merging all conflicts

Author: iliakan

1-js/01-getting-started/1-intro/article.md

@@ -106,11 +106,19 @@ Moderní nástroje provádějí transpilaci velmi rychle a čistě. V podstatě
 
 Příklady takových jazyků:
 
+<<<<<<< HEAD
 - [CoffeeScript](http://coffeescript.org/) je „syntaktický cukr“ pro JavaScript, který zavádí kratší syntaxi a tím nám umožňuje psát čistší a přesnější kód. Obvykle jej mají v oblibě vývojáři, kteří používají jazyk Ruby.
 - [TypeScript](http://www.typescriptlang.org/) se soustředí na přidání „striktního, silně typovaného systému“, aby zjednodušil vývoj a podporu složitých systémů. Vyvinula jej firma Microsoft.
 - [Flow](http://flow.org/) rovněž přidává typovací systém, ale jiným způsobem. Vyvinul jej Facebook.
 - [Dart](https://www.dartlang.org/) je samostatný jazyk se svým vlastním enginem, který běží v prostředích mimo prohlížeč (např. v mobilních aplikacích), ale i ten může být transpilován do JavaScriptu. Vyvinut firmou Google.
 - [Brython](https://brython.info/) je transpiler Pythonu do JavaScriptu, který umožňuje psát aplikace v čistém Pythonu bez JavaScriptu.
+=======
+- [CoffeeScript](http://coffeescript.org/) is a "syntactic sugar" for JavaScript. It introduces shorter syntax, allowing us to write clearer and more precise code. Usually, Ruby devs like it.
+- [TypeScript](http://www.typescriptlang.org/) is concentrated on adding "strict data typing" to simplify the development and support of complex systems. It is developed by Microsoft.
+- [Flow](http://flow.org/) also adds data typing, but in a different way. Developed by Facebook.
+- [Dart](https://www.dartlang.org/) is a standalone language that has its own engine that runs in non-browser environments (like mobile apps), but also can be transpiled to JavaScript. Developed by Google.
+- [Brython](https://brython.info/) is a Python transpiler to JavaScript that enables the writing of applications in pure Python without JavaScript.
+>>>>>>> e1a3f634a47c119cf1ec7420c49fc0fc7172c0b5
 
 Jsou i další. Samozřejmě i když používáme některý z transpilovaných jazyků, měli bychom znát i JavaScript, abychom skutečně porozuměli tomu, co se děje.
 

1-js/04-object-basics/02-object-copy/article.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # Object references and copying
 
-One of the fundamental differences of objects versus primitives is that objects are stored and copied "by reference", as opposed to primitive values: strings, numbers, booleans, etc -- that are always copied "as a whole value".
+One of the fundamental differences of objects versus primitives is that objects are stored and copied "by reference", whereas primitive values: strings, numbers, booleans, etc -- are always copied "as a whole value".
 
-That's easy to understand if we look a bit "under a cover" of what happens when we copy a value.
+That's easy to understand if we look a bit under the hood of what happens when we copy a value.
 
 Let's start with a primitive, such as a string.
 
@@ -13,17 +13,17 @@ let message = "Hello!";
 let phrase = message;
 ```
 
-As a result we have two independent variables, each one is storing the string `"Hello!"`.
+As a result we have two independent variables, each one storing the string `"Hello!"`.
 
 ![](variable-copy-value.svg)
 
 Quite an obvious result, right?
 
 Objects are not like that.
 
-**A variable assigned to an object stores not the object itself, but its "address in memory", in other words "a reference" to it.**
+**A variable assigned to an object stores not the object itself, but its "address in memory" -- in other words "a reference" to it.**
 
-Let's look at an example of such variable:
+Let's look at an example of such a variable:
 
 ```js
 let user = {
@@ -37,13 +37,13 @@ And here's how it's actually stored in memory:
 
 The object is stored somewhere in memory (at the right of the picture), while the `user` variable (at the left) has a "reference" to it.
 
