Final CircularLookScheduling Position: " + scheduling.getCurrentPosition());
+        System.out.println("CircularLookScheduling Moving Up: " + scheduling.isMovingUp());
+
+        // Print the order of request processing
+        System.out.println("Request Order: " + result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..38daf5104b82
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.emptyList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class CircularScanSchedulingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCircularScanSchedulingMovingUp() {
+        CircularScanScheduling circularScan = new CircularScanScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+        List<Integer> expectedOrder = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 90, 150, 160, 18, 39);
+
+        List<Integer> result = circularScan.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expectedOrder, result);
+
+        System.out.println("Final CircularScan Position: " + circularScan.getCurrentPosition());
+        System.out.println("CircularScan Moving Up: " + circularScan.isMovingUp());
+        System.out.println("Request Order: " + result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCircularScanSchedulingMovingDown() {
+        CircularScanScheduling circularScan = new CircularScanScheduling(50, false, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+        List<Integer> expectedOrder = Arrays.asList(39, 18, 160, 150, 90, 58, 55);
+
+        List<Integer> result = circularScan.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expectedOrder, result);
+
+        System.out.println("Final CircularScan Position: " + circularScan.getCurrentPosition());
+        System.out.println("CircularScan Moving Down: " + circularScan.isMovingUp());
+        System.out.println("Request Order: " + result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCircularScanSchedulingEmptyRequests() {
+        CircularScanScheduling circularScan = new CircularScanScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = emptyList();
+        List<Integer> expectedOrder = emptyList();
+
+        List<Integer> result = circularScan.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expectedOrder, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..43ef1a698b55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.emptyList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class LookSchedulingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLookSchedulingMovingUp() {
+        LookScheduling lookScheduling = new LookScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 90, 150, 160, 39, 18);
+
+        List<Integer> result = lookScheduling.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLookSchedulingMovingDown() {
+        LookScheduling lookScheduling = new LookScheduling(50, false, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(39, 18, 55, 58, 90, 150, 160);
+
+        List<Integer> result = lookScheduling.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLookSchedulingEmptyRequests() {
+        LookScheduling lookScheduling = new LookScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = emptyList();
+        List<Integer> expected = emptyList();
+
+        List<Integer> result = lookScheduling.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLookSchedulingCurrentPosition() {
+        LookScheduling lookScheduling = new LookScheduling(50, true, 200);
+
+        // Testing current position remains unchanged after scheduling.
+        assertEquals(50, lookScheduling.getCurrentPosition());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLookSchedulingPrintStatus() {
+        LookScheduling lookScheduling = new LookScheduling(50, true, 200);
+
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+
+        List<Integer> result = lookScheduling.execute(requests);
+
+        List<Integer> expectedOrder = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 90, 150, 160, 39, 18);
+        assertEquals(expectedOrder, result);
+
+        System.out.println("Final LookScheduling Position: " + lookScheduling.getCurrentPosition());
+        System.out.println("LookScheduling Moving Up: " + lookScheduling.isMovingUp());
+
+        System.out.println("Farthest Position Reached: " + lookScheduling.getFarthestPosition());
+
+        System.out.println("Request Order: " + result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0239b0117f1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SSFSchedulingTest {
+
+    private SSFScheduling scheduler;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        scheduler = new SSFScheduling(50);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testExecuteWithEmptyList() {
+        List<Integer> requests = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Integer> result = scheduler.execute(requests);
+        assertTrue(result.isEmpty(), "Result should be empty for an empty request list.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testExecuteWithSingleRequest() {
+        List<Integer> requests = new ArrayList<>(List.of(100));
+        List<Integer> result = scheduler.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(List.of(100), result, "The only request should be served first.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testExecuteWithMultipleRequests() {
+        List<Integer> requests = new ArrayList<>(List.of(10, 90, 60, 40, 30, 70));
+        List<Integer> result = scheduler.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(List.of(60, 70, 90, 40, 30, 10), result, "Requests should be served in the shortest seek first order.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testExecuteWithSameDistanceRequests() {
+        List<Integer> requests = new ArrayList<>(List.of(45, 55));
+        List<Integer> result = scheduler.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(List.of(45, 55), result, "When distances are equal, requests should be served in the order they appear in the list.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetCurrentPositionAfterExecution() {
+        List<Integer> requests = new ArrayList<>(List.of(10, 90, 60, 40, 30, 70));
+        scheduler.execute(requests);
+        int currentPosition = scheduler.getCurrentPosition();
+        assertEquals(10, currentPosition, "Current position should be the last request after execution.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanSchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanSchedulingTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d1525d9a9c0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanSchedulingTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.scheduling.diskscheduling;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.emptyList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ScanSchedulingTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testScanSchedulingMovingUp() {
+        ScanScheduling scanScheduling = new ScanScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 90, 150, 160, 199, 39, 18);
+
+        List<Integer> result = scanScheduling.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testScanSchedulingMovingDown() {
+        ScanScheduling scanScheduling = new ScanScheduling(50, false, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(39, 18, 0, 55, 58, 90, 150, 160);
+
+        List<Integer> result = scanScheduling.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testScanSchedulingEmptyRequests() {
+        ScanScheduling scanScheduling = new ScanScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = emptyList();
+        List<Integer> expected = emptyList();
+
+        List<Integer> result = scanScheduling.execute(requests);
+        assertEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testScanScheduling() {
+        ScanScheduling scanScheduling = new ScanScheduling(50, true, 200);
+        List<Integer> requests = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 39, 18, 90, 160, 150);
+
+        List<Integer> result = scanScheduling.execute(requests);
+        List<Integer> expectedOrder = Arrays.asList(55, 58, 90, 150, 160, 199, 39, 18);
+        assertEquals(expectedOrder, result);
+
+        System.out.println("Final Head Position: " + scanScheduling.getHeadPosition());
+        System.out.println("Head Moving Up: " + scanScheduling.isMovingUp());
+        System.out.println("Request Order: " + result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndexTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndexTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2017c11dfb3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndexTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeAll;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Test Cases for Inverted Index with BM25
+ * @author Prayas Kumar (https://github.com/prayas7102)
+ */
+
+class BM25InvertedIndexTest {
+
+    private static BM25InvertedIndex index;
+
+    @BeforeAll
+    static void setUp() {
+        index = new BM25InvertedIndex();
+        index.addMovie(1, "The Shawshank Redemption", 9.3, 1994, "Hope is a good thing. Maybe the best of things. And no good thing ever dies.");
+        index.addMovie(2, "The Godfather", 9.2, 1972, "I'm gonna make him an offer he can't refuse.");
+        index.addMovie(3, "The Dark Knight", 9.0, 2008, "You either die a hero or live long enough to see yourself become the villain.");
+        index.addMovie(4, "Pulp Fiction", 8.9, 1994, "You know what they call a Quarter Pounder with Cheese in Paris? They call it a Royale with Cheese.");
+        index.addMovie(5, "Good Will Hunting", 8.3, 1997, "Will Hunting is a genius and he has a good heart. The best of his abilities is yet to be explored.");
+        index.addMovie(6, "It's a Wonderful Life", 8.6, 1946, "Each man's life touches so many other lives. If he wasn't around, it would leave an awfully good hole.");
+        index.addMovie(7, "The Pursuit of Happyness", 8.0, 2006, "It was the pursuit of a better life, and a good opportunity to change things for the better.");
+        index.addMovie(8, "A Few Good Men", 7.7, 1992, "You can't handle the truth! This movie has a lot of good moments and intense drama.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAddMovie() {
+        // Check that the index contains the correct number of movies
+        int moviesLength = index.getMoviesLength();
+        assertEquals(8, moviesLength);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchForTermFound() {
+        int expected = 1;
+        List<SearchResult> result = index.search("hope");
+        int actual = result.getFirst().getDocId();
+        assertEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchRanking() {
+        // Perform search for the term "good"
+        List<SearchResult> results = index.search("good");
+        assertFalse(results.isEmpty());
+        for (SearchResult result : results) {
+            System.out.println(result);
+        }
+        // Validate the ranking based on the provided relevance scores
+        assertEquals(1, results.get(0).getDocId()); // The Shawshank Redemption should be ranked 1st
+        assertEquals(8, results.get(1).getDocId()); // A Few Good Men should be ranked 2nd
+        assertEquals(5, results.get(2).getDocId()); // Good Will Hunting should be ranked 3rd
+        assertEquals(7, results.get(3).getDocId()); // The Pursuit of Happyness should be ranked 4th
+        assertEquals(6, results.get(4).getDocId()); // It's a Wonderful Life should be ranked 5th
+
+        // Ensure the relevance scores are in descending order
+        for (int i = 0; i < results.size() - 1; i++) {
+            assertTrue(results.get(i).getRelevanceScore() > results.get(i + 1).getRelevanceScore());
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchForTermNotFound() {
+        List<SearchResult> results = index.search("nonexistent");
+        assertTrue(results.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchForCommonTerm() {
+        List<SearchResult> results = index.search("the");
+        assertFalse(results.isEmpty());
+        assertTrue(results.size() > 1);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBM25ScoreCalculation() {
+        List<SearchResult> results = index.search("cheese");
+        assertEquals(1, results.size());
+        assertEquals(4, results.getFirst().docId); // Pulp Fiction should have the highest score
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCaseInsensitivity() {
+        List<SearchResult> resultsLowerCase = index.search("hope");
+        List<SearchResult> resultsUpperCase = index.search("HOPE");
+        assertEquals(resultsLowerCase, resultsUpperCase);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..18f0afc6a0a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BinarySearch2dArrayTest {
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestMiddle() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        int target = 6;
+
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(1, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(1, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestMiddleSide() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        int target = 8;
+
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(1, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(3, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestUpper() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        int target = 2;
+
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(0, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(1, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestUpperSide() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        int target = 1;
+
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(0, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(0, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestLower() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        int target = 10;
+
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(2, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(1, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestLowerSide() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        int target = 11;
+
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(2, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(2, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestNotFound() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        int target = 101;
+
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(-1, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(-1, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test if the method works with input arrays consisting only of one row.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestOneRow() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4}};
+        int target = 2;
+
+        // Assert that the requirement, that the array only has one row, is fulfilled.
+        assertEquals(arr.length, 1);
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(0, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(1, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test if the method works with the target in the middle of the input.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestTargetInMiddle() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}};
+        int target = 8;
+        // Assert that the requirement, that the target is in the middle row and middle column, is
+        // fulfilled.
+        assertEquals(arr[arr.length / 2][arr[0].length / 2], target);
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(1, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(2, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test if the method works with the target in the middle column,
+     * in the row above the middle row.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestTargetAboveMiddleRowInMiddleColumn() {
+        int[][] arr = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};
+        int target = 3;
+
+        // Assert that the requirement, that he target is in the middle column,
+        // in an array with an even number of columns, and on the row "above" the middle row.
+        assertEquals(arr[0].length % 2, 0);
+        assertEquals(arr[arr.length / 2 - 1][arr[0].length / 2], target);
+        int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
+        assertEquals(0, ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(2, ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test if the method works with an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void binarySearch2dArrayTestEmptyArray() {
+        int[][] arr = {};
+        int target = 5;
+
+        // Assert that an empty array is not valid input for the method.
+        assertThrows(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bd4620a7fa7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the BinarySearch class.
+ */
+class BinarySearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for basic binary search functionality.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchFound() {
+        BinarySearch binarySearch = new BinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        int key = 7;
+        int expectedIndex = 6; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 6.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search when the element is not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchNotFound() {
+        BinarySearch binarySearch = new BinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int key = 6; // Element not present in the array
+        int expectedIndex = -1; // Key not found
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with first element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchFirstElement() {
+        BinarySearch binarySearch = new BinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int key = 1; // First element
+        int expectedIndex = 0; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with last element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchLastElement() {
+        BinarySearch binarySearch = new BinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int key = 5; // Last element
+        int expectedIndex = 4; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 4.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with a single element present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchSingleElementFound() {
+        BinarySearch binarySearch = new BinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        int key = 1; // Only element present
+        int expectedIndex = 0; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the single element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with a single element not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchSingleElementNotFound() {
+        BinarySearch binarySearch = new BinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        int key = 2; // Key not present
+        int expectedIndex = -1; // Key not found
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchEmptyArray() {
+        BinarySearch binarySearch = new BinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {}; // Empty array
+        int key = 1; // Key not present
+        int expectedIndex = -1; // Key not found
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in an empty array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search on large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchLargeArray() {
+        BinarySearch binarySearch = new BinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = IntStream.range(0, 10000).boxed().toArray(Integer[] ::new); // Array from 0 to 9999
+        int key = 9999; // Last element
+        int expectedIndex = 9999; // Index of the last element
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 9999.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMooreTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMooreTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9021eacbb8ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMooreTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BoyerMooreTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPatternFound() {
+        BoyerMoore bm = new BoyerMoore("ABCDABD");
+        String text = "ABC ABCDAB ABCDABCDABDE";
+        int index = bm.search(text);
+        assertEquals(15, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPatternNotFound() {
+        BoyerMoore bm = new BoyerMoore("XYZ");
+        String text = "ABC ABCDAB ABCDABCDABDE";
+        int index = bm.search(text);
+        assertEquals(-1, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPatternAtBeginning() {
+        BoyerMoore bm = new BoyerMoore("ABC");
+        String text = "ABCDEF";
+        int index = bm.search(text);
+        assertEquals(0, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPatternAtEnd() {
+        BoyerMoore bm = new BoyerMoore("CDE");
+        String text = "ABCDEFGCDE";
+        int index = bm.search(text);
+        assertEquals(2, index); // Primera ocurrencia de "CDE"
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyPattern() {
+        BoyerMoore bm = new BoyerMoore("");
+        String text = "Hello world";
+        int index = bm.search(text);
+        assertEquals(0, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStaticSearchMethod() {
+        String text = "ABCDEFGCDE";
+        int index = BoyerMoore.staticSearch(text, "CDE");
+        assertEquals(2, index); // Primera ocurrencia de "CDE"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d05856dd29ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BreadthFirstSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.Node;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BreadthFirstSearchTest {
+    private Node<String> root;
+    private BreadthFirstSearch<String> bfs;
+
+    // Tree structure:
+    //
+    //        A
+    //      / | \
+    //     B  C  D
+    //    / \
+    //   E   F
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        // nodes declaration
+        root = new Node<>("A");
+
+        var nodeB = new Node<>("B");
+        var nodeC = new Node<>("C");
+        var nodeD = new Node<>("D");
+
+        var nodeE = new Node<>("E");
+        var nodeF = new Node<>("F");
+
+        // tree initialization
+        root.addChild(nodeB);
+        root.addChild(nodeC);
+        root.addChild(nodeD);
+
+        nodeB.addChild(nodeE);
+        nodeB.addChild(nodeF);
+
+        // create an instance to monitor the visited nodes
+        bfs = new BreadthFirstSearch<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchRoot() {
+        String expectedValue = "A";
+        List<String> expectedPath = List.of("A");
+
+        // check value
+        Optional<Node<String>> value = bfs.search(root, expectedValue);
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, value.orElseGet(() -> new Node<>("")).getValue());
+
+        // check path
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedPath.toArray(), bfs.getVisited().toArray());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchF() {
+        String expectedValue = "F";
+        List<String> expectedPath = List.of("A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F");
+
+        // check value
+        Optional<Node<String>> value = Optional.of(bfs.search(root, expectedValue).orElseGet(() -> new Node<>(null)));
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, value.get().getValue());
+
+        // check path
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedPath.toArray(), bfs.getVisited().toArray());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchNull() {
+        List<String> expectedPath = List.of("A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F");
+        Optional<Node<String>> node = bfs.search(root, null);
+
+        // check value
+        assertTrue(node.isEmpty());
+
+        // check path
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedPath.toArray(), bfs.getVisited().toArray());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullRoot() {
+        var value = bfs.search(null, "B");
+        assertTrue(value.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchValueThatNotExists() {
+        List<String> expectedPath = List.of("A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F");
+        var value = bfs.search(root, "Z");
+
+        // check that the value is empty because it's not exists in the tree
+        assertTrue(value.isEmpty());
+
+        // check path is the whole list
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedPath.toArray(), bfs.getVisited().toArray());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2785d48b70cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.datastructures.Node;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Optional;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DepthFirstSearchTest {
+
+    private Node<Integer> root;
+    private DepthFirstSearch<Integer> dfs;
+
+    //
+    // Tree structure:
+    //          1
+    //        / | \
+    //       2  3  4
+    //      / \
+    //     5   6
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        // nodes declaration
+        root = new Node<>(1);
+
+        var nodeB = new Node<>(2);
+        var nodeC = new Node<>(3);
+        var nodeD = new Node<>(4);
+
+        var nodeE = new Node<>(5);
+        var nodeF = new Node<>(6);
+
+        // tree initialization
+        root.addChild(nodeB);
+        root.addChild(nodeC);
+        root.addChild(nodeD);
+
+        nodeB.addChild(nodeE);
+        nodeB.addChild(nodeF);
+
+        // create an instance to monitor the visited nodes
+        dfs = new DepthFirstSearch<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearchRoot() {
+        Integer expectedValue = 1;
+        List<Integer> expectedPath = List.of(1);
+
+        // check value
+        Optional<Node<Integer>> value = dfs.recursiveSearch(root, expectedValue);
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, value.orElseGet(() -> new Node<>(null)).getValue());
+
+        // check path
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedPath.toArray(), dfs.getVisited().toArray());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSearch4() {
+        Integer expectedValue = 4;
+        List<Integer> expectedPath = List.of(1, 2, 5, 6, 3, 4);
+
+        // check value
+        Optional<Node<Integer>> value = dfs.recursiveSearch(root, expectedValue);
+        assertEquals(expectedValue, value.orElseGet(() -> new Node<>(null)).getValue());
+
+        // check path
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedPath.toArray(), dfs.getVisited().toArray());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullRoot() {
+        var value = dfs.recursiveSearch(null, 4);
+        assertTrue(value.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchValueThatNotExists() {
+        List<Integer> expectedPath = List.of(1, 2, 5, 6, 3, 4);
+        var value = dfs.recursiveSearch(root, 10);
+
+        // check that the value is empty because it's not exists in the tree
+        assertTrue(value.isEmpty());
+
+        // check path is the whole list
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedPath.toArray(), dfs.getVisited().toArray());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentialSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentialSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c84da531e8a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/ExponentialSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the ExponentialSearch class.
+ */
+class ExponentialSearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for basic exponential search functionality.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testExponentialSearchFound() {
+        ExponentialSearch exponentialSearch = new ExponentialSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        int key = 7;
+        int expectedIndex = 6; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, exponentialSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 6.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for exponential search with the first element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testExponentialSearchFirstElement() {
+        ExponentialSearch exponentialSearch = new ExponentialSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int key = 1; // First element
+        int expectedIndex = 0; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, exponentialSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for exponential search with the last element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testExponentialSearchLastElement() {
+        ExponentialSearch exponentialSearch = new ExponentialSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int key = 5; // Last element
+        int expectedIndex = 4; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, exponentialSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 4.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for exponential search with a single element present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testExponentialSearchSingleElementFound() {
+        ExponentialSearch exponentialSearch = new ExponentialSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        int key = 1; // Only element present
+        int expectedIndex = 0; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, exponentialSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the single element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for exponential search with an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testExponentialSearchEmptyArray() {
+        ExponentialSearch exponentialSearch = new ExponentialSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {}; // Empty array
+        int key = 1; // Key not present
+        int expectedIndex = -1; // Key not found
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, exponentialSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in an empty array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for exponential search on large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testExponentialSearchLargeArray() {
+        ExponentialSearch exponentialSearch = new ExponentialSearch();
+        Integer[] array = IntStream.range(0, 10000).boxed().toArray(Integer[] ::new); // Array from 0 to 9999
+        int key = 9999;
+        int expectedIndex = 9999;
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, exponentialSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 9999.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..801c33b1d09a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/FibonacciSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,124 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the FibonacciSearch class.
+ */
+class FibonacciSearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for basic Fibonacci search functionality.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchFound() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512};
+        int key = 128;
+        int expectedIndex = 7; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 7.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for Fibonacci search when the element is not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchNotFound() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        int key = 6; // Element not present in the array
+        int expectedIndex = -1; // Key not found
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for Fibonacci search with the first element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchFirstElement() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        int key = 1; // First element
+        int expectedIndex = 0; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for Fibonacci search with the last element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchLastElement() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        int key = 16; // Last element
+        int expectedIndex = 4; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 4.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for Fibonacci search with a single element present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchSingleElementFound() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        int key = 1; // Only element present
+        int expectedIndex = 0; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the single element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for Fibonacci search with a single element not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchSingleElementNotFound() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        int key = 2; // Key not present
+        int expectedIndex = -1; // Key not found
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for Fibonacci search with an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchEmptyArray() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {}; // Empty array
+        int key = 1; // Key not present
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "An empty array should throw an IllegalArgumentException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchUnsortedArray() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {2, 1, 4, 3, 6, 5};
+        int key = 3; // Key not present
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "An unsorted array should throw an IllegalArgumentException.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchNullKey() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        Integer key = null; // Null key
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "A null key should throw an IllegalArgumentException.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for Fibonacci search on large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFibonacciSearchLargeArray() {
+        FibonacciSearch fibonacciSearch = new FibonacciSearch();
+        Integer[] array = IntStream.range(0, 10000).boxed().toArray(Integer[] ::new); // Array from 0 to 9999
+        int key = 9999;
+        int expectedIndex = 9999;
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, fibonacciSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 9999.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotatedTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotatedTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7d52e9fb4eca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/HowManyTimesRotatedTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class HowManyTimesRotatedTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testHowManyTimesRotated() {
+        int[] arr1 = {5, 1, 2, 3, 4};
+        assertEquals(1, HowManyTimesRotated.rotated(arr1));
+        int[] arr2 = {15, 17, 2, 3, 5};
+        assertEquals(2, HowManyTimesRotated.rotated(arr2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b3b7e7ef129c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.IntStream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the InterpolationSearch class.
+ */
+class InterpolationSearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for basic interpolation search functionality when the element is found.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInterpolationSearchFound() {
+        InterpolationSearch interpolationSearch = new InterpolationSearch();
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512};
+        int key = 128;
+        int expectedIndex = 7; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, interpolationSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 7.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for interpolation search when the element is not present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInterpolationSearchNotFound() {
+        InterpolationSearch interpolationSearch = new InterpolationSearch();
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        int key = 6; // Element not present in the array
+        assertEquals(-1, interpolationSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for interpolation search with the first element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInterpolationSearchFirstElement() {
+        InterpolationSearch interpolationSearch = new InterpolationSearch();
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        int key = 1; // First element
+        assertEquals(0, interpolationSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for interpolation search with a single element not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInterpolationSearchSingleElementNotFound() {
+        InterpolationSearch interpolationSearch = new InterpolationSearch();
+        int[] array = {1};
+        int key = 2; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, interpolationSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for interpolation search with an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInterpolationSearchEmptyArray() {
+        InterpolationSearch interpolationSearch = new InterpolationSearch();
+        int[] array = {}; // Empty array
+        int key = 1; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, interpolationSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in an empty array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for interpolation search on large uniformly distributed array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInterpolationSearchLargeUniformArray() {
+        InterpolationSearch interpolationSearch = new InterpolationSearch();
+        int[] array = IntStream.range(0, 10000).map(i -> i * 2).toArray(); // Array from 0 to 19998, step 2
+        int key = 9998; // Last even number in the array
+        assertEquals(4999, interpolationSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 4999.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for interpolation search on large non-uniformly distributed array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testInterpolationSearchLargeNonUniformArray() {
+        InterpolationSearch interpolationSearch = new InterpolationSearch();
+        int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144}; // Fibonacci numbers
+        int key = 21; // Present in the array
+        assertEquals(6, interpolationSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 6.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b2e121ac1ba0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeBinarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the IterativeBinarySearch class.
+ */
+class IterativeBinarySearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for basic binary search functionality when the element is found.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchFound() {
+        IterativeBinarySearch binarySearch = new IterativeBinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512};
+        Integer key = 128;
+        int expectedIndex = 7; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 7.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search when the element is not present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchNotFound() {
+        IterativeBinarySearch binarySearch = new IterativeBinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        Integer key = 6; // Element not present in the array
+        assertEquals(-1, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with the first element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchFirstElement() {
+        IterativeBinarySearch binarySearch = new IterativeBinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        Integer key = 1; // First element
+        assertEquals(0, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with the last element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchLastElement() {
+        IterativeBinarySearch binarySearch = new IterativeBinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        Integer key = 16; // Last element
+        assertEquals(4, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 4.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with a single element present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchSingleElementFound() {
+        IterativeBinarySearch binarySearch = new IterativeBinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        Integer key = 1; // Only element present
+        assertEquals(0, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the single element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with a single element not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchSingleElementNotFound() {
+        IterativeBinarySearch binarySearch = new IterativeBinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        Integer key = 2; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search with an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchEmptyArray() {
+        IterativeBinarySearch binarySearch = new IterativeBinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {}; // Empty array
+        Integer key = 1; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in an empty array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search on a large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchLargeArray() {
+        IterativeBinarySearch binarySearch = new IterativeBinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[10000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i * 2;
+        } // Array from 0 to 19998, step 2
+        Integer key = 9998; // Present in the array
+        assertEquals(4999, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 4999.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for binary search on large array with a non-existent key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBinarySearchLargeArrayNotFound() {
+        IterativeBinarySearch binarySearch = new IterativeBinarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[10000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i * 2;
+        } // Array from 0 to 19998, step 2
+        Integer key = 9999; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, binarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c7640e6d0672
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/IterativeTernarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the IterativeTernarySearch class.
