Abstract
Social media engagement is common among adolescents, yet not all adolescents use social media in the same ways or experience the same adjustment correlates. This study examined four social media behaviors (self-disclosure, self-presentation, lurking, and social monitoring) and two time-based measures of social media use (daily number of hours on social media and frequency of social media use) on three developmentally relevant adjustment correlates (internalizing problems, prosocial support, and online peer victimization). Self-report data were collected from 426 middle-school students (54.2% female, 73.6% Caucasian, 11.5% Black, 4.8% Hispanic, 10.1% other ethnicity, mean age = 12.91). The findings showed distinct adjustment patterns among the social media engagement indices, as well as sex and age differences. Neither the number of hours on social media nor social monitoring were associated with any adjustment correlates; however, the frequency of social media use was associated with positive adjustment (less internalizing problems and more prosocial support), primarily for older adolescents. Self-disclosure was positively associated with online peer victimization (girls only) and prosocial support. Self-presentation was associated with higher levels of internalizing problems and online peer victimization, as well as less prosocial support for younger adolescents and boys. Lurking was positively associated with internalizing problems. The findings suggest the need to consider specific types of social media engagement when creating prevention and intervention programs to address adolescent maladjustment.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, M., & Jiang, J. (2018). Teens, social media & technology 2018. Pew Research Center, 31, 2018.
Asher, S. R., & Wheeler, V. A. (1985). Children’s loneliness: a comparison of rejected and neglected peer status. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 500–505.
Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(1), 7–10. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130071.
Best, P., Manktelow, R., & Taylor, B. (2014). Online communication, social media and adolescent wellbeing: a systematic narrative review. Children and Youth Services Review, 41, 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.001.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Carli, L. L., & Bukatko, D. (2000). Gender, communication, and social influence: a developmental perspective. In T. Ecke & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 295–332). Mahwah, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Deters, F., & Mehl, M. R. (2012). Does posting Facebook status updates increase or decrease loneliness? An online social networking experiment. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4(5), 579–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550612469233.
Dredge, R., Gleeson, J., & De la Piedad Garcia, X. (2014). Presentation on Facebook and risk of cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 40, 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.035.
Frison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2016). Exploring the relationships between different types of Facebook use, perceived online social support, and adolescents’ depressed mood. Social Science Computer Review, 34, 153–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439314567449.
Frison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2017). Browsing, posting, and liking on Instagram: the reciprocal relationships between different types of Instagram use and adolescents’ depressed mood. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 20(10), 603–609. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2017.0156.
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2008). Cyberbullying: an exploratory analysis of factors related to offending and victimization. Deviant behavior, 29(2), 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701457816.
Hunt, M. G., Marx, R., Lipson, C., & Young, J. (2018). No more FOMO: limiting social media decreases loneliness and depression. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 37(10), 751–768. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2018.37.10.751.
Irwin, D. E., Gross, H. E., Stucky, B. D., Thissen, D., DeWitt, E. M., Lai, J. S., & DeWalt, D. A. (2012). Development of six PROMIS pediatrics proxy-report item banks. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 10(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-10-22.
Kapidzic, S., & Herring, S. C. (2011). Gender, communication, and self-presentation in teen chatrooms revisited: Have patterns changed? Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 17(1), 39–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2011.01561.x.
Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., & Skinner, K. (2002). Children’s coping strategies: Moderators of the effects of peer victimization? Developmental Psychology, 38(2), 267–278. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.267.
Krasnova, H., Widjaja, T., Buxmann, P., Wenninger, H., & Benbasat, I. (2015). Research note—why following friends can hurt you: an exploratory investigation of the effects of envy on social networking sites among college-age users. Information Systems Research, 26(3), 585–605. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2015.0588.
Kross, E., Verduyn, P., Demiralp, E., Park, J., Lee, D. S., Lin, N., & Ybarra, O. (2013). Facebook use predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PLoS ONE, 8(8), e69841. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069841.
Labrague, L. J. (2014). Facebook use and adolescents’ emotional states of depression, anxiety, and stress. Health Science Journal, 8(1), 80–89.
LaFontana, K. M., & Cillessen, A. H. (2010). Developmental changes in the priority of perceived status in childhood and adolescence. Social Development, 19(1), 130–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00522.x.
Lauricella, A. R., Cingel, D. P., Blackwell, C., Wartella, E., & Conway, A. (2014). The mobile generation: youth and adolescent ownership and use of new media. Communication Research Reports, 31(4), 357–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2014.963221.
Leadbeater, B. J., Kuperminc, G. P., Blatt, S. J., & Hertzog, C. (1999). A multivariate model of gender differences in adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems. Developmental Psychology, 35(5), 1268. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.35.5.1268.
Lenhart, A., Duggan, M., Perrin, A., Stepler, R., Rainie, H., & Parker, K. (2015). Teens, social media & technology overview 2015. Pew Internet & American Life Project.
Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. J. (2008). Parental mediation of children’s internet use. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 52(4), 581–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838150802437396.