-We may think of an object variable, such as `user`, as of a sheet of paper with the address.
+We may think of an object variable, such as `user`, as like a sheet of paper with the address of the object on it.
 
-When we perform actions with the object, e.g. take a property `user.name`, JavaScript engine looks into that address and performs the operation on the actual object.
+When we perform actions with the object, e.g. take a property `user.name`, the JavaScript engine looks at what's at that address and performs the operation on the actual object.
 
 Now here's why it's important.
 
-**When an object variable is copied -- the reference is copied, the object is not duplicated.**
+**When an object variable is copied, the reference is copied, but the object itself is not duplicated.**
 
 For instance:
 
@@ -53,13 +53,13 @@ let user = { name: "John" };
 let admin = user; // copy the reference
 ```
 
-Now we have two variables, each one with the reference to the same object:
+Now we have two variables, each storing a reference to the same object:
 
 ![](variable-copy-reference.svg)
 
-As you can see, there's still one object, now with two variables that reference it.
+As you can see, there's still one object, but now with two variables that reference it.
 
-We can use any variable to access the object and modify its contents:
+We can use either variable to access the object and modify its contents:
 
 ```js run
 let user = { name: 'John' };
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ admin.name = 'Pete'; // changed by the "admin" reference
 alert(*!*user.name*/!*); // 'Pete', changes are seen from the "user" reference
 ```
 
-It's just as if we had a cabinet with two keys and used one of them (`admin`) to get into it. Then, if we later use another key (`user`) we can see changes.
+It's as if we had a cabinet with two keys and used one of them (`admin`) to get into it and make changes. Then, if we later use another key (`user`), we are still opening the same cabinet and can access the changed contents.
 
 ## Comparison by reference
 
@@ -98,15 +98,15 @@ let b = {}; // two independent objects
 alert( a == b ); // false
 ```
 
-For comparisons like `obj1 > obj2` or for a comparison against a primitive `obj == 5`, objects are converted to primitives. We'll study how object conversions work very soon, but to tell the truth, such comparisons are needed very rarely, usually they appear as a result of a programming mistake.
+For comparisons like `obj1 > obj2` or for a comparison against a primitive `obj == 5`, objects are converted to primitives. We'll study how object conversions work very soon, but to tell the truth, such comparisons are needed very rarely -- usually they appear as a result of a programming mistake.
 
 ## Cloning and merging, Object.assign
 
 So, copying an object variable creates one more reference to the same object.
 
 But what if we need to duplicate an object? Create an independent copy, a clone?
 
-That's also doable, but a little bit more difficult, because there's no built-in method for that in JavaScript. Actually, that's rarely needed. Copying by reference is good most of the time.
+That's also doable, but a little bit more difficult, because there's no built-in method for that in JavaScript. But there is rarely a need -- copying by reference is good most of the time.
 
 But if we really want that, then we need to create a new object and replicate the structure of the existing one by iterating over its properties and copying them on the primitive level.
 
@@ -225,12 +225,12 @@ user.sizes.width++;       // change a property from one place
 alert(clone.sizes.width); // 51, see the result from the other one
 ```
 
-To fix that, we should use the cloning loop that examines each value of `user[key]` and, if it's an object, then replicate its structure as well. That is called a "deep cloning".
+To fix that, we should use a cloning loop that examines each value of `user[key]` and, if it's an object, then replicate its structure as well. That is called a "deep cloning".
 
-We can use recursion to implement it. Or, not to reinvent the wheel, take an existing implementation, for instance [_.cloneDeep(obj)](https://lodash.com/docs#cloneDeep) from the JavaScript library [lodash](https://lodash.com).
+We can use recursion to implement it. Or, to not reinvent the wheel, take an existing implementation, for instance [_.cloneDeep(obj)](https://lodash.com/docs#cloneDeep) from the JavaScript library [lodash](https://lodash.com).
 
-```smart header="Const objects can be modified"
-An important "side effect" of storing objects as references is that an object declared as `const` *can* be modified.
+````smart header="Const objects can be modified"
+An important side effect of storing objects as references is that an object declared as `const` *can* be modified.
 
 For instance:
 
@@ -246,16 +246,16 @@ user.name = "Pete"; // (*)
 alert(user.name); // Pete
 ```
 
-It might seem that the line `(*)` would cause an error, but no. The value of `user` is constant, it must always reference the same object. But properties of that object are free to change.
+It might seem that the line `(*)` would cause an error, but it does not. The value of `user` is constant, it must always reference the same object, but properties of that object are free to change.
 