+ */
+class IterativeTernarySearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for basic ternary search functionality when the element is found.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTernarySearchFound() {
+        IterativeTernarySearch ternarySearch = new IterativeTernarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512};
+        Integer key = 128;
+        int expectedIndex = 7; // Index of the key in the array
+        assertEquals(expectedIndex, ternarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 7.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for ternary search when the element is not present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTernarySearchNotFound() {
+        IterativeTernarySearch ternarySearch = new IterativeTernarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        Integer key = 6; // Element not present in the array
+        assertEquals(-1, ternarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for ternary search with the first element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTernarySearchFirstElement() {
+        IterativeTernarySearch ternarySearch = new IterativeTernarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        Integer key = 1; // First element
+        assertEquals(0, ternarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for ternary search with the last element as the key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTernarySearchLastElement() {
+        IterativeTernarySearch ternarySearch = new IterativeTernarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16};
+        Integer key = 16; // Last element
+        assertEquals(4, ternarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 4.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for ternary search with a single element present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTernarySearchSingleElementFound() {
+        IterativeTernarySearch ternarySearch = new IterativeTernarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        Integer key = 1; // Only element present
+        assertEquals(0, ternarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the single element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for ternary search with a single element not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTernarySearchSingleElementNotFound() {
+        IterativeTernarySearch ternarySearch = new IterativeTernarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        Integer key = 2; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, ternarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for ternary search with an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTernarySearchEmptyArray() {
+        IterativeTernarySearch ternarySearch = new IterativeTernarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = {}; // Empty array
+        Integer key = 1; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, ternarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in an empty array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for ternary search on a large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTernarySearchLargeArray() {
+        IterativeTernarySearch ternarySearch = new IterativeTernarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[10000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i * 2;
+        } // Array from 0 to 19998, step 2
+        Integer key = 9998; // Present in the array
+        assertEquals(4999, ternarySearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 4999.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for ternary search on large array with a non-existent key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testTernarySearchLargeArrayNotFound() {
+        IterativeTernarySearch ternarySearch = new IterativeTernarySearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[10000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i * 2;
+        } // Array from 0 to 19998, step 2
+        Integer key = 9999; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, ternarySearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3fa319b66a41
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/JumpSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the JumpSearch class.
+ */
+class JumpSearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testJumpSearchFound() {
+        JumpSearch jumpSearch = new JumpSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 5; // Element to find
+        assertEquals(5, jumpSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 5.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding the first element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testJumpSearchFirstElement() {
+        JumpSearch jumpSearch = new JumpSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 0; // First element
+        assertEquals(0, jumpSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding the last element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testJumpSearchLastElement() {
+        JumpSearch jumpSearch = new JumpSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 10; // Last element
+        assertEquals(10, jumpSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 10.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element not present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testJumpSearchNotFound() {
+        JumpSearch jumpSearch = new JumpSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = -1; // Element not in the array
+        assertEquals(-1, jumpSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testJumpSearchEmptyArray() {
+        JumpSearch jumpSearch = new JumpSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {}; // Empty array
+        Integer key = 1; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, jumpSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in an empty array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in a large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testJumpSearchLargeArray() {
+        JumpSearch jumpSearch = new JumpSearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[1000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i * 2; // Fill the array with even numbers
+        }
+        Integer key = 256; // Present in the array
+        assertEquals(128, jumpSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 128.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in a large array when it is not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testJumpSearchLargeArrayNotFound() {
+        JumpSearch jumpSearch = new JumpSearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[1000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i * 2; // Fill the array with even numbers
+        }
+        Integer key = 999; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, jumpSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..cb804ac6a6a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class KMPSearchTest {
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void kmpSearchTestLast() {
+        String txt = "ABABDABACDABABCABAB";
+        String pat = "ABABCABAB";
+        KMPSearch kmpSearch = new KMPSearch();
+        int value = kmpSearch.kmpSearch(pat, txt);
+        System.out.println(value);
+        assertEquals(value, 10);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void kmpSearchTestFront() {
+        String txt = "AAAAABAAABA";
+        String pat = "AAAA";
+        KMPSearch kmpSearch = new KMPSearch();
+        int value = kmpSearch.kmpSearch(pat, txt);
+        System.out.println(value);
+        assertEquals(value, 0);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void kmpSearchTestMiddle() {
+        String txt = "AAACAAAAAC";
+        String pat = "AAAA";
+        KMPSearch kmpSearch = new KMPSearch();
+        int value = kmpSearch.kmpSearch(pat, txt);
+        System.out.println(value);
+        assertEquals(value, 4);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void kmpSearchTestNotFound() {
+        String txt = "AAABAAAA";
+        String pat = "AAAA";
+        KMPSearch kmpSearch = new KMPSearch();
+        int value = kmpSearch.kmpSearch(pat, txt);
+        System.out.println(value);
+        assertEquals(value, 4);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // not valid test case
+    public void kmpSearchTest4() {
+        String txt = "AABAAA";
+        String pat = "AAAA";
+        KMPSearch kmpSearch = new KMPSearch();
+        int value = kmpSearch.kmpSearch(pat, txt);
+        System.out.println(value);
+        assertEquals(value, -1);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5c09dec6d578
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the LinearSearch class.
+ */
+class LinearSearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLinearSearchFound() {
+        LinearSearch linearSearch = new LinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 5; // Element to find
+        assertEquals(5, linearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 5.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding the first element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLinearSearchFirstElement() {
+        LinearSearch linearSearch = new LinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 0; // First element
+        assertEquals(0, linearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding the last element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLinearSearchLastElement() {
+        LinearSearch linearSearch = new LinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 10; // Last element
+        assertEquals(10, linearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 10.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element not present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLinearSearchNotFound() {
+        LinearSearch linearSearch = new LinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = -1; // Element not in the array
+        assertEquals(-1, linearSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLinearSearchEmptyArray() {
+        LinearSearch linearSearch = new LinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {}; // Empty array
+        Integer key = 1; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, linearSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in an empty array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in a large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLinearSearchLargeArray() {
+        LinearSearch linearSearch = new LinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[1000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i; // Fill the array with integers 0 to 999
+        }
+        Integer key = 256; // Present in the array
+        assertEquals(256, linearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 256.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in a large array when it is not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLinearSearchLargeArrayNotFound() {
+        LinearSearch linearSearch = new LinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[1000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i; // Fill the array with integers 0 to 999
+        }
+        Integer key = 1001; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, linearSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding multiple occurrences of the same element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLinearSearchMultipleOccurrences() {
+        LinearSearch linearSearch = new LinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 6, 7, 3}; // 3 occurs multiple times
+        Integer key = 3; // Key to find
+        assertEquals(2, linearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first occurrence of the element should be 2.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for performance with random large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLinearSearchRandomArray() {
+        LinearSearch linearSearch = new LinearSearch();
+        Random random = new Random();
+        Integer[] array = random.ints(0, 1000).distinct().limit(1000).boxed().toArray(Integer[] ::new);
+        Integer key = array[random.nextInt(array.length)]; // Key should be in the array
+        assertEquals(java.util.Arrays.asList(array).indexOf(key), linearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should match.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThreadTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThreadTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..534c2a4487b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearchThreadTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LinearSearchThreadTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element that is present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSearcherFound() throws InterruptedException {
+        int[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Searcher searcher = new Searcher(array, 0, array.length, 5);
+        searcher.start();
+        searcher.join();
+        assertTrue(searcher.getResult(), "The element 5 should be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element that is not present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSearcherNotFound() throws InterruptedException {
+        int[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Searcher searcher = new Searcher(array, 0, array.length, 11);
+        searcher.start();
+        searcher.join();
+        assertFalse(searcher.getResult(), "The element 11 should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for searching a segment of the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSearcherSegmentFound() throws InterruptedException {
+        int[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Searcher searcher = new Searcher(array, 0, 5, 3);
+        searcher.start();
+        searcher.join();
+        assertTrue(searcher.getResult(), "The element 3 should be found in the segment.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for searching an empty array segment.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSearcherEmptySegment() throws InterruptedException {
+        int[] array = {};
+        Searcher searcher = new Searcher(array, 0, 0, 1); // Empty array
+        searcher.start();
+        searcher.join();
+        assertFalse(searcher.getResult(), "The element should not be found in an empty segment.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for searching with random numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSearcherRandomNumbers() throws InterruptedException {
+        int size = 200;
+        int[] array = new int[size];
+        for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+            array[i] = (int) (Math.random() * 100);
+        }
+        int target = array[(int) (Math.random() * size)]; // Randomly select a target that is present
+        Searcher searcher = new Searcher(array, 0, size, target);
+        searcher.start();
+        searcher.join();
+        assertTrue(searcher.getResult(), "The randomly selected target should be found in the array.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBoundTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBoundTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..30f4a5cb257c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBoundTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class LowerBoundTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test finding the lower bound for an element present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLowerBoundElementPresent() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        LowerBound lowerBound = new LowerBound();
+
+        // Test for a value that is present
+        assertEquals(2, lowerBound.find(array, 3), "Lower bound for 3 should be at index 2");
+        assertEquals(0, lowerBound.find(array, 1), "Lower bound for 1 should be at index 0");
+        assertEquals(4, lowerBound.find(array, 5), "Lower bound for 5 should be at index 4");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test finding the lower bound for a value greater than the maximum element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLowerBoundElementGreaterThanMax() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        LowerBound lowerBound = new LowerBound();
+
+        // Test for a value greater than the maximum
+        assertEquals(4, lowerBound.find(array, 6), "Lower bound for 6 should be at index 4");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test finding the lower bound for a value less than the minimum element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLowerBoundElementLessThanMin() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        LowerBound lowerBound = new LowerBound();
+
+        // Test for a value less than the minimum
+        assertEquals(0, lowerBound.find(array, 0), "Lower bound for 0 should be at index 0");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test finding the lower bound for a non-existent value that falls between two elements.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testLowerBoundNonExistentValue() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        LowerBound lowerBound = new LowerBound();
+
+        // Test for a value that is not present
+        assertEquals(4, lowerBound.find(array, 7), "Lower bound for 7 should be at index 4");
+        assertEquals(0, lowerBound.find(array, 0), "Lower bound for 0 should be at index 0");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..69c958f67a40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MonteCarloTreeSearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test the creation of a node and its initial state.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testNodeCreation() {
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node node = new MonteCarloTreeSearch().new Node(null, true);
+        assertNotNull(node, "Node should be created");
+        assertTrue(node.childNodes.isEmpty(), "Child nodes should be empty upon creation");
+        assertTrue(node.isPlayersTurn, "Initial turn should be player's turn");
+        assertEquals(0, node.score, "Initial score should be zero");
+        assertEquals(0, node.visitCount, "Initial visit count should be zero");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test adding child nodes to a parent node.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testAddChildNodes() {
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch mcts = new MonteCarloTreeSearch();
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node parentNode = mcts.new Node(null, true);
+
+        mcts.addChildNodes(parentNode, 5);
+
+        assertEquals(5, parentNode.childNodes.size(), "Parent should have 5 child nodes");
+        for (MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node child : parentNode.childNodes) {
+            assertFalse(child.isPlayersTurn, "Child node should not be player's turn");
+            assertEquals(0, child.visitCount, "Child node visit count should be zero");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the UCT selection of a promising node.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGetPromisingNode() {
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch mcts = new MonteCarloTreeSearch();
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node parentNode = mcts.new Node(null, true);
+
+        // Create child nodes with different visit counts and scores
+        for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
+            MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node child = mcts.new Node(parentNode, false);
+            child.visitCount = i + 1;
+            child.score = i * 2;
+            parentNode.childNodes.add(child);
+        }
+
+        // Get promising node
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node promisingNode = mcts.getPromisingNode(parentNode);
+
+        // The child with the highest UCT value should be chosen.
+        assertNotNull(promisingNode, "Promising node should not be null");
+        assertEquals(0, parentNode.childNodes.indexOf(promisingNode), "The first child should be the most promising");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test simulation of random play and backpropagation.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSimulateRandomPlay() {
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch mcts = new MonteCarloTreeSearch();
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node node = mcts.new Node(null, true);
+        node.visitCount = 10; // Simulating existing visits
+
+        // Simulate random play
+        mcts.simulateRandomPlay(node);
+
+        // Check visit count after simulation
+        assertEquals(11, node.visitCount, "Visit count should increase after simulation");
+
+        // Check if score is updated correctly
+        assertTrue(node.score >= 0 && node.score <= MonteCarloTreeSearch.WIN_SCORE, "Score should be between 0 and WIN_SCORE");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test retrieving the winning node based on scores.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testGetWinnerNode() {
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch mcts = new MonteCarloTreeSearch();
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node parentNode = mcts.new Node(null, true);
+
+        // Create child nodes with varying scores
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node winningNode = mcts.new Node(parentNode, false);
+        winningNode.score = 10; // Highest score
+        parentNode.childNodes.add(winningNode);
+
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node losingNode = mcts.new Node(parentNode, false);
+        losingNode.score = 5;
+        parentNode.childNodes.add(losingNode);
+
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node anotherLosingNode = mcts.new Node(parentNode, false);
+        anotherLosingNode.score = 3;
+        parentNode.childNodes.add(anotherLosingNode);
+
+        // Get the winning node
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node winnerNode = mcts.getWinnerNode(parentNode);
+
+        assertEquals(winningNode, winnerNode, "Winning node should have the highest score");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test the full Monte Carlo Tree Search process.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMonteCarloTreeSearch() {
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch mcts = new MonteCarloTreeSearch();
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node rootNode = mcts.new Node(null, true);
+
+        // Execute MCTS and check the resulting node
+        MonteCarloTreeSearch.Node optimalNode = mcts.monteCarloTreeSearch(rootNode);
+
+        assertNotNull(optimalNode, "MCTS should return a non-null optimal node");
+        assertTrue(rootNode.childNodes.contains(optimalNode), "Optimal node should be a child of the root");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/OrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/OrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..03502eec00d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/OrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class OrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest {
+    @Test
+    // valid Test Case
+    public void elementInMiddle() {
+        int[] arr = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
+        int answer = OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.binSearchAlgo(arr, 0, arr.length - 1, 30);
+        System.out.println(answer);
+        int expected = 2;
+        assertEquals(expected, answer);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid Test Case
+    public void rightHalfDescOrder() {
+        int[] arr = {50, 40, 30, 20, 10};
+        int answer = OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.binSearchAlgo(arr, 0, arr.length - 1, 10);
+        System.out.println(answer);
+        int expected = 4;
+        assertEquals(expected, answer);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void leftHalfDescOrder() {
+        int[] arr = {50, 40, 30, 20, 10};
+        int answer = OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.binSearchAlgo(arr, 0, arr.length - 1, 50);
+        System.out.println(answer);
+        int expected = 0;
+        assertEquals(expected, answer);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void rightHalfAscOrder() {
+        int[] arr = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
+        int answer = OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.binSearchAlgo(arr, 0, arr.length - 1, 50);
+        System.out.println(answer);
+        int expected = 4;
+        assertEquals(expected, answer);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void leftHalfAscOrder() {
+        int[] arr = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
+        int answer = OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.binSearchAlgo(arr, 0, arr.length - 1, 10);
+        System.out.println(answer);
+        int expected = 0;
+        assertEquals(expected, answer);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    // valid test case
+    public void elementNotFound() {
+        int[] arr = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
+        int answer = OrderAgnosticBinarySearch.binSearchAlgo(arr, 0, arr.length - 1, 100);
+        System.out.println(answer);
+        int expected = -1;
+        assertEquals(expected, answer);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6eab20f45467
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/PerfectBinarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author D Sunil (https://github.com/sunilnitdgp)
+ * @see PerfectBinarySearch
+ */
+public class PerfectBinarySearchTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIntegerBinarySearch() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        PerfectBinarySearch<Integer> binarySearch = new PerfectBinarySearch<>();
+
+        // Test cases for elements present in the array
+        assertEquals(0, binarySearch.find(array, 1)); // First element
+        assertEquals(4, binarySearch.find(array, 5)); // Middle element
+        assertEquals(9, binarySearch.find(array, 10)); // Last element
+        assertEquals(6, binarySearch.find(array, 7)); // Element in the middle
+
+        // Test cases for elements not in the array
+        assertEquals(-1, binarySearch.find(array, 0)); // Element before the array
+        assertEquals(-1, binarySearch.find(array, 11)); // Element after the array
+        assertEquals(-1, binarySearch.find(array, 100)); // Element not in the array
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStringBinarySearch() {
+        String[] array = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "date", "fig"};
+        PerfectBinarySearch<String> binarySearch = new PerfectBinarySearch<>();
+
+        // Test cases for elements not in the array
+        assertEquals(-1, binarySearch.find(array, "apricot")); // Element not in the array
+        assertEquals(-1, binarySearch.find(array, "bananaa")); // Element not in the array
+
+        // Test cases for elements present in the array
+        assertEquals(0, binarySearch.find(array, "apple")); // First element
+        assertEquals(2, binarySearch.find(array, "cherry")); // Middle element
+        assertEquals(4, binarySearch.find(array, "fig")); // Last element
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelectTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelectTest.java
index 588b20f54545..cf160b0ff4b5 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelectTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/QuickSelectTest.java
@@ -1,13 +1,19 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.searches;
 
-import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
-
-import java.util.*;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Random;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
-
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 class QuickSelectTest {
+
     @Test
     void quickSelectMinimumOfOneElement() {
         List<Integer> elements = Collections.singletonList(42);
@@ -180,10 +186,7 @@ void quickSelectMedianOfManyCharacters() {
 
     @Test
     void quickSelectNullList() {
-        NullPointerException exception = assertThrows(
-                NullPointerException.class,
-                () -> QuickSelect.select(null, 0)
-        );
+        NullPointerException exception = assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> QuickSelect.select(null, 0));
         String expectedMsg = "The list of elements must not be null.";
         assertEquals(expectedMsg, exception.getMessage());
     }
@@ -191,30 +194,21 @@ void quickSelectNullList() {
     @Test
     void quickSelectEmptyList() {
         List<String> objects = Collections.emptyList();
-        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(
-                IllegalArgumentException.class,
-                () -> QuickSelect.select(objects, 0)
-        );
+        IllegalArgumentException exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> QuickSelect.select(objects, 0));
         String expectedMsg = "The list of elements must not be empty.";
         assertEquals(expectedMsg, exception.getMessage());
     }
 
     @Test
     void quickSelectIndexOutOfLeftBound() {
-        IndexOutOfBoundsException exception = assertThrows(
-                IndexOutOfBoundsException.class,
-                () -> QuickSelect.select(Collections.singletonList(1), -1)
-        );
+        IndexOutOfBoundsException exception = assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> QuickSelect.select(Collections.singletonList(1), -1));
         String expectedMsg = "The index must not be negative.";
         assertEquals(expectedMsg, exception.getMessage());
     }
 
     @Test
     void quickSelectIndexOutOfRightBound() {
-        IndexOutOfBoundsException exception = assertThrows(
-                IndexOutOfBoundsException.class,
-                () -> QuickSelect.select(Collections.singletonList(1), 1)
-        );
+        IndexOutOfBoundsException exception = assertThrows(IndexOutOfBoundsException.class, () -> QuickSelect.select(Collections.singletonList(1), 1));
         String expectedMsg = "The index must be less than the number of elements.";
         assertEquals(expectedMsg, exception.getMessage());
     }
@@ -229,12 +223,10 @@ private static List<Integer> generateRandomIntegers(int n) {
     }
 
     private static List<Character> generateRandomCharacters(int n) {
-        return RANDOM.ints(n, ASCII_A, ASCII_Z)
-                .mapToObj(i -> (char) i)
-                .collect(Collectors.toList());
+        return RANDOM.ints(n, ASCII_A, ASCII_Z).mapToObj(i -> (char) i).collect(Collectors.toList());
     }
 
-    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> List<T> getSortedCopyOfList(List<T> list) {
+    private static <T extends Comparable<T>> List<T> getSortedCopyOfList(Collection<T> list) {
         return list.stream().sorted().collect(Collectors.toList());
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..40e1acce9c3a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class RabinKarpAlgorithmTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"This is an example for rabin karp algorithmn, algorithmn, 101", "AAABBDDG, AAA, 137", "AAABBCCBB, BBCC, 101", "AAABBCCBB, BBCC, 131", "AAAABBBBCCC, CCC, 41", "ABCBCBCAAB, AADB, 293", "Algorithm The Algorithm, Algorithm, 101"})
+    void rabinKarpAlgorithmTestExample(String txt, String pat, int q) {
+        int indexFromOurAlgorithm = RabinKarpAlgorithm.search(pat, txt, q);
+        int indexFromLinearSearch = txt.indexOf(pat);
+        assertEquals(indexFromOurAlgorithm, indexFromLinearSearch);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RandomSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RandomSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0a1dbeafd888
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RandomSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class RandomSearchTest {
+
+    private RandomSearch randomSearch;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        randomSearch = new RandomSearch();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testElementFound() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 5;
+        int index = randomSearch.find(array, key);
+
+        assertNotEquals(-1, index, "Element should be found in the array.");
+        assertEquals(key, array[index], "Element found should match the key.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testElementNotFound() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 11;
+        int index = randomSearch.find(array, key);
+
+        assertEquals(-1, index, "Element not present in the array should return -1.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyArray() {
+        Integer[] emptyArray = {};
+        Integer key = 5;
+        int index = randomSearch.find(emptyArray, key);
+
+        assertEquals(-1, index, "Searching in an empty array should return -1.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementArrayFound() {
+        Integer[] array = {5};
+        Integer key = 5;
+        int index = randomSearch.find(array, key);
+
+        assertEquals(0, index, "The key should be found at index 0 in a single-element array.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementArrayNotFound() {
+        Integer[] array = {1};
+        Integer key = 5;
+        int index = randomSearch.find(array, key);
+
+        assertEquals(-1, index, "The key should not be found in a single-element array if it does not match.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDuplicateElementsFound() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 5;
+        int index = randomSearch.find(array, key);
+
+        assertNotEquals(-1, index, "The key should be found in the array with duplicates.");
+        assertEquals(key, array[index], "The key found should be 5.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeArray() {
+        Integer[] largeArray = new Integer[1000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < largeArray.length; i++) {
+            largeArray[i] = i + 1; // Fill with values 1 to 1000
+        }
+
+        Integer key = 500;
+        int index = randomSearch.find(largeArray, key);
+
+        assertNotEquals(-1, index, "The key should be found in the large array.");
+        assertEquals(key, largeArray[index], "The key found should match 500.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RecursiveBinarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RecursiveBinarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0a2794f9e8d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RecursiveBinarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+// Created by Pronay Debnath
+// Date:- 1/10/2023
+// Test file updated with JUnit tests
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test; // Import the JUnit 5 Test annotation
+
+public class RecursiveBinarySearchTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBinarySearch() {
+        // Create an instance of GenericBinarySearch
+        RecursiveBinarySearch<Integer> searcher = new RecursiveBinarySearch<>();
+
+        // Test case 1: Element found in the array
+        Integer[] arr1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int target1 = 3;
+        int result1 = searcher.binsear(arr1, 0, arr1.length - 1, target1);
+        assertEquals(2, result1);
+
+        // Test case 2: Element not found in the array
+        Integer[] arr2 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int target2 = 6;
+        int result2 = searcher.binsear(arr2, 0, arr2.length - 1, target2);
+        assertEquals(-1, result2);
+
+        // Test case 3: Element found at the beginning of the array
+        Integer[] arr3 = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
+        int target3 = 10;
+        int result3 = searcher.binsear(arr3, 0, arr3.length - 1, target3);
+        assertEquals(0, result3);
+
+        // Test case 4: Element found at the end of the array
+        Integer[] arr4 = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
+        int target4 = 50;
+        int result4 = searcher.binsear(arr4, 0, arr4.length - 1, target4);
+        assertEquals(4, result4);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8d1423cbeeb0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,240 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestMiddle() {
+        Integer[][] arr = {
+            {10, 20, 30, 40},
+            {15, 25, 35, 45},
+            {18, 28, 38, 48},
+            {21, 31, 41, 51},
+        };
+        Integer target = 35;
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(arr, target);
+        int[] expected = {1, 2};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestSide() {
+        Integer[][] arr = {
+            {10, 20, 30, 40},
+            {15, 25, 35, 45},
+            {18, 28, 38, 48},
+            {21, 31, 41, 51},
+        };
+        Integer target = 48;
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(arr, target);
+        int[] expected = {2, 3};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestUpper() {
+        Integer[][] arr = {
+            {10, 20, 30, 40},
+            {15, 25, 35, 45},
+            {18, 28, 38, 48},
+            {21, 31, 41, 51},
+        };
+        Integer target = 20;
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(arr, target);
+        int[] expected = {0, 1};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestUpperSide() {
+        Integer[][] arr = {
+            {10, 20, 30, 40},
+            {15, 25, 35, 45},
+            {18, 28, 38, 48},
+            {21, 31, 41, 51},
+        };
+        Integer target = 40;
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(arr, target);
+        int[] expected = {0, 3};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestLower() {
+        Integer[][] arr = {
+            {10, 20, 30, 40},
+            {15, 25, 35, 45},
+            {18, 28, 38, 48},
+            {21, 31, 41, 51},
+        };
+        Integer target = 31;
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(arr, target);
+        int[] expected = {3, 1};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestLowerSide() {
+        Integer[][] arr = {
+            {10, 20, 30, 40},
+            {15, 25, 35, 45},
+            {18, 28, 38, 48},
+            {21, 31, 41, 51},
+        };
+        Integer target = 51;
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(arr, target);
+        int[] expected = {3, 3};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestNotFound() {
+        Integer[][] arr = {
+            {10, 20, 30, 40},
+            {15, 25, 35, 45},
+            {18, 28, 38, 48},
+            {21, 31, 41, 51},
+        };
+        Integer target = 101;
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(arr, target);
+        int[] expected = {-1, -1};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests for a WIDE rectangular matrix (3 rows, 4 columns)
+     */
+    private static final Integer[][] WIDE_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX = {
+        {10, 20, 30, 40},
+        {15, 25, 35, 45},
+        {18, 28, 38, 48},
+    };
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestWideMatrixMiddle() {
+        Integer target = 25; // A value in the middle
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(WIDE_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {1, 1};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestWideMatrixTopRightCorner() {
+        Integer target = 40; // The top-right corner element
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(WIDE_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {0, 3};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestWideMatrixBottomLeftCorner() {
+        Integer target = 18; // The bottom-left corner element
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(WIDE_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {2, 0};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestWideMatrixTopLeftCorner() {
+        Integer target = 10; // The top-left corner element
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(WIDE_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {0, 0};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestWideMatrixBottomRightCorner() {
+        Integer target = 48; // The bottom-right corner element
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(WIDE_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {2, 3};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestWideMatrixNotFound() {
+        Integer target = 99; // A value that does not exist
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(WIDE_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {-1, -1};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests for a TALL rectangular matrix (4 rows, 3 columns)
+     */
+    private static final Integer[][] TALL_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX = {
+        {10, 20, 30},
+        {15, 25, 35},
+        {18, 28, 38},
+        {21, 31, 41},
+    };
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestTallMatrixMiddle() {
+        Integer target = 28; // A value in the middle
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(TALL_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {2, 1};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestTallMatrixTopRightCorner() {
+        Integer target = 30; // The top-right corner element
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(TALL_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {0, 2};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestTallMatrixBottomLeftCorner() {
+        Integer target = 21; // The bottom-left corner element
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(TALL_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {3, 0};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestTallMatrixTopLeftCorner() {
+        Integer target = 10; // The top-left corner element
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(TALL_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {0, 0};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestTallMatrixBottomRightCorner() {
+        Integer target = 41; // The bottom-right corner element
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(TALL_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {3, 2};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void rowColumnSorted2dArrayBinarySearchTestTallMatrixNotFound() {
+        Integer target = 5; // A value that does not exist
+        int[] ans = RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.search(TALL_RECTANGULAR_MATRIX, target);
+        int[] expected = {-1, -1};
+        assertEquals(expected[0], ans[0]);
+        assertEquals(expected[1], ans[1]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ec22cbf38152
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SaddlebackSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SaddlebackSearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for an element that exists in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFindElementExists() {
+        int[][] arr = {{-10, -5, -3, 4, 9}, {-6, -2, 0, 5, 10}, {-4, -1, 1, 6, 12}, {2, 3, 7, 8, 13}, {100, 120, 130, 140, 150}};
+
+        int[] result = SaddlebackSearch.find(arr, arr.length - 1, 0, 4);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0, 3}, result, "Element 4 should be found at (0, 3)");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for an element that does not exist in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFindElementNotExists() {
+        int[][] arr = {{-10, -5, -3, 4, 9}, {-6, -2, 0, 5, 10}, {-4, -1, 1, 6, 12}, {2, 3, 7, 8, 13}, {100, 120, 130, 140, 150}};
+
+        int[] result = SaddlebackSearch.find(arr, arr.length - 1, 0, 1000);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {-1, -1}, result, "Element 1000 should not be found");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for the smallest element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFindSmallestElement() {
+        int[][] arr = {{-10, -5, -3, 4, 9}, {-6, -2, 0, 5, 10}, {-4, -1, 1, 6, 12}, {2, 3, 7, 8, 13}, {100, 120, 130, 140, 150}};
+
+        int[] result = SaddlebackSearch.find(arr, arr.length - 1, 0, -10);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0, 0}, result, "Element -10 should be found at (0, 0)");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for the largest element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFindLargestElement() {
+        int[][] arr = {{-10, -5, -3, 4, 9}, {-6, -2, 0, 5, 10}, {-4, -1, 1, 6, 12}, {2, 3, 7, 8, 13}, {100, 120, 130, 140, 150}};
+
+        int[] result = SaddlebackSearch.find(arr, arr.length - 1, 0, 150);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {4, 4}, result, "Element 150 should be found at (4, 4)");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching in an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFindInEmptyArray() {
+        int[][] arr = {};
+
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> { SaddlebackSearch.find(arr, 0, 0, 4); });
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching in a single element array that matches the search key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFindSingleElementExists() {
+        int[][] arr = {{5}};
+
+        int[] result = SaddlebackSearch.find(arr, 0, 0, 5);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0, 0}, result, "Element 5 should be found at (0, 0)");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching in a single element array that does not match the search key.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testFindSingleElementNotExists() {
+        int[][] arr = {{5}};
+
+        int[] result = SaddlebackSearch.find(arr, 0, 0, 10);
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {-1, -1}, result, "Element 10 should not be found in single element array");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..88227804b775
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrixTest {
+
+    private final SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix searcher = new SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix();
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchValueExistsInMatrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{10, 20, 30, 40}, {15, 25, 35, 45}, {27, 29, 37, 48}, {32, 33, 39, 50}};
+        int value = 29;
+        int[] expected = {2, 1}; // Row 2, Column 1
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, searcher.search(matrix, value), "Value should be found in the matrix");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchValueNotExistsInMatrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{10, 20, 30, 40}, {15, 25, 35, 45}, {27, 29, 37, 48}, {32, 33, 39, 50}};
+        int value = 100;
+        int[] expected = {-1, -1}; // Not found
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, searcher.search(matrix, value), "Value should not be found in the matrix");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchInEmptyMatrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {};
+        int value = 5;
+        int[] expected = {-1, -1}; // Not found
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, searcher.search(matrix, value), "Should return {-1, -1} for empty matrix");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchInSingleElementMatrixFound() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{5}};
+        int value = 5;
+        int[] expected = {0, 0}; // Found at (0,0)
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, searcher.search(matrix, value), "Value should be found in single element matrix");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchInSingleElementMatrixNotFound() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{10}};
+        int value = 5;
+        int[] expected = {-1, -1}; // Not found
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, searcher.search(matrix, value), "Should return {-1, -1} for value not found in single element matrix");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchInRowWiseSortedMatrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}};
+        int value = 6;
+        int[] expected = {1, 2}; // Found at (1, 2)
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, searcher.search(matrix, value), "Value should be found in the row-wise sorted matrix");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSearchInColWiseSortedMatrix() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{1, 4, 7}, {2, 5, 8}, {3, 6, 9}};
+        int value = 5;
+        int[] expected = {1, 1}; // Found at (1, 1)
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, searcher.search(matrix, value), "Value should be found in the column-wise sorted matrix");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SentinelLinearSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SentinelLinearSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0da8e1c83997
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SentinelLinearSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,225 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the SentinelLinearSearch class.
