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Kidney stones are mineral deposits free or attached in the renal calyces and pelvis. They consist of crystalline and organic elements and are the result of supersaturation of the urine with respect to a mineral. The majority of stones have calcium oxalate as the principal component, many of which form on a foundation of calcium phosphate known as Randall’s plaques, present on the renal papillary surface. The prevalence of stone formation is very high, reaching rates as high as 14.8% and increasing; the rate of recurrence can be as high as 50% within the first 5 years of the initial stone episode. Together, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome create an environment through which stone formation and subsequent development of hypertension, chronic kidney disease, and end-stage renal disease are promoted. Management of symptomatic kidney stones has evolved over the years from open surgical…
2 min readNov 18, 2024