-In other words, the `const user` gives an error only if we try to set `user=...` as a whole, and that's all.
+In other words, the `const user` gives an error only if we try to set `user=...` as a whole.
 
-That said, if we really need to make constant object properties, it's also possible, but using totally different methods, we'll mention that in the chapter <info:property-descriptors>.
-```
+That said, if we really need to make constant object properties, it's also possible, but using totally different methods. We'll mention that in the chapter <info:property-descriptors>.
+````
 
 ## Summary
 
-Objects are assigned and copied by reference. In other words, a variable stores not the "object value", but a "reference" (address in memory) for the value. So copying such a variable or passing it as a function argument copies that reference, not the object.
+Objects are assigned and copied by reference. In other words, a variable stores not the "object value", but a "reference" (address in memory) for the value. So copying such a variable or passing it as a function argument copies that reference, not the object itself.
 
 All operations via copied references (like adding/removing properties) are performed on the same single object.
 

1-js/04-object-basics/07-optional-chaining/article.md

@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ The optional chaining `?.` is a safe way to access nested object properties, eve
 
 If you've just started to read the tutorial and learn JavaScript, maybe the problem hasn't touched you yet, but it's quite common.
 
-As an example, let's say we have `user` objects that hold the information about our users. 
+As an example, let's say we have `user` objects that hold the information about our users.
 
 Most of our users have addresses in `user.address` property, with the street `user.address.street`, but some did not provide them.
 
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ let user = {}; // a user without "address" property
 alert(user.address.street); // Error!
 ```
 
-That's the expected result. JavaScript works like this. As `user.address` is `undefined`, an attempt to get `user.address.street` fails with an error. 
+That's the expected result. JavaScript works like this. As `user.address` is `undefined`, an attempt to get `user.address.street` fails with an error.
 
 In many practical cases we'd prefer to get `undefined` instead of an error here (meaning "no street").
 
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ let user = {}; // user has no address
 alert(user.address ? user.address.street ? user.address.street.name : null : null);
 ```
 
-That's just awful, one may even have problems understanding such code. 
+That's just awful, one may even have problems understanding such code.
 
 Don't even care to, as there's a better way to write it, using the `&&` operator:
 

1-js/05-data-types/03-string/article.md

@@ -239,7 +239,7 @@ alert( str.indexOf('widget') ); // -1, not found, the search is case-sensitive
 alert( str.indexOf("id") ); // 1, "id" is found at the position 1 (..idget with id)
 ```
 
-The optional second parameter allows us to search starting from the given position.
+The optional second parameter allows us to start searching from a given position.
 
 For instance, the first occurrence of `"id"` is at position `1`. To look for the next occurrence, let's start the search from position `2`:
 

1-js/05-data-types/05-array-methods/article.md

@@ -742,8 +742,8 @@ These methods are the most used ones, they cover 99% of use cases. But there are
 - [arr.some(fn)](mdn:js/Array/some)/[arr.every(fn)](mdn:js/Array/every) check the array.
 
   The function `fn` is called on each element of the array similar to `map`. If any/all results are `true`, returns `true`, otherwise `false`.
-  
-  These methods behave sort of like `||` and `&&` operators: if `fn` returns a truthy value, `arr.some()` immediately returns `true` and stops iterating over the rest items; if `fn`  returns a falsy value, `arr.every()` immediately returns `false` and stops iterating over the rest items as well.
+
+  These methods behave sort of like `||` and `&&` operators: if `fn` returns a truthy value, `arr.some()` immediately returns `true` and stops iterating over the rest of items; if `fn` returns a falsy value, `arr.every()` immediately returns `false` and stops iterating over the rest of items as well.
 
   We can use `every` to compare arrays:
   ```js run

