This web page by Philip Neal includes a list of manuscripts of the work published by Vera Segre-Rutz in “Il Giardino Magico degli Alchimisti” (2000).

The Latin text of the Alchemical Herbal that appears below is mostly based on ms Florence BBU 106 (Northern Italy, first half of the 15th Century) published by Stefania Ragazzini, “Un erbario del XV secolo: il Ms. 106 della Biblioteca di Botanica dell’Università di Firenze”, 1983. The included images are also from that manuscript.

Missing or unclear passages were completed on the basis of BNF Lat. 17848, BNF Lat. 17844 (both from Northern Italy, 15th Century) and of the manuscript published by Segre-Rutz (Pavia, Aldini 211, Northern Italy, end of the 14th Century). For a chapter that is almost entirely missing in the other manuscripts (Herba Amorsu serpentis, 32) Morgan Library PML 22.222 (Germany, 15th Century) was used (Curt F. Bühler, “An Anonymous Latin Herbal in the Pierpont Morgan Library”, 1954). In the Florentine ms, the extensively censored charm based on Consolida Major and Minor (herbs 97 and 98) appears on the verso of the illustration of Consolida Minor (98) and Consolida media (unnumbered); it is not entirely clear whether this paragraph has the same origin as the other chapters.

Herba Antolla minor / Antola minor. 1.

Ad sanandum omnia vulnera. Accipe folia et radices istius herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere pone in vulneribus: facit sanare et purificare illa vulnera. Item mulier que patitur egritudinem in matrice asuescat comedere de ista herba per spatium triginta dierum et erit sanata. Accipiat de dicta herba et pistet eam et faciat emplastrum super morsura: subito removet dolorem et tosicum. Item si quis habet angustiam aut dolorem in corpore, bibat de pulvere suprascripte herbe et subito curatur. Nascitur in terreno macro ubi sunt castani.

For healing any wound. Take the leaves and roots of this herb and make a powder. Apply the powder to the wounds: they will be healed and cleansed. Similarly, a woman suffering from uterine ailments should eat this herb for thirty days and she will be healed. Take some of this herb, crush it, make a poultice and put it upon a bite; it immediately relieves the pain and removes poison. If anyone experiences discomfort or pain in the body, drink the powder of the aforementioned herb, and healing will occur instantly. It grows in thin terrain where chestnuts grow.

Herba Bortines. 2.

Si quis habet os tortum propter aliquam malitiam. Accipiat folia istius herbe cum vino cocta et emplastretur super per spatium triginta dierum et reducet os in suo prestino statu et est experimentum probatum. Item ista herba, cum vino vermegio cocta, in modum emplastri posita super guttam frigidam per spatium quindecim dierum, liberat dictam guttam et hoc probatum est. Colligitur de mense maii. Nascitur in alpibus salvaticis et in loco frigido.

For a twisted mouth due to some ailment. Take the leaves of this herb, cook them with wine, and apply the poultice for thirty days; it will restore the mouth to its normal state, and it is proven. Also, when cooked with red wine in the form of a poultice and applied to a cold gout for fifteen days, it heals the gout, it is proven. It is gathered in May. It grows in wild mountains and cold places.

Herba Torogas. 3.

Ad sanandum omnem feritam mortalem. Accipe folia et semina istius herbe et pistentur simul et emplastrentur super feritam: saldabitur cito per spatium eundi unum miliarum. Item si quis portaret super se de foliis aut de sementibus istius herbe, numquam posset mori absque vera penitentia. Et quando colligitur debet sic dici: herba Torogas, veni ad me ex parte Domini nostri Jesu Christi filii Dei vivi. Nascitur in montibus asperrimis et in locis occulti.

For healing any mortal wound. Take the leaves and seeds of this herb, grind them together, and apply the poultice to the wound; it will quickly heal in the time of going a mile’s distance. If one carries the leaves or seeds of this herb, they will not die without true repentance. When collecting it, one should say: “Herb Torogas, come to me by the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of the living God.” It grows in the roughest mountains and in hidden places.

Herba Nigras. 4.

Si quem momorderit canis rabiosus. Accipe istam herbam et folia; pistentur cum aceto forti postea emplastrentur super morsuram: subito curabitur. Et volendo fieri sanus de sua persona accipiat semina istius herbe et portet super se et semper erit sanus de persona sua. Et nascitur in montibus frigidis et probatum est.

For someone bitten by a rabid dog. Take this herb and its leaves; grind them with strong vinegar, then apply the poultice to the bite: it will heal immediately. To maintain good health, one should carry with himself the seeds of this herb and he will always remain healthy. It grows in cold mountains and it is proven.

Herba Stellaria. 5.

Si esset aliqua femina que non posset concipere filios. Accipe de ista herba et ei da comedere per spatium IX dierum et, transactis IX dierum, femina utatur cum marito suo sicut est asueta et concipiet per virtutem Dey et istius herbe. Et si non concipiet, sterilis erit omnino aut maritus suus. Item si quis portabit super se de ista herba nulla bestia poterit ei nocere. Item scias quando habes tecum de ista herba quod nullus canis haberit potestatem nec vigorem latrandi versus te nec versus aliquam personam que esset tecum. Nascitur in terreno alpestro de alpibus frigidis.

For a woman unable to conceive. Take this herb and have her eat it for nine days, and after nine days, let her conjoin with her husband as usual; she will conceive by the power of God and of this herb. If she still does not conceive, she will remain barren or her husband is sterile. Also, carrying this herb prevents harm from any beast. Also, when you carry with you a piece of this herb, no dog will have the power or the strength to bark against you nor against any person who is with you. It grows in alpine terrain in cold mountains.