+ */
+class SentinelLinearSearchTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchFound() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 5; // Element to find
+        assertEquals(5, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 5.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding the first element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchFirstElement() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 0; // First element
+        assertEquals(0, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first element should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding the last element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchLastElement() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = 10; // Last element
+        assertEquals(10, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the last element should be 10.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element not present in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchNotFound() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        Integer key = -1; // Element not in the array
+        assertEquals(-1, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in an empty array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchEmptyArray() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {}; // Empty array
+        Integer key = 1; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in an empty array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in a single-element array when present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchSingleElementFound() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {42}; // Single element array
+        Integer key = 42; // Element present
+        assertEquals(0, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The element should be found at index 0.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in a single-element array when not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchSingleElementNotFound() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {42}; // Single element array
+        Integer key = 24; // Element not present
+        assertEquals(-1, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding multiple occurrences of the same element in the array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchMultipleOccurrences() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 6, 7, 3}; // 3 occurs multiple times
+        Integer key = 3; // Key to find
+        assertEquals(2, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first occurrence of the element should be 2.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in a large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchLargeArray() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[1000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i; // Fill the array with integers 0 to 999
+        }
+        Integer key = 256; // Present in the array
+        assertEquals(256, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should be 256.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for finding an element in a large array when it is not present.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchLargeArrayNotFound() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[1000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            array[i] = i; // Fill the array with integers 0 to 999
+        }
+        Integer key = 1001; // Key not present
+        assertEquals(-1, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The element should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for performance with random large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchRandomArray() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Random random = new Random();
+        Integer[] array = random.ints(0, 1000).distinct().limit(1000).boxed().toArray(Integer[] ::new);
+        Integer key = array[random.nextInt(array.length)]; // Key should be in the array
+        assertEquals(java.util.Arrays.asList(array).indexOf(key), sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the found element should match.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for handling null array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchNullArray() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = null; // Null array
+        Integer key = 1; // Any key
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "Should throw IllegalArgumentException for null array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for handling null key in array with null elements.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchNullKey() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, null, 3, 4, null}; // Array with null elements
+        Integer key = null; // Null key
+        assertEquals(1, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of the first null element should be 1.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for handling null key when not present in array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchNullKeyNotFound() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; // Array without null elements
+        Integer key = null; // Null key
+        assertEquals(-1, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "Null key should not be found in array without null elements.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with String array to verify generic functionality.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchStringArray() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        String[] array = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "date", "elderberry"};
+        String key = "cherry"; // Element to find
+        assertEquals(2, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The index of 'cherry' should be 2.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test with String array when element not found.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchStringArrayNotFound() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        String[] array = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "date", "elderberry"};
+        String key = "grape"; // Element not in array
+        assertEquals(-1, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "The element 'grape' should not be found in the array.");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test that the original array is not modified after search.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchArrayIntegrity() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        Integer[] originalArray = array.clone(); // Keep a copy of the original
+        Integer key = 3; // Element to find
+
+        sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key);
+
+        // Verify array is unchanged
+        for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
+            assertEquals(originalArray[i], array[i], "Array should remain unchanged after search.");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test edge case where the key is the same as the last element.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSentinelLinearSearchKeyEqualsLastElement() {
+        SentinelLinearSearch sentinelLinearSearch = new SentinelLinearSearch();
+        Integer[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3}; // Last element is 3, and 3 also appears earlier
+        Integer key = 3; // Key equals last element
+        assertEquals(2, sentinelLinearSearch.find(array, key), "Should find the first occurrence at index 2, not the last.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e2917733d1d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearchTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testAscending() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; // for ascending order.
+        int target = 2;
+        int ans = SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearch.find(arr, target);
+        int excepted = 1;
+        assertEquals(excepted, ans);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDescending() {
+        int[] arr = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}; // for descending order.
+        int target = 2;
+        int ans = SortOrderAgnosticBinarySearch.find(arr, target);
+        int excepted = 3;
+        assertEquals(excepted, ans);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f23f4ee83fc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SquareRootBinarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SquareRootBinarySearchTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testPerfectSquare() {
+        long input = 16;
+        long expected = 4;
+        assertEquals(expected, SquareRootBinarySearch.squareRoot(input), "Square root of 16 should be 4");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNonPerfectSquare() {
+        long input = 15;
+        long expected = 3;
+        assertEquals(expected, SquareRootBinarySearch.squareRoot(input), "Square root of 15 should be 3");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testZero() {
+        long input = 0;
+        long expected = 0;
+        assertEquals(expected, SquareRootBinarySearch.squareRoot(input), "Square root of 0 should be 0");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testOne() {
+        long input = 1;
+        long expected = 1;
+        assertEquals(expected, SquareRootBinarySearch.squareRoot(input), "Square root of 1 should be 1");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeNumberPerfectSquare() {
+        long input = 1000000;
+        long expected = 1000;
+        assertEquals(expected, SquareRootBinarySearch.squareRoot(input), "Square root of 1000000 should be 1000");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testLargeNumberNonPerfectSquare() {
+        long input = 999999;
+        long expected = 999;
+        assertEquals(expected, SquareRootBinarySearch.squareRoot(input), "Square root of 999999 should be 999");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeInput() {
+        long input = -4;
+        long expected = 0; // Assuming the implementation should return 0 for negative input
+        assertEquals(expected, SquareRootBinarySearch.squareRoot(input), "Square root of negative number should return 0");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..367b595e55d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class TernarySearchTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindElementInSortedArray() {
+        Integer[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        TernarySearch search = new TernarySearch();
+
+        int index = search.find(arr, 5);
+
+        assertEquals(4, index, "Should find the element 5 at index 4");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testElementNotFound() {
+        Integer[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        TernarySearch search = new TernarySearch();
+
+        int index = search.find(arr, 11);
+
+        assertEquals(-1, index, "Should return -1 for element 11 which is not present");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstElement() {
+        Integer[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        TernarySearch search = new TernarySearch();
+
+        int index = search.find(arr, 1);
+
+        assertEquals(0, index, "Should find the first element 1 at index 0");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindLastElement() {
+        Integer[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        TernarySearch search = new TernarySearch();
+
+        int index = search.find(arr, 10);
+
+        assertEquals(9, index, "Should find the last element 10 at index 9");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindInLargeArray() {
+        Integer[] arr = new Integer[1000];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+            arr[i] = i + 1; // Array from 1 to 1000
+        }
+        TernarySearch search = new TernarySearch();
+
+        int index = search.find(arr, 500);
+
+        assertEquals(499, index, "Should find element 500 at index 499");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeNumbers() {
+        Integer[] arr = {-10, -5, -3, -1, 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 10};
+        TernarySearch search = new TernarySearch();
+
+        int index = search.find(arr, -3);
+
+        assertEquals(2, index, "Should find the element -3 at index 2");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEdgeCaseEmptyArray() {
+        Integer[] arr = {};
+        TernarySearch search = new TernarySearch();
+
+        int index = search.find(arr, 5);
+
+        assertEquals(-1, index, "Should return -1 for an empty array");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TestSearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TestSearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a56f79670cf3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TestSearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class TestSearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix {
+    @Test
+    public void searchItem() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, {8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, {14, 15, 16, 17, 18}, {23, 24, 25, 26, 27}, {30, 31, 32, 33, 34}};
+        var test = new SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix();
+        int[] res = test.search(matrix, 16);
+        int[] expectedResult = {2, 2};
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedResult, res);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void notFound() {
+        int[][] matrix = {{3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, {8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, {14, 15, 16, 17, 18}, {23, 24, 25, 26, 27}, {30, 31, 32, 33, 34}};
+        var test = new SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix();
+        int[] res = test.search(matrix, 96);
+        int[] expectedResult = {-1, -1};
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedResult, res);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFindTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFindTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3cc025ff595c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFindTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class UnionFindTest {
+    private UnionFind uf;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        uf = new UnionFind(10); // Initialize with 10 elements
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInitialState() {
+        // Verify that each element is its own parent and rank is 0
+        assertEquals("p [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] r [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]\n", uf.toString());
+        assertEquals(10, uf.count(), "Initial count of disjoint sets should be 10.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUnionOperation() {
+        uf.union(0, 1);
+        uf.union(1, 2);
+        assertEquals(8, uf.count(), "Count should decrease after unions.");
+        assertEquals(0, uf.find(2), "Element 2 should point to root 0 after unions.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUnionWithRank() {
+        uf.union(0, 1);
+        uf.union(1, 2); // Make 0 the root of 2
+        uf.union(3, 4);
+        uf.union(4, 5); // Make 3 the root of 5
+        uf.union(0, 3); // Union two trees
+
+        assertEquals(5, uf.count(), "Count should decrease after unions.");
+        assertEquals(0, uf.find(5), "Element 5 should point to root 0 after unions.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindOperation() {
+        uf.union(2, 3);
+        uf.union(4, 5);
+        uf.union(3, 5); // Connect 2-3 and 4-5
+
+        assertEquals(2, uf.find(3), "Find operation should return the root of the set.");
+        assertEquals(2, uf.find(5), "Find operation should return the root of the set.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testCountAfterMultipleUnions() {
+        uf.union(0, 1);
+        uf.union(2, 3);
+        uf.union(4, 5);
+        uf.union(1, 3); // Connect 0-1-2-3
+        uf.union(5, 6);
+
+        assertEquals(5, uf.count(), "Count should reflect the number of disjoint sets after multiple unions.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNoUnion() {
+        assertEquals(10, uf.count(), "Count should remain 10 if no unions are made.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUnionSameSet() {
+        uf.union(1, 2);
+        uf.union(1, 2); // Union same elements again
+
+        assertEquals(9, uf.count(), "Count should not decrease if union is called on the same set.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindOnSingleElement() {
+        assertEquals(7, uf.find(7), "Find on a single element should return itself.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBoundTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBoundTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dc0cbdd97e19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBoundTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.searches;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Random;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class UpperBoundTest {
+
+    private UpperBound upperBound;
+    private Integer[] sortedArray;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        upperBound = new UpperBound();
+
+        // Generate a sorted array of random integers for testing
+        Random random = new Random();
+        int size = 100;
+        int maxElement = 100;
+        sortedArray = random.ints(size, 1, maxElement)
+                          .distinct() // Ensure all elements are unique
+                          .sorted()
+                          .boxed()
+                          .toArray(Integer[] ::new);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpperBoundFound() {
+        int key = sortedArray[sortedArray.length - 1] + 1; // Test with a key larger than max element
+        int index = upperBound.find(sortedArray, key);
+
+        // The upper bound should be equal to the length of the array
+        assertEquals(sortedArray.length - 1, index, "Upper bound for a larger key should be the size of the array.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpperBoundExactMatch() {
+        int key = sortedArray[sortedArray.length / 2]; // Choose a key from the middle of the array
+        int index = upperBound.find(sortedArray, key);
+
+        // The index should point to the first element greater than the key
+        assertTrue(index < sortedArray.length, "Upper bound should not exceed array length.");
+        assertTrue(sortedArray[index] > key, "The element at the index should be greater than the key.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpperBoundMultipleValues() {
+        Integer[] arrayWithDuplicates = new Integer[] {1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}; // Test array with duplicates
+        int key = 4;
+        int index = upperBound.find(arrayWithDuplicates, key);
+
+        assertTrue(index < arrayWithDuplicates.length, "Upper bound index should be valid.");
+        assertEquals(6, index, "The upper bound for 4 should be the index of the first 5.");
+        assertTrue(arrayWithDuplicates[index] > key, "Element at the upper bound index should be greater than the key.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpperBoundLowerThanMin() {
+        int key = 0; // Test with a key lower than the minimum element
+        int index = upperBound.find(sortedArray, key);
+
+        assertEquals(0, index, "Upper bound for a key lower than minimum should be 0.");
+        assertTrue(sortedArray[index] > key, "The element at index 0 should be greater than the key.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpperBoundHigherThanMax() {
+        int key = sortedArray[sortedArray.length - 1] + 1; // Test with a key higher than maximum element
+        int index = upperBound.find(sortedArray, key);
+
+        assertEquals(sortedArray.length - 1, index, "Upper bound for a key higher than maximum should be the size of the array.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpperBoundEdgeCase() {
+        // Edge case: empty array
+        Integer[] emptyArray = {};
+        int index = upperBound.find(emptyArray, 5);
+
+        assertEquals(0, index, "Upper bound for an empty array should be 0.");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testUpperBoundSingleElementArray() {
+        Integer[] singleElementArray = {10};
+        int index = upperBound.find(singleElementArray, 5);
+
+        assertEquals(0, index, "Upper bound for 5 in a single element array should be 0.");
+
+        index = upperBound.find(singleElementArray, 10);
+        assertEquals(0, index, "Upper bound for 10 in a single element array should be 0.");
+
+        index = upperBound.find(singleElementArray, 15);
+        assertEquals(0, index, "Upper bound for 15 in a single element array should be 0.");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToKTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToKTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..da282ab35ef3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToKTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK algorithm.
+ */
+public class LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToKTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Tests for the longest subarray with a sum less than or equal to k.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testLongestSubarrayWithSumLEK() {
+        assertEquals(3, LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.longestSubarrayWithSumLEK(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4}, 6)); // {1, 2, 3}
+        assertEquals(4, LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.longestSubarrayWithSumLEK(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4}, 10)); // {1, 2, 3, 4}
+        assertEquals(2, LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.longestSubarrayWithSumLEK(new int[] {5, 1, 2, 3}, 5)); // {5}
+        assertEquals(0, LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.longestSubarrayWithSumLEK(new int[] {1, 2, 3}, 0)); // No valid subarray
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8638a707a3e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters class.
+ *
+ * @author  (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ */
+public class LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testLengthOfLongestSubstring() {
+        // Test cases for the lengthOfLongestSubstring method
+        assertEquals(3, LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.lengthOfLongestSubstring("abcabcbb"));
+        assertEquals(1, LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.lengthOfLongestSubstring("bbbbb"));
+        assertEquals(3, LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.lengthOfLongestSubstring("pwwkew"));
+        assertEquals(0, LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.lengthOfLongestSubstring(""));
+        assertEquals(5, LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.lengthOfLongestSubstring("abcde"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..aa3c2eae3294
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the MaxSumKSizeSubarray class.
+ *
+ * @author Your Name (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ */
+class MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for the basic case of finding the maximum sum.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumKSizeSubarray() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int k = 2;
+        int expectedMaxSum = 9; // 4 + 5
+        assertEquals(expectedMaxSum, MaxSumKSizeSubarray.maxSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for a different array and subarray size.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumKSizeSubarrayWithDifferentValues() {
+        int[] arr = {2, 1, 5, 1, 3, 2};
+        int k = 3;
+        int expectedMaxSum = 9; // 5 + 1 + 3
+        assertEquals(expectedMaxSum, MaxSumKSizeSubarray.maxSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for edge case with insufficient elements.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumKSizeSubarrayWithInsufficientElements() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2};
+        int k = 3; // Not enough elements
+        int expectedMaxSum = -1; // Edge case
+        assertEquals(expectedMaxSum, MaxSumKSizeSubarray.maxSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumKSizeSubarrayWithLargeArray() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
+        int k = 5;
+        int expectedMaxSum = 40; // 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10
+        assertEquals(expectedMaxSum, MaxSumKSizeSubarray.maxSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for array with negative numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumKSizeSubarrayWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        int[] arr = {-1, -2, -3, -4, -5};
+        int k = 2;
+        int expectedMaxSum = -3; // -1 + -2
+        assertEquals(expectedMaxSum, MaxSumKSizeSubarray.maxSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for the case where k equals the array length.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSumKSizeSubarrayWithKEqualToArrayLength() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int k = 5;
+        int expectedMaxSum = 15; // 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
+        assertEquals(expectedMaxSum, MaxSumKSizeSubarray.maxSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindowTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindowTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a2d233b6063b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindowTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class MaximumSlidingWindowTest {
+
+    MaximumSlidingWindow msw;
+    int[] nums;
+    int k;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        msw = new MaximumSlidingWindow(); // Initialize the MaximumSlidingWindow object
+    }
+
+    // Test for a simple sliding window case
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSlidingWindowSimpleCase() {
+        nums = new int[] {1, 3, -1, -3, 5, 3, 6, 7};
+        k = 3;
+        int[] expected = {3, 3, 5, 5, 6, 7};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, msw.maxSlidingWindow(nums, k));
+    }
+
+    // Test when window size is 1 (output should be the array itself)
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSlidingWindowWindowSizeOne() {
+        nums = new int[] {4, 2, 12, 11, -5};
+        k = 1;
+        int[] expected = {4, 2, 12, 11, -5};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, msw.maxSlidingWindow(nums, k));
+    }
+
+    // Test when the window size is equal to the array length (output should be a single max element)
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSlidingWindowWindowSizeEqualsArrayLength() {
+        nums = new int[] {4, 2, 12, 11, -5};
+        k = nums.length;
+        int[] expected = {12}; // Maximum of the entire array
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, msw.maxSlidingWindow(nums, k));
+    }
+
+    // Test when the input array is empty
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSlidingWindowEmptyArray() {
+        nums = new int[] {};
+        k = 3;
+        int[] expected = {};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, msw.maxSlidingWindow(nums, k));
+    }
+
+    // Test when the window size is larger than the array (should return empty)
+    @Test
+    void testMaxSlidingWindowWindowSizeLargerThanArray() {
+        nums = new int[] {1, 2, 3};
+        k = 5;
+        int[] expected = {}; // Window size is too large, so no result
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, msw.maxSlidingWindow(nums, k));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4656c8baf327
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for the MinSumKSizeSubarray class.
+ *
+ * @author Rashi Dashore (https://github.com/rashi07dashore)
+ */
+class MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test for the basic case of finding the minimum sum.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMinSumKSizeSubarray() {
+        int[] arr = {2, 1, 5, 1, 3, 2};
+        int k = 3;
+        int expectedMinSum = 6; // Corrected: Minimum sum of a subarray of size 3
+        assertEquals(expectedMinSum, MinSumKSizeSubarray.minSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for a different array and subarray size.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMinSumKSizeSubarrayWithDifferentValues() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int k = 2;
+        int expectedMinSum = 3; // 1 + 2
+        assertEquals(expectedMinSum, MinSumKSizeSubarray.minSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for edge case with insufficient elements.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMinSumKSizeSubarrayWithInsufficientElements() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2};
+        int k = 3; // Not enough elements
+        int expectedMinSum = -1; // Edge case
+        assertEquals(expectedMinSum, MinSumKSizeSubarray.minSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for large array.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMinSumKSizeSubarrayWithLargeArray() {
+        int[] arr = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4};
+        int k = 5;
+        int expectedMinSum = -10; // -1 + -2 + -3 + -4 + 0
+        assertEquals(expectedMinSum, MinSumKSizeSubarray.minSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for array with negative numbers.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMinSumKSizeSubarrayWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        int[] arr = {-1, -2, -3, -4, -5};
+        int k = 2;
+        int expectedMinSum = -9; // -4 + -5
+        assertEquals(expectedMinSum, MinSumKSizeSubarray.minSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test for the case where k equals the array length.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMinSumKSizeSubarrayWithKEqualToArrayLength() {
+        int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int k = 5;
+        int expectedMinSum = 15; // 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
+        assertEquals(expectedMinSum, MinSumKSizeSubarray.minSumKSizeSubarray(arr, k));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstringTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2c1534f4bfe6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstringTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Finds the minimum window substring in {@code s} that contains all characters of {@code t}.
+ *
+ * @param s The input string to search within
+ * @param t The string with required characters
+ * @return The minimum window substring, or empty string if not found
+ * @author  (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ */
+public class MinimumWindowSubstringTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Tests for MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testMinimumWindowSubstring() {
+        assertEquals("BANC", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("ADOBECODEBANC", "ABC"));
+        assertEquals("a", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("a", "a"));
+        assertEquals("", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("a", "aa"));
+        assertEquals("", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("ADOBECODEBANC", "XYZ"));
+        assertEquals("BC", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("ABCDEF", "BC"));
+        assertEquals("q", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz", "q"));
+        assertEquals("", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("zzzzzzzzz", "zzzzzzzzzz"));
+        assertEquals("abbbbbcdd", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("aaaaaaaaaaaabbbbbcdd", "abcdd"));
+        assertEquals("ABCDEFG", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("ABCDEFG", "ABCDEFG"));
+        assertEquals("", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("abc", "A"));
+        assertEquals("A", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("aAbBcC", "A"));
+        assertEquals("AABBC", MinimumWindowSubstring.minWindow("AAABBC", "AABC"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegmentTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegmentTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..acb9e1e30ac7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegmentTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.slidingwindow;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * Unit tests for ShortestCoprimeSegment algorithm
+ *
+ * @author DomTr (<a href="https://github.com/DomTr">...</a>)
+ */
+public class ShortestCoprimeSegmentTest {
+    @Test
+    public void testShortestCoprimeSegment() {
+        assertArrayEquals(new long[] {4, 6, 9}, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {4, 6, 9, 3, 6}));
+        assertArrayEquals(new long[] {4, 5}, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {4, 5, 9, 3, 6}));
+        assertArrayEquals(new long[] {3, 2}, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {3, 2}));
+        assertArrayEquals(new long[] {9, 10}, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {3, 9, 9, 9, 10}));
+
+        long[] test5 = new long[] {3 * 11, 11 * 7, 11 * 7 * 3, 11 * 7 * 3 * 5, 11 * 7 * 3 * 5 * 13, 7 * 13, 11 * 7 * 3 * 5 * 13};
+        long[] answer5 = Arrays.copyOfRange(test5, 0, test5.length - 1);
+        assertArrayEquals(answer5, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(test5));
+
+        // Test suite, when the entire array needs to be taken
+        long[] test6 = new long[] {3 * 7, 7 * 5, 5 * 7 * 3, 3 * 5};
+        assertArrayEquals(test6, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(test6));
+
+        long[] test7 = new long[] {3 * 11, 11 * 7, 11 * 7 * 3, 3 * 7};
+        assertArrayEquals(test7, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(test7));
+
+        long[] test8 = new long[] {3 * 11, 11 * 7, 11 * 7 * 3, 11 * 7 * 3 * 5, 5 * 7};
+        assertArrayEquals(test8, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(test8));
+
+        long[] test9 = new long[] {3 * 11, 11 * 7, 11 * 7 * 3, 11 * 7 * 3 * 5, 11 * 7 * 3 * 5 * 13, 7 * 13};
+        assertArrayEquals(test9, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(test9));
+
+        long[] test10 = new long[] {3 * 11, 7 * 11, 3 * 7 * 11, 3 * 5 * 7 * 11, 3 * 5 * 7 * 11 * 13, 2 * 3 * 5 * 7 * 11 * 13, 2 * 3 * 5 * 7 * 11 * 13 * 17, 2 * 3 * 5 * 7 * 11 * 13 * 17 * 19, 2 * 3 * 5 * 7 * 11 * 13 * 17 * 19 * 23, 7 * 13};
+        assertArrayEquals(test10, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(test10));
+
+        // Segment can consist of one element
+        long[] test11 = new long[] {1};
+        assertArrayEquals(test11, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {4, 6, 1, 3, 6}));
+        long[] test12 = new long[] {1};
+        assertArrayEquals(test12, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {1}));
+    }
+    @Test
+    public void testShortestCoprimeSegment2() {
+        assertArrayEquals(new long[] {2 * 3, 2 * 3 * 5, 2 * 3 * 5 * 7, 5 * 7}, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {2 * 3, 2 * 3 * 5, 2 * 3 * 5 * 7, 5 * 7, 2 * 3 * 5 * 7}));
+        assertArrayEquals(new long[] {5 * 7, 2}, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {2 * 3, 2 * 3 * 5, 2 * 3 * 5 * 7, 5 * 7, 2}));
+        assertArrayEquals(new long[] {5 * 7, 2 * 5 * 7, 2 * 11}, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {2 * 3, 2 * 3 * 5, 2 * 3 * 5 * 7, 5 * 7, 2 * 5 * 7, 2 * 11}));
+        assertArrayEquals(new long[] {3 * 5 * 7, 2 * 3, 2}, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {2, 2 * 3, 2 * 3 * 5, 3 * 5 * 7, 2 * 3, 2}));
+    }
+    @Test
+    public void testNoCoprimeSegment() {
+        // There may not be a coprime segment
+        long[] empty = new long[] {};
+        assertArrayEquals(empty, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(null));
+        assertArrayEquals(empty, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(empty));
+        assertArrayEquals(empty, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {4, 6, 8, 12, 8}));
+        assertArrayEquals(empty, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {4, 4, 4, 4, 10, 4, 6, 8, 12, 8}));
+        assertArrayEquals(empty, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {100}));
+        assertArrayEquals(empty, ShortestCoprimeSegment.shortestCoprimeSegment(new long[] {2, 2, 2}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8cb401802c4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class AdaptiveMergeSortTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortIntegers() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        Integer[] input = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
+        Integer[] expected = {1, 4, 6, 9, 12, 23, 54, 78, 231};
+        Integer[] result = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortStrings() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        String[] input = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
+        String[] expected = {"a", "b", "c", "d", "e"};
+        String[] result = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortWithDuplicates() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        Integer[] input = {1, 3, 2, 2, 5, 4};
+        Integer[] expected = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        Integer[] result = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortEmptyArray() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        Integer[] input = {};
+        Integer[] expected = {};
+        Integer[] result = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortSingleElement() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        Integer[] input = {42};
+        Integer[] expected = {42};
+        Integer[] result = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortAlreadySortedArray() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        Integer[] inputArray = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        Integer[] outputArray = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortReversedSortedArray() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        Integer[] inputArray = {46, 13, 2, 2, 0, -3, -6, -12};
+        Integer[] outputArray = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortAllEqualArray() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        Integer[] inputArray = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        Integer[] outputArray = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortMixedCaseStrings() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        String[] inputArray = {"banana", "Apple", "apple", "Banana"};
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"Apple", "Banana", "apple", "banana"};
+        String[] outputArray = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Custom Comparable class for testing.
+     **/
+    static class Person implements Comparable<Person> {
+        String name;
+        int age;
+
+        Person(String name, int age) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.age = age;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Person o) {
+            return Integer.compare(this.age, o.age);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object o) {
+            if (this == o) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            Person person = (Person) o;
+            return age == person.age && Objects.equals(name, person.name);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return Objects.hash(name, age);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortCustomObjects() {
+        AdaptiveMergeSort adaptiveMergeSort = new AdaptiveMergeSort();
+        Person[] inputArray = {
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+        };
+        Person[] expectedOutput = {
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+        };
+        Person[] outputArray = adaptiveMergeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BeadSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BeadSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d8519147bc2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BeadSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class BeadSortTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideArraysForBeadSort")
+    public void testBeadSort(int[] inputArray, int[] expectedArray) {
+        BeadSort beadSort = new BeadSort();
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedArray, beadSort.sort(inputArray));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideArraysForBeadSort() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {}, new int[] {}), Arguments.of(new int[] {4}, new int[] {4}), Arguments.of(new int[] {6, 1, 99, 27, 15, 23, 36}, new int[] {1, 6, 15, 23, 27, 36, 99}), Arguments.of(new int[] {6, 1, 27, 15, 23, 27, 36, 23}, new int[] {1, 6, 15, 23, 23, 27, 27, 36}),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}), Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new BeadSort().sort(new int[] {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, -9}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BinaryInsertionSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BinaryInsertionSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..82cb3ba60987
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BinaryInsertionSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+class BinaryInsertionSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    private final BinaryInsertionSort binaryInsertionSort = new BinaryInsertionSort();
+
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return binaryInsertionSort;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..60c4bbe9d342
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BitonicSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class BitonicSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new BitonicSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dc4f9e1c25bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class BogoSortTest {
+
+    private BogoSort bogoSort = new BogoSort();
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortEmptyArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortSingleIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {4};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {4};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortSingleStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"s"};
+        String[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"s"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortNonDuplicateIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {6, -1, 99, 27, -15, 23, -36};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-36, -15, -1, 6, 23, 27, 99};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortDuplicateIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {6, -1, 27, -15, 23, 27, -36, 23};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-36, -15, -1, 6, 23, 23, 27, 27};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortNonDuplicateStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"s", "b", "k", "a", "d", "c", "h"};
+        String[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"a", "b", "c", "d", "h", "k", "s"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortDuplicateStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"s", "b", "d", "a", "d", "c", "h", "b"};
+        String[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"a", "b", "b", "c", "d", "d", "h", "s"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortAlreadySortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortReversedSortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {46, 13, 2, 2, 0, -3, -6, -12};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortAllEqualArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortMixedCaseStrings() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"banana", "Apple", "apple", "Banana"};
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"Apple", "Banana", "apple", "banana"};
+        String[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Custom Comparable class for testing.
+     **/
+    static class Person implements Comparable<Person> {
+        String name;
+        int age;
+
+        Person(String name, int age) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.age = age;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Person o) {
+            return Integer.compare(this.age, o.age);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object o) {
+            if (this == o) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            Person person = (Person) o;
+            return age == person.age && Objects.equals(name, person.name);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return Objects.hash(name, age);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bogoSortCustomObjects() {
+        Person[] inputArray = {
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+        };
+        Person[] expectedOutput = {
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+        };
+        Person[] outputArray = bogoSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursiveTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursiveTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e05842f46be8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortRecursiveTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class BubbleSortRecursiveTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new BubbleSortRecursive();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3b99dca13b06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,178 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Aitor Fidalgo (https://github.com/aitorfi)
+ * @see BubbleSort
+ */
+public class BubbleSortTest {
+
+    private BubbleSort bubbleSort = new BubbleSort();
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortEmptyArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortSingleIntegerElementArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {4};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {4};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortSingleStringElementArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"s"};
+        String[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"s"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {4, 23, -6, 78, 1, 54, 23, -6, -231, 9, 12};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {
+            -231,
+            -6,
+            -6,
+            1,
+            4,
+            9,
+            12,
+            23,
+            23,
+            54,
+            78,
+        };
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {
+            "cbf",
+            "auk",
+            "ó",
+            "(b",
+            "a",
+            ")",
+            "au",
+            "á",
+            "cba",
+            "auk",
+            "(a",
+            "bhy",
+            "cba",
+        };
+        String[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedOutput = {
+            "(a",
+            "(b",
+            ")",
+            "a",
+            "au",
+            "auk",
+            "auk",
+            "bhy",
+            "cba",
+            "cba",
+            "cbf",
+            "á",
+            "ó",
+        };
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortAlreadySortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortReversedSortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {46, 13, 2, 2, 0, -3, -6, -12};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortAllEqualArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        Integer[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortMixedCaseStrings() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"banana", "Apple", "apple", "Banana"};
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"Apple", "Banana", "apple", "banana"};
+        String[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Custom Comparable class for testing.
+     **/
+    static class Person implements Comparable<Person> {
+        String name;
+        int age;
+
+        Person(String name, int age) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.age = age;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Person o) {
+            return Integer.compare(this.age, o.age);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object o) {
+            if (this == o) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            Person person = (Person) o;
+            return age == person.age && Objects.equals(name, person.name);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return Objects.hash(name, age);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void bubbleSortCustomObjects() {
+        Person[] inputArray = {
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+        };
+        Person[] expectedOutput = {
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+        };
+        Person[] outputArray = bubbleSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a2dcb8cadfd9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BucketSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class BucketSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new BucketSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d113473272b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CircleSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+class CircleSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new CircleSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..45c1220275df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class CocktailShakerSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new CocktailShakerSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6b70ffacda47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class CombSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new CombSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2426de6f2807
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class CountingSortTest {
+
+    record TestCase(int[] inputArray, int[] expectedArray) {
+    }
+
+    static Stream<TestCase> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new TestCase(new int[] {}, new int[] {}), new TestCase(new int[] {4}, new int[] {4}), new TestCase(new int[] {6, 1, 99, 27, 15, 23, 36}, new int[] {1, 6, 15, 23, 27, 36, 99}), new TestCase(new int[] {6, 1, 27, 15, 23, 27, 36, 23}, new int[] {1, 6, 15, 23, 23, 27, 27, 36}),
+            new TestCase(new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}), new TestCase(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}), new TestCase(new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}), new TestCase(new int[] {3, -1, 4, 1, 5, -9}, new int[] {-9, -1, 1, 3, 4, 5}),
+            new TestCase(new int[] {0, 0, 0, 0}, new int[] {0, 0, 0, 0}), new TestCase(new int[] {3, 3, -1, -1, 2, 2, 0, 0}, new int[] {-1, -1, 0, 0, 2, 2, 3, 3}), new TestCase(new int[] {-3, -2, -1, -5, -4}, new int[] {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1}),
+            new TestCase(new int[] {1000, 500, 100, 50, 10, 5, 1}, new int[] {1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000}), new TestCase(new int[] {4, -5, 10, 0}, new int[] {-5, 0, 4, 10}));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testCountingSortException(TestCase testCase) {
+        int[] outputArray = CountingSort.sort(testCase.inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(testCase.expectedArray, outputArray);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b8c3d1653713
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class CycleSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new CycleSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1df077e2ad74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class DarkSortTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testSortWithIntegers() {
+        Integer[] unsorted = {5, 3, 8, 6, 2, 7, 4, 1};
+        Integer[] expected = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8};
+
+        DarkSort darkSort = new DarkSort();
+        Integer[] sorted = darkSort.sort(unsorted);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyArray() {
+        Integer[] unsorted = {};
+        Integer[] expected = {};
+
+        DarkSort darkSort = new DarkSort();
+        Integer[] sorted = darkSort.sort(unsorted);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementArray() {
+        Integer[] unsorted = {42};
+        Integer[] expected = {42};
+
+        DarkSort darkSort = new DarkSort();
+        Integer[] sorted = darkSort.sort(unsorted);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAlreadySortedArray() {
+        Integer[] unsorted = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        Integer[] expected = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+
+        DarkSort darkSort = new DarkSort();
+        Integer[] sorted = darkSort.sort(unsorted);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDuplicateElementsArray() {
+        Integer[] unsorted = {4, 2, 7, 2, 1, 4};
+        Integer[] expected = {1, 2, 2, 4, 4, 7};
+
+        DarkSort darkSort = new DarkSort();
+        Integer[] sorted = darkSort.sort(unsorted);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullArray() {
+        Integer[] unsorted = null;
+
+        DarkSort darkSort = new DarkSort();
+        Integer[] sorted = darkSort.sort(unsorted);
+
+        assertNull(sorted, "Sorting a null array should return null");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0b9cc1de5886
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+class DualPivotQuickSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new DualPivotQuickSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c7581e7c8f7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class DutchNationalFlagSortTest {
+
+    @Test
+    /*
+      1 will be used as intended middle.
+      Partitions on the result array: [ smaller than 1 , equal 1, greater than 1]
+     */
+    void testOddDnfs() {
+        Integer[] integers = {1, 3, 1, 4, 0};
+        Integer[] integersResult = {0, 1, 1, 4, 3};
+        DutchNationalFlagSort dutchNationalFlagSort = new DutchNationalFlagSort();
+        dutchNationalFlagSort.sort(integers);
+        assertArrayEquals(integers, integersResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    /*
+      3 will be used as intended middle.
+      Partitions on the result array: [ smaller than 3 , equal 3, greater than 3]
+     */
+    void testEvenDnfs() {
+        Integer[] integers = {8, 1, 3, 1, 4, 0};
+        Integer[] integersResult = {0, 1, 1, 3, 4, 8};
+        DutchNationalFlagSort dutchNationalFlagSort = new DutchNationalFlagSort();
+        dutchNationalFlagSort.sort(integers);
+        assertArrayEquals(integers, integersResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    /*
+      "b" will be used as intended middle.
+      Partitions on the result array: [ smaller than b , equal b, greater than b]
+     */
+    void testEvenStringsDnfs() {
+        String[] strings = {"a", "d", "b", "s", "e", "e"};
+        String[] stringsResult = {"a", "b", "s", "e", "e", "d"};
+        DutchNationalFlagSort dutchNationalFlagSort = new DutchNationalFlagSort();
+        dutchNationalFlagSort.sort(strings);
+        assertArrayEquals(strings, stringsResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    /*
+      "b" will be used as intended middle.
+      Partitions on the result array: [ smaller than b , equal b, greater than b]
+     */
+    void testOddStringsDnfs() {
+        String[] strings = {"a", "d", "b", "s", "e"};
+        String[] stringsResult = {"a", "b", "s", "e", "d"};
+        DutchNationalFlagSort dutchNationalFlagSort = new DutchNationalFlagSort();
+        dutchNationalFlagSort.sort(strings);
+        assertArrayEquals(strings, stringsResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    /*
+      0 will be used as intended middle.
+      Partitions on the result array: [ smaller than 0 , equal 0, greater than 0]
+     */
+    void testOddMidGivenDnfs() {
+        Integer[] integers = {1, 3, 1, 4, 0};
+        Integer[] integersResult = {0, 1, 4, 3, 1};
+        DutchNationalFlagSort dutchNationalFlagSort = new DutchNationalFlagSort();
+        dutchNationalFlagSort.sort(integers, 0);
+        assertArrayEquals(integers, integersResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    /*
+      4 will be used as intended middle.
+      Partitions on the result array: [ smaller than 4 , equal 4, greater than 4]
+     */
+    void testEvenMidGivenDnfs() {
+        Integer[] integers = {8, 1, 3, 1, 4, 0};
+        Integer[] integersResult = {0, 1, 3, 1, 4, 8};
+        DutchNationalFlagSort dutchNationalFlagSort = new DutchNationalFlagSort();
+        dutchNationalFlagSort.sort(integers, 4);
+        assertArrayEquals(integers, integersResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    /*
+      "s" will be used as intended middle.
+      Partitions on the result array: [ smaller than s , equal s, greater than s]
+     */
+    void testEvenStringsMidGivenDnfs() {
+        String[] strings = {"a", "d", "b", "s", "e", "e"};
+        String[] stringsResult = {"a", "d", "b", "e", "e", "s"};
+        DutchNationalFlagSort dutchNationalFlagSort = new DutchNationalFlagSort();
+        dutchNationalFlagSort.sort(strings, "s");
+        assertArrayEquals(strings, stringsResult);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    /*
+      "e" will be used as intended middle.
+      Partitions on the result array: [ smaller than e , equal e, greater than e]
+     */
+    void testOddStringsMidGivenDnfs() {
+        String[] strings = {"a", "d", "b", "s", "e"};
+        String[] stringsResult = {"a", "d", "b", "e", "s"};
+        DutchNationalFlagSort dutchNationalFlagSort = new DutchNationalFlagSort();
+        dutchNationalFlagSort.sort(strings, "e");
+        assertArrayEquals(strings, stringsResult);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..6c4271fa9e19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class ExchangeSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new ExchangeSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5b27975d3bea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.lang.reflect.Method;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DynamicTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.TestFactory;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.function.Executable;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.ValueSource;
+
+public class FlashSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    private final FlashSort flashSort = new FlashSort();
+
+    public FlashSort getFlashSort() {
+        return flashSort;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return getFlashSort();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDefaultConstructor() {
+        double defaultRation = 0.45;
+        FlashSort sorter = new FlashSort();
+        assertEquals(defaultRation, sorter.getClassificationRatio());
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @ValueSource(doubles = {0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 0.9})
+    public void testCustomConstructorValidRatio(double ratio) {
+        FlashSort sorter = new FlashSort(ratio);
+        assertEquals(ratio, sorter.getClassificationRatio());
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @ValueSource(doubles = {0, 1, -0.1, 1.1})
+    public void testCustomConstructorInvalidRatio(double ratio) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> new FlashSort(ratio));
+    }
+
+    @TestFactory
+    public List<DynamicTest> dynamicTestsForSorting() {
+        List<DynamicTest> dynamicTests = new ArrayList<>();
+        double[] ratios = {0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 0.9};
+
+        for (double ratio : ratios) {
+            FlashSort sorter = (FlashSort) getSortAlgorithm();
+            sorter.setClassificationRatio(ratio);
+            dynamicTests.addAll(createDynamicTestsForRatio(ratio));
+        }
+
+        return dynamicTests;
+    }
+
+    private List<DynamicTest> createDynamicTestsForRatio(double ratio) {
+        List<DynamicTest> dynamicTests = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (TestMethod testMethod : getTestMethodsFromSuperClass()) {
+            dynamicTests.add(DynamicTest.dynamicTest("Ratio: " + ratio + " - Test: " + testMethod.name(), testMethod.executable()));
+        }
+        return dynamicTests;
+    }
+
+    private List<TestMethod> getTestMethodsFromSuperClass() {
+        List<TestMethod> testMethods = new ArrayList<>();
+        Method[] methods = SortingAlgorithmTest.class.getDeclaredMethods();
+        for (Method method : methods) {
+            if (method.isAnnotationPresent(Test.class)) {
+                testMethods.add(new TestMethod(() -> {
+                    try {
+                        method.invoke(this);
+                    } catch (Exception e) {
+                        throw new RuntimeException(e);
+                    }
+                }, method.getName()));
+            }
+        }
+        return testMethods;
+    }
+
+    record TestMethod(Executable executable, String name) {
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..1d875d1fad0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GnomeSortTest {
+
+    private GnomeSort gnomeSort = new GnomeSort();
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort empty Array")
+    public void gnomeSortEmptyArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {};
+        gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertThat(inputArray).isEmpty();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort single Integer Array")
+    public void singleIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {4};
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {4};
+        gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertThat(inputArray).isEqualTo(expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort non duplicate Integer Array")
+    public void gnomeSortNonDuplicateIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {6, 3, 87, 99, 27, 4};
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {3, 4, 6, 27, 87, 99};
+        gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertThat(inputArray).isEqualTo(expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort Integer Array with duplicates")
+    public void gnomeSortDuplicateIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {6, 3, 87, 3, 99, 27, 4, 27};
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {3, 3, 4, 6, 27, 27, 87, 99};
+        gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertThat(inputArray).isEqualTo(expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort negative Integer Array with duplicates")
+    public void gnomeSortNegativeDuplicateIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {6, 3, -87, 3, 99, -27, 4, -27};
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-87, -27, -27, 3, 3, 4, 6, 99};
+        gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertThat(inputArray).isEqualTo(expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort single String Array")
+    public void singleStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"b"};
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"b"};
+        gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertThat(inputArray).isEqualTo(expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort non duplicate String Array")
+    public void gnomeSortNonDuplicateStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"He", "A", "bc", "lo", "n", "bcp", "mhp", "d"};
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"A", "He", "bc", "bcp", "d", "lo", "mhp", "n"};
+        gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertThat(inputArray).isEqualTo(expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort String Array with duplicates")
+    public void gnomeSortDuplicateStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"He", "A", "bc", "lo", "n", "bcp", "mhp", "bcp"};
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"A", "He", "bc", "bcp", "bcp", "lo", "mhp", "n"};
+        gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertThat(inputArray).isEqualTo(expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort for sorted Array")
+    public void testSortAlreadySortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        Integer[] outputArray = gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort for reversed sorted Array")
+    public void testSortReversedSortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {46, 13, 2, 2, 0, -3, -6, -12};
+        Integer[] outputArray = gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort for All equal Array")
+    public void testSortAllEqualArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        Integer[] outputArray = gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort String Array with mixed cases")
+    public void testSortMixedCaseStrings() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"banana", "Apple", "apple", "Banana"};
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"Apple", "Banana", "apple", "banana"};
+        String[] outputArray = gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Custom Comparable class for testing.
+     **/
+    static class Person implements Comparable<Person> {
+        String name;
+        int age;
+
+        Person(String name, int age) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.age = age;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Person o) {
+            return Integer.compare(this.age, o.age);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object o) {
+            if (this == o) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            Person person = (Person) o;
+            return age == person.age && Objects.equals(name, person.name);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return Objects.hash(name, age);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("GnomeSort Custom Object Array")
+    public void testSortCustomObjects() {
+        Person[] inputArray = {
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+        };
+        Person[] expectedOutput = {
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+        };
+        Person[] outputArray = gnomeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..90b2ebd68bc6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class HeapSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new HeapSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..32a2a807295b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,198 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+import java.util.function.Function;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class InsertionSortTest {
+    private InsertionSort insertionSort;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        insertionSort = new InsertionSort();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void insertionSortSortEmptyArrayShouldPass() {
+        testEmptyArray(insertionSort::sort);
+        testEmptyArray(insertionSort::sentinelSort);
+    }
+
+    private void testEmptyArray(Function<Integer[], Integer[]> sortAlgorithm) {
+        Integer[] array = {};
+        Integer[] sorted = sortAlgorithm.apply(array);
+        Integer[] expected = {};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(sorted));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void insertionSortClassicalSortSingleValueArrayShouldPass() {
+        testSingleValue(insertionSort::sort);
+        testSingleValue(insertionSort::sentinelSort);
+    }
+
+    private void testSingleValue(Function<Integer[], Integer[]> sortAlgorithm) {
+        Integer[] array = {7};
+        Integer[] sorted = sortAlgorithm.apply(array);
+        Integer[] expected = {7};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(sorted));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void insertionSortClassicalWithIntegerArrayShouldPass() {
+        testIntegerArray(insertionSort::sort);
+        testIntegerArray(insertionSort::sentinelSort);
+    }
+
+    private void testIntegerArray(Function<Integer[], Integer[]> sortAlgorithm) {
+        Integer[] array = {49, 4, 36, 9, 144, 1};
+        Integer[] sorted = sortAlgorithm.apply(array);
+        Integer[] expected = {1, 4, 9, 36, 49, 144};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(sorted));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void insertionSortClassicalForArrayWithNegativeValuesShouldPass() {
+        testWithNegativeValues(insertionSort::sort);
+        testWithNegativeValues(insertionSort::sentinelSort);
+    }
+
+    private void testWithNegativeValues(Function<Integer[], Integer[]> sortAlgorithm) {
+        Integer[] array = {49, -36, -144, -49, 1, 9};
+        Integer[] sorted = sortAlgorithm.apply(array);
+        Integer[] expected = {-144, -49, -36, 1, 9, 49};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(sorted));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void insertionSortClassicalForArrayWithDuplicateValuesShouldPass() {
+        testWithDuplicates(insertionSort::sort);
+        testWithDuplicates(insertionSort::sentinelSort);
+    }
+
+    private void testWithDuplicates(Function<Integer[], Integer[]> sortAlgorithm) {
+        Integer[] array = {36, 1, 49, 1, 4, 9};
+        Integer[] sorted = sortAlgorithm.apply(array);
+        Integer[] expected = {1, 1, 4, 9, 36, 49};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(sorted));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void insertionSortClassicalWithStringArrayShouldPass() {
+        testWithStringArray(insertionSort::sort);
+        testWithStringArray(insertionSort::sentinelSort);
+    }
+
+    private void testWithStringArray(Function<String[], String[]> sortAlgorithm) {
+        String[] array = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
+        String[] sorted = sortAlgorithm.apply(array);
+        String[] expected = {"a", "b", "c", "d", "e"};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(sorted));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void insertionSortClassicalWithRandomArrayPass() {
+        testWithRandomArray(insertionSort::sort);
+        testWithRandomArray(insertionSort::sentinelSort);
+    }
+
+    private void testWithRandomArray(Function<Double[], Double[]> sortAlgorithm) {
+        int randomSize = SortUtilsRandomGenerator.generateInt(10_000);
+        Double[] array = SortUtilsRandomGenerator.generateArray(randomSize);
+        Double[] sorted = sortAlgorithm.apply(array);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(sorted));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortAlreadySortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        Integer[] outputArray = insertionSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortReversedSortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {46, 13, 2, 2, 0, -3, -6, -12};
+        Integer[] outputArray = insertionSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortAllEqualArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        Integer[] outputArray = insertionSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortMixedCaseStrings() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"banana", "Apple", "apple", "Banana"};
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"Apple", "Banana", "apple", "banana"};
+        String[] outputArray = insertionSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Custom Comparable class for testing.
+     **/
+    static class Person implements Comparable<Person> {
+        String name;
+        int age;
+
+        Person(String name, int age) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.age = age;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Person o) {
+            return Integer.compare(this.age, o.age);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object o) {
+            if (this == o) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            Person person = (Person) o;
+            return age == person.age && Objects.equals(name, person.name);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return Objects.hash(name, age);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortCustomObjects() {
+        Person[] inputArray = {
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+        };
+        Person[] expectedOutput = {
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+        };
+        Person[] outputArray = insertionSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/IntrospectiveSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/IntrospectiveSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7760ee3849e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/IntrospectiveSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class IntrospectiveSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new IntrospectiveSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpaceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpaceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5677a7c95e09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortNoExtraSpaceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class MergeSortNoExtraSpaceTest {
+    record TestCase(int[] inputArray, int[] expectedArray) {
+    }
+
+    static Stream<TestCase> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new TestCase(new int[] {}, new int[] {}), new TestCase(new int[] {1}, new int[] {1}), new TestCase(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}), new TestCase(new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}),
+            new TestCase(new int[] {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3, 5}, new int[] {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 9}), new TestCase(new int[] {4, 2, 4, 3, 2, 1, 5}, new int[] {1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5}), new TestCase(new int[] {0, 0, 0, 0}, new int[] {0, 0, 0, 0}),
+            new TestCase(new int[] {1000, 500, 100, 50, 10, 5, 1}, new int[] {1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000}), new TestCase(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3}, new int[] {1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3}),
+            new TestCase(new int[] {10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0}, new int[] {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}), new TestCase(new int[] {2, 1}, new int[] {1, 2}), new TestCase(new int[] {1, 3, 2}, new int[] {1, 2, 3}));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testCountingSort(TestCase testCase) {
+        int[] outputArray = MergeSortNoExtraSpace.sort(testCase.inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(testCase.expectedArray, outputArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNegativeNumbers() {
+        int[] arrayWithNegatives = {1, -2, 3, -4};
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> MergeSortNoExtraSpace.sort(arrayWithNegatives));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursiveTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursiveTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0e7874584c3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursiveTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MergeSortRecursiveTest {
+
+    //	private MergeSortRecursive mergeSortRecursive = new MergeSortRecursive();
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeSortRecursiveCase1() {
+        MergeSortRecursive mergeSortRecursive = new MergeSortRecursive(Arrays.asList(5, 12, 9, 3, 15, 88));
+
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(3, 5, 9, 12, 15, 88);
+        List<Integer> sorted = mergeSortRecursive.mergeSort();
+
+        assertEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMergeSortRecursiveCase2() {
+        MergeSortRecursive mergeSortRecursive = new MergeSortRecursive(Arrays.asList(-3, 5, 3, 4, 3, 7, 40, -20, 30, 0));
+
+        List<Integer> expected = Arrays.asList(-20, -3, 0, 3, 3, 4, 5, 7, 30, 40);
+        List<Integer> sorted = mergeSortRecursive.mergeSort();
+
+        assertEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..af06e360a038
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class MergeSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new MergeSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..09ef8014cec1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * @author Tabbygray (https://github.com/Tabbygray)
+ * @see OddEvenSort
+ */
+
+public class OddEvenSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    private final OddEvenSort oddEvenSort = new OddEvenSort();
+
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return oddEvenSort;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0039bdfb03e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class PancakeSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new PancakeSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PatienceSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PatienceSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f3cf7874f3b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PatienceSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class PatienceSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new PatienceSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PigeonholeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PigeonholeSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d1772de83701
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PigeonholeSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class PigeonholeSortTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideArraysForPigeonholeSort")
+    public void testPigeonholeSort(int[] inputArray, int[] expectedArray) {
+        PigeonholeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedArray, inputArray);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideArraysForPigeonholeSort() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {}, new int[] {}), Arguments.of(new int[] {4}, new int[] {4}), Arguments.of(new int[] {6, 1, 99, 27, 15, 23, 36}, new int[] {1, 6, 15, 23, 27, 36, 99}), Arguments.of(new int[] {6, 1, 27, 15, 23, 27, 36, 23}, new int[] {1, 6, 15, 23, 23, 27, 27, 36}),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, new int[] {5, 5, 5, 5, 5}), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}), Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PigeonholeSort.sort(new int[] {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, -9}));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PigeonholeSort.sort(new int[] {-1}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PriorityQueueSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PriorityQueueSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..215431293227
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PriorityQueueSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class PriorityQueueSortTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullArray() {
+        int[] input = null;
+        assertArrayEquals(null, PriorityQueueSort.sort(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleElementArray() {
+        int[] input = {5};
+        int[] expected = {5};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, PriorityQueueSort.sort(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSortNormalArray() {
+        int[] input = {7, 2, 9, 4, 1};
+        int[] expected = {1, 2, 4, 7, 9};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, PriorityQueueSort.sort(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyArray() {
+        int[] input = {};
+        int[] expected = {};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, PriorityQueueSort.sort(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeNumbers() {
+        int[] input = {3, -1, 2, -5, 0};
+        int[] expected = {-5, -1, 0, 2, 3};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, PriorityQueueSort.sort(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAlreadySortedArray() {
+        int[] input = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        int[] expected = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, PriorityQueueSort.sort(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testArrayWithDuplicates() {
+        int[] input = {5, 1, 3, 3, 2, 5};
+        int[] expected = {1, 2, 3, 3, 5, 5};
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, PriorityQueueSort.sort(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fca57626b75f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+/**
+ * @author Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ * @see QuickSort
+ */
+class QuickSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new QuickSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..24ab52b199aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/RadixSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class RadixSortTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void test(int[] inputArray, int[] expectedArray) {
+        assertArrayEquals(RadixSort.sort(inputArray), expectedArray);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {170, 45, 75, 90, 802, 24, 2, 66}, new int[] {2, 24, 45, 66, 75, 90, 170, 802}), Arguments.of(new int[] {3, 3, 3, 3}, new int[] {3, 3, 3, 3}), Arguments.of(new int[] {9, 4, 6, 8, 14, 3}, new int[] {3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 14}),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {10, 90, 49, 2, 1, 5, 23}, new int[] {1, 2, 5, 10, 23, 49, 90}), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 3, 4, 2, 7, 8}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8}), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, new int[] {}), Arguments.of(new int[] {1}, new int[] {1}),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}), Arguments.of(new int[] {9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1}, new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1000000000, 999999999, 888888888, 777777777}, new int[] {777777777, 888888888, 999999999, 1000000000}), Arguments.of(new int[] {123, 9, 54321, 123456789, 0}, new int[] {0, 9, 123, 54321, 123456789}));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> RadixSort.sort(new int[] {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, -9}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortRecursiveTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortRecursiveTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..20dcf249b31a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortRecursiveTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class SelectionSortRecursiveTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new SelectionSortRecursive();
+    }
+
+    protected int getGeneratedArraySize() {
+        return 5000;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fab4be1ad01b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+class SelectionSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new SelectionSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b41f2c2e863b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ShellSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class ShellSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new ShellSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5fbdf8477092
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.Objects;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Rebecca Velez (https://github.com/rebeccavelez)
+ * @see SlowSort
+ */
+
+public class SlowSortTest {
+
+    private SlowSort slowSort = new SlowSort();
+
+    @Test
+    public void slowSortEmptyArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {};
+        Integer[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void slowSortSingleIntegerElementArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {5};
+        Integer[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {5};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void slowSortSingleStringElementArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"k"};
+        String[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"k"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void slowSortIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {8, 84, 53, -683, 953, 64, 2, 202, 98, -10};
+        Integer[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-683, -10, 2, 8, 53, 64, 84, 98, 202, 953};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void slowSortDuplicateIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {8, 84, 8, -2, 953, 64, 2, 953, 98};
+        Integer[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-2, 2, 8, 8, 64, 84, 98, 953, 953};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void slowSortStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"g", "d", "a", "b", "f", "c", "e"};
+        String[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void slowSortDuplicateStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"g", "d", "a", "g", "b", "f", "d", "c", "e"};
+        String[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"a", "b", "c", "d", "d", "e", "f", "g", "g"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void slowSortStringSymbolArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"cbf", "auk", "ó", "(b", "a", ")", "au", "á", "cba", "auk", "(a", "bhy", "cba"};
+        String[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"(a", "(b", ")", "a", "au", "auk", "auk", "bhy", "cba", "cba", "cbf", "á", "ó"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortAlreadySortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        Integer[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortReversedSortedArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {46, 13, 2, 2, 0, -3, -6, -12};
+        Integer[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {-12, -6, -3, 0, 2, 2, 13, 46};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortAllEqualArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        Integer[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {2, 2, 2, 2, 2};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortMixedCaseStrings() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"banana", "Apple", "apple", "Banana"};
+        String[] expectedOutput = {"Apple", "Banana", "apple", "banana"};
+        String[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Custom Comparable class for testing.
+     **/
+    static class Person implements Comparable<Person> {
+        String name;
+        int age;
+
+        Person(String name, int age) {
+            this.name = name;
+            this.age = age;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(Person o) {
+            return Integer.compare(this.age, o.age);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object o) {
+            if (this == o) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            Person person = (Person) o;
+            return age == person.age && Objects.equals(name, person.name);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return Objects.hash(name, age);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortCustomObjects() {
+        Person[] inputArray = {
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+        };
+        Person[] expectedOutput = {
+            new Person("Bob", 25),
+            new Person("Charlie", 28),
+            new Person("Alice", 32),
+        };
+        Person[] outputArray = slowSort.sort(inputArray);
+        assertArrayEquals(expectedOutput, outputArray);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsRandomGeneratorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsRandomGeneratorTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..16571b3b9d24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsRandomGeneratorTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.RepeatedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SortUtilsRandomGeneratorTest {
+
+    @RepeatedTest(1000)
+    void generateArray() {
+        int size = 1_000;
+        Double[] doubles = SortUtilsRandomGenerator.generateArray(size);
+        assertThat(doubles).hasSize(size);
+        assertThat(doubles).doesNotContainNull();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void generateArrayEmpty() {
+        int size = 0;
+        Double[] doubles = SortUtilsRandomGenerator.generateArray(size);
+        assertThat(doubles).hasSize(size);
+    }
+
+    @RepeatedTest(1000)
+    void generateDouble() {
+        Double randomDouble = SortUtilsRandomGenerator.generateDouble();
+        assertThat(randomDouble).isBetween(0.0, 1.0);
+        assertThat(randomDouble).isNotEqualTo(1.0);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ac654148c967
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortUtilsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class SortUtilsTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void isSortedEmptyArray() {
+        Double[] emptyArray = {};
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(emptyArray));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void isSortedWithSingleElement() {
+        Double[] singleElementArray = {1.0};
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(singleElementArray));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void isSortedArrayTrue() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 11};
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(array));
+
+        Integer[] identicalArray = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1};
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(identicalArray));
+
+        Double[] doubles = {-15.123, -15.111, 0.0, 0.12, 0.15};
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(doubles));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void isSortedArrayFalse() {
+        Double[] array = {1.0, 3.0, -0.15};
+        assertFalse(SortUtils.isSorted(array));
+
+        Integer[] array2 = {14, 15, 16, 1};
+        assertFalse(SortUtils.isSorted(array2));
+
+        Integer[] array3 = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1};
+        assertFalse(SortUtils.isSorted(array3));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void isSortedListTrue() {
+        List<Integer> list = List.of(1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 11);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(list));
+
+        List<Integer> identicalList = List.of(1, 1, 1, 1, 1);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(identicalList));
+
+        List<Double> doubles = List.of(-15.123, -15.111, 0.0, 0.12, 0.15);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(doubles));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void isSortedListFalse() {
+        List<Double> list = List.of(1.0, 3.0, -0.15);
+        assertFalse(SortUtils.isSorted(list));
+
+        List<Integer> array2 = List.of(14, 15, 16, 1);
+        assertFalse(SortUtils.isSorted(array2));
+
+        List<Integer> array3 = List.of(5, 4, 3, 2, 1);
+        assertFalse(SortUtils.isSorted(array3));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideArraysForSwap")
+    public <T> void testSwap(T[] array, int i, int j, T[] expected) {
+        SortUtils.swap(array, i, j);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, array);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideArraysForSwap")
+    public <T> void testSwapFlippedIndices(T[] array, int i, int j, T[] expected) {
+        SortUtils.swap(array, j, i);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, array);
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideArraysForSwap() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4}, 1, 2, new Integer[] {1, 3, 2, 4}), Arguments.of(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4}, 0, 3, new Integer[] {4, 2, 3, 1}), Arguments.of(new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4}, 2, 2, new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4}),
+            Arguments.of(new String[] {"a", "b", "c", "d"}, 0, 3, new String[] {"d", "b", "c", "a"}), Arguments.of(new String[] {null, "b", "c", null}, 0, 3, new String[] {null, "b", "c", null}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortingAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortingAlgorithmTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..43de55018071
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortingAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,365 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertIterableEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Objects;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public abstract class SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    abstract SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm();
+
+    protected int getGeneratedArraySize() {
+        return 10_000;
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenEmptyArrayIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[] {};
+        Integer[] expected = new Integer[] {};
+
+        Integer[] sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenEmptyListIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = new ArrayList<>();
+        List<Integer> expected = new ArrayList<>();
+
+        List<Integer> sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenSingleValuedArrayIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[] {2};
+        Integer[] expected = new Integer[] {2};
+
+        Integer[] sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenSingleValuedListIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = List.of(2);
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(2);
+
+        List<Integer> sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenListWithAllPositiveValuesIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[] {60, 7, 55, 9, 999, 3};
+        Integer[] expected = new Integer[] {3, 7, 9, 55, 60, 999};
+
+        Integer[] sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithAllPositiveValuesIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = List.of(60, 7, 55, 9, 999, 3);
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(3, 7, 9, 55, 60, 999);
+
+        List<Integer> sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithAllNegativeValuesIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[] {-60, -7, -55, -9, -999, -3};
+        Integer[] expected = new Integer[] {-999, -60, -55, -9, -7, -3};
+
+        Integer[] sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenListWithAllNegativeValuesIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = List.of(-60, -7, -55, -9, -999, -3);
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(-999, -60, -55, -9, -7, -3);
+
+        List<Integer> sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithRealNumberValuesIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[] {60, -7, 55, 9, -999, -3};
+        Integer[] expected = new Integer[] {-999, -7, -3, 9, 55, 60};
+
+        Integer[] sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenListWithRealNumberValuesIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = List.of(60, -7, 55, 9, -999, -3);
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(-999, -7, -3, 9, 55, 60);
+
+        List<Integer> sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithDuplicateValueIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = new Integer[] {60, 7, 55, 55, 999, 3};
+        Integer[] expected = new Integer[] {3, 7, 55, 55, 60, 999};
+
+        Integer[] sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenListWithDuplicateValueIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = List.of(60, 7, 55, 55, 999, 3);
+        List<Integer> expected = List.of(3, 7, 55, 55, 60, 999);
+
+        List<Integer> sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenStringValueArrayIsPassed() {
+        String[] array = {"z", "a", "x", "b", "y"};
+        String[] expected = {"a", "b", "x", "y", "z"};
+
+        String[] sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenStringValueListIsPassed() {
+        List<String> list = List.of("z", "a", "x", "b", "y");
+        List<String> expected = List.of("a", "b", "x", "y", "z");
+
+        List<String> sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, sorted);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenRandomArrayIsPassed() {
+        int randomSize = SortUtilsRandomGenerator.generateInt(getGeneratedArraySize());
+        Double[] array = SortUtilsRandomGenerator.generateArray(randomSize);
+        Double[] sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(sorted));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void shouldAcceptWhenRandomListIsPassed() {
+        int randomSize = SortUtilsRandomGenerator.generateInt(getGeneratedArraySize());
+        Double[] array = SortUtilsRandomGenerator.generateArray(randomSize);
+        List<Double> list = List.of(array);
+        List<Double> sorted = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertTrue(SortUtils.isSorted(sorted));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithAllIdenticalValuesIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = {1, 1, 1, 1};
+        Integer[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new Integer[] {1, 1, 1, 1}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenListWithAllIdenticalValuesIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = Arrays.asList(1, 1, 1, 1);
+        List<Integer> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(1, 1, 1, 1), sortedList);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithMixedPositiveAndNegativeValuesIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = {-1, 3, -2, 5, 0};
+        Integer[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new Integer[] {-2, -1, 0, 3, 5}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenListWithMixedPositiveAndNegativeValuesIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = Arrays.asList(-1, 3, -2, 5, 0);
+        List<Integer> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(-2, -1, 0, 3, 5), sortedList);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithLargeNumbersIsPassed() {
+        Long[] array = {10000000000L, 9999999999L, 10000000001L};
+        Long[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new Long[] {9999999999L, 10000000000L, 10000000001L}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenListWithLargeNumbersIsPassed() {
+        List<Long> list = Arrays.asList(10000000000L, 9999999999L, 10000000001L);
+        List<Long> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(9999999999L, 10000000000L, 10000000001L), sortedList);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithMaxIntegerValuesIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = {Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MIN_VALUE, 0};
+        Integer[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new Integer[] {Integer.MIN_VALUE, 0, Integer.MAX_VALUE}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenListWithMaxIntegerValuesIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = Arrays.asList(Integer.MAX_VALUE, Integer.MIN_VALUE, 0);
+        List<Integer> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(Integer.MIN_VALUE, 0, Integer.MAX_VALUE), sortedList);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithMinIntegerValuesIsPassed() {
+        Integer[] array = {Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 0};
+        Integer[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new Integer[] {Integer.MIN_VALUE, 0, Integer.MAX_VALUE}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenListWithMinIntegerValuesIsPassed() {
+        List<Integer> list = Arrays.asList(Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 0);
+        List<Integer> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(Integer.MIN_VALUE, 0, Integer.MAX_VALUE), sortedList);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithSpecialCharactersIsPassed() {
+        String[] array = {"!", "@", "#", "$"};
+        String[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new String[] {"!", "#", "$", "@"}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenListWithSpecialCharactersIsPassed() {
+        List<String> list = Arrays.asList("!", "@", "#", "$");
+        List<String> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList("!", "#", "$", "@"), sortedList);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenArrayWithMixedCaseStringsIsPassed() {
+        String[] array = {"apple", "Banana", "cherry", "Date"};
+        String[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new String[] {"Banana", "Date", "apple", "cherry"}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldAcceptWhenListWithMixedCaseStringsIsPassed() {
+        List<String> list = Arrays.asList("apple", "Banana", "cherry", "Date");
+        List<String> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList("Banana", "Date", "apple", "cherry"), sortedList);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldHandleArrayWithNullValues() {
+        Integer[] array = {3, null, 2, null, 1};
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> getSortAlgorithm().sort(array));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldHandleListWithNullValues() {
+        List<Integer> list = Arrays.asList(3, null, 2, null, 1);
+        org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> getSortAlgorithm().sort(list));
+    }
+
+    static class CustomObject implements Comparable<CustomObject> {
+        int value;
+
+        CustomObject(int value) {
+            this.value = value;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int compareTo(CustomObject o) {
+            return Integer.compare(this.value, o.value);
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public String toString() {
+            return "CustomObject{"
+                + "value=" + value + '}';
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public boolean equals(Object o) {
+            if (this == o) {
+                return true;
+            }
+            if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            CustomObject that = (CustomObject) o;
+            return value == that.value;
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public int hashCode() {
+            return Objects.hashCode(value);
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldHandleArrayOfCustomObjects() {
+        CustomObject[] array = {new CustomObject(3), new CustomObject(1), new CustomObject(2)};
+        CustomObject[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new CustomObject[] {new CustomObject(1), new CustomObject(2), new CustomObject(3)}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldHandleListOfCustomObjects() {
+        List<CustomObject> list = Arrays.asList(new CustomObject(3), new CustomObject(1), new CustomObject(2));
+        List<CustomObject> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(new CustomObject(1), new CustomObject(2), new CustomObject(3)), sortedList);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldHandleArrayOfFloatingPointNumbers() {
+        Double[] array = {3.3, 2.2, 1.1, Double.NaN, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY};
+        Double[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new Double[] {Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, 1.1, 2.2, 3.3, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Double.NaN}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldHandleListOfFloatingPointNumbers() {
+        List<Double> list = Arrays.asList(3.3, 2.2, 1.1, Double.NaN, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY);
+        List<Double> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList(Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, 1.1, 2.2, 3.3, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Double.NaN), sortedList);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldHandleArrayWithEmptyStrings() {
+        String[] array = {"apple", "", "banana", ""};
+        String[] sortedArray = getSortAlgorithm().sort(array);
+        assertArrayEquals(new String[] {"", "", "apple", "banana"}, sortedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void shouldHandleListWithEmptyStrings() {
+        List<String> list = Arrays.asList("apple", "", "banana", "");
+        List<String> sortedList = getSortAlgorithm().sort(list);
+        assertEquals(Arrays.asList("", "", "apple", "banana"), sortedList);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SpreadSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SpreadSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..896aee8ba4ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SpreadSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.function.Executable;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class SpreadSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+
+    protected int getGeneratedArraySize() {
+        return 1000;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new SpreadSort();
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> wrongConstructorInputs() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(0, 16, 2, IllegalArgumentException.class), Arguments.of(16, 0, 2, IllegalArgumentException.class), Arguments.of(16, 16, 0, IllegalArgumentException.class), Arguments.of(1001, 16, 2, IllegalArgumentException.class),
+            Arguments.of(16, 1001, 2, IllegalArgumentException.class), Arguments.of(16, 16, 101, IllegalArgumentException.class));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("wrongConstructorInputs")
+    void testConstructor(int insertionSortThreshold, int initialBucketCapacity, int minBuckets, Class<Exception> expectedException) {
+        Executable executable = () -> new SpreadSort(insertionSortThreshold, initialBucketCapacity, minBuckets);
+        assertThrows(expectedException, executable);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StalinSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StalinSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ee9c61379527
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StalinSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class StalinSortTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortIntegers() {
+        StalinSort stalinSort = new StalinSort();
+        Integer[] input = {4, 23, 6, 78, 1, 54, 231, 9, 12};
+        Integer[] expected = {4, 23, 78, 231};
+        Integer[] result = stalinSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortStrings() {
+        StalinSort stalinSort = new StalinSort();
+        String[] input = {"c", "a", "e", "b", "d"};
+        String[] expected = {"c", "e"};
+        String[] result = stalinSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortWithDuplicates() {
+        StalinSort stalinSort = new StalinSort();
+        Integer[] input = {1, 3, 2, 2, 5, 4};
+        Integer[] expected = {1, 3, 5};
+        Integer[] result = stalinSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortEmptyArray() {
+        StalinSort stalinSort = new StalinSort();
+        Integer[] input = {};
+        Integer[] expected = {};
+        Integer[] result = stalinSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortSingleElement() {
+        StalinSort stalinSort = new StalinSort();
+        Integer[] input = {42};
+        Integer[] expected = {42};
+        Integer[] result = stalinSort.sort(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e230ac2ac590
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class StoogeSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    protected int getGeneratedArraySize() {
+        return 1000;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new StoogeSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StrandSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StrandSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a7250acf9bec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StrandSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+class StrandSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new StrandSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c1638a385940
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SwapSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+public class SwapSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new SwapSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..38e29d6eadd3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TimSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+class TimSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
+    @Override
+    SortAlgorithm getSortAlgorithm() {
+        return new TimSort();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d5588b2b968e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertIterableEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import com.thealgorithms.sorts.TopologicalSort.Graph;
+import java.util.LinkedList;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class TopologicalSortTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void successTest() {
+        /*
+         * Professor Bumstead example DAG. Each directed edge means that garment u must be put on
+         * before garment v.
+         * */
+        Graph graph = new Graph();
+        graph.addEdge("shirt", "tie", "belt");
+        graph.addEdge("tie", "jacket");
+        graph.addEdge("belt", "jacket");
+        graph.addEdge("watch", "");
+        graph.addEdge("undershorts", "pants", "shoes");
+        graph.addEdge("shoes", "");
+        graph.addEdge("socks", "shoes");
+        graph.addEdge("jacket", "");
+        graph.addEdge("pants", "belt", "shoes");
+        LinkedList<String> expected = new LinkedList<>();
+        expected.add("socks");
+        expected.add("undershorts");
+        expected.add("pants");
+        expected.add("shoes");
+        expected.add("watch");
+        expected.add("shirt");
+        expected.add("belt");
+        expected.add("tie");
+        expected.add("jacket");
+        assertIterableEquals(expected, TopologicalSort.sort(graph));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void failureTest() {
+        /*
+         * Graph example from Geeks For Geeks
+         * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tree-back-edge-and-cross-edges-in-dfs-of-graph/
+         * */
+        Graph graph = new Graph();
+        graph.addEdge("1", "2", "3", "8");
+        graph.addEdge("2", "4");
+        graph.addEdge("3", "5");
+        graph.addEdge("4", "6");
+        graph.addEdge("5", "4", "7", "8");
+        graph.addEdge("6", "2");
+        graph.addEdge("7", "");
+        graph.addEdge("8", "");
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(RuntimeException.class, () -> TopologicalSort.sort(graph));
+        String expected = "This graph contains a cycle. No linear ordering is possible. "
+            + "Back edge: 6 -> 2";
+        assertEquals(exception.getMessage(), expected);
+    }
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyGraph() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph();
+        LinkedList<String> sorted = TopologicalSort.sort(graph);
+        assertTrue(sorted.isEmpty());
+    }
+    @Test
+    void testSingleNode() {
+        Graph graph = new Graph();
+        graph.addEdge("A", "");
+        LinkedList<String> sorted = TopologicalSort.sort(graph);
+        assertEquals(1, sorted.size());
+        assertEquals("A", sorted.getFirst());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5fb4c18e953e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * @author Tabbygray (https://github.com/Tabbygray)
+ * @see TreeSort
+ */
+
+public class TreeSortTest {
+    private TreeSort treeSort = new TreeSort();
+
+    @Test
+    public void treeSortEmptyArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {};
+        Integer[] outputArray = treeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedOutput = {};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedOutput);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void treeSortSingleStringElement() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"Test"};
+        String[] outputArray = treeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedArray = {"Test"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void treeSortStringArray() {
+        String[] inputArray = {"F6w9", "l1qz", "dIxH", "larj", "kRzy", "vnNH", "3ftM", "hc4n", "C5Qi", "btGF"};
+        String[] outputArray = treeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        String[] expectedArray = {"3ftM", "C5Qi", "F6w9", "btGF", "dIxH", "hc4n", "kRzy", "l1qz", "larj", "vnNH"};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void treeSortIntegerArray() {
+        Integer[] inputArray = {-97, -44, -4, -85, -92, 74, 79, -26, 76, -5};
+        Integer[] outputArray = treeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Integer[] expectedArray = {-97, -92, -85, -44, -26, -5, -4, 74, 76, 79};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedArray);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void treeSortDoubleArray() {
+        Double[] inputArray = {0.8047485045, 0.4493112337, 0.8298433723, 0.2691406748, 0.2482782839, 0.5976243420, 0.6746235284, 0.0552623569, 0.3515624123, 0.0536747336};
+        Double[] outputArray = treeSort.sort(inputArray);
+        Double[] expectedArray = {0.0536747336, 0.0552623569, 0.2482782839, 0.2691406748, 0.3515624123, 0.4493112337, 0.5976243420, 0.6746235284, 0.8047485045, 0.8298433723};
+        assertArrayEquals(outputArray, expectedArray);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WaveSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WaveSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3bc6fa63c01d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WaveSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class WaveSortTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("arraysToWaveSort")
+    public void waveSortTest(Integer[] array) {
+        WaveSort waveSort = new WaveSort();
+        final var inputHistogram = getHistogram(array);
+        final var sortedArray = waveSort.sort(array);
+        assertTrue(waveSort.isWaveSorted(sortedArray));
+        final var sortedHistogram = getHistogram(sortedArray);
+        assertEquals(inputHistogram, sortedHistogram, "Element counts do not match");
+    }
+
+    private Map<Integer, Integer> getHistogram(Integer[] array) {
+        Map<Integer, Integer> histogram = new HashMap<>();
+        for (final var element : array) {
+            histogram.put(element, histogram.getOrDefault(element, 0) + 1);
+        }
+        return histogram;
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Object[]> arraysToWaveSort() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {new Integer[] {7, 7, 11, 3, 4, 5, 15}}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1}}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {3, 3, 3, 3}}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {-1, -3, -2, -4, -6, -5}},
+            new Object[] {new Integer[] {5, 3, 1, 2, 9, 7, 6, 8, 4, 0}}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {1}}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {2, 1}}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {1, 2}}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {}}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {0, 5, -3, 2, -1, 4, -2, 1, 3}});
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("waveSortedArrays")
+    public <T extends Comparable<T>> void testIsWaveSorted(T[] array, boolean expected) {
+        final WaveSort waveSort = new WaveSort();
+        assertEquals(expected, waveSort.isWaveSorted(array));
+    }
+    public static Stream<Object[]> waveSortedArrays() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {new Integer[] {3, 1, 4, 2, 5}, Boolean.TRUE}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {3, 1, 4, 2}, Boolean.TRUE}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {1, 3, 2, 4, 5}, Boolean.FALSE}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {4, 3, 5, 2, 3, 1, 2}, Boolean.TRUE},
+            new Object[] {new Integer[] {10, 90, 49, 2, 1, 5, 23}, Boolean.FALSE}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {}, Boolean.TRUE}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {1}, Boolean.TRUE}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {2, 1}, Boolean.TRUE}, new Object[] {new Integer[] {4, 3, 2, 5}, Boolean.FALSE},
+            new Object[] {new Double[] {4.0, 3.0, 5.1, 2.1, 3.3, 1.1, 2.2}, Boolean.TRUE}, new Object[] {new Double[] {10.1, 2.0, 2.0}, Boolean.TRUE}, new Object[] {new String[] {"a", "b", "c", "d"}, Boolean.FALSE}, new Object[] {new String[] {"b", "a", "b", "a", "b"}, Boolean.TRUE});
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSortTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c5d57d63cf38
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSortTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class WiggleSortTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void wiggleTestNumbersEven() {
+        WiggleSort wiggleSort = new WiggleSort();
+        Integer[] values = {1, 2, 3, 4};
+        Integer[] result = {1, 4, 2, 3};
+        wiggleSort.sort(values);
+        assertArrayEquals(values, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void wiggleTestNumbersOdd() {
+        WiggleSort wiggleSort = new WiggleSort();
+        Integer[] values = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+        Integer[] result = {3, 5, 1, 4, 2};
+        wiggleSort.sort(values);
+        assertArrayEquals(values, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void wiggleTestNumbersOddDuplicates() {
+        WiggleSort wiggleSort = new WiggleSort();
+        Integer[] values = {7, 2, 2, 2, 5};
+        Integer[] result = {2, 7, 2, 5, 2};
+        wiggleSort.sort(values);
+        assertArrayEquals(values, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void wiggleTestNumbersOddMultipleDuplicates() {
+        WiggleSort wiggleSort = new WiggleSort();
+        Integer[] values = {1, 1, 2, 2, 5};
+        Integer[] result = {2, 5, 1, 2, 1};
+        wiggleSort.sort(values);
+        assertArrayEquals(values, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void wiggleTestNumbersEvenMultipleDuplicates() {
+        WiggleSort wiggleSort = new WiggleSort();
+        Integer[] values = {1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 5};
+        Integer[] result = {2, 5, 1, 2, 1, 2};
+        wiggleSort.sort(values);
+        System.out.println(Arrays.toString(values));
+        assertArrayEquals(values, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void wiggleTestNumbersEvenDuplicates() {
+        WiggleSort wiggleSort = new WiggleSort();
+        Integer[] values = {1, 2, 4, 4};
+        Integer[] result = {1, 4, 2, 4};
+        wiggleSort.sort(values);
+        assertArrayEquals(values, result);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void wiggleTestStrings() {
+        WiggleSort wiggleSort = new WiggleSort();
+        String[] values = {"a", "b", "d", "c"};
+        String[] result = {"a", "d", "b", "c"};
+        wiggleSort.sort(values);
+        assertArrayEquals(values, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/BalancedBracketsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/BalancedBracketsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..33ef18af9c5f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/BalancedBracketsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class BalancedBracketsTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"(, )", "[, ]", "{, }", "<, >"})
+    void testIsPairedTrue(char opening, char closing) {
+        assertTrue(BalancedBrackets.isPaired(opening, closing));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"(, ]", "[, )", "{, >", "<, )", "a, b", "!, @"})
+    void testIsPairedFalse(char opening, char closing) {
+        assertFalse(BalancedBrackets.isPaired(opening, closing));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'[()]{}{[()()]()}', true", "'()', true", "'[]', true", "'{}', true", "'<>', true", "'[{<>}]', true", "'', true", "'[(])', false", "'([)]', false", "'{[<]>}', false", "'[', false", "')', false", "'[{', false", "']', false", "'[a+b]', false", "'a+b', false"})
+    void testIsBalanced(String input, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, BalancedBrackets.isBalanced(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIsBalancedNull() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> BalancedBrackets.isBalanced(null));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/CelebrityFinderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/CelebrityFinderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..da0217940c2c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/CelebrityFinderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class CelebrityFinderTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("providePartyMatrices")
+    public void testCelebrityFinder(int[][] party, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, CelebrityFinder.findCelebrity(party));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> providePartyMatrices() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Test case 1: Celebrity exists
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{0, 1, 1}, {0, 0, 1}, {0, 0, 0}}, 2),
+
+            // Test case 2: No celebrity
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{0, 1, 0}, {1, 0, 1}, {1, 1, 0}}, -1),
+
+            // Test case 3: Everyone knows each other, no celebrity
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{0, 1, 1}, {1, 0, 1}, {1, 1, 0}}, -1),
+
+            // Test case 4: Single person, they are trivially a celebrity
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{0}}, 0),
+
+            // Test case 5: All know the last person, and they know no one
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{0, 1, 1, 1}, {0, 0, 1, 1}, {0, 0, 0, 1}, {0, 0, 0, 0}}, 3),
+
+            // Test case 6: Larger party with no celebrity
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{0, 1, 1, 0}, {1, 0, 0, 1}, {0, 1, 0, 1}, {1, 1, 1, 0}}, -1),
+
+            // Test case 7: Celebrity at the start of the matrix
+            Arguments.of(new int[][] {{0, 0, 0}, {1, 0, 1}, {1, 1, 0}}, 0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStackTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4bd9f2af0376
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DecimalToAnyUsingStackTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class DecimalToAnyUsingStackTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertToBinary() {
+        assertEquals("0", DecimalToAnyUsingStack.convert(0, 2));
+        assertEquals("11110", DecimalToAnyUsingStack.convert(30, 2));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertToOctal() {
+        assertEquals("36", DecimalToAnyUsingStack.convert(30, 8));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertToDecimal() {
+        assertEquals("30", DecimalToAnyUsingStack.convert(30, 10));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testConvertToHexadecimal() {
+        assertEquals("1E", DecimalToAnyUsingStack.convert(30, 16));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidRadix() {
+        IllegalArgumentException thrown = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DecimalToAnyUsingStack.convert(30, 1));
+        assertEquals("Invalid radix: 1. Radix must be between 2 and 16.", thrown.getMessage());
+
+        thrown = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DecimalToAnyUsingStack.convert(30, 17));
+        assertEquals("Invalid radix: 17. Radix must be between 2 and 16.", thrown.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNegativeNumber() {
+        IllegalArgumentException thrown = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DecimalToAnyUsingStack.convert(-30, 2));
+        assertEquals("Number must be non-negative.", thrown.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DuplicateBracketsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DuplicateBracketsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bc7b3266d98e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/DuplicateBracketsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class DuplicateBracketsTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'((a + b) + (c + d))'", "'(a + b)'", "'a + b'", "'('", "''", "'a + (b * c) - d'", "'(x + y) * (z)'", "'(a + (b - c))'"})
+    void testInputReturnsFalse(String input) {
+        assertFalse(DuplicateBrackets.check(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'(a + b) + ((c + d))'", "'((a + b))'", "'((((a + b)))))'", "'((x))'", "'((a + (b)))'", "'(a + ((b)))'", "'(((a)))'", "'(((())))'"})
+    void testInputReturnsTrue(String input) {
+        assertTrue(DuplicateBrackets.check(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testInvalidInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> DuplicateBrackets.check(null));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Should be true: \"{0}\"")
+    @MethodSource("provideInputsThatShouldReturnTrue")
+    void testDuplicateBracketsTrueCases(String input) {
+        assertTrue(DuplicateBrackets.check(input));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideInputsThatShouldReturnTrue() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("()"), Arguments.of("(( ))"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Should be false: \"{0}\"")
+    @MethodSource("provideInputsThatShouldReturnFalse")
+    void testDuplicateBracketsFalseCases(String input) {
+        assertFalse(DuplicateBrackets.check(input));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideInputsThatShouldReturnFalse() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("( )"), // whitespace inside brackets
+            Arguments.of("abc + def"), // no brackets
+            Arguments.of("(a + (b * c)) - (d / e)") // complex, but no duplicates
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTimeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTimeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..080592dc68e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTimeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class GreatestElementConstantTimeTest {
+
+    private GreatestElementConstantTime constantTime;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setConstantTime() {
+        constantTime = new GreatestElementConstantTime();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMaxAtFirst() {
+        constantTime.push(1);
+        constantTime.push(10);
+        constantTime.push(20);
+        constantTime.push(5);
+        assertEquals(20, constantTime.getMaximumElement());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinTwo() {
+        constantTime.push(5);
+        constantTime.push(10);
+        constantTime.push(20);
+        constantTime.push(1);
+        assertEquals(20, constantTime.getMaximumElement());
+        constantTime.pop();
+        constantTime.pop();
+        assertEquals(10, constantTime.getMaximumElement());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNullMax() {
+        constantTime.push(10);
+        constantTime.push(20);
+        constantTime.pop();
+        constantTime.pop();
+        assertNull(constantTime.getMaximumElement());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBlankHandle() {
+        constantTime.push(10);
+        constantTime.push(1);
+        constantTime.pop();
+        constantTime.pop();
+        assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> constantTime.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPushPopAfterEmpty() {
+        constantTime.push(10);
+        constantTime.push(1);
+        constantTime.pop();
+        constantTime.pop();
+        constantTime.push(5);
+        assertEquals(5, constantTime.getMaximumElement());
+        constantTime.push(1);
+        assertEquals(5, constantTime.getMaximumElement());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPostfixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPostfixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bd63c1ac28f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPostfixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class InfixToPostfixTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideValidExpressions")
+    void testValidExpressions(String infix, String expectedPostfix) {
+        assertEquals(expectedPostfix, InfixToPostfix.infix2PostFix(infix));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideValidExpressions() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("3+2", "32+"), Arguments.of("1+(2+3)", "123++"), Arguments.of("(3+4)*5-6", "34+5*6-"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideInvalidExpressions")
+    void testInvalidExpressions(String infix, String expectedMessage) {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(Exception.class, () -> InfixToPostfix.infix2PostFix(infix));
+        assertEquals(expectedMessage, exception.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideInvalidExpressions() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("((a+b)*c-d", "Invalid expression: unbalanced brackets."));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPrefixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPrefixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..0ea948307336
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/InfixToPrefixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class InfixToPrefixTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideValidExpressions")
+    void testValidExpressions(String infix, String expectedPrefix) {
+        assertEquals(expectedPrefix, InfixToPrefix.infix2Prefix(infix));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyString() {
+        // Assuming that an empty string returns an empty prefix or throws an exception
+        assertEquals("", InfixToPrefix.infix2Prefix(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullValue() {
+        // Assuming that a null input throws a NullPointerException
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> InfixToPrefix.infix2Prefix(null));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideValidExpressions() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("3+2", "+32"), // Simple addition
+            Arguments.of("1+(2+3)", "+1+23"), // Parentheses
+            Arguments.of("(3+4)*5-6", "-*+3456"), // Nested operations
+            Arguments.of("a+b*c", "+a*bc"), // Multiplication precedence
+            Arguments.of("a+b*c/d", "+a/*bcd"), // Division precedence
+            Arguments.of("a+b*c-d", "-+a*bcd"), // Subtraction precedence
+            Arguments.of("a+b*c/d-e", "-+a/*bcde"), // Mixed precedence
+            Arguments.of("a+b*(c-d)", "+a*b-cd"), // Parentheses precedence
+            Arguments.of("a+b*(c-d)/e", "+a/*b-cde") // Mixed precedence with parentheses
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/LargestRectangleTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/LargestRectangleTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fec5d371c106
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/LargestRectangleTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LargestRectangleTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Histogram: {0} → Expected area: {1}")
+    @MethodSource("histogramProvider")
+    void testLargestRectangleHistogram(int[] heights, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, LargestRectangle.largestRectangleHistogram(heights));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> histogramProvider() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 3}, "10"), Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 4}, "4"), Arguments.of(new int[] {4, 4, 4, 4}, "16"), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, "0"), Arguments.of(new int[] {5}, "5"), Arguments.of(new int[] {0, 0, 0}, "0"),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {6, 2, 5, 4, 5, 1, 6}, "12"), Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 3, 1}, "10"), Arguments.of(createLargeArray(10000, 1), "10000"));
+    }
+
+    private static int[] createLargeArray(int size, int value) {
+        int[] arr = new int[size];
+        java.util.Arrays.fill(arr, value);
+        return arr;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStackTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..90887294638f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStackTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.EmptyStackException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MinStackUsingSingleStackTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBasicOperations() {
+        MinStackUsingSingleStack minStack = new MinStackUsingSingleStack();
+
+        minStack.push(3);
+        minStack.push(5);
+        assertEquals(3, minStack.getMin(), "Minimum should be 3");
+
+        minStack.push(2);
+        minStack.push(1);
+        assertEquals(1, minStack.getMin(), "Minimum should be 1");
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertEquals(2, minStack.getMin(), "Minimum should be 2");
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertEquals(3, minStack.getMin(), "Minimum should be 3");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTopElement() {
+        MinStackUsingSingleStack minStack = new MinStackUsingSingleStack();
+
+        minStack.push(8);
+        minStack.push(10);
+        assertEquals(10, minStack.top(), "Top element should be 10");
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertEquals(8, minStack.top(), "Top element should be 8");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMinAfterPops() {
+        MinStackUsingSingleStack minStack = new MinStackUsingSingleStack();
+
+        minStack.push(5);
+        minStack.push(3);
+        minStack.push(7);
+
+        assertEquals(3, minStack.getMin(), "Minimum should be 3");
+
+        minStack.pop(); // Popping 7
+        assertEquals(3, minStack.getMin(), "Minimum should still be 3");
+
+        minStack.pop(); // Popping 3
+        assertEquals(5, minStack.getMin(), "Minimum should now be 5");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEmptyStack() {
+        MinStackUsingSingleStack minStack = new MinStackUsingSingleStack();
+
+        assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, minStack::top, "Should throw exception on top()");
+        assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, minStack::getMin, "Should throw exception on getMin()");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingTwoStacksTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingTwoStacksTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..36bdde49b235
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingTwoStacksTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.EmptyStackException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class MinStackUsingTwoStacksTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBasicOperations() {
+        MinStackUsingTwoStacks minStack = new MinStackUsingTwoStacks();
+        minStack.push(3);
+        minStack.push(5);
+        assertEquals(3, minStack.getMin(), "Min should be 3");
+
+        minStack.push(2);
+        minStack.push(1);
+        assertEquals(1, minStack.getMin(), "Min should be 1");
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertEquals(2, minStack.getMin(), "Min should be 2 after popping 1");
+
+        assertEquals(2, minStack.top(), "Top should be 2");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPushDuplicateMins() {
+        MinStackUsingTwoStacks minStack = new MinStackUsingTwoStacks();
+        minStack.push(2);
+        minStack.push(2);
+        minStack.push(1);
+        minStack.push(1);
+        assertEquals(1, minStack.getMin(), "Min should be 1");
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertEquals(1, minStack.getMin(), "Min should still be 1 after popping one 1");
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertEquals(2, minStack.getMin(), "Min should be 2 after popping both 1s");
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertEquals(2, minStack.getMin(), "Min should still be 2 after popping one 2");
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        // Now stack is empty, expect exception on getMin
+        assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, minStack::getMin);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPopOnEmptyStack() {
+        MinStackUsingTwoStacks minStack = new MinStackUsingTwoStacks();
+        assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, minStack::pop);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testTopOnEmptyStack() {
+        MinStackUsingTwoStacks minStack = new MinStackUsingTwoStacks();
+        assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, minStack::top);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testGetMinOnEmptyStack() {
+        MinStackUsingTwoStacks minStack = new MinStackUsingTwoStacks();
+        assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, minStack::getMin);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSingleElementStack() {
+        MinStackUsingTwoStacks minStack = new MinStackUsingTwoStacks();
+        minStack.push(10);
+        assertEquals(10, minStack.getMin());
+        assertEquals(10, minStack.top());
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, minStack::getMin);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIncreasingSequence() {
+        MinStackUsingTwoStacks minStack = new MinStackUsingTwoStacks();
+        minStack.push(1);
+        minStack.push(2);
+        minStack.push(3);
+        minStack.push(4);
+
+        assertEquals(1, minStack.getMin());
+        assertEquals(4, minStack.top());
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertEquals(1, minStack.getMin());
+        assertEquals(2, minStack.top());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDecreasingSequence() {
+        MinStackUsingTwoStacks minStack = new MinStackUsingTwoStacks();
+        minStack.push(4);
+        minStack.push(3);
+        minStack.push(2);
+        minStack.push(1);
+
+        assertEquals(1, minStack.getMin());
+        assertEquals(1, minStack.top());
+
+        minStack.pop();
+        assertEquals(2, minStack.getMin());
+        assertEquals(2, minStack.top());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextGreaterElementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextGreaterElementTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..bf015ddc9996
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextGreaterElementTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class NextGreaterElementTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testFindNextGreaterElements(int[] input, int[] expected) {
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, NextGreaterElement.findNextGreaterElements(input));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 7, 3, 5, 4, 6, 8}, new int[] {7, 8, 5, 6, 6, 8, 0}), Arguments.of(new int[] {5}, new int[] {0}), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, new int[] {2, 3, 4, 5, 0}), Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}, new int[] {0, 0, 0, 0, 0}),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {4, 5, 2, 25}, new int[] {5, 25, 25, 0}), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, new int[] {}));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> NextGreaterElement.findNextGreaterElements(null));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextSmallerElementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextSmallerElementTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..62578baa6632
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/NextSmallerElementTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class NextSmallerElementTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testFindNextSmallerElements(int[] input, int[] expected) {
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, NextSmallerElement.findNextSmallerElements(input));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 7, 3, 5, 4, 6, 8}, new int[] {-1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 6}), Arguments.of(new int[] {5}, new int[] {-1}), Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, new int[] {-1, 1, 2, 3, 4}), Arguments.of(new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}, new int[] {-1, -1, -1, -1, -1}),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {4, 5, 2, 25}, new int[] {-1, 4, -1, 2}), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, new int[] {}));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindNextSmallerElementsExceptions() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> NextSmallerElement.findNextSmallerElements(null));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStackTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..47b21d5e9e9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStackTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PalindromeWithStackTest {
+
+    private PalindromeWithStack palindromeChecker;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        palindromeChecker = new PalindromeWithStack();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testValidOne() {
+        String testString = "Racecar";
+        assertTrue(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInvalidOne() {
+        String testString = "James";
+        assertFalse(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testValidTwo() {
+        String testString = "madam";
+        assertTrue(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInvalidTwo() {
+        String testString = "pantry";
+        assertFalse(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testValidThree() {
+        String testString = "RaDar";
+        assertTrue(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testInvalidThree() {
+        String testString = "Win";
+        assertFalse(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBlankString() {
+        String testString = "";
+        assertTrue(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStringWithNumbers() {
+        String testString = "12321";
+        assertTrue(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStringWithNumbersTwo() {
+        String testString = "12325";
+        assertFalse(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testStringWithNumbersAndLetters() {
+        String testString = "po454op";
+        assertTrue(palindromeChecker.checkPalindrome(testString));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixEvaluatorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixEvaluatorTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..682240acd752
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixEvaluatorTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.EmptyStackException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class PostfixEvaluatorTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Expression: \"{0}\" → Result: {1}")
+    @CsvSource({"'5 6 + 2 *', 22", "'7 2 + 3 *', 27", "'10 5 / 1 +', 3", "'8', 8", "'3 4 +', 7"})
+    @DisplayName("Valid postfix expressions")
+    void testValidExpressions(String expression, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, PostfixEvaluator.evaluatePostfix(expression));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should throw EmptyStackException for incomplete expression")
+    void testInvalidExpression() {
+        assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, () -> PostfixEvaluator.evaluatePostfix("5 +"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should throw IllegalArgumentException for extra operands")
+    void testExtraOperands() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PostfixEvaluator.evaluatePostfix("5 6 + 2 * 3"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should throw ArithmeticException for division by zero")
+    void testDivisionByZero() {
+        assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> PostfixEvaluator.evaluatePostfix("1 0 /"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should throw IllegalArgumentException for invalid characters")
+    void testInvalidToken() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PostfixEvaluator.evaluatePostfix("1 a +"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a018865e69ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class PostfixToInfixTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideValidPostfixToInfixTestCases")
+    void testValidPostfixToInfixConversion(String postfix, String expectedInfix) {
+        assertEquals(expectedInfix, PostfixToInfix.getPostfixToInfix(postfix));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideValidPostfixToInfixTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("A", "A"), Arguments.of("ABC+/", "(A/(B+C))"), Arguments.of("AB+CD+*", "((A+B)*(C+D))"), Arguments.of("AB+C+D+", "(((A+B)+C)+D)"), Arguments.of("ABCDE^*/-", "(A-(B/(C*(D^E))))"), Arguments.of("AB+CD^/E*FGH+-^", "((((A+B)/(C^D))*E)^(F-(G+H)))"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyPostfixExpression() {
+        assertEquals("", PostfixToInfix.getPostfixToInfix(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullPostfixExpression() {
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> PostfixToInfix.getPostfixToInfix(null));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixEvaluatorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixEvaluatorTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ba67163fd49e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixEvaluatorTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.EmptyStackException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class PrefixEvaluatorTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Expression: \"{0}\" → Result: {1}")
+    @CsvSource({"'+ * 2 3 4', 10", "'- + 7 3 5', 5", "'/ * 3 2 1', 6"})
+    void testValidExpressions(String expression, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, PrefixEvaluator.evaluatePrefix(expression));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should throw EmptyStackException for incomplete expression")
+    void testInvalidExpression() {
+        assertThrows(EmptyStackException.class, () -> PrefixEvaluator.evaluatePrefix("+ 3"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Should throw IllegalArgumentException if stack not reduced to one result")
+    void testMoreThanOneStackSizeAfterEvaluation() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> PrefixEvaluator.evaluatePrefix("+ 3 4 5"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..83fd09e1bbf6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class PrefixToInfixTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideValidPrefixToInfixTestCases")
+    void testValidPrefixToInfixConversion(String prefix, String expectedInfix) {
+        assertEquals(expectedInfix, PrefixToInfix.getPrefixToInfix(prefix));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideValidPrefixToInfixTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("A", "A"), // Single operand
+            Arguments.of("+AB", "(A+B)"), // Addition
+            Arguments.of("*+ABC", "((A+B)*C)"), // Addition and multiplication
+            Arguments.of("-+A*BCD", "((A+(B*C))-D)"), // Mixed operators
+            Arguments.of("/-A*BC+DE", "((A-(B*C))/(D+E))"), // Mixed operators
+            Arguments.of("^+AB*CD", "((A+B)^(C*D))") // Mixed operators
+        );
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyPrefixExpression() {
+        assertEquals("", PrefixToInfix.getPrefixToInfix(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullPrefixExpression() {
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> PrefixToInfix.getPrefixToInfix(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testMalformedPrefixExpression() {
+        assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> PrefixToInfix.getPrefixToInfix("+ABC"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTimeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTimeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b5eda9e8cb46
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTimeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SmallestElementConstantTimeTest {
+
+    private SmallestElementConstantTime sect;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setSect() {
+        sect = new SmallestElementConstantTime();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinAtFirst() {
+        sect.push(1);
+        sect.push(10);
+        sect.push(20);
+        sect.push(5);
+        assertEquals(1, sect.getMinimumElement());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testMinTwo() {
+        sect.push(5);
+        sect.push(10);
+        sect.push(20);
+        sect.push(1);
+        assertEquals(1, sect.getMinimumElement());
+        sect.pop();
+        assertEquals(5, sect.getMinimumElement());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNullMin() {
+        sect.push(10);
+        sect.push(20);
+        sect.pop();
+        sect.pop();
+        assertNull(sect.getMinimumElement());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBlankHandle() {
+        sect.push(10);
+        sect.push(1);
+        sect.pop();
+        sect.pop();
+        assertThrows(NoSuchElementException.class, () -> sect.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPushPopAfterEmpty() {
+        sect.push(10);
+        sect.push(1);
+        sect.pop();
+        sect.pop();
+        sect.push(5);
+        assertEquals(5, sect.getMinimumElement());
+        sect.push(1);
+        assertEquals(1, sect.getMinimumElement());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStackTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9747af5337e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStackTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,260 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.Stack;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class SortStackTest {
+
+    private Stack<Integer> stack;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        stack = new Stack<>();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortEmptyStack() {
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty()); // An empty stack should remain empty
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortSingleElementStack() {
+        stack.push(10);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+        assertEquals(1, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(10, (int) stack.peek()); // Single element should remain unchanged
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortAlreadySortedStack() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(4);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(4, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(4, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortUnsortedStack() {
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(4);
+        stack.push(2);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(4, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(4, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortWithDuplicateElements() {
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(2);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(4, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortReverseSortedStack() {
+        // Test worst case scenario - completely reverse sorted
+        stack.push(5);
+        stack.push(4);
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(1);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(5, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(5, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(4, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortWithAllSameElements() {
+        // Test stack with all identical elements
+        stack.push(7);
+        stack.push(7);
+        stack.push(7);
+        stack.push(7);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(4, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(7, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(7, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(7, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(7, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortWithNegativeNumbers() {
+        // Test with negative numbers
+        stack.push(-3);
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(-5);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(-1);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(5, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(-1, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(-3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(-5, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortWithAllNegativeNumbers() {
+        // Test with only negative numbers
+        stack.push(-10);
+        stack.push(-5);
+        stack.push(-15);
+        stack.push(-1);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(4, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(-1, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(-5, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(-10, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(-15, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortWithZero() {
+        // Test with zero included
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(0);
+        stack.push(-2);
+        stack.push(1);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(4, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(0, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(-2, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortLargerStack() {
+        // Test with a larger number of elements
+        int[] values = {15, 3, 9, 1, 12, 6, 18, 4, 11, 8};
+        for (int value : values) {
+            stack.push(value);
+        }
+
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(10, stack.size());
+
+        // Verify sorted order (largest to smallest when popping)
+        int[] expectedOrder = {18, 15, 12, 11, 9, 8, 6, 4, 3, 1};
+        for (int expected : expectedOrder) {
+            assertEquals(expected, (int) stack.pop());
+        }
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortTwoElements() {
+        // Test edge case with exactly two elements
+        stack.push(5);
+        stack.push(2);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(2, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(5, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortTwoElementsAlreadySorted() {
+        // Test two elements already in correct order
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(5);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(2, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(5, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortStackWithMinAndMaxValues() {
+        // Test with Integer.MAX_VALUE and Integer.MIN_VALUE
+        stack.push(0);
+        stack.push(Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+        stack.push(Integer.MIN_VALUE);
+        stack.push(100);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(4, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(100, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(0, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(Integer.MIN_VALUE, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSortWithManyDuplicates() {
+        // Test with multiple sets of duplicates
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        assertEquals(7, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testOriginalStackIsModified() {
+        // Verify that the original stack is modified, not a copy
+        Stack<Integer> originalReference = stack;
+        stack.push(3);
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+
+        SortStack.sortStack(stack);
+
+        // Verify it's the same object reference
+        assertTrue(stack == originalReference);
+        assertEquals(3, stack.size());
+        assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, (int) stack.pop());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackPostfixNotationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackPostfixNotationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..97424a8f291d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackPostfixNotationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class StackPostfixNotationTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideValidTestCases")
+    void testEvaluate(String expression, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, StackPostfixNotation.postfixEvaluate(expression));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideValidTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("1 1 +", 2), Arguments.of("2 3 *", 6), Arguments.of("6 2 /", 3), Arguments.of("-5 -2 -", -3), Arguments.of("5 2 + 3 *", 21), Arguments.of("-5", -5));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideInvalidTestCases")
+    void testEvaluateThrowsException(String expression) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> StackPostfixNotation.postfixEvaluate(expression));
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideInvalidTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(""), Arguments.of("3 3 3"), Arguments.of("3 3 !"), Arguments.of("+"), Arguments.of("2 +"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackUsingTwoQueuesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackUsingTwoQueuesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a7e24421e682
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/StackUsingTwoQueuesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class StackUsingTwoQueuesTest {
+
+    private StackUsingTwoQueues stack;
+
+    @BeforeEach
+    public void setUp() {
+        stack = new StackUsingTwoQueues();
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPushAndPeek() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        assertEquals(3, stack.peek());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPop() {
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        stack.push(3);
+        assertEquals(3, stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(2, stack.pop());
+        assertEquals(1, stack.pop());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPeek() {
+        stack.push(10);
+        stack.push(20);
+        assertEquals(20, stack.peek());
+        stack.pop();
+        assertEquals(10, stack.peek());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testIsEmpty() {
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+        stack.push(1);
+        assertFalse(stack.isEmpty());
+        stack.pop();
+        assertTrue(stack.isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testSize() {
+        assertEquals(0, stack.size());
+        stack.push(1);
+        stack.push(2);
+        assertEquals(2, stack.size());
+        stack.pop();
+        assertEquals(1, stack.size());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPeekEmptyStack() {
+        assertNull(stack.peek());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AhoCorasickTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AhoCorasickTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..43137b358cf9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AhoCorasickTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+/*
+ * Tests For Aho-Corasick String Matching Algorithm
+ *
+ *            Author: Prabhat-Kumar-42
+ *    GitHub: https://github.com/Prabhat-Kumar-42
+ */
+
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Map;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+/**
+ * This class contains test cases for the Aho-Corasick String Matching Algorithm.
+ * The Aho-Corasick algorithm is used to efficiently find all occurrences of multiple
+ * patterns in a given text.
+ */
+class AhoCorasickTest {
+    private String[] patterns; // The array of patterns to search for
+    private String text; // The input text to search within
+
+    /**
+     * This method sets up the test environment before each test case.
+     * It initializes the patterns and text to be used for testing.
+     */
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        patterns = new String[] {"ACC", "ATC", "CAT", "GCG", "C", "T"};
+        text = "GCATCG";
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for multiple patterns in the input text.
+     * The expected results are defined for each pattern.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSearch() {
+        // Define the expected results for each pattern
+        final var expected = Map.of("ACC", new ArrayList<>(List.of()), "ATC", new ArrayList<>(List.of(2)), "CAT", new ArrayList<>(List.of(1)), "GCG", new ArrayList<>(List.of()), "C", new ArrayList<>(List.of(1, 4)), "T", new ArrayList<>(List.of(3)));
+        assertEquals(expected, AhoCorasick.search(text, patterns));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching with an empty pattern array.
+     * The result should be an empty map.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyPatterns() {
+        // Define an empty pattern array
+        final var emptyPatterns = new String[] {};
+        assertTrue(AhoCorasick.search(text, emptyPatterns).isEmpty());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for patterns that are not present in the input text.
+     * The result should be an empty list for each pattern.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testPatternNotFound() {
+        // Define patterns that are not present in the text
+        final var searchPatterns = new String[] {"XYZ", "123"};
+        final var expected = Map.of("XYZ", new ArrayList<Integer>(), "123", new ArrayList<Integer>());
+        assertEquals(expected, AhoCorasick.search(text, searchPatterns));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for patterns that start at the beginning of the input text.
+     * The expected position for each pattern is 0.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testPatternAtBeginning() {
+        // Define patterns that start at the beginning of the text
+        final var searchPatterns = new String[] {"GC", "GCA", "GCAT"};
+        final var expected = Map.of("GC", new ArrayList<>(List.of(0)), "GCA", new ArrayList<>(List.of(0)), "GCAT", new ArrayList<>(List.of(0)));
+        assertEquals(expected, AhoCorasick.search(text, searchPatterns));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for patterns that end at the end of the input text.
+     * The expected positions are 4, 3, and 2 for the patterns.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testPatternAtEnd() {
+        // Define patterns that end at the end of the text
+        final var searchPatterns = new String[] {"CG", "TCG", "ATCG"};
+        final var expected = Map.of("CG", new ArrayList<>(List.of(4)), "TCG", new ArrayList<>(List.of(3)), "ATCG", new ArrayList<>(List.of(2)));
+        assertEquals(expected, AhoCorasick.search(text, searchPatterns));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for patterns with multiple occurrences in the input text.
+     * The expected sizes are 1 and 1, and the expected positions are 2 and 3
+     * for the patterns "AT" and "T" respectively.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testMultipleOccurrencesOfPattern() {
+        // Define patterns with multiple occurrences in the text
+        final var searchPatterns = new String[] {"AT", "T"};
+        final var expected = Map.of("AT", new ArrayList<>(List.of(2)), "T", new ArrayList<>(List.of(3)));
+        assertEquals(expected, AhoCorasick.search(text, searchPatterns));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test searching for patterns in a case-insensitive manner.
+     * The search should consider patterns regardless of their case.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testCaseInsensitiveSearch() {
+        // Define patterns with different cases
+        final var searchPatterns = new String[] {"gca", "aTc", "C"};
+        final var expected = Map.of("gca", new ArrayList<Integer>(), "aTc", new ArrayList<Integer>(), "C", new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(1, 4)));
+        assertEquals(expected, AhoCorasick.search(text, searchPatterns));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlphabeticalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlphabeticalTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7b41e11ef22f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlphabeticalTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class AlphabeticalTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "\"{0}\" → Expected: {1}")
+    @CsvSource({"'abcdefghijklmno', true", "'abcdxxxyzzzz', true", "'123a', false", "'abcABC', false", "'abcdefghikjlmno', false", "'aBC', true", "'abc', true", "'xyzabc', false", "'abcxyz', true", "'', false", "'1', false"})
+    void testIsAlphabetical(String input, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Alphabetical.isAlphabetical(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlternativeStringArrangeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlternativeStringArrangeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9e8ae9e9f153
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AlternativeStringArrangeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class AlternativeStringArrangeTest {
+
+    // Method to provide test data
+    private static Stream<Object[]> provideTestData() {
+        return Stream.of(new Object[] {"abc", "12345", "a1b2c345"}, new Object[] {"abcd", "12", "a1b2cd"}, new Object[] {"", "123", "123"}, new Object[] {"abc", "", "abc"}, new Object[] {"a", "1", "a1"}, new Object[] {"ab", "12", "a1b2"}, new Object[] {"abcdef", "123", "a1b2c3def"},
+            new Object[] {"ab", "123456", "a1b23456"});
+    }
+
+    // Parameterized test using the provided test data
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "{0} and {1} should return {2}")
+    @MethodSource("provideTestData")
+    void arrangeTest(String input1, String input2, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, AlternativeStringArrange.arrange(input1, input2));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AnagramsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AnagramsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fa8ea72f2b8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/AnagramsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class AnagramsTest {
+
+    record AnagramTestCase(String input1, String input2, boolean expected) {
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<AnagramTestCase> anagramTestData() {
+        return Stream.of(new AnagramTestCase("late", "tale", true), new AnagramTestCase("late", "teal", true), new AnagramTestCase("listen", "silent", true), new AnagramTestCase("hello", "olelh", true), new AnagramTestCase("hello", "world", false), new AnagramTestCase("deal", "lead", true),
+            new AnagramTestCase("binary", "brainy", true), new AnagramTestCase("adobe", "abode", true), new AnagramTestCase("cat", "act", true), new AnagramTestCase("cat", "cut", false), new AnagramTestCase("Listen", "Silent", true), new AnagramTestCase("Dormitory", "DirtyRoom", true),
+            new AnagramTestCase("Schoolmaster", "TheClassroom", true), new AnagramTestCase("Astronomer", "MoonStarer", true), new AnagramTestCase("Conversation", "VoicesRantOn", true));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("anagramTestData")
+    void testApproach1(AnagramTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), Anagrams.areAnagramsBySorting(testCase.input1(), testCase.input2()));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("anagramTestData")
+    void testApproach2(AnagramTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), Anagrams.areAnagramsByCountingChars(testCase.input1(), testCase.input2()));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("anagramTestData")
+    void testApproach3(AnagramTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), Anagrams.areAnagramsByCountingCharsSingleArray(testCase.input1(), testCase.input2()));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("anagramTestData")
+    void testApproach4(AnagramTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), Anagrams.areAnagramsUsingHashMap(testCase.input1(), testCase.input2()));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("anagramTestData")
+    void testApproach5(AnagramTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), Anagrams.areAnagramsBySingleFreqArray(testCase.input1(), testCase.input2()));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSameTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSameTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..98f822c4d345
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSameTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class CharactersSameTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"aaa, true", "abc, false", "'1  1  1  1', false", "111, true", "'', true", "'           ', true", "'.       ', false", "'a', true", "'  ', true", "'ab', false", "'11111', true", "'ababab', false", "'       ', true", "'+++', true"})
+    void testIsAllCharactersSame(String input, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(CharactersSame.isAllCharactersSame(input), expected);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowelsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowelsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..ba510aa8e995
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowelsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class CheckVowelsTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'foo', true", "'bar', true", "'why', false", "'myths', false", "'', false", "'AEIOU', true", "'bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyz', false", "'AeIoU', true"})
+    void testHasVowels(String input, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(CheckVowels.hasVowels(input), expected);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountCharTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountCharTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c84f2d01c2c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountCharTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+class CountCharTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "\"{0}\" should have {1} non-whitespace characters")
+    @CsvSource({"'', 0", "'   ', 0", "'a', 1", "'abc', 3", "'a b c', 3", "'   a   b   c   ', 3", "'\tabc\n', 3", "'  a   b\tc  ', 3", "' 12345 ', 5", "'Hello, World!', 12"})
+    @DisplayName("Test countCharacters with various inputs")
+    void testCountCharacters(String input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, CountChar.countCharacters(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    @DisplayName("Test countCharacters with null input")
+    void testCountCharactersNullInput() {
+        assertEquals(0, CountChar.countCharacters(null));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountWordsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountWordsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..a8aca1ae6092
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CountWordsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class CountWordsTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("wordCountTestCases")
+    void testWordCount(String input, int expectedCount) {
+        assertEquals(expectedCount, CountWords.wordCount(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("secondaryWordCountTestCases")
+    void testSecondaryWordCount(String input, int expectedCount) {
+        assertEquals(expectedCount, CountWords.secondaryWordCount(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> wordCountTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("", 0), Arguments.of(null, 0), Arguments.of("aaaa bbb cccc", 3), Arguments.of("note  extra     spaces   here", 4), Arguments.of(" a  b c d  e    ", 5));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> secondaryWordCountTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("", 0), Arguments.of(null, 0), Arguments.of("aaaa bbb cccc", 3), Arguments.of("this-is-one-word!", 1), Arguments.of("What, about, this? Hmmm----strange", 4), Arguments.of("word1 word-2 word-3- w?o,r.d.@!@#$&*()<>4", 4));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HammingDistanceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HammingDistanceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5c0640348404
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HammingDistanceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class HammingDistanceTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'', '', 0", "'java', 'java', 0", "'karolin', 'kathrin', 3", "'kathrin', 'kerstin', 4", "'00000', '11111', 5", "'10101', '10100', 1"})
+    void testHammingDistance(String s1, String s2, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, HammingDistance.calculateHammingDistance(s1, s2));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideNullInputs")
+    void testHammingDistanceWithNullInputs(String input1, String input2) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HammingDistance.calculateHammingDistance(input1, input2));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideNullInputs() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(null, "abc"), Arguments.of("abc", null), Arguments.of(null, null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNotEqualStringLengths() {
+        Exception exception = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> HammingDistance.calculateHammingDistance("ab", "abc"));
+        assertEquals("String lengths must be equal", exception.getMessage());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearchTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearchTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9649a89a3325
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearchTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class HorspoolSearchTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstMatch() {
+        int index = HorspoolSearch.findFirst("World", "Hello World");
+        assertEquals(6, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstNotMatch() {
+        int index = HorspoolSearch.findFirst("hell", "Hello World");
+        assertEquals(-1, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstPatternLongerText() {
+        int index = HorspoolSearch.findFirst("Hello World!!!", "Hello World");
+        assertEquals(-1, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstPatternEmpty() {
+        int index = HorspoolSearch.findFirst("", "Hello World");
+        assertEquals(-1, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstTextEmpty() {
+        int index = HorspoolSearch.findFirst("Hello", "");
+        assertEquals(-1, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstPatternAndTextEmpty() {
+        int index = HorspoolSearch.findFirst("", "");
+        assertEquals(-1, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstSpecialCharacter() {
+        int index = HorspoolSearch.findFirst("$3**", "Hello $3**$ World");
+        assertEquals(6, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstInsensitiveMatch() {
+        int index = HorspoolSearch.findFirstInsensitive("hello", "Hello World");
+        assertEquals(0, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstInsensitiveNotMatch() {
+        int index = HorspoolSearch.findFirstInsensitive("helo", "Hello World");
+        assertEquals(-1, index);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetLastComparisons() {
+        HorspoolSearch.findFirst("World", "Hello World");
+        int lastSearchNumber = HorspoolSearch.getLastComparisons();
+        assertEquals(7, lastSearchNumber);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testGetLastComparisonsNotMatch() {
+        HorspoolSearch.findFirst("Word", "Hello World");
+        int lastSearchNumber = HorspoolSearch.getLastComparisons();
+        assertEquals(3, lastSearchNumber);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstPatternNull() {
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> HorspoolSearch.findFirst(null, "Hello World"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFindFirstTextNull() {
+        assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> HorspoolSearch.findFirst("Hello", null));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/IsogramTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/IsogramTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9dd844dc7cf9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/IsogramTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class IsogramTest {
+
+    record IsogramTestCase(String input, boolean expected) {
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<IsogramTestCase> isAlphabeticIsogram() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Valid isograms (only checks letters)
+            new IsogramTestCase("uncopyrightable", true), new IsogramTestCase("dermatoglyphics", true), new IsogramTestCase("background", true), new IsogramTestCase("python", true), new IsogramTestCase("keyboard", true), new IsogramTestCase("clipboard", true), new IsogramTestCase("flowchart", true),
+            new IsogramTestCase("bankruptcy", true), new IsogramTestCase("computer", true), new IsogramTestCase("algorithms", true),
+
+            // Not isograms - letters repeat
+            new IsogramTestCase("hello", false), new IsogramTestCase("programming", false), new IsogramTestCase("java", false), new IsogramTestCase("coffee", false), new IsogramTestCase("book", false), new IsogramTestCase("letter", false), new IsogramTestCase("mississippi", false),
+            new IsogramTestCase("google", false),
+
+            // Edge cases
+            new IsogramTestCase("", true), new IsogramTestCase("a", true), new IsogramTestCase("ab", true), new IsogramTestCase("abc", true), new IsogramTestCase("aa", false), new IsogramTestCase("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz", true),
+
+            // Case insensitive
+            new IsogramTestCase("Python", true), new IsogramTestCase("BACKGROUND", true), new IsogramTestCase("Hello", false), new IsogramTestCase("PROGRAMMING", false));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<IsogramTestCase> isFullIsogram() {
+        return Stream.of(
+            // Valid isograms (checks all characters)
+            new IsogramTestCase("uncopyrightable", true), new IsogramTestCase("dermatoglyphics", true), new IsogramTestCase("background", true), new IsogramTestCase("python", true), new IsogramTestCase("keyboard", true), new IsogramTestCase("clipboard", true), new IsogramTestCase("flowchart", true),
+            new IsogramTestCase("bankruptcy", true), new IsogramTestCase("computer", true), new IsogramTestCase("algorithms", true),
+
+            // Not isograms - characters repeat
+            new IsogramTestCase("hello", false), new IsogramTestCase("programming", false), new IsogramTestCase("java", false), new IsogramTestCase("coffee", false), new IsogramTestCase("book", false), new IsogramTestCase("letter", false), new IsogramTestCase("mississippi", false),
+            new IsogramTestCase("google", false),
+
+            // Edge cases
+            new IsogramTestCase("", true), new IsogramTestCase("a", true), new IsogramTestCase("ab", true), new IsogramTestCase("abc", true), new IsogramTestCase("aa", false), new IsogramTestCase("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz", true),
+
+            // Case insensitive
+            new IsogramTestCase("Python", true), new IsogramTestCase("BACKGROUND", true), new IsogramTestCase("Hello", false), new IsogramTestCase("PROGRAMMING", false),
+
+            // Strings with symbols and numbers
+            new IsogramTestCase("abc@def", true), // all characters unique
+            new IsogramTestCase("test-case", false), // 't', 's', 'e' repeat
+            new IsogramTestCase("python123", true), // all characters unique
+            new IsogramTestCase("hello@123", false), // 'l' repeats
+            new IsogramTestCase("abc123!@#", true), // all characters unique
+            new IsogramTestCase("test123test", false), // 't', 'e', 's' repeat
+            new IsogramTestCase("1234567890", true), // all digits unique
+            new IsogramTestCase("12321", false), // '1' and '2' repeat
+            new IsogramTestCase("!@#$%^&*()", true) // all special characters unique
+        );
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("isAlphabeticIsogram")
+    void testIsogramByArray(IsogramTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), Isogram.isAlphabeticIsogram(testCase.input()));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("isFullIsogram")
+    void testIsogramByLength(IsogramTestCase testCase) {
+        assertEquals(testCase.expected(), Isogram.isFullIsogram(testCase.input()));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInputByArray() {