1-js/05-data-types/06-iterable/article.md

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 
 # Iterables
 
-*Iterable* objects is a generalization of arrays. That's a concept that allows us to make any object useable in a `for..of` loop.
+*Iterable* objects are a generalization of arrays. That's a concept that allows us to make any object useable in a `for..of` loop.
 
 Of course, Arrays are iterable. But there are many other built-in objects, that are iterable as well. For instance, strings are also iterable.
 
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ let range = {
 // for(let num of range) ... num=1,2,3,4,5
 ```
 
-To make the `range` iterable (and thus let `for..of` work) we need to add a method to the object named `Symbol.iterator` (a special built-in symbol just for that).
+To make the `range` object iterable (and thus let `for..of` work) we need to add a method to the object named `Symbol.iterator` (a special built-in symbol just for that).
 
 1. When `for..of` starts, it calls that method once (or errors if not found). The method must return an *iterator* -- an object with the method `next`.
 2. Onward, `for..of` works *only with that returned object*.
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ for (let char of str) {
 
 ## Calling an iterator explicitly
 
-For deeper understanding let's see how to use an iterator explicitly.
+For deeper understanding, let's see how to use an iterator explicitly.
 
 We'll iterate over a string in exactly the same way as `for..of`, but with direct calls. This code creates a string iterator and gets values from it "manually":
 
@@ -165,16 +165,16 @@ That is rarely needed, but gives us more control over the process than `for..of`
 
 ## Iterables and array-likes [#array-like]
 
-There are two official terms that look similar, but are very different. Please make sure you understand them well to avoid the confusion.
+Two official terms look similar, but are very different. Please make sure you understand them well to avoid the confusion.
 
 - *Iterables* are objects that implement the `Symbol.iterator` method, as described above.
 - *Array-likes* are objects that have indexes and `length`, so they look like arrays.
 
-When we use JavaScript for practical tasks in browser or other environments, we may meet objects that are iterables or array-likes, or both.
+When we use JavaScript for practical tasks in a browser or any other environment, we may meet objects that are iterables or array-likes, or both.
 
 For instance, strings are both iterable (`for..of` works on them) and array-like (they have numeric indexes and `length`).
 
-But an iterable may be not array-like. And vice versa an array-like may be not iterable.
+But an iterable may not be array-like. And vice versa an array-like may not be iterable.
 
 For example, the `range` in the example above is iterable, but not array-like, because it does not have indexed properties and `length`.
 
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ alert( str.slice(1, 3) ); // garbage (two pieces from different surrogate pairs)
 Objects that can be used in `for..of` are called *iterable*.
 
 - Technically, iterables must implement the method named `Symbol.iterator`.
-    - The result of `obj[Symbol.iterator]()` is called an *iterator*. It handles the further iteration process.
+    - The result of `obj[Symbol.iterator]()` is called an *iterator*. It handles further iteration process.
     - An iterator must have the method named `next()` that returns an object `{done: Boolean, value: any}`, here `done:true` denotes the end of the iteration process, otherwise the `value` is the next value.
 - The `Symbol.iterator` method is called automatically by `for..of`, but we also can do it directly.
 - Built-in iterables like strings or arrays, also implement `Symbol.iterator`.

1-js/05-data-types/07-map-set/03-iterable-keys/task.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ importance: 5
 
 # Iterable keys
 
-We'd like to get an array of `map.keys()` in a variable and then do apply array-specific methods to it, e.g. `.push`.
+We'd like to get an array of `map.keys()` in a variable and then apply array-specific methods to it, e.g. `.push`.
 
 But that doesn't work: