Conflict:

This final chapter detailed the infamous Battle of Alesia and the climax of the Gallic struggle for independence. Caesar built his legendary double-walled battlements: one to starve out the town of Alesia (where Vercingetorix was camping out) and another to defend against the second Gallic army coming to save their countrymen. It was a bloody, intense and sad affair that ended in the subjugation of Gaul and the extinguishment of Gallic culture as the ancient world knew it. The Romans conquered based on their engineering might and the overarching influence of Julius Caesar, soon-to-be Dictator for Life.

Characters:

• Gaius Julius Caesar — commander in chief of the Roman forces and conqueror of Gaul
• Commius the Atrebatian — the political bellboy of Caesar turned military chieftain of the Gallic resistance
• Viridomarus and Eporedorix — the Aeduan chieftains who led contingents of the Gallic resistance army
• Vercassivellaunus — cousin of Vercingetorix, military leader
• Critognatus — the Arvernian “man of noble extraction and wide influence,” delivered a rousing and cannibalistic speech to fellow Gauls inside Alesia
• M. Antonius and C. Trebonius — Roman commanders whose lines were continually assaulted by the Gauls

Quotes:

“Their summary ejection from the post of leadership was a crushing blow to the ambitions of the Aedui; and deeply bewailing their change of fortunes, they sadly missed the friendly hand so often extended to them by Caesar.” (page 212)

“‘I [Vercingetorix] purposely omit all reference to their [Roman] horse, because you will, I’m sure, agree with me that that force has not the courage to show itself a yard outside the column.’” (page 215)

“‘The Roman invader, on the other hand, has no such object. That which brought him here was petty jealousy of another nation’s greatness, a nation of whose strength and chivalry in war he had heard the praises; and he will never rest till he has firmly entrenched himself upon its towns and villages, and fixed his accursed yoke, that nothing can shake off, upon its freeborn sons and daughters.” (page 225)

“Not the least of the many disconcerting circumstances to which the legionaries were now exposed, was the hoarse shout of battle in their rear; they were continually conscious that their own position was dependent upon the steadfast perseverance of others; and of all tests by which human nature can be tried, the most severe is that of some peril that obstinately remains unseen.” (page 230)

“The sight of this unresisting slaughter of their comrades crushed the last spark of hope from the spirits of the [Gallic] garrison, and a general retreat from the inner face of the lines now took place.” (page 232)

“The remaining Gauls, with the exception of the Aedui and Arverni, who were retained in the hope of bringing pressure to bear upon their governments, were then distributed as booty, one to every Roman soldier.” (page 232)

Words:

• provender — animal fodder, food
• sortie — an attack made by troops coming out from a position of defense
• denudation — the wearing away of the land surface by the sum of such processes as weathering and erosion
• declivity — a downward slope
• crenellate — provide (a wall of a building) with battlements
• enceinte — an enclosure or the enclosing wall of a fortified place
• lop — cut off (a branch, limb, or other protrusion) from the main body of a tree
• quincunx — an arrangement of five objects, as trees, in a square or rectangle, one at each corner and one in the middle
• contravallation — a series of works confronting the walls of an invested place to isolate the defenders and safeguard the besiegers against sallie
• circumvallation — surrounded by or as if by a rampart
• pusillanimous — showing a lack of courage or determination; timid
• hecatomb — (in ancient Greece or Rome) a great public sacrifice, originally of a hundred oxen
• immure — enclose or confine (someone) against their will

Summary:

Both the Gauls and Romans were aware the final conflict was upon them. The chapter opened with Gallic political intrigues and the Aeduan disappointment at not spearheading the Gallic campaign against the Romans — Vercingetorix was still the undisputed leader. Vercingetorix ramped up his army and ordered more hostages, cavalry, infantry and stores from the desperate tribes. Another scorched earth campaign was carried out on Gallic lands and Vercingetorix coerced nearly all available tribes in Gaul to follow his cause, with the exception of the Treveri, who were busy fighting German raids in the north.

Caesar, on his end, raised 22 more battalions from the Roman Province and geared up for total warfare. The Gauls were staking their military fortunes on their renowned cavalry, and Caesar knew the Roman cavalry was no match. So he enlisted as mercenaries a few German cavalry units from tribes beyond the Rhine he had already beaten into submission.

The opening battle was pitched in the territory of the Lingones; Vercingetorix, seizing the opportunity, attacked the marching Roman column with all his furious strength. Even Vercingetorix knew the Romans lacked in horsepower, saying,

“I purposely omit all reference to their horse, because you will, I’m sure, agree with me that that force has not the courage to show itself a yard outside the column.” (page 215)

Splitting his forces into three separate divisions, Vercingetorix stormed the Roman column. Unfortunately for the Gauls, the Romans and their German mercenaries were more than a match and according to Caesar, “an indiscriminate massacre followed.” Vercingetorix’s cavalry forces were wiped out, so he retreated to the heavily fortified town of Alesia, the “principal stronghold of the Mandubii [tribe].”

And readers, we have the reached the feverish climax, the superhuman story of willpower, engineering and despair that has gripped historians and Roman meme groups for thousands of years.

The Battle of Alesia

“The town of Alesia, at which the two rival armies had now met for the final conflict, was perched on the summit of a high plateau, so steep that its capture otherwise than by investment was practically impossible; while on two sides it was washed at its base by streams.” (page 216)

Caesar was busy building siege lines 11 miles in circumference when a fierce cavalry skirmish ensued. The Romans were losing when the wild German mercenaries were employed and the Roman infantry was ordered to support them from the rear. The Germans went bananas and “in many cases they even sprang down from off their horses, and strove to force their way across the ditch and to scale the wall.” The Gauls were terrified and portions of the Gallic forces ran back inside the town of Alesia instead of fighting.

Exhausted and seeing the writing on the wall, Vercingetorix made a last ditch effort at victory. He snuck out the Gallic cavalry force with instructions that they should ride to their respective tribes and beg for reinforcements:

“The horsemen were charged to deliver his final message to his people, which was not to desert their adopted leader, nor abandon to the will of a merciless foe one who had earned some right to be called the Liberator of Gaul…any failure here would cost the lives, not only of himself, but of eighty thousand chosen men besides.” (page 219)

Caesar heard about this desperate plea for help and immediately reacted: he built a second wall facing outward to meet the Gallic reinforcements that would surely come in full and brutal force. Caesar describes these battlements at length, including the depth of ditches, the sharpness of whittled tree trunk stakes, the mounds and palisades and the “stout wooden towers.” The traps and handmade land mines were shocking and also effective. Meanwhile…

“Whilst the Romans were thus toiling at Alesia, the Gallic nation was preparing for its great counterstroke.” Reinforcements were raised from the Aedui, Eleuteti, Sequani, Parisii, Senones, Helvetii, Nervii, Veneti and countless others (Caesar lists them all individually). In all, 8,000 cavalry and 240,000 infantry were raised and were ready to march on Alesia. This massive force was led by Commius the Atrebatian, Viridomarus and Eporedorix (the Aeduan leaders from Section II) and Vercassivellaunus, a cousin of Vercingetorix.

The troops inside Alesia were frantic because their Gallic reinforcements were supposed to have arrived, but they hadn’t received communications from the outside yet. Passionate, inflamed speeches followed, proclaiming the Gauls would resort to cannibalism to survive:

“…they [the Cimbri and the Teutones] kept themselves alive by devouring the bodies of all whose age unfitted them for war, and by so doing staved off surrender.” (page 225)

Alesia became desperate. The Gauls forced all the women, children and elderly out of the city to conserve food and space solely for the fighting soldiers. These helpless refugees begged for the Romans to take them in as slaves, if only they would feed them — but Caesar ordered that none should be admitted.

At this point, fortunes of the besieged Gauls turned. Their compatriots from across the country finally arrived at Alesia and were ready to kick some Roman butt and free their brethren. As soon as the Gallic comrades splashed onto the battlefield, they attacked the Roman battlements with their archers, light-armed skirmishers and cavalry. The Romans were suffering heavy losses when, once again, their German mercenary army saved the day. Romans 1, Gauls 0.

All hell broke loose on the second day of fighting — the Gauls on the outside assaulted the Roman lines with arrows, sling bolts and stones and dug their scaling hooks into the thick walls. At the same time, the Gauls inside Alesia, led by Vercingetorix, put immense pressure and strain on the inner walls. The Romans were trapped in a sweaty Gallic sandwich. However, the Gauls were quickly “spitted upon the lily heads” (Roman jargon for sharp stakes in the ground) and impaled by siege pikes. Again, the Gauls failed to breach the Roman defenses on the second day. Romans 2, Gaul 0.

Undeterred, the Gauls attempted attacking the Romans again, both from without and within, but they failed miserably. To get a sense of this final, desperate conflict, you have to read the narrative as taken from Caesar’s mouth. The Romans slaughtered the Gauls, who had vainly tried to ambush them on multiple fronts. And when those Roman soldiers saw Caesar and his ruby uniform galloping amongst them, fighting alongside their sweating brows, they gave it their all. After the battle, Vercingetorix and the other leading chiefs formally surrendered to Caesar.

“Taking his seat at a point well within the fortified lines, a little distance from his own camp, the Roman governor then formally received their submission; the Gallic chiefs were brought out under escort, Vercingetorix was handed over as a prisoner, and all arms were thrown to the ground.” (page 232)

The remaining Gauls, soldiers and civilians were then distributed to the Roman soldiers as free slaves. And of course, Caesar mentioned that after the monumental defeat, a general thanksgiving of twenty days was held in his honor at Rome.

Macc Reacc:

Well, that’s all she wrote folks. Although this summary was detailed and long-winded, nothing can compare to reading the words of Caesar for yourself. The way he described warfare was detached yet vividly brilliant and descriptive. He got down to the specifics, including the colloquial names that Roman soldiers gave to their spiked death traps (“lilies”) and the manic speeches about cannibalism given by Gallic citizens. Alesia was the end for the Gauls, literally — Vercingetorix surrendered, was brought to Rome and paraded around the city until he was executed.

Just imagine that scenario for a moment — leading an entire nation’s uprising and desperate quest for freedom and losing at the eleventh hour. The Gauls really did have a fighting chance; Dan Carlin in his “Celtic Holocaust” episode goes into extreme detail on this point. If luck had been on their side, they could’ve stopped the Romans. After all, the Gauls had superior numbers and that intrinsic fighting spirit and wildness the Romans lacked. The Romans won through a combination of luck, cunning and relying on their German cavalry — it was the epitome of being in the right place at the right time, and Caesar was the man for the job.

Overall, this tale was depressing and one that happens often throughout history, although not usually with so much fanfare and fame as Caesar lent it. This massive conflict began with the wandering migration of Helvetian refugees and ended in a pan-Gallic slaughter. It’s amazing the lengths to which people will go to reclaim their freedom, even if their efforts lead to genocide.

Book VII Section IV: Alesia and the End was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Conflict:

While Caesar was hunkering down at Gergovia and getting betrayed by the Aedui, Labienus was dealing with his own woes in the north. Labienus was attempting to attack the Parisii capital of Lutetia but the terrain was too marshy and watery to penetrate, Lutetia being an island in the Seine River. Labienus evacuated his troops farther south to Metiosedum and regrouped for another attack on Lutetia.

However, news of the Aedui defection finally reached this part of Gaul and the Bellovaci, a fierce tribe close to the Parisii, openly declared their support for the cause and were bearing down on Labienus. Labienus abandoned his plan of attacking Lutetia and instead divided up his troops and headed south to Agedincum, a Roman stronghold. Labienus and his troops massacred the Gauls that opposed them, made their way safely to Agedincum and eventually linked up with Caesar.

Characters:

• Labienus — Roman commander of four legions in the Senones and Parisii territory
• Camulogenus — an aged chieftain of the Aulerci tribe who was leading the military campaign against Labienus

Quotes:

“To the north the powerful race of the Bellovaci, universally acclaimed the bravest of Gallic peoples, hung like a thundercloud.” (page 209)

“Addressing his men, he [Labienus] urged them to be true to their great traditions, and to keep before their minds the brilliant work so far effected by the army of Gaul. Caesar himself, they should imagine, under whose banner they had so often marched to victory in the past, was that day present with them in spirit.” (page 211)

“…the leading files of the enemy went down like mown grass before the deep-cutting Roman spears…” (page 211)

Words:

• picket — a small detachment of troops or warships positioned towards the enemy to give early warning of attack

Summary:

This section was barely four pages long, but it debriefed the reader on the drama and activities of Labienus in the north. Remember, Caesar sent four legions under Labienus to harass the Parisii and Senones tribes. Labienus was marching on Lutetia, the capital of the Parisii but was met with geographical roadblocks like marshes and the Seine. He retreated back to the town of Metiosedum and built vessels to transport his army to the other side of the Seine. From there, he planned to launch another ground attack on Lutetia — until the news of Aeduan defection to the Gallic cause reached the ears of the Parisii and Bellovaci tribes.

“He [Labienus] now saw that it was no longer a question of extending his area of control, or of taking the initiative in war, but solely one of extricating himself from his predicament by a safe retreat to Agedincum.” (page 209)

Labienus divided his troops into three sections and rowed at different intervals down the Seine River towards Agedincum. A violent storm conveniently sprung up, which cleared out the Gallic pickets that were lining the River and harassing the Romans. The Parisii quickly caught up though and were hot on the Roman trail.

Labienus gave the signal and Roman troops “crashed through the opposing ranks and scattered the Gauls before it…the enemy went down like mown grass before the deep-cutting Roman spears.” Camulogenus and his soldiers expired in the fray and Labienus arrived at Agedincum, victorious. After three days rest, Labienus rejoined Caesar, “with his forces intact and his stores unharmed.”

Macc Reacc:

Thanks for checking in Labienus! There wasn’t much meat to this section, and it mostly revealed Labienus kicking Parisii butt. Reading this 2,000 years later, it’s fascinating to see what Paris was like before it was Paris. And who knew there was a Parisii tribe? Labienus, through quick thinking and classic Roman ruses, made it out of the hot Gallic water just in time to link up with Caesar.

Book VII Section III: Labienus and the Parisii was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Conflict:

It’s getting saucy in Gaul now. After Caesar conquered Avaricum, he spent a few days basking in glory and refueling his starved troops. Trouble started brewing in the Aeduan tribe (two rival chieftains were competing for the title of magistrate), so Caesar galloped into that country for a brief stint. He then marched with his troops on the hot tail of Vercingetorix’s army towards Gergovia, the capital town of the Arverni tribe, the mother tribe of Vercingetorix.

At this pivotal point, the Aeduan people — long esteemed and paraded by Caesar as “a friend to Rome” — betrayed him and defected to the Gallic cause. But Caesar wasn’t one to take this slight lying down. He dealt with the Aedui, found a weakness in the Gergovian defenses, devised a clever ruse to draw the Gauls away and attacked ruthlessly. The Romans were overly zealous and sustained heavy casualties, but Caesar sufficiently flattened the Gauls.

The Aedui double-crossed Caesar again by razing the town of Noviodunum, Caesar’s stronghold and supply cabinet. Caesar, realizing the direness of the situation, still did not turn back and flee to the Roman Province. Him and his troops crossed the swelling Loire River on foot and marched northwards towards the Senones tribe.

Characters:

• Convictolitavis — chief of the Aedui, eventually won the contested magistrate position of the Aedui people
• Cota — other chief of the Aedui with powerful family connections; Caesar de-legitimized his claim to the Aedui magistracy
• Litaviccus — “firebrand” of the Aedui nobility, incited his tribesmen to betray the Romans
• Eporedorix and Viridomarus — two Aeduan leaders who were purportedly accused of high treason and executed by the Romans; however, this was a lie meant to cause rebellion amongst the Aedui
• C. Fabius — trusted general in Caesar’s army, in command of two Roman legions during the Gergovia siege
• Teutomatus — Gallic king was who “taking a siesta” when the Romans stormed the Gallic camp outside the walls of Gergovia
• T. Sextius — officer who commanded the lesser of the two Roman camps at Gergovia
• L. Fabius and M. Petronius — two Roman centurions who had ignored Caesar’s order to “fall back” and instead scaled the Gergovian walls to find glory — they and their “storming parties” were all cut down

Quotes:

“The two hostile armies were thus advancing on parallel courses, separated merely by the river; consequently not only did each often look on the camp of the other, but they even faced one another across the stream…” (page 191)

“‘At this moment,’ he [Litaviccus] continued, ‘there stands between Gaul and certain victory the single obstacle of the Aedui, for it is our example that holds all others to their loyalty. Remove this obstacle, and the Romans will be left without a footing anywhere throughout the country.” (page 193)

“There king Teutomatus was surprised in his tent whilst taking his siesta, and had barely time to escape from the hands of his pursuers, where were now busily hunting for loot, with his horses wounded and his shirt torn from his back.” (page 201)

“With similar panic their women began stripping off their raiment and jewelry, and tossing them down from the wall; and leaning over with bared breast and outstretched arms, implored they might be spared repetition of Avaricum.” (page 201)

“overweening self-confidence”

“Never should it be forgotten that strict obedience and a power of self-control were not less binding on a soldier than steadfast courage and a daring spirit.” (page 204)

“To break the force of the current, the horsemen made a living dam across the stream.” (page 207)

Words:

• sedulous — involving or accomplished with careful perseverance, diligent in application or pursuit
• scarp — cut or erode (a slope or hillside) so that it becomes steep, perpendicular, or precipitous
• baneful — harmful or destructive
• ignominy — public shame or disgrace
• insuperable — (of a difficulty or obstacle) impossible to overcome

Summary:

We start off with Caesar refueling and resupplying his troops at Avaricum. While he was there, he received a desperate message from the Aedui tribe — a civil war was brewing because two competing chieftains had proclaimed themselves “magistrate,” a position with regal power that only belonged to one man at a time. The two chieftains, Convictolitavis and Cota, were in a “fratricidal struggle” and the Aeduan tribe was at risk of destroying itself with infighting. Caesar, hearing out the case and facts, declared Convictolitavis to be the rightful magistrate. He then divided his legions and sent Labienus up north towards the Senones and Parisii tribes while he moved southward towards the Arverni with six faithful legions.

Vercingetorix and his army was also marching towards the Arverni stronghold— so it was that “…the two hostile armies were thus advancing on parallel courses, separated merely by the river; consequently not only did each often look on the camp of the other, but they even faced one another across the stream…” (page 191). Vercingetorix was burning down bridges so Caesar couldn’t cross over to his side of the Elaver River, but Caesar fooled him and had a few legions covertly rebuild the destroyed bridges.

The two armies finally made it to Gergovia, the capital town of the Arverni tribe. Caesar at once claimed a well-positioned hill for himself and drove out the Gallic army that was then occupying it. Let the siege begin!

Meanwhile, more pressing trouble with stirring within the Aedui tribe, the so-called “Friend of Rome” that Caesar aided and mentioned several times. Convictolitavis, who was recently named the lawful magistrate by Caesar, was bribed by the Arverni tribe to defect to the Gallic cause. Convictolitavis enlisted the help of Litaviccus, a “firebrand” among the Aedui nobility, to convince his tribe to betray the Romans. Unfortunately for the Romans, Caesar had ordered a few cavalry and infantry units from the Aedui to join him at Gergovia…and Litaviccus was named the leader of this contingent.

“At the head, therefore, of this Aeduan army Litaviccus had arrived within some thirty miles of Gergovia. When suddenly calling the troops together, he asked them, with tears rolling down his face, whether they realized to what fate they were proceeding.” (page 193)

An impassioned speech followed, complete with lies about the Romans massacring Aeduan knights and actors that Litaviccus hired to corroborate his false story.

“Indeed, if we have a spark of manhood in us, we shall, even here and now, avenge the death of our martyred countrymen, and once for all make an end of these butchers.” (page 195)

The Aeduan soldiers, not surprisingly, supported this betrayal and killed the Roman soldiers that happened to be traveling with them. Caesar was “dismayed” because he had stuck his neck out for the Aedui tribe this whole time, only to be stabbed in the back by them (hehehehe). But he extended clemency to the remainder of the tribe and got back to business with Gergovia.

A few weeks into the siege, Caesar got a nugget of positive news: there was a “weak corner” in the Gergovian defenses and all the Gallic troops had been called away from their regular posts to this weak spot. It was go time for Caesar — he deployed another clever ruse (the muleteers were disguised as real cavalry to divert Gallic attention) and got the troops into position. At his command, the infantry sprinted up the main Gergovian hill and threw the Gallic camp into bewilderment.

“There king Teutomatus was surprised in his tent whilst taking his siesta, and had barely time to escape from the hands of his pursuers, who was now busily hunting for loot, with his horses wounded and his shirt torn from his back.” (page 201)

Everyone inside Gergovia was panicking, women were stripping and throwing their garments over the battlement walls, and townsfolk thought the Romans had breached the walls and were ransacking the city. The main body of Gallic troops, which were defending and repairing the weak spot in the defenses, got wind of this attack and rushed over. Caesar recalled his troops, “observing the unequal conditions of the combat,” but several of his centurions and troops did not listen. Centurions such as L. Fabius and M. Petronius scaled the walls, hollering and searching for glory with their small band of loyal troops, and were unceremoniously overwhelmed and cut down by the Gauls. It was a bloodbath on both sides. 46 centurions were ultimately killed as well as countless unnamed Gauls.

“On the morrow the troops were assembled, and Caesar delivered himself of some criticism on their conduct. Their rashness and impetuosity had, he said, cost them dear…never should it be forgotten that strict obedience and a power of self-control were not less binding on a soldier than steadfast courage and a daring spirit.” (page 204)

The Gauls and Romans had a slight skirmish the day after, but it was more to raise the morale of the beaten Roman troops. Caesar and his legions retreated and re-crossed the Elaver River, but they were greeted with dire news. The Roman stronghold of Noviodunum, which was Caesar’s “war-chest” and contained numerous Gallic hostages, was burned to the ground by the Aedui. All the Roman troops inside were murdered as well. :{{

It was looking bleak for Caesar, but still, he did not retreat back to the Roman Province in the south. Instead, his troops crossed the Loire River by foot (“the horsemen made a living dam across the stream”) and marched north to join Labienus in the Senones territory.

Macc Reacc:

Phew! My heart was racing at several points during this heated section. The action at Gergovia was thrilling, but the most jaw-dropping part was the betrayal of the Aeduan tribe. Caesar mentions them so many times throughout this narrative and takes the time to describe their chieftains, history, religion and political organization. Hell, Aedui drama was the excuse Caesar needed to invade Gaul in the first place (remember the Aedui vs Helvetii and Aedui vs Sequani and Ariovistus showdown?) They were the poster child for “Friend of Rome,” but in the end, the Arverni bribe and tantalizing taste of freedom were too powerful.

Convictolitavis was great at fiery speeches, purportedly saying “…remember the grandeur of [your] birthright, which [is] that of a free and sovereign people.” The Aedui hadn’t been free or sovereign for a while, but the romanticized idea of it was enough. Because of this defection, many unaware Romans — civilians and troops alike — were butchered by Gauls they thought were allies. And with the destruction of Noviodunum, Caesar’s mega home base in Gaul, he was truly alone and fighting with nothing but his skin (and thousands of battle-hardened troops).

Caesar could have retreated to the Roman Province in the south but he didn’t — that choice would surely have nailed the coffin into Labienus and the legions under him. Caesar was also too proud and stubborn to admit defeat; and after all, the Romans had a better track record against the Gauls. For some unfathomable reason, the Romans continued to outdo the Gauls, despite the intense Gallic fighting spirit and their overwhelming numbers. Caesar was dogged and had his career and generational reputation at stake.

Flectere si nequeo superos, Acheronta movebom

(If I can not bend the will of Heaven, I shall move Hell)

-Virgil, The Aeneid

Book VII Section II: The Siege of Gergovia was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Conflict:

This chapter marks the feverish beginning of the end of Gallic civilization as the ancient world knew it. The upcoming stories of heroism and despair were the apex of the Gallic war that Caesar waged and drew out until an entire culture was exterminated. Vercingetorix, a younger chief of the Arverni tribe, was the last great unifier of Gaul and the last real chance the country had of reclaiming its sovereignty. In this chapter, Caesar fast forwards quickly throughout time and describes the rise of Vercingetorix and the unification of the tribes, the taking of Vellaunodunum, Cenabum and Noviodunum (prominent Gallic towns), and finally, the harrowing siege of Avaricum. It was the Gallic version of Custer’s Last Stand, and the bloodshed, anguish and heaps of crying wives we see in this narrative is unparalleled. These conflicts were only the beginnings of the Caesar versus Vercingetorix showdown.

Characters:

• Vercingetorix — young, dynamic chieftain of the Arverni tribe, son of the once “titular head of all Gaul” and unifier of the Gallic tribes
• Caesar — my old friend!
• Lucterius — member of the Cadurcan tribe and military leader of half of Vercingetorix’s forces
• Cotuatus and Conconnetodumnus — “two desperadoes” of the Carnutan tribe who attacked Cenabum and massacred the Romans there; sparked the final Roman x Gallic conflict

Quotes:

“And come what might it was universally agreed that to fall fighting on the field of battle was infinitely better than to endure the loss of their ancient military renown, and of their sacred heritage of freedom as a people.” (page 171)

“Going upon their knees before all their compatriots, the Bituriges passionately pleaded the cause of this queen of Gallic cities [Avaricum] — their pride alike and their protection — and begged they might not be forced with their own hands to apply the torch for its destruction.” (page 178)

“…suddenly the streets were filled with wives and mothers pouring from their homes, who, throwing themselves with tears before their husbands, begged and implored them…not to betray them and their children, their common offspring, to the tender mercies of the foe…they rent the air with piercing cries intended to inform the Romans of what was going forward.” (page 186)

“…for he [Vercingetorix] was endeavoring to effect the unification of Gaul — and Gaul united might face a world in arms.” (page 188)

“Old and infirm, women and children, were indiscriminately butchered.” (page 187)

Words:

• debouch — emerge from a narrow or confined space into a wide, open area
• mantlet — a bulletproof screen for a soldier
• circumvallation — a line of fortifications, built by the attackers around the besieged fortification facing towards an enemy fort
• cur — an aggressive dog or one that is in poor condition, especially a mongrel
• succor — assistance and support in times of hardship and distress
• windlasses — any of various machines for hoisting or hauling
• baulk — a roughly squared timber beam
• indomitable — impossible to subdue or defeat
• accouter — clothe or equip in something noticeable or impressive
• glib — (of words or the person speaking them) fluent and voluble but insincere and shallow

Summary:

Caesar was tending to local business back in Italy when the Gauls were stirred by “interested mischief makers” saying that Caesar was “forcibly detained in Italy owing to the [political] disturbances at Rome.” The Gauls saw the opportunity to strike and secret councils were held throughout Gaul, with local tribes pledging their support and fighting men to yet another unifying cause. The Carnutes tribe stepped up to take the first offensive move against the Romans and massacred Roman mercantile residents of Cenabum (present-day Orleans). The news of the slaughter — and subsequent distribution of the merchants’ property — was spread throughout Gaul in a single day and it stirred the heartstrings of a man named Vercingetorix. The son of an executed Gallic monarch, Vercingetorix was a natural leader and soon “roused the countryside” to enlist all the tribes, who were eager for unification and revenge.

“Proclaimed king by his followers,” Vercingetorix got a whole pocketful of tribes on his side overnight. He exacted hostages, tribute, weapons and fighting men from these tribes and ruled with an iron fist. Half of the military forces were led by Lucterius, a bold leader from the Cadurcan tribe, while the rest remained under Vercingetorix.

Caesar finally got wind of these rapid and alarming developments and got his booty to the Province. The country was crawling with Gallic insurgents and Lucterius was marching down to the strategic town of Narbo — however, he was stopped by the strong Roman fortifications he met and retreated. Caesar went full steam ahead and crossed a wintery mountain range (the Cevennes), much to the surprise of the Arverni tribe that lay on the other side (side note: Vercingetorix’s mother tribe was the Arverni). Caesar plundered and scoured the countryside, but his real issue was uniting his legions, which were spread across Gallic territory and extremely vulnerable. Leaving a small contingent of his forces with the Arverni, Caesar “raced across the country of the Aedui,” picked up his cavalry along the way and united them with his largest force at Lingones.

Vercingetorix then decided to attack the town of Gorgobina, which was inhabited by the Boii tribe (remember this sad tribe from the Helvetii chapter?). Caesar didn’t think it was politically correct to let a known ally of the Romans, the Boii, be ravaged by fellow Gauls, so he made haste to the town.

“…it seemed preferable to endure any degree of hardship than, by a tame acquiescence in such a humiliating ignominy, to alienate the sympathies of every Roman supporter…he [Caesar] sent word to the Boii that he himself was marching to their relief.” (page 176)

On the way, he assaulted and conquered the towns of Vellaunodunum, Cenabum and Noviodunum. His next object was the rich and fertile town of Avaricum, the stronghold of the Bituriges tribe. At this point, Vercingetorix saw the massive losses his side was incurring and instituted a scorched earth policy to his native lands: “Bluntly declaring that it was no time to cling to the sweets of private property.” However, he exempted the Bituriges’ prized city, Avaricum, after their chieftains groveled at Vercingetorix’s feet and pointed out the natural fortifications the town had.

Caesar dug in his heels at Avaricum and subjected it to good ole’ fashioned Roman siege. I’m talking siege embankments, wooden artillery towers, dwindling grain shipments from “lukewarm” Gallic supporters, the whole shebang. Vercingetorix’s camp also moved closer to the Avaricum walls and Roman camp because of his declining fodder. The two sides almost fought, but Caesar retreated at the last second because he saw how disadvantageous the terrain was for fighting.

And then Vercingetorix was arrested at Gaul HQ because this tribesmen thought he was colluding with Caesar — which he denied vehemently and even starved/coerced a couple of slaves into pretending to be Roman deserters. These faux Romans stated the Roman army was diminished and starved “to such a state of emaciation that the men could no longer perform the manual work demanded by the siege.” Although this was a lie, the Gauls licked it up and reinstated Vercingetorix as their leader. Yay!

Meanwhile, the Romans were still pounding hell into Avaricum’s walls. The traditional Italian siege tools were being rendered useless by Gallic counter-engineering and the fortified, interlocking walls of the town. About a month into the siege (and after the completion of a giant Roman siege mound), the Gauls poured forth from their walls and camp and delivered a fiery strike to the Roman lines. The wooden siege towers were bursting into flames — the battle raged from late night to early morning — the destroyed breastworks! But somehow, the Romans stood their ground and met the continual onslaught of fresh Gallic fighters. The men inside Avaricum were planning an escape to Vercingetorix’s camp in the dead of night, but their ruse was exposed by their wives and mothers, who sent piercing screams throughout the city. The men were going to abandon their wives and children to the mercy of the Romans. ☹️ These feminine cries put the Romans on high alert and the men inside the city were resigned to stay.

On the following day, Caesar revealed his military genius. It was pouring rain outside — a classic French thunderstorm — and the Gauls manning Avaricum’s walls were thinned out. The Romans stormed the ramparts, drove all soldiers from their towers and battlements and slaughtered the inhabitants of the city ruthlessly. The troops inside the city became panicked and ran to the nearest exits — but the Romans were waiting for them and butchered them to pieces. Caesar claims that out of “a total fighting population of forty thousand men, scarcely eight hundred had succeeded in making their way to Vercingetorix.”

Instead of this horrific setback breaking up the army and dampening his spirits, Vercingetorix rallied the troops and once again espoused his lofty vision of a united Gaul. He raised yet another army with fresh recruits and new uniforms and conscripted every available archer in the country.

“The curious result thus followed that, whereas other generals are invariably discredited by failure, he on the other hand found his reputation positively enhanced as the result of a military reverse.” (page 188)

Macc Reacc:

Where should I start? This chapter rocketed across several characters, subplots and military sieges that it seemed Caesar was rushing to finish the story. So many incongruous things happened: Gaul was united for real, they happened to find this brilliant, charismatic leader, Caesar stormed three Gallic towns without struggle, Vercingetorix was arrested, and the two sides fought it out at Avaricum. The military action and anthropological observations, after being out drawn out across several books and chapters, was horse racing towards the end.

The amount of human life lost in this chapter was staggering. At Avaricum alone, a full 40,000 people (or more) were murdered in a single evening. We don’t know the numbers killed at Noviodunum or the other cities, but it seems like lack of food and a pure hatred of the enemy was driving Roman soldiers to violence. Caesar presented one curious humanization of the war though — he described an individual Gallic soldier whose job it was to thrown lumps of grease and flammable pitch onto the Roman towers. A bolt loosened and fell from the tower, striking the boy on his side and killing him. Another fresh pitch-thrower immediately stepped over the boy’s lifeless body and assumed his role — until he met his end that way too. This murderous cycle, Caesar remarked, continued until the fighting was completely over…I’m imagining a pile of dead, young men and feel sick to my stomach.

Honestly, if the Gauls were going to defeat the Romans, they really needed to clinch Avaricum. If the Gauls were so numerous and passionate as Caesar was implying, I don’t know why they couldn’t defeat him. Were the Romans just stellar war machines? But it didn’t seem that way — Caesar even explicitly mentioned that Gallic engineering was thwarting Roman tools and tactics. Whatever the secret ingredient was — superior grit, better commanders, stouter (or colder) hearts, wine and olive oil — the Romans were a nut that the Gauls could not crack. And these tribesmen paid for this deficiency dearly, despite having way more on the line than just their lives. By losing this critical siege and the larger conflict, the Gauls lost their culture, ancestral way of life, the entire fighting population and basic freedom.

Book VII Section I: The Rising of Vercingetorix was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Conflict:

The goose chase for Ambiorix, the rebel Eburonian chief, was turning into a hot ancient mess. Just when the Romans were about to ambush Ambiorix, he always managed to just slip away. Caesar deployed his legions across the country — one under Labienus, another under Trebonius, a few under Cicero to hold the town of Aduatica and the last couplet under his leadership — but to no avail.

Eventually, Caesar sent an open invitation to the tribes of Gaul and Germany to plunder Eburonian territory, and soon the country was overridden. There was one snag though — the Germans, in addition to plundering Gallic territory, started harassing the Roman legions at Aduatica. The troops were terrified, believing Caesar was defeated in battle and that they were going to languish horribly. Roman battalions were massacred and hysteria was running high — until the Germans magically melted away and Caesar appeared on the horizon. 🤷

Characters:

• C. Volcatius Tullus — officer of the garrison stationed at the Rhine, oversaw 12 battalions who were guarding the remaining bridgehead
• L. Minucius Basilus — commander of the cavalry that was sent by Caesar to explore the Ardennes Forest in hopes of finding & capturing Ambiorix
• Catuvolcus — the other prince of the Eburones; “allowed himself to become entangled in the treacherous designs of Ambiorix,” ended up poisoning himself
• Q. Tullius Cicero — commander of the troops at Aduatica, the fortress holding all the Roman baggage (and scene of the former disaster that befell Sabinus and Cotta)

Quotes:

“The enemy were without a single organized band in the field…it was a war against a whole population scattered to the wind.” (page 162)

“Now it was confidently affirmed that the camp was already captured, now someone would passionately declare that the whole Roman army had perished with its commander…the great majority became victims of superstitious terrors…and with fevered imagination saw impending on themselves the same fate that in this fort [Aduatica] had overtaken Cotta and Sabinus.” (page 165)

“The sudden nature of the emergency had unstrung the stoutest hearts.” (page 166)

“…again and again the hunted king [Ambiorix] would from some secret nook in a forest glen watch his enemies go by, until under the friendly covering of night he could steal away to another part of his dominions…” (page 169)

Words:

• sauve qui peut — a general stampede, panic, or disorder
• imprecation — a spoken curse
• rapine — the violent seizure of someone’s property
• morass — an area of muddy or boggy ground
• sutler — civilian merchant who sells provisions to an army in the field, in camp, or in quarters. Sutlers sold wares from the back of a wagon or a temporary tent, traveling with an army or to remote military outposts
• melee — a confused fight, skirmish, or scuffle

Summary:

Caesar cut the bridge he erected across the Rhine, built a scary watchtower on the extreme end of it and focused his full attention on catching the Eburonian scumbag, Ambiorix. It wasn’t so easy though — he first sent L. Minucius Basilus and a body of cavalry into the Ardennes Forest, which stretched from the Rhine to the Nervian countryside. Basilus “rode straight upon the Eburonian leader whilst the latter was lulled in a false sense of security,” but Ambiorix managed to slip away. Caesar bemoaned the fickle nature of Fortune and her “disposing hand” that was sometimes for and against the Romans. From his various hideouts, Ambiorix sent the order for his armies to scatter and hide themselves in the forests, marshlands and low-lying flats by the ocean. Catuvolcus, the other Eburonian chief, ended up killing himself by swallowing yew. ☹️

Caesar was sick of stalling and deployed his legions across Gallic territory to find Ambiorix. One of his legions under Cicero was sent to Aduatica, a fortress where the Romans kept all their valuable baggage and possessions (it was also the scene of disaster to Sabinus and Cotta earlier in the year). Caesar implied he and the other legions would return to the fort in seven days. Meanwhile the enemy, though they were effectively disbanded, fought against the Romans in guerilla warfare.

“Wherever a hidden gorge, a wooded clump, or a treacherous marsh held out hopes either of concealment or defense, they [Gauls] lay ensconced.” (page 162).