+        assertTrue(Isogram.isAlphabeticIsogram(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInputByLength() {
+        assertTrue(Isogram.isFullIsogram(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyStringByArray() {
+        assertTrue(Isogram.isAlphabeticIsogram(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyStringByLength() {
+        assertTrue(Isogram.isFullIsogram(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testAlphabeticIsogramThrowsException() {
+        // Test that IllegalArgumentException is thrown for non-alphabetic characters
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Isogram.isAlphabeticIsogram("1"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Isogram.isAlphabeticIsogram("@"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Isogram.isAlphabeticIsogram("python!"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Isogram.isAlphabeticIsogram("123algorithm"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Isogram.isAlphabeticIsogram("hello123"));
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> Isogram.isAlphabeticIsogram("!@@#$%^&*()"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testFullIsogramWithMixedCharacters() {
+        // Test that full isogram method handles all character types without exceptions
+        assertTrue(Isogram.isFullIsogram("abc123"));
+        assertFalse(Isogram.isFullIsogram("test@email")); // 'e' repeats
+        assertFalse(Isogram.isFullIsogram("hello123")); // 'l' repeats
+        assertTrue(Isogram.isFullIsogram("1234567890"));
+        assertFalse(Isogram.isFullIsogram("12321")); // '1' and '2' repeat
+        assertTrue(Isogram.isFullIsogram("!@#$%^&*()"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/IsomorphicTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/IsomorphicTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5c3ed89b65d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/IsomorphicTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public final class IsomorphicTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputs")
+    public void testCheckStrings(String str1, String str2, Boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Isomorphic.areIsomorphic(str1, str2));
+        assertEquals(expected, Isomorphic.areIsomorphic(str2, str1));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputs() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("", "", Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of("", "a", Boolean.FALSE), Arguments.of("aaa", "aa", Boolean.FALSE), Arguments.of("abbbbaac", "kffffkkd", Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of("xyxyxy", "bnbnbn", Boolean.TRUE), Arguments.of("ghjknnmm", "wertpopo", Boolean.FALSE),
+            Arguments.of("aaammmnnn", "ggghhhbbj", Boolean.FALSE));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumberTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumberTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dcdb7d5b3392
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumberTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumberTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    public void testLetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber(int[] numbers, List<String> expectedOutput) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber.getCombinations(numbers));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("wrongInputs")
+    void throwsForWrongInput(int[] numbers) {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> LetterCombinationsOfPhoneNumber.getCombinations(numbers));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(null, List.of("")), Arguments.of(new int[] {}, List.of("")), Arguments.of(new int[] {2}, List.of("a", "b", "c")), Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 3}, List.of("ad", "ae", "af", "bd", "be", "bf", "cd", "ce", "cf")),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 3, 4}, List.of("adg", "adh", "adi", "aeg", "aeh", "aei", "afg", "afh", "afi", "bdg", "bdh", "bdi", "beg", "beh", "bei", "bfg", "bfh", "bfi", "cdg", "cdh", "cdi", "ceg", "ceh", "cei", "cfg", "cfh", "cfi")),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {3, 3}, List.of("dd", "de", "df", "ed", "ee", "ef", "fd", "fe", "ff")), Arguments.of(new int[] {8, 4}, List.of("tg", "th", "ti", "ug", "uh", "ui", "vg", "vh", "vi")), Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 0}, List.of("a ", "b ", "c ")),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {9, 2}, List.of("wa", "wb", "wc", "xa", "xb", "xc", "ya", "yb", "yc", "za", "zb", "zc")), Arguments.of(new int[] {0}, List.of(" ")), Arguments.of(new int[] {1}, List.of("")), Arguments.of(new int[] {2}, List.of("a", "b", "c")),
+            Arguments.of(new int[] {1, 2, 0, 4}, List.of("a g", "a h", "a i", "b g", "b h", "b i", "c g", "c h", "c i")));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> wrongInputs() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new int[] {-1}), Arguments.of(new int[] {10}), Arguments.of(new int[] {2, 2, -1, 0}), Arguments.of(new int[] {0, 0, 0, 10}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestCommonPrefixTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestCommonPrefixTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..84e54f75e8cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestCommonPrefixTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LongestCommonPrefixTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "{index} => input={0}, expected=\"{1}\"")
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    @DisplayName("Test Longest Common Prefix")
+    void testLongestCommonPrefix(String[] input, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, LongestCommonPrefix.longestCommonPrefix(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of(new String[] {"flower", "flow", "flight"}, "fl"), Arguments.of(new String[] {"dog", "racecar", "car"}, ""), Arguments.of(new String[] {}, ""), Arguments.of(null, ""), Arguments.of(new String[] {"single"}, "single"), Arguments.of(new String[] {"ab", "a"}, "a"),
+            Arguments.of(new String[] {"test", "test", "test"}, "test"), Arguments.of(new String[] {"abcde", "abcfgh", "abcmnop"}, "abc"), Arguments.of(new String[] {"Flower", "flow", "flight"}, ""));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstringTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..791c4ba3ae32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstringTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class LongestNonRepetitiveSubstringTest {
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("", 0), Arguments.of("a", 1), Arguments.of("abcde", 5), Arguments.of("aaaaa", 1), Arguments.of("abca", 3), Arguments.of("abcdeabc", 5), Arguments.of("a1b2c3", 6), Arguments.of("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ1234567890", 62),
+            Arguments.of("aabb", 2), Arguments.of("abcdefghijabc", 10));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testLengthOfLongestSubstring(String input, int expectedLength) {
+        assertEquals(expectedLength, LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring.lengthOfLongestSubstring(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstringTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..aa13c0f4a474
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestPalindromicSubstringTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class LongestPalindromicSubstringTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCasesForLongestPalindrome")
+    void testLongestPalindrome(String input, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, LongestPalindromicSubstring.longestPalindrome(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCasesForLongestPalindrome() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("babad", "bab"), Arguments.of("cbbd", "bb"), Arguments.of("a", "a"), Arguments.of("", ""), Arguments.of("abc", "a"), Arguments.of(null, ""), Arguments.of("aaaaa", "aaaaa"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LowerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LowerTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e0abb921a593
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LowerTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class LowerTest {
+    @Test
+    public void toLowerCase() {
+        String input1 = "hello world";
+        String input2 = "HelLO WoRld";
+        String input3 = "HELLO WORLD";
+
+        assertEquals("hello world", Lower.toLowerCase(input1));
+        assertEquals("hello world", Lower.toLowerCase(input2));
+        assertEquals("hello world", Lower.toLowerCase(input3));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ManacherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ManacherTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..dc74df31b866
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ManacherTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class ManacherTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCasesForLongestPalindrome")
+    public void testLongestPalindrome(String input, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Manacher.longestPalindrome(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCasesForLongestPalindrome() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("abracadabraabcdefggfedcbaabracadabra", "aabcdefggfedcbaa"), Arguments.of("somelongtextwithracecarmiddletext", "racecar"), Arguments.of("bananananananana", "ananananananana"), Arguments.of("qwertydefgfedzxcvbnm", "defgfed"),
+            Arguments.of("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcba", "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcba"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCasesForEmptyAndSingle")
+    public void testEmptyAndSingle(String input, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Manacher.longestPalindrome(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCasesForEmptyAndSingle() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("", ""), Arguments.of("a", "a"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCasesForComplexCases")
+    public void testComplexCases(String input, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Manacher.longestPalindrome(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCasesForComplexCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzttattarrattatabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz", "tattarrattat"), Arguments.of("aaaaabaaaaacbaaaaa", "aaaaabaaaaa"), Arguments.of("sometextrandomabcdefgabcdefghhgfedcbahijklmnopqrstuvwxyz", "abcdefghhgfedcba"),
+            Arguments.of("therewasasignthatsaidmadaminedenimadamitwasthereallalong", "madaminedenimadam"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCasesForSentencePalindromes")
+    public void testSentencePalindromes(String input, String expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, Manacher.longestPalindrome(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCasesForSentencePalindromes() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("XThisisalongtextbuthiddeninsideisAmanaplanacanalPanamaWhichweknowisfamous", "lanacanal"), Arguments.of("AverylongstringthatcontainsNeveroddoreveninahiddenmanner", "everoddoreve"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoiTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoiTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..8d2354910e2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoiTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class MyAtoiTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'42', 42", "'   -42', -42", "'4193 with words', 4193", "'words and 987', 0", "'-91283472332', -2147483648", "'21474836460', 2147483647", "'   +123', 123", "'', 0", "'    ', 0", "'-2147483648', -2147483648", "'+2147483647', 2147483647", "'   -0012a42', -12",
+        "'9223372036854775808', 2147483647", "'-9223372036854775809', -2147483648", "'3.14159', 3", "'  -0012', -12", "'  0000000000012345678', 12345678", "'  -0000000000012345678', -12345678", "'  +0000000000012345678', 12345678", "'0', 0", "'+0', 0", "'-0', 0"})
+    void
+    testMyAtoi(String input, int expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, MyAtoi.myAtoi(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInput() {
+        assertEquals(0, MyAtoi.myAtoi(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSinglePlus() {
+        assertEquals(0, MyAtoi.myAtoi("+"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleMinus() {
+        assertEquals(0, MyAtoi.myAtoi("-"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIntegerMinBoundary() {
+        assertEquals(Integer.MIN_VALUE, MyAtoi.myAtoi("-2147483648"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testIntegerMaxBoundary() {
+        assertEquals(Integer.MAX_VALUE, MyAtoi.myAtoi("2147483647"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PalindromeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PalindromeTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d839e381c6dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PalindromeTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class PalindromeTest {
+    private static Stream<TestData> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new TestData(null, true), new TestData("", true), new TestData("aba", true), new TestData("123321", true), new TestData("kayak", true), new TestData("abb", false), new TestData("abc", false), new TestData("abc123", false), new TestData("kayaks", false));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testPalindrome(TestData testData) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(testData.expected, Palindrome.isPalindrome(testData.input) && Palindrome.isPalindromeRecursion(testData.input) && Palindrome.isPalindromeTwoPointer(testData.input));
+    }
+
+    private record TestData(String input, boolean expected) {
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PangramTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PangramTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..00ecb909b2de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PangramTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class PangramTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testPangram() {
+        assertTrue(Pangram.isPangram("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"));
+        assertFalse(Pangram.isPangram("The quick brown fox jumps over the azy dog")); // L is missing
+        assertFalse(Pangram.isPangram("+-1234 This string is not alphabetical"));
+        assertFalse(Pangram.isPangram("\u0000/\\ Invalid characters are alright too"));
+
+        assertTrue(Pangram.isPangram2("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"));
+        assertFalse(Pangram.isPangram2("The quick brown fox jumps over the azy dog")); // L is missing
+        assertFalse(Pangram.isPangram2("+-1234 This string is not alphabetical"));
+        assertFalse(Pangram.isPangram2("\u0000/\\ Invalid characters are alright too"));
+
+        assertTrue(Pangram.isPangramUsingSet("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"));
+        assertFalse(Pangram.isPangramUsingSet("The quick brown fox jumps over the azy dog")); // L is missing
+        assertFalse(Pangram.isPangramUsingSet("+-1234 This string is not alphabetical"));
+        assertFalse(Pangram.isPangramUsingSet("\u0000/\\ Invalid characters are alright too"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteStringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteStringTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c726874f4cec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/PermuteStringTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class PermuteStringTest {
+
+    private static Stream<TestData> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(new TestData("ABC", Set.of("ABC", "ACB", "BAC", "BCA", "CAB", "CBA")), new TestData("AB", Set.of("AB", "BA")), new TestData("A", Set.of("A")), new TestData("AA", Set.of("AA")), new TestData("123", Set.of("123", "132", "213", "231", "312", "321")),
+            new TestData("aA", Set.of("aA", "Aa")), new TestData("AaB", Set.of("AaB", "ABa", "aAB", "aBA", "BAa", "BaA")), new TestData("!@", Set.of("!@", "@!")), new TestData("!a@", Set.of("!a@", "!@a", "a!@", "a@!", "@!a", "@a!")),
+            new TestData("ABCD", Set.of("ABCD", "ABDC", "ACBD", "ACDB", "ADBC", "ADCB", "BACD", "BADC", "BCAD", "BCDA", "BDAC", "BDCA", "CABD", "CADB", "CBAD", "CBDA", "CDAB", "CDBA", "DABC", "DACB", "DBAC", "DBCA", "DCAB", "DCBA")),
+            new TestData("A B", Set.of("A B", "AB ", " AB", " BA", "BA ", "B A")),
+            new TestData("abcd", Set.of("abcd", "abdc", "acbd", "acdb", "adbc", "adcb", "bacd", "badc", "bcad", "bcda", "bdac", "bdca", "cabd", "cadb", "cbad", "cbda", "cdab", "cdba", "dabc", "dacb", "dbac", "dbca", "dcab", "dcba")));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testPermutations(TestData testData) {
+        Set<String> actualPermutations = PermuteString.getPermutations(testData.input);
+        assertEquals(testData.expected, actualPermutations, "The permutations of '" + testData.input + "' are not correct.");
+    }
+
+    record TestData(String input, Set<String> expected) {
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromStringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromStringTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..de912bbfdb18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromStringTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class RemoveDuplicateFromStringTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyString() {
+        assertEquals("", RemoveDuplicateFromString.removeDuplicate(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullString() {
+        assertNull(RemoveDuplicateFromString.removeDuplicate(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleCharacterString() {
+        assertEquals("a", RemoveDuplicateFromString.removeDuplicate("a"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringWithNoDuplicates() {
+        assertEquals("abc", RemoveDuplicateFromString.removeDuplicate("abc"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringWithDuplicates() {
+        assertEquals("abcd", RemoveDuplicateFromString.removeDuplicate("aabbbccccddddd"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringWithAllSameCharacters() {
+        assertEquals("a", RemoveDuplicateFromString.removeDuplicate("aaaaa"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringWithMixedCase() {
+        assertEquals("abAB", RemoveDuplicateFromString.removeDuplicate("aabABAB"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReturnSubsequenceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReturnSubsequenceTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d4e1248d05ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReturnSubsequenceTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class ReturnSubsequenceTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void testSubsequences(String input, String[] expected) {
+        String[] actual = ReturnSubsequence.getSubsequences(input);
+        assertArrayEquals(expected, actual);
+    }
+
+    static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("", new String[] {""}), Arguments.of("a", new String[] {"", "a"}), Arguments.of("ab", new String[] {"", "b", "a", "ab"}), Arguments.of("abc", new String[] {"", "c", "b", "bc", "a", "ac", "ab", "abc"}),
+            Arguments.of("aab", new String[] {"", "b", "a", "ab", "a", "ab", "aa", "aab"}));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseStringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseStringTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..c50f92c1a008
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseStringTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class ReverseStringTest {
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> testCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("Hello World", "dlroW olleH"), Arguments.of("helloworld", "dlrowolleh"), Arguments.of("123456789", "987654321"), Arguments.of("", ""), Arguments.of("A", "A"), Arguments.of("ab", "ba"),
+            Arguments.of("  leading and trailing spaces  ", "  secaps gniliart dna gnidael  "), Arguments.of("!@#$%^&*()", ")(*&^%$#@!"), Arguments.of("MixOf123AndText!", "!txeTdnA321fOxiM"));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    public void testReverseString(String input, String expectedOutput) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, ReverseString.reverse(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    public void testReverseString2(String input, String expectedOutput) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, ReverseString.reverse2(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    public void testReverseString3(String input, String expectedOutput) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, ReverseString.reverse3(input));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("testCases")
+    public void testReverseStringUsingStack(String input, String expectedOutput) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, ReverseString.reverseStringUsingStack(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testReverseStringUsingStackWithNullInput() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ReverseString.reverseStringUsingStack(null));
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'Hello World', 'dlroW olleH'", "'helloworld', 'dlrowolleh'", "'123456789', '987654321'", "'', ''", "'A', 'A'", "'!123 ABC xyz!', '!zyx CBA 321!'", "'Abc 123 Xyz', 'zyX 321 cbA'", "'12.34,56;78:90', '09:87;65,43.21'", "'abcdEFGHiJKL', 'LKJiHGFEdcba'",
+        "'MixOf123AndText!', '!txeTdnA321fOxiM'"})
+    public void
+    testReverseStringUsingRecursion(String input, String expectedOutput) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, ReverseString.reverseStringUsingRecursion(input));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseWordsInStringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseWordsInStringTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..7cab6aa7c698
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ReverseWordsInStringTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+public class ReverseWordsInStringTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("inputStream")
+    void numberTests(String expected, String input) {
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, ReverseWordsInString.reverseWordsInString(input));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> inputStream() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("blue is Sky", "Sky is blue"), Arguments.of("blue is Sky", "Sky \n is \t \n  blue "), Arguments.of("", ""), Arguments.of("", "    "), Arguments.of("", "\t"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RotationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RotationTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..911ff87d29ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RotationTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class RotationTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testRotation() {
+        assertEquals("eksge", Rotation.rotation("geeks", 2));
+        assertEquals("anasban", Rotation.rotation("bananas", 3));
+        assertEquals("abracadabra", Rotation.rotation("abracadabra", 0));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompressionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompressionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..fdec311f8f0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompressionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class StringCompressionTest {
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'a', 'a'", "'aabbb', 'a2b3'", "'abbbc', 'ab3c'", "'aabccd', 'a2bc2d'", "'aaaabbbcccc', 'a4b3c4'", "'abcd', 'abcd'", "'aabbccdd', 'a2b2c2d2'", "'aaabbaa', 'a3b2a2'", "'', ''", "'a', 'a'", "'aaaaa', 'a5'", "'aabb', 'a2b2'", "'aabbbaaa', 'a2b3a3'", "'qwerty', 'qwerty'"})
+    void stringCompressionTest(String input, String expectedOutput) {
+        String output = StringCompression.compress(input);
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, output);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringMatchFiniteAutomataTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringMatchFiniteAutomataTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..be460c7c4d91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringMatchFiniteAutomataTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Set;
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.Arguments;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.MethodSource;
+
+class StringMatchFiniteAutomataTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @MethodSource("provideTestCases")
+    void searchPattern(String text, String pattern, Set<Integer> expectedOutput) {
+        assertEquals(expectedOutput, StringMatchFiniteAutomata.searchPattern(text, pattern));
+    }
+
+    private static Stream<Arguments> provideTestCases() {
+        return Stream.of(Arguments.of("abcbcabc", "abc", Set.of(0, 5)), Arguments.of("", "abc", Set.of()), Arguments.of("", "", Set.of()), Arguments.of("a", "b", Set.of()), Arguments.of("a", "a", Set.of(0)), Arguments.of("abcdabcabcabcd", "abcd", Set.of(0, 10)), Arguments.of("abc", "bcd", Set.of()),
+            Arguments.of("abcdefg", "xyz", Set.of()), Arguments.of("abcde", "", Set.of(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)), Arguments.of("abcabcabc", "abc", Set.of(0, 3, 6)), Arguments.of("abcabcabc", "abcabcabc", Set.of(0)), Arguments.of("aaabbbaaa", "aaa", Set.of(0, 6)), Arguments.of("abcdefg", "efg", Set.of(4)));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArrayTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9d4b3d582b75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArrayTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class SuffixArrayTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testEmptyString() {
+        int[] result = SuffixArray.buildSuffixArray("");
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {}, result, "Empty string should return empty suffix array");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testSingleCharacter() {
+        int[] result = SuffixArray.buildSuffixArray("a");
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0}, result, "Single char string should return [0]");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testDistinctCharacters() {
+        int[] result = SuffixArray.buildSuffixArray("abc");
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {0, 1, 2}, result, "Suffixes already in order for distinct chars");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testBananaExample() {
+        int[] result = SuffixArray.buildSuffixArray("banana");
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {5, 3, 1, 0, 4, 2}, result, "Suffix array of 'banana' should be [5,3,1,0,4,2]");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testStringWithDuplicates() {
+        int[] result = SuffixArray.buildSuffixArray("aaaa");
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {3, 2, 1, 0}, result, "Suffix array should be descending indices for 'aaaa'");
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testRandomString() {
+        int[] result = SuffixArray.buildSuffixArray("mississippi");
+        assertArrayEquals(new int[] {10, 7, 4, 1, 0, 9, 8, 6, 3, 5, 2}, result, "Suffix array for 'mississippi' should match expected");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/UpperTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/UpperTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5413c77b913a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/UpperTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class UpperTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void toUpperCase() {
+        String input1 = "hello world";
+        String input2 = "hElLo WoRlD";
+        String input3 = "HELLO WORLD";
+        assertEquals("HELLO WORLD", Upper.toUpperCase(input1));
+        assertEquals("HELLO WORLD", Upper.toUpperCase(input2));
+        assertEquals("HELLO WORLD", Upper.toUpperCase(input3));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ValidParenthesesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ValidParenthesesTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..411b11e743b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/ValidParenthesesTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class ValidParenthesesTest {
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Input: \"{0}\" → Expected: {1}")
+    @CsvSource({"'()', true", "'()[]{}', true", "'(]', false", "'{[]}', true", "'([{}])', true", "'([)]', false", "'', true", "'(', false", "')', false", "'{{{{}}}}', true", "'[({})]', true", "'[(])', false", "'[', false", "']', false", "'()()()()', true", "'(()', false", "'())', false",
+        "'{[()()]()}', true"})
+    void
+    testIsValid(String input, boolean expected) {
+        assertEquals(expected, ValidParentheses.isValid(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testNullInputThrows() {
+        IllegalArgumentException ex = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ValidParentheses.isValid(null));
+        assertEquals("Input string cannot be null", ex.getMessage());
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest(name = "Input: \"{0}\" → throws IllegalArgumentException")
+    @CsvSource({"'a'", "'()a'", "'[123]'", "'{hello}'", "'( )'", "'\t'", "'\n'", "'@#$%'"})
+    void testInvalidCharactersThrow(String input) {
+        IllegalArgumentException ex = assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ValidParentheses.isValid(input));
+        assertTrue(ex.getMessage().startsWith("Unexpected character"));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadderTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..221953411da7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/WordLadderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings;
+
+import static java.util.Collections.emptyList;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.ParameterizedTest;
+import org.junit.jupiter.params.provider.CsvSource;
+
+public class WordLadderTest {
+
+    /**
+     * Test 1:
+     * Input: beginWord = "hit", endWord = "cog", wordList =
+     * ["hot","dot","dog","lot","log","cog"]
+     * Output: 5
+     * Explanation: One shortest transformation sequence is
+     * "hit" -> "hot" -> "dot" -> "dog" -> cog"
+     * which is 5 words long.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testWordLadder() {
+
+        List<String> wordList1 = Arrays.asList("hot", "dot", "dog", "lot", "log", "cog");
+        assertEquals(WordLadder.ladderLength("hit", "cog", wordList1), 5);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test 2:
+     * Input: beginWord = "hit", endWord = "cog", wordList =
+     * ["hot","dot","dog","lot","log"]
+     * Output: 0
+     * Explanation: The endWord "cog" is not in wordList,
+     * therefore there is no valid transformation sequence.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testWordLadder2() {
+
+        List<String> wordList2 = Arrays.asList("hot", "dot", "dog", "lot", "log");
+        assertEquals(WordLadder.ladderLength("hit", "cog", wordList2), 0);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Test 3:
+     * Input: beginWord = "hit", endWord = "cog", wordList =
+     * []
+     * Output: 0
+     * Explanation: The wordList is empty (corner case),
+     * therefore there is no valid transformation sequence.
+     */
+    @Test
+    public void testWordLadder3() {
+
+        List<String> wordList3 = emptyList();
+        assertEquals(WordLadder.ladderLength("hit", "cog", wordList3), 0);
+    }
+
+    @ParameterizedTest
+    @CsvSource({"'a', 'c', 'b,c', 2", "'a', 'c', 'a', 0", "'a', 'a', 'a', 0", "'ab', 'cd', 'ad,bd,cd', 3", "'a', 'd', 'b,c,d', 2", "'a', 'd', 'b,c,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z,d', 2"})
+    void testLadderLength(String beginWord, String endWord, String wordListStr, int expectedLength) {
+        List<String> wordList = List.of(wordListStr.split(","));
+        int result = WordLadder.ladderLength(beginWord, endWord, wordList);
+        assertEquals(expectedLength, result);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/ZigZagPatternTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/ZigZagPatternTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..2cbbfe3d2dd8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/zigZagPattern/ZigZagPatternTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.strings.zigZagPattern;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+public class ZigZagPatternTest {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testZigZagPattern() {
+        String input1 = "HelloWorldFromJava";
+        String input2 = "javaIsAProgrammingLanguage";
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ZigZagPattern.encode(input1, 4), "HooeWrrmalolFJvlda");
+        Assertions.assertEquals(ZigZagPattern.encode(input2, 4), "jAaLgasPrmgaaevIrgmnnuaoig");
+        // Edge cases
+        Assertions.assertEquals("ABC", ZigZagPattern.encode("ABC", 1)); // Single row
+        Assertions.assertEquals("A", ZigZagPattern.encode("A", 2)); // numRows > length of string
+        Assertions.assertEquals("", ZigZagPattern.encode("", 3)); // Empty string
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/tree/HeavyLightDecompositionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/tree/HeavyLightDecompositionTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..29189290e1d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/tree/HeavyLightDecompositionTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.tree;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class HeavyLightDecompositionTest {
+
+    private HeavyLightDecomposition hld;
+    private final int[] values = {0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
+
+    /**
+     * Initializes the test environment with a predefined tree structure and values.
+     */
+    @BeforeEach
+    void setUp() {
+        hld = new HeavyLightDecomposition(5);
+        hld.addEdge(1, 2);
+        hld.addEdge(1, 3);
+        hld.addEdge(2, 4);
+        hld.addEdge(2, 5);
+        hld.initialize(1, values);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Verifies that the tree initializes successfully without errors.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testBasicTreeInitialization() {
+        assertTrue(true, "Basic tree structure initialized successfully");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the maximum value query in the path between nodes.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testQueryMaxInPath() {
+        assertEquals(50, hld.queryMaxInPath(4, 5), "Max value in path (4,5) should be 50");
+        assertEquals(30, hld.queryMaxInPath(3, 2), "Max value in path (3,2) should be 30");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests updating a node's value and ensuring it is reflected in queries.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testUpdateNodeValue() {
+        hld.updateSegmentTree(1, 0, hld.getPositionIndex() - 1, hld.getPosition(4), 100);
+        assertEquals(100, hld.queryMaxInPath(4, 5), "Updated value should be reflected in query");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Tests the maximum value query in a skewed tree structure.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testSkewedTreeMaxQuery() {
+        assertEquals(40, hld.queryMaxInPath(1, 4), "Max value in skewed tree (1,4) should be 40");
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Ensures query handles cases where u is a deeper node correctly.
+     */
+    @Test
+    void testDepthSwapInPathQuery() {
+        assertEquals(50, hld.queryMaxInPath(5, 2), "Query should handle depth swap correctly");
+        assertEquals(40, hld.queryMaxInPath(4, 1), "Query should handle swapped nodes correctly and return max value");
+    }
+}