Mishna, F., Cook, C., Saini, M., Wu, M. J., & MacFadden, R. (2011). Interventions to prevent and reduce cyber abuse of youth: a systematic review. Research on Social Work Practice, 21(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731509351988.
Peluchette, J. V., Karl, K., Wood, C., & Williams, J. (2015). Cyberbullying victimization: do victims’ personality and risky social network behaviors contribute to the problem? Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 424–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.028.
Pittman, M., & Reich, B. (2016). Social media and loneliness: why an Instagram picture may be worth more than a thousand Twitter words. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.084.
Reid, D., & Weigle, P. (2014). Social media use among adolescents: benefits and risks. Adolescent Psychiatry, 4(2), 73–80. https://doi.org/10.2174/221067660402140709115810.
Rose, A. J. (2002). Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Development, 73(6), 1830–1843. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00509.
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 98–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98.
Sagioglou, C., & Greitemeyer, T. (2014). Facebook’s emotional consequences: why Facebook causes a decrease in mood and why people still use it. Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 359–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.003.
Sampasa-Kanyinga, H., & Lewis, R. F. (2015). Frequent use of social networking sites is associated with poor psychological functioning among children and adolescents. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(7), 380–385. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0055.
Simpkins, S. D., Parke, R. D., Flyr, M. L., & Wild, M. N. (2006). Similarities in children’s and early adolescents’ perceptions of friendship qualities across development, gender, and friendship qualities. Journal of Early Adolescence, 26(4), 491–508. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431606291941.
Subrahmanyam, K., & Greenfield, P. (2008). Online communication and adolescent relationships. The Future of Children, 18(1), 119–146. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20053122.
Subrahmanyam, K., & Šmahel, D. (2011). Constructing identity online: identity exploration and self-presentation. In Digital youth (pp. 59–80). New York, NY: Springer.
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York, NY: Norton.
Underwood, M. K., & Ehrenreich, S. E. (2017). The power and the pain of adolescents’ digital communication: Cyber victimization and the perils of lurking. American Psychologist, 72(2), 144. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040429.
Underwood, M. K., & Faris, R. (2015). #Being thirteen: social media and the hidden world of young adolescents’ peer culture. CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2015/10/05/health/being-13-teens-social-media-study/.
Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2009). Is there social capital in a social network site?: Facebook use and college students’ life satisfaction, trust, and participation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 875–901. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01474.x.
Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2011). Online communication among adolescents: an integrated model of its attraction, opportunities, and risks. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(2), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.020.
Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., & Schouten, A. P. (2006). Friend networking sites and their relationship to adolescents’ well-being and social self-esteem. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 9(5), 584–590. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9.584.
Valkenburg, P. M., Sumter, S. R., & Peter, J. (2011). Gender differences in online and offline self‐disclosure in pre‐adolescence and adolescence. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29(2), 253–269. https://doi.org/10.1348/2044-835X.002001.
Vernon, L., Barber, B. L., & Modecki, K. L. (2015). Adolescent problematic social networking and school experiences: the mediating effects of sleep disruptions and sleep quality. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(7), 386–392. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0107.
Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J., & Kross, E. (2015). Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 480–488. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000057480.
Wenninger, H., Krasnova, H., & Buxmann, P. (2014). Activity matters: Investigating the influence of Facebook on life satisfaction of teenage users. In Proceedings of the twenty-second European conference on information systems (pp. 1–18).
Schiamberg, L. B., & Wright, M. F. (2020). An ecological model of child/adolescent risk exposure. In M. F. Wright & L. B. Schiamberg (Eds.), Child and adolescent online risk exposure: an ecological perspective (pp. 3–10). London, UK: Elsevier.
Xie, H., Swift, D. J., Cairns, B. D., & Cairns, R. B. (2002). Aggressive behaviors in social interaction and developmental adaptation: a narrative analysis of interpersonal conflicts during early adolescence. Social Development, 11(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00195.
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Rudolph, J., Webb, H. J., Henderson, L., & Hawes, T. (2021). Face-to-face and cyber-victimization: a longitudinal study of offline appearance anxiety and online appearance preoccupation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01367-y. Advance online publication.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge and thank the children who participated in our study, as well as the teachers and administrators who assisted. We would also like to acknowledge the undergraduate research assistants in the Peer Social Networks Lab.
Authors’ Contributions
JS participated in study conception, performed the statistical analyses, oversaw data collection and processing, and drafted the manuscript; MR aided in study design, data collection, and manuscript edits; HX provided guidance on study design, data analyses, and manuscript preparation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
This research was supported by a Grant-in-Aid Award from Temple University, a Faculty Research Award from the College of Liberal Arts awarded to Hongling Xie, and a Dissertation Completion Grant from Temple University’s Graduate School awarded to Jill Swirsky. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect the views of the granting agencies.
Data Sharing and Declaration
The datasets analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the senior author on reasonable request.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in the current study were approved by the IRB of Temple University and in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from the parents or guardians of all participants in the study and assent was obtained from participants.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Swirsky, J.M., Rosie, M. & Xie, H. Adjustment Correlates of Social Media Engagement Among Early Adolescents. J Youth Adolescence 50, 2265–2278 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01421-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01421-3