The Roman troops were “burning for revenge,” but Caesar put his “calm and collected hat” on — he sent out an open invitation across Gaul to come and pillage the Eburonian territory. Gauls and Germans (who heard about Caesar’s mating call from across the Rhine) fled into the country. The Germans, “bred up as such men are from their cradles to war and rapine,” learned about the lavish Roman riches at Aduatica and decided to attack it.

Meanwhile, Cicero and his legions at Aduatica were getting restless. A small band of battalions was granted leave outside the fortress walls and was scavenging in the neighboring wheat fields when the Germans came on the scene. All hell broke loose. The Germans rushed the fortress defenses, attacked the foraging party and charged upon the pickets guarding the walls. Unprepared and flustered, the Romans had their hearts unstrung by fear and were grieving their fate, which they believed to be the same as the doomed Sabinus and Cotta. The foraging party managed to “boldly cut their way through the heart of the enemy” and reach the safety of camp. After wreaking havoc and slaughtering another Roman contingent on an adjacent hill, the Germans decided they had enough fun for the day.

“Seeing that the garrison had by this time manned the walls, the German raiders quickly abandoned whatever hopes they might have entertained of storming a Roman camp, and after recovering the spoil from the woods in which it had been hid, started off for the Rhine towards home.” (page 167)

The Roman troops were still scared silly until Caesar showed up and mollified them. Thus, the hunting of Ambiorix was a failure — at least in this chapter.

“Prisoners would declare that only a moment ago they had seen Ambiorix fleeing for his life, and straining their eyes to the horizon would insist that even yet he was not clearly out of sight……again and again the hunted king [Ambiorix] would from some secret nook in a forest glen watch his enemies go by, until under the friendly covering of night he could steal away to another part of his dominions…” (page 169)

Macc Reacc:

What a disaster! All of that effort, pillaging and hide-and-go-seek and Ambiorix still wasn’t captured. The Romans in this chapter were not portrayed in a flattering light — they were easily fooled and nervous, thinking that every hiccup in military plans meant the decimation of Caesar and all their hopes. The quasi-battle with the German raiders illustrated this: the raiding band was probably meagre at best, while the Romans were supported by full legions, cavalry detachments and strong fortifications. The Germans only had their rudimentary swords and skins. Despite the advantages, the Romans lost heart and were thrown into chaos without Caesar being present in the purple flesh.

Also, how can Caesar casually call for tribesmen to plunder Gallic lands? He basically said, “Hey, I’m hunting this one prince so all of his territory is fair game for rape and plunder.” I guess when you’re the defacto leader of the ancient world, the skies and fields are the limit. Caesar was playing on the stereotype of fierce, unruly tribesmen, but it appears his gamble worked. He threw an entire territory into disorder and ruined countless lives, all for getting revenge on an elusive prince.

This chapter is the final one before The Big Finale of Vercingetorix and the Battle of Alesia. To better digest all these details and the confusing tribal names, I recommend watching the below YouTube video that shows the animated blow-by-blow of the Gallic conflict:

Book VI Section III: The Hunting of Ambiorix was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

This chapter doesn’t contain Roman/Gallic conflict or a concrete plot. It’s merely a description of the geography, culture, vegetation and rituals of the German and Gallic lands and people. Caesar often pauses in his wartime accounts to describe the enemy he’s slaughtering. Before launching into the rise of Vercingetorix and the extermination of Gallic culture, he devotes a whole chapter to their anthropology.

Summary:

“At this point of our narrative it will not perhaps be thought inopportune if we pause to consider in some detail the national life of Gaul and Germany.” (page 149)

Re: Gauls

Caesar the Anthropologist! Caesar began by describing the political customs of the Gauls. There was typically two politically prominent tribes at any given time, and at the beginning of this narrative, it was the Aedui and the Sequani. The Aedui were the most powerful, until the Sequani enlisted Ariovistus and the Germans to their aid — and we know what happened there. Ariovistus temporarily destroyed the Aedui until Caesar came to their rescue and obliterated both the Germans and the Sequani. To replace the ousted Sequani, the Remi tribe took their place and ruled with the Aedui as the two most senior tribes.

Caesar, on his obvious authority as Chief Roman Anthropologist, then dove into the defacto class system throughout Gaul — which was composed of common people, Druids and Knights. Caesar dedicated a sad sentence to the common people:

“…commons…may for our purposes be disregarded, since it is virtually that of slaves, powerless of themselves to initiate any political action, and wholly unrepresented …the majority, indeed, are so crushed down by debt and excessive taxation…that they are glad to enter into voluntary servitude.” (page 151).

Basically, most Gallic citizens were common folk, and their lives sucked. Caesar took the keenest interest in the Druid or religious class. The Druids were half priest, half lawyers and were wrapped in a mystical sheen that originated in Britain. They settled criminal and civil cases, were exempt from normal taxes, took no part in national wars and officiated human sacrifices (we’ll get to that later). The Druid ruling reigned supreme and if a lowly Gallic citizen ignored their proclamations, that person would be forever excommunicated from the tribe. Becoming a Druid was super intensive; they had to study for 20+ years, travel to Britain to complete their rituals and commit all of their secrets and doctrines to memory.

“…they still retain a superstitious objection to committing the secrets of their doctrine to writing…experience generally showing that the constant presence of a manuscript serves only to weaken the natural powers of application and retention possessed by the mind.” (age 152)

The second highest class, the Knights, were your typical warrior class. They “live exclusively by the sword” and composed the standing armies of Gaul. ⚔️

According to Caesar, the Gauls were “extra” when it came to religion…and their common practice of human sacrifice! They believed one human life could only be substituted for another, and the Druids even had reincarnation-type beliefs where the human soul “merely passes at death from one tenement to another.” These were some weighty and cultish religious beliefs, especially when it came to human sacrifice to satisfy the heavens:

“Others keep by them a grotesque and gigantic image of some favorable god, into whose huge limbs of wicker-work those destined for sacrifice are packed alive; fire is then placed beneath the pile, and the souls of the victims pass away amid a torrent of roaring flames.” (page 153)

Man what the?! Caesar might’ve been trying to de-humanize the Gauls to justify his conquest of them, but this image was stark and specific. It reminded me of that scene in Sabrina: the Teenage Witch where Sabrina’s pals were about to be roasted alive at the local carnival.

The Gauls also worshipped a pantheon similar to the Romans: Mercury, Apollo, Jupiter and Minerva, which hinted at the extent Roman culture had seeped into the tribes.

On a more human level, Caesar briefly mentioned family relationships and funeral rituals. Boys weren’t allowed to meet or “be seen in public by the side of his father” until he was an adult. Husbands could kill their wives and children since they “exercised the power of life and death.” And when it came to the funerals of rich dudes, their slaves and retainers were thrown onto the funeral pyre as well.

Despite all these seemingly barbarous acts, the Gauls, at the time Caesar was writing, were “softened” by Roman influence and culture. As we’ve seen in previous chapters, they adopted Roman engineering methods, drank themselves silly on mulled wine and lacked the fighting prowess they possessed in previous decades. Which begs the question…how could the Romans also have all of those soft qualities and conquer the Mediterranean world?

Re: Germans

Ah, our favorite wildlings from beyond the Rhine. The Germans were starkly different from their Gallic neighbors, despite being thrown into the catch-all bucket of “savage.” The German religions consisted of casual worship of the Sun, Moon and God of Fire. They lived carefree and by Roman standards, immodest lives where everyone bathed together and had free sex after the age of 20. They didn’t farm but subsisted on milk, cheese and flesh. And most curiously, private ownership of land was strictly prohibited:

“Neither the exclusive enjoyment nor the private ownership of land is permitted; but instead an annual distribution of it is made by the government officials and local chiefs…everyone of these groups being required to remove elsewhere a year afterwards.” (page 156).

Germans enjoyed their lands equally and moved constantly in a nomadic lifestyle. The chief reason for this mobility was that the Germans wanted to remain strong, “live off the land,” and not get soft from farming. They also viewed money as the “pernicious root of all discord and class hatred.” Since they were far removed from the Romans, they weren’t as influenced by the luxuries of wine, trade and refined culture. Instead, German tribes separated themselves from other people as much as possible and viewed this isolation as a badge of honor:

“Among the tribes there is no more coveted distinction than to live in the center of a vast wilderness.” (page 156).

The Germans were wild, strong and free (and probably rad campers). Interestingly, in decades past, the Gauls were viewed as more violent and powerful than the Germans, especially in the battlefield. But again, once the Romans plied the Gauls with wine (and ethnically cleansed them), the Germans easily outstripped the Gauls in fighting qualities.

Caesar the Naturalist?

The end this unusual chapter, Caesar elaborated on the Hercynian forest and the flora and fauna within it. This part was uncalled for, but Caesar clearly thought writing about “ox shaped like a deer,” elk and the urus were worth it. The first animal referred to was a reindeer, and the urus was a species of large, wild cattle, similar to a bull or elephant. A quick Google search of a urus revealed this pithy line:

“[A Urus is…] a very large, powerful, and savage extinct bovine animal.” 😢

Words:

• palmated — (of an antler) in which the angles between the tines are partly filled in to form a broad flat surface, as in fallow deer and moose
• parti-coloration — showing different colors or tints; especially having a predominant color broken by patches of one or more other colors.
• vicissitude — a change of circumstances or fortune, typically one that is unwelcome or unpleasant
• obsequies — funeral rites
• Archdruid — the head of all the Druids, “invested with supreme powers”

Book VI Section II: Ethnography of Gaul and Germany was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Conflict:

The winter shenanigans in Gaul were not over yet. Caesar, determined to “make a statement,” raised three new legions from Italy (with the blessing and aid of Pompey) and marched them into Gallic territory. Despite the murder of Indutiomarus, the Gallic tribes (i.e. Nervii, Aduatici, Menapii and Germans) were still up in arms against Rome and ignoring Caesar’s summons to the general assembly of Gaul. Caesar made a quick war against the Nervii, but the real “problem children” were the Senones, Carnutes and Treveri tribes. The Senones and Carnutes quickly surrendered (for the time being), so Caesar focused his efforts on quashing the Treveri tribe and their supporting German tribe, the Menapii. He then decided to cross the Rhine River again to spook the Germans and cow them into submission — this strategy semi-worked, but the real German enemy, the Suebi tribe, simply melted away to their vast forests, baiting the Romans to come and get ‘em.

Characters:

• Pompey — the proconsul at the time and ally to Caesar in the First Triumvirate; helped raise and secure more Italian legions for Caesar’s army
• Acco — ringleader of the Anti-Roman movement, chieftain of the Senones tribe
• Ambiorix — Eburonian rebel who was constantly making war against the Romans

Quotes:

“Thus, by exactly doubling the number of battalions that had perished with Sabinus, he gave convincing proof…of how immense was the strength that underlay the discipline and the wealth of Rome.” (page 142)

“A wild cheer ran through the ranks of the legionaries, as with eager haste they launched their heavy javelins.” (page 147)

“In the meantime, Caesar with the main army had…decided that for two important reasons a second crossing of the Rhine had become a military necessity.” (page 147)

“friendly Germans” (page 148)

Words:

• suzerain — a sovereign or state having some control over another state that is internally autonomous; feudal overlord

Summary:

These “freedom loving Gauls” seriously were prepared to fight to the death. Even after Indutiomarus was beheaded and his supporting tribes routed in battle, the Nervii, Aduatici, Menapii, Senones, Carnutes and Treveran tribes were not finished raising hell. Caesar raised more legions in Italy, but this arms race only increased the desperation/brashness of the Gauls. The Gauls were also sending emissaries daily into Germany to garner their support — determined to stop this, Caesar made a quick campaign into Nervian territory and scattered the tribe. He raped and pillaged the area and then called his customary “general assembly of Gaul.” Several tribe chieftains did not show up, which Caesar took as a slight to Rome and an act of war (fun fact: the general assembly was held in ancient Paris, the capital city of the Parisii tribe).

After the assembly, Caesar made for the country of the Senones and their ringleader, Acco. The Senones and Carnutes ended up “throwing themselves absolutely on the mercy of Caesar” since they were surprised by the speed of the Roman army. With these peoples semi-pacified, Caesar then turned his attention to Ambiorix and the Treveri/Eburone tribes. However, he was troubled by a two-fold problem: Ambiorix had powerful ties to the Menapii people and the Treveran people were “buddy buddy” with the Germans beyond the Rhine. These fierce allies made the prospects of catching Ambiorix more dire and difficult. But Caesar’s mastermind had a solution: he sent T. Labienus to the Treveri territory and personally marched to the Menapii.

“…the forces advanced into the heart of the Menapian country, burning and plundering as they went. Large captures both in men and cattle were quickly made, and finding themselves helpless before such tactics, the tribesmen petitioned for peace.” (page 145)

Labienus, meanwhile, pulled out yee old book of Roman tricks and fooled the Treveri tribe again. Feigning timidity and disorder, Labienus lured the Gauls (who were deliberating and waiting for German reinforcements) onto favorable fighting ground. With the Gauls hot on his tail and his soldiers faking flight, Labienus gave the order for the Roman troops to wheel around and fire. When will the Gauls realize this is a classic Roman ruse?

“At the word of command, the Roman column made a turn which brought it facing the enemy, and then deployed in line…a wild cheer ran through the ranks of the legionaries, as with eager haste they launched their heavy javelins, and then prepared to charge…the Treveri had been routed in battle.” (page 147)

As if this utter decimation hadn’t been enough, Caesar then said “hey, it’s about time I build another bridge across the Rhine and spook some more tribes.” The Germans on the other side, specifically the Ubii tribe, surrendered at once and sent more hostages (obviously). Caesar’s real foe was the Suebi tribe, but they “retired to what was wellnigh the farthest boundary of their kingdom, an immense forest tract known as the Bacenis.”

Macc Reacc:

Caesar is a machine, a frothing, blood-thirsty, calculating, inspiring, “ole boy” robot. Remember, the Roman legions are embarking on these crazy campaigns during winter in France, which is the farthest thing from a beach vacation. The Gauls keep rearing up like cockroaches and making desperate pacts — even with the Germans — to thwart the Romans. The fact that Caesar crossed the Rhine again is telling, and it definitely sends an ominous message to the tribes beyond the Rhine. Caesar is a bloody boogeyman and will prey on the stereotypes of the Gauls to win. The Gauls also seem to fall for every trick the Romans play on them — unless it’s the Teutoburg forest or a Sabinus/Cotta situation, the Romans are probably not fleeing out of fear. They’ll turn around, get into “serried ranks” and destroy you.

The Gallic Wars are obviously coming to a climax in these latest chapters. In the beginning of the narrative, the tribes were disparate and Caesar picked them off one by one (rip the Helvetii migration). However, as the conflict progresses, the tribes are more likely to unite and even enlist the help of the Germans in this broad struggle for freedom. Local Gallic politics and conflicts were temporarily put aside to fight the Romans — and again, the Gauls actually had a real chance at victory (unlike the Native Americans or Tibetans, for instance).

Book VI Section I: Punitive Expeditions in the Northeast was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

It’s #fightingseason in Gaul! The Roman legions usually settled down in Gallic towns during the winter months and rebellions were kept to a minimum (after all, who wants to fight in snow and 0 degree weather)? This winter however, the Gauls, headed by their ringleaders Ambiorix and Indutiomarus, were raising hell against the separate Roman legions spread out across the countryside.

Ambiorix attacked the garrison in Southern Gaul but later asked to “parley” with the Roman commanders in charge, Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta. Ambiorix used cunning and fear tactics to get the Romans to leave camp, their belief being that Caesar was assaulted by Gauls and that a general uprising was happening across the nation. Ambiorix was lying, of course, and proceeded to cut down the Romans as they were traveling to the nearest legion (including the commanders Sabinus and Cotta).

The Gauls, fueled by their success, next surrounded the winter camp of Cicero (who was stationed in Nervii territory). Cicero didn’t take the bait though — he eventually got word to Caesar, who rescued him and his starving legion. Indutiomarus wasn’t done though; he rallied the neighboring tribes and proceeded to storm the camp of Labienus in Central Gaul. This siege also failed and when Indutiomarus had his back turned, he was pursued by the Romans and beheaded.

Characters:

• Ambiorix — rabble-rouser of the Eburone tribe, leader of the (semi) united tribes who attacked the Roman legions under Sabinus and Cotta
• Indutiomarus — chieftain of the Treveri tribe, fomenter of Anti-Roman sentiments in Gaul and commander in the fights against T. Labienus
• Q. Sabinus — Roman co-commander of the troops wintering in Eburone territory, ultimately a “failed” general because he led his troops to disaster
• L. Cotta — Roman co-commander of the troops wintering in Eburone territory, viewed as a brave, thoughtful leader who rallied men in the hour of desperation
• Cicero — Roman commander of troops stationed in Nervii territory, didn’t take the Gallic bait to leave camp (and no, not that Cicero)
• T. Pullo — non-commissioned officer of the legion wintering in the Nervii territory; had a rivalry with L. Vorenus but ended up being BFFs with him
• L. Vorenus — non-commissioned officer of the legion wintering in the Nervii territory; had a rivalry with T. Pullo but ended up being BFFs with him
• Crassus — paymaster of the Roman army who was staying in Bellovaci lands for the winter
• T. Labienus — trusty general of the Roman army who always seemed to be Caesar’s go-to man; his camp in Central Gaul was under attack from Indutiomarus, but Labienus crushed (and killed) him
• Vertico — Nervian chief who was loyal-ish to the Romans and Cicero; he assisted in communications between different Roman legions who were caught between the enemy

Quotes:

“You need not imagine that to a soldier like myself death has any special terrors.” (page 122)

“With agreement and harmony of view, it mattered nothing whether they went or stayed — either course was equally practicable; dissension, on the other hand, must extinguish even the last ray of hope.” (page 122)

“It was then the hour that proclaimed the man…on all sides, the air was rent with shouts and cries of disappointment.” (page 123)

“The seventh day of the siege was ushered in by a violent hurricane…but in all alike the hour served only to call forth the deepest springs of resolution and the loftiest embodiment of courage.” (page 129)

“…and the two men (Pullo and Vorenus), after accounting for numbers of the enemy, and covering themselves with glory, fell back unscathed to the fortifications of the camp, fighting side by side. Thus, in endeavoring to terminate their dispute upon the field of battle, each of the two rivals, by successive turns of Fortune’s wheel, was made the means of helping and rescuing the other; and the question , which of the two was the better man, had perforce to remain unsettled.” (page 131)

Words:

• enfilade — a volley of gunfire directed along a line from end to end
• hors de combat — out of action due to injury or damage
• wellnigh — “almost”
• circumvallation — surrounded by or as if by a rampart
• perforce — adverb used to express necessity or inevitability
• inveigle — persuade (someone) to do something by means of deception or flattery
• truculent — eager or quick to argue or fight; aggressively defiant
• turves — a piece of grass and the surface layer of earth underneath it, cut from the ground; plural of “turf”
• contumaciously — obstinately disobedient or rebellious; insubordinate
• cynosure — a person or thing that is the center of attention or admiration
• melee — a confused fight, skirmish, or scuffle
• sapper — a soldier responsible for tasks such as building and repairing roads and bridges and laying and clearing mines; combat engineer

Summary:

What an action packed chapter! The Gauls were in full-scale rebellion, uniting their forces and common hatred of the Romans wintering on their lands. Ambiorix, the leader of the Eburone tribe, and Indutiomarus, the slighted leader of the Treveran tribe, were the main firebrands in this narrative. Uniting the tribes and organizing military strategy, Ambiorix and Indutiomarus caused irreparable damage (both physically and psychologically) to the wintering Romans.

The story starts with Ambiorix attacking the Roman legion, led by Q. Sabinus and L. Cotta, who were wintering in Eburone territory. Ambiorix sent a message to the generals, basically saying “I’m just one tiny tribe — why would I attack you unless all of Gaul was up in arms?” He fooled Sabinus into thinking the Gauls were coordinating attacks against the other Roman camps and that Caesar was done for. Sabinus wanted to leave camp immediately to join the other Roman legions nearby while L. Cotta (and most of the other generals) were hesitant and unwilling to make military moves on the word of a Gallic insurgent. However, Sabinus’ rousing speech and heated words won the day and at daybreak, the troops headed towards the nearest legion — but of course, Ambiorix was lying and setting up the Romans in a trap.

“The place they [the Gauls] had selected was a deep gorge, into which the greater part of the column had no sooner plunged than, suddenly disclosing their presence at either end, one party pressed hard upon the Roman rear, while the other strove to prevent their van from climbing clear at the opposite end.” (page 123)

It’s a trap!

So yes, Sabinus was totally wrong and he paid the price with his life. L. Cotta, “ a born leader of men and a gallant soldier,” also perished in the battle. It was a disastrous day for the Romans and the Gauls were high off plunder, slaughter and the prospect of a free society again.

Ambiorix, meanwhile, was “flushed with his first success” and headed straight for the Roman camp in the Nervii territory, which was commanded by Cicero (no, not that Cicero). Ambiorix and the Nervians raised large amounts of troops to their cause and attacked the Roman camp with “impetuous fury.” The Nervian leaders then tried the same trick on Cicero that Ambiorix played on Sabinus & Cotta, viz. “that the present armed rising extended throughout Gaul, that the Germans had crossed the Rhine, that Caesar…was at the moment under investment.” (page 128).

Cicero didn’t buy this “tissue of lies” though and stayed put, choosing a siege over exposing himself and his troops in the open country. The Nervians built siege works around the Roman camp, and it’s worth noting that “the military skill required for so considerable a work had been gathered by their increasing familiarity with Roman methods throughout the previous year.” The siege was an arduous one, and Cicero’s troops were barely hanging on when Caesar came to their aid.

“With the first streak of dawn,” Caesar struck camp and marched towards Cicero and the treacherous Gauls. To lure the Gauls towards preferable fighting ground, however, he feigned fear and ordered his troops to fall back to camp. The Gauls fell for the wily Roman trick and advanced towards the Roman camp (which was on advantageous ground) to fight. At last, Caesar gave the word to attack and the Romans streamed out from behind their walls, butchering and slaughtering the surprised Gauls. Caesar marched into Cicero’s beleaguered camp and rallied the men, commending them for their bravery and also warning against the folly displayed by Sabinus.

“In the light of subsequent success, therefore, they might view with calmness the errors of the past.” (page 135)

While Caesar was busy chastising the remaining Gallic tribes and brokering Gallic politics, Indutiomarus was in Germany “making every effort to stir up the Germans beyond the Rhine.” The Germans weren’t stupid though — they saw the humiliating defeat of Ariovistus and the Tencteri and Usipetes and weren’t keen on a third failure. Undeterred, Indutiomarus then mustered up soldiers from his fellow Gallic tribes (i.e. Senones, Carnutes, Nervii, Aduatici) and summoned an “Armed Council.” Basically, all the tribes bound themselves together and pledged loyalty during the war.

He then attempted to storm the Roman camp of Labienus — but Labienus was cold, calculating and cool as a cucumber. Like his commander dearest, Labienus “fostered the belief in his own timidity” and provoked Indutiomarus into coming closer and closer to the Roman death trap. At his word, the Roman troops rushed from the gates and cut down the bewildered Gauls. The Romans had special orders to find and murder Indutiomarus…who happened to be fording a river, defenseless, when the Romans found him. He was beheaded and his head brought back to camp…and with this utter defeat, Caesar was left to “enjoy a period of comparative tranquility throughout Gaul.” Happy Days?

Macc Reacc:

Holy Saturn, this chapter was a rollercoaster of bloodshed, deceit and Roman cold-bloodedness. This large-scale coordination of Gallic tribes was actually a real threat to the Romans, as seen in the decimation of L. Cotta and Sabinus’ troops. The Gauls weren’t mickey mouse players — they used Roman military tactics (i.e. duplicity), Roman engineering in their siege works and even adopted the disciplined mien that the Roman troops were infamous for.

This uprising (along with the later rebellion of Vercingetorix) were the last chances the Gauls had at ousting the Romans once and for all — but in the end, Caesar was too formidable. Why were the Romans, with the exception of the slaughter in the Eburone territory, so great at fighting and winning? It’s hard to tell since history is written by the victors, but it seems like the Gauls let their impatient, emotional side get the best of them. Their emotional highs and lows flipflopped wildly, and this affected their ability to fight the Roman machine.

My favorite passage was the anecdote about T. Pullo and L. Vorenus. They were rival non-commissioned officers who were always one-upping each other, clawing their way to the Roman political and military top (“…year after year a fierce competition had taken place for priority of rank…” page 130). When they were fighting side by side, however, they saved each other’s lives and settled their immature rivalry by becoming BFFs in combat. The story was a little cheesy, but it also brought Roman humanity to this conflict. The Romans were real humans, not just pawns in Caesar’s grand political game.

Overall, the Romans remind me of the tan, tall, smart, egregiously pleasant, beautiful blonde girl in high school that every female classmate hates but can never top. They’re always slightly better than their opponent in skill and cunning, despite adverse conditions and smaller fighting numbers. Winter is usually a time of beer and peace, but the Gauls tried once again to be free men and women. Caesar would die before letting that happen — Happy Saturnalia. 😈

Book V Section II: Attack on the Winter Camps was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Conflict:

Because one invasion of Britain wasn’t enough, Caesar decided to make another go of it. Before his troops crossed the English channel again though, Caesar had to deal with local Gallic politics (i.e. a clash between chiefs of the Treveri tribe) and the troublesome Aeduan prince Dumnorix (who Caesar eventually had murdered). Once hometown affairs were settled, he and the troops invaded Britain in earnest. After a few ad hoc encounters and guerilla warfare, Caesar effectively routed the British tribes and imposed steep tributes & hostage requirements on them.

Characters:

• Indutiomarus — chief of the Treveri tribe who stirred up tensions and hostilities against the Romans, rival of Cingetorix for the Treveri throne
• Cingetorix — chief of the Treveri tribe, fashioned himself as a Gallic “friend of Rome” and simpered to Caesar, rival of Indutiomarus for the Treveri throne
• Dumnorix — our favorite Aeduan prince who is always trying to subvert Caesar and play diplomatic tricks on him
• Q. Atrius — the Roman officer appointed to watch over the “Maritime station” (AKA Roman camp near the water) in Britain
• Cassivelaunus — commander-in-chief of the British forces who united in their struggle against Caesar
• Mandubracius — young Gallic chieftain of the Trinobantes tribe in Britain; he was under Caesar’s protection and eventually restored to his rightful throne by him; his dad (the former chieftain) was murdered by Cassivelaunus

Quotes:

“Of all those now present there was not one whom Caesar was more determined to have with him than this firebrand [Dumnorix], of whose restless intrigues, boundless ambition, daring spirit, and far-reaching influence over the Gauls he already had had ample proof.” (page 106)

“Summoned to surrender, Dumnorix prepared for resistance and threw himself into an attitude of defense, appealing all the while to his companions not to forget their pledge, and crying out again and again that he was a free man and a citizen of a free country.” (page 108)

“…the Britons all agree in dying their body with woad, a substance that yields a bluish pigment, and in battle greatly increases the wildness of their look. Their hair is worn extremely long, and with the exception of the head and upper lip the entire body is shaved. In their domestic life they practice a form of community of wives, ten or twelve combining in groups, especially brothers with brothers and fathers with sons.” (page 112)

Words:

• assize -a session, or sitting, of a court of justice
• remonstrance — a forcefully reproachful protest
• refractory — stubborn or unmanageable
• sloop -a sailboat with a single mast typically meaning one headsail in front of the mast, and one mainsail aft of (behind) the mast

• hawser — a thick rope or cable for mooring or towing a ship
• adduce — cite as evidence, quoted
• woad — a yellow-flowered European plant of the cabbage family. It was formerly grown as a source of blue dye, which was extracted from the leaves after they had been dried, powdered, and fermented
• acceptation — a particular sense or the generally recognized meaning (common acceptation) of a word or phrase

Summary:

This chapter was riveting and included several intersecting points of Gallic/British drama and intrigue. Caesar first ordered his generals to build another fleet, even grander and sturdier than the fleet used for the previous invasion of Britain. Overall, 600 vessels and 28 larger ships of war were constructed and assembled for launch at Itius, a Gallic town only 28 miles from the British coast.

There were Gallic rumblings in the North, so Caesar took his troops on a brief detour to the Treveri tribe. The Treveri were suffering from an internal political struggle, namely the rivalry between two local chiefs, Indutiomarus and Cingetorix. They each claimed the throne and thus adopted different stances towards the approaching Romans to gain followers. Cingetorix was Caesar’s scrub and advocated capitulating & handing over hostages; Indutiomarus, on the other hand, “lost no time in preparing for hostilities.” However, his plan of insurrection failed as fellow tribesmen starting defecting to Cingetorix and Caesar’s army was around the corner. Caesar left the Treveri and returned to Itius to launch his attack.

Before sailing though, Caesar devoted extensive paragraphs to the defeat of Dumnorix, our favorite Aeduan prince who was always causing drama with Caesar. Caesar was determined to bring Dumnorix to Britain to keep an eye on the “firebrand,” but Dumnorix and his followers slipped away. Caesar at once delayed the British expedition to hunt down Dumnorix — which was a success. Caesar’s troops surrounded him and cut him down ruthlessly, but Caesar did tell us the prince’s struggling last moments: “crying out again and again that he was a free man and a citizen of a free country.” :{

Now that business was taken care of, Caesar was free to set sail to Britain. ⛵ He arrived around noontime and set up camp, rounded up prisoners and ascertained the whereabouts of the enemy (how efficient!). The Romans pitched a small night battle and routed a contingent of tribal cavalry and chariots. The fighting continued into the day until Caesar received an urgent message from him homeboy Q. Atrius: a “terrific storm” had struck during the night and destroyed their ships! This happened the last time they were in Britain as well…so clearly the Romans have poor atmospheric luck in the isles. Caesar retreated from the enemy and spent the next week or so rebuilding his tattered fleet. BUT in the meanwhile, the Brits had regrouped under a local king, Cassivelaunus, and were preparing for war.

Caesar broke from the narrative for a moment to describe the culture and geography of Britain. We were told the ancient circumference of the island (1,835 miles), descriptions of “tin in the midlands” and “iron along the coast,” and a telling anecdote about the aboriginal tribes:

“…the Britons all agree in dying their body with woad, a substance that yields a bluish pigment, and in battle greatly increases the wildness of their look. Their hair is worn extremely long, and with the exception of the head and upper lip the entire body is shaved. In their domestic life they practice a form of community of wives, ten or twelve combining in groups, especially brothers with brothers and fathers with sons.” (page 112)

Returning to the narrative, Caesar and his army were subjected to pesky guerilla warfare. “…the Roman infantryman, with his heavily weighted armor, was no proper match for so nimble a foe as the British.” (page 113). A group of Romans broke off from the column in search of food, and they were attacked by the marauders — but this skirmish, once again, ended up in a rout of the British and a “dispersal homewards of the various local levies that had flocked to the campaign.”

This British breakup was effectively the end of all serious resistance to the Romans. Caesar, feeling emboldened, journeyed inward towards the homelands of Cassivelaunus and even forded the mighty Thames River by foot. Soon after, British tribes (i.e. Trinobantes, Cenimagni, Segontiaci, etc.) started sending hostages to Caesar and begging for clemency. A few British tribes attacked the Roman maritime camp, but they were slaughtered by the ready troops. Cassivelaunus at last sued for peace and gave up hostages to the Romans — and with this capitulation, Caesar was ready to go home. As soon as his troops were safely docked in Gaul, he called a council of Gauls and divvied up the winter quarters for the season.

Macc Reacc:

The Romans cannot catch a break in terms of hurricanes and terrific storms in Britain! The amount of Romans ships destroyed and later refurbished must’ve been such a headache to Caesar. To be fair, Caesar had a lot of gumption to invade Britain a second time — but it begs the question, what was the invasion truly for? Caesar said he suspected some British tribes were abetting their Gallic neighbors across the pond, but his reasoning sounds flimsy. Caesar is displaying those fine, psychopathic qualities we call megalomania and intense ego. His deeds are great (i.e. crossing the Thames by foot, destroying enemies without a real home base or allies, squashing Gallic political strife, etc.), but it makes it seem like Caesar’s nose is in everyone’s business. His winning conquest strategy is 1) use cunning to defeat the enemy, 2) slaughter the remaining enemy, 3) exact hostages and tribute from them, and 4) find another half-hearted excuse to attack their neighbor. How could he have been morally okay with that?

I also enjoyed his description of “the island of Britain and its people.” Imagine seeing a ring of blue-tinged people, naked except for wild dreads and mustaches on their long faces — no wonder the Romans were terrified of locals.

Book V Section I: Second Expedition to Britain was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Conflict:

Caesar decided the time was ripe for an invasion into Britain, the hazy island of so-called “savages” swimming on the outskirts of Gaul. Caesar had suspicions that auxiliaries and support were funneling from the British tribes into Gaul, and he wanted to spook the Britons into submission. Seeing as the Romans are terrible at sailing (and everyone knew that), the Britons weren’t about to give up without a fight.

Characters:

• Caius Volusenus — a Roman instructed by Caesar to make a preliminary survey of the British lands and tribes and report his findings
• Commius — chief of the Atrebates and Caesar’s go-to man when it came to being an envoy to other native tribes
• Q. Titurius Sabinus — general of the Roman army; he was sent to harass the Menapii tribe while Caesar was playing in Britain
• L. Aurunculeius Cota — general of the Roman army; he was sent to harass the Morini tribe, who lived on the Western side of Gaul and were closest to the British isles
• T. Labienus — another Roman general who was sent to chastise the Morini tribe (again) after they attacked the Romans when they disembarked from their ships

Quotes:

“residue of the army” (page 94)

“Waiting then till the men had become scattered, as, with arms laid down aside for the sickle, they were busily engaged with their harvest, they [the Britons] had suddenly attacked, and after killing a certain number, had thrown the rest into dire confusion.” (page 99)

“Thus ended the year’s campaign, on a full account of which being received at Rome through the Governor’s dispatches, a public thanksgiving of twenty days was ordered by the Senate.” (page 102)

“‘I, at any rate,’ he exclaimed, ‘shall not be found wanting in my duty to my country and general.’” (page 96)

Words:

• men-of-war -an armed sailing ship
• ineffaceable — unable to be erased or forgotten

Summary:

Of course Caesar wanted to cause trouble in Britain, a remote, foggy land not even connected to the main continent! His boldness was striking, even for the ancient days of barbarism and cutthroat politics. Caesar gathered intel on the British tribes and then decided to make the trip himself. He was throwing the dice here — it was almost wintertime and the risk of getting stuck on a cold, hostile island was real. Caesar received peaceful envoys from a few British tribes, but their gestures were fruitless — Caesar instead collected the fleet he used to subjugate the Veneti tribe and built new vessels. “As soon as the wind was fair,” Caesar and his legions sailed to the island and the “whole line of hills was crowned with the armed forces of the enemy.” Undaunted, Caesar distracted the enemy with his large warships while the smaller transports, containing the troops, made for the shore. At this point, we get the first direct quote from an unnamed eagle bearer of the tenth legion:

“‘I, at any rate,’ he exclaimed, ‘shall not be found wanting in my duty to my country and general.’”

The soldier “flung himself out of the ship” and ran straight towards the enemy. After this display of gallantry, the rest of the Romans followed and vanquished the enemy. The Brits sent new envoys and cries for peace (again), but in a stroke of misfortune which often seemed to plague the Romans , a tumultuous storm came and wrecked all of their ships — the transports, warships, everything. Caesar and the tribes were no dummies — the Britons knew this was their chance to oust the Romans and Caesar was perfectly expecting this. While a group of Romans was gathering grain, “with arms laid aside for the sickle,” they were attacked by a fierce British coalition.

Caesar swooped in just in time and the Romans were saved. A period of incessant rain interrupted the fighting, and when two forces met again in a pitched battle, the Romans routed the tribes. British envoys were sent again to Caesar, and he “doubled the number of hostages previously imposed” (obviously). Since it was the eaves of wintertime and the winds and waters had already proved unfriendly, Caesar and his troops hiked it back to Gaul…where they were greeted by the rebellious local tribe, the Morini! Some Romans were killed, so Caesar sent T. Labienus to slaughter them. Declaring the British expedition a success, Caesar sent word to Rome and received a 20-day Thanksgiving thrown in his honor.

Macc Reacc:

What a juicy chapter! Caesar’s exploits in Britain were famous for their novelty and daring. I don’t know what possessed Caesar to cross treacherous seas to meet unknown tribes (oh wait, megalomania!), but I’m glad we got this first-hand account. The expedition was more of a reconnaissance trip than outright conquest, so Caesar was allowed to admit misfortune (i.e. the bajillion storms) and loss in battle. My favorite part of this section was the passage about the chariot-fighting technique of the Britons. We’ve heard about different tribal fighting methods before, but the use of screaming chariots and missiles was something else. Here’s what Caesar had to say:

“Beginning with a wild gallop down the whole field of battle, to the accompaniment of dense volleys of missiles, they generally succeed in this part of the action in creating disorder among the opposing ranks simply by the terrifying aspect of the horses and loud rattle of the wheels…” (page 99)

This vivid, primary account was warfare narration at its finest.

It’s also ironic that no matter how powerful Caesar and his troops were, the natural elements were always stronger — the wind, the rain, and the tides are misfortune’s children. Hearing a powerful general admit this has an unusual, mystical tone to it. The ancients associated elements with the universal gods and goddesses, so this trip to Britain was more than just a military playdate.

Book IV Section II: First Expedition to Britain was originally published in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.