Herba Bonifatia. 6.

Si esset aliquis qui haberet membrum fractum videlicet ossum. Accipiat de ista herba et pistet cum asongia castroni et empastrentur et ponatur emplastrum super feritam aut fracturam ossis et saldabitur os vel vulnus. Item si femina non posset concipere filios, comedat de foliis istius herbe per spatium XL dierum; subitio concipiet utendo marito suo. Item si quis habet linguam paganam. Accipiat folia istius herbe et confricet linguam superius et inferius et subito curatur. Item si quis habet dolorem propter aliquam decensionem de alto. Accipe de ista herba et fac pulverem et da ei bibere cum bono vino per spatium XV dierum et liberabitur a dolore. Item si quis esset crepatus; utatur de ista herba et subito sanatur.

For someone with a broken bone. Take this herb and grind it with castor oil, make a plaster, and apply it to the wound or fractured bone; the bone or wound will heal. If a woman cannot conceive, let her eat the leaves of this herb for forty days; she will conceive promptly by conjoining with her husband. If anyone has a pagan tongue [“lingua pagana”, meaning unclear], take the leaves of this herb, rub the tongue up and down, and it will be immediately cured. If someone has pain due to a fall from a height, take this herb, make a powder, and give it to drink with good wine for fifteen days; they will be relieved of pain. If someone has a rupture, use this herb, and they will be immediately healed.

Herba Betonega. 7.

Si esset aliquis quem momorderit bissa aut pataretur dolorem splenis aut malum oculorum palpebrantium. Sepe pone de ista herba super oculos et sanabitur. Item si quis pataretur dolorem flanci. Acipe onzias decem istius herbe et coque eam cum vino vermegio et emplastrentur super flanchum per spatium X dierum et sanabitur. Item ad dolorem matricis: accipe folia istius herbe et comede cruda sicut insalata per spatium X dierum et sanabitur. Et si non potest habere virida, fac pulverem de foliis et bibe cum bono vino calido: sanabitur per spatium XXX dierum et hoc est probatum. Item si quis pissaret sanguinem: accipe de ista herba cruda vel pulverizata et da ei comedere per spatium XV dierum, sanabitur et est probatum. Item ad sanandum unam feritam sine unguento. Accipe folia istius herbe et pista bene et pone super feritam et subito removet dolorem et facit stagnare sanguinem et claudit venas. Et ita saldabitur omne vulnus. Item si aliqua femina haberet creaturam mortuam in ventre. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere, vel pulverizata, da bibere per spatium III dierum, femina erit liberata; et habet XXXII virtutes suprascripta herba.

If there is someone who has been bitten by a snake or suffers from pain in the spleen or inflammation of the eyelids. Place this herb over his eyes several times, and they will be healed. Also, if someone suffers from pain in the side, take ten ounces of this herb and boil it with red wine, then apply the mixture as a plaster on the side for ten days, and they will be healed. Similarly, for pain in the womb, take the leaves of this herb and eat them raw like a salad for ten days, and it will be healed. If one cannot have it fresh, make a powder from the leaves and drink it with good warm wine; it will be healed in thirty days, and this has been proven. Also, if someone passes blood in their urine, take this herb either raw or powdered and let them eat it for fifteen days, and it is proven. For healing a wound without ointment, take the leaves of this herb, grind them well, and place them on the wound. It will immediately remove the pain, stop the bleeding, and close the veins. Thus, every wound will be healed. Also, if a woman has a dead fetus in her womb, take this herb and let her eat it, or if powdered, let her drink it for three days, and the woman will be freed; and this herb has thirty-two virtues.

Herba Instanutia. 8.

Si quis haberet catarum: accipiat radicem istius herbe que sit colecta de mense iunii die IV lune et ille qui colligit debet esse nudus vestimentis suis et confessus de omnibus pecatis suis. Accipe radicem istius herbe onzias tres pro qualibet vice, et mediam libram melis et fac coqui in aqua tantum quod radis sit cocta per se, et si decresit buliendo, iunge de aqua et quando est sic cocta accipe ed da ei bibere de illa aqua ieiuno stomacho per spatium trium dierum et erit sanus. Item ad sanandum malum yecoris vel splenis. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere aut pulveriza et da ei bibere per spatium XI dierum et sanabitur. Nascitur in praticis, videlicet in terris domesticis.

If someone has catarrh, take the root of this herb collected in June on the fourth day of the moon by someone naked and confessed of all their sins. Take three ounces of the root for each dose, and half a pound of honey. Boil them in water until the root is entirely cooked. If water decreases while boiling, add more. When it is cooked in this way, let them drink the water on an empty stomach for three days, and they will be cured. Also, for healing the illness of the liver or spleen, take this herb and let them eat it or powder it and let them drink it for eleven days, and they will be healed. It grows in cultivated fields, namely in domestic terrain.

Herba Canalaritas romana. 9.

Si quis esset feritus vel perforatus cum lanzia. Accipe folia istius herbe et pista ea. Et pone super feritam et subito sanabitur et est probatum. Et dicta herba habet multas alias virtutes. Sed precipue ista herba nascitur in montibus Cicilie in locis asperimis et petrosis et fortis.

If someone is wounded or pierced by a lance, take the leaves of this herb, grind them, and apply them to the wound. It will be immediately healed, and this has been proven. And this herb has many other virtues. But especially this herb grows in the mountains of Sicily in very rough, rocky, and harsh places.

Herba Rena. 10.

Si esset aliquis qui non posset urinare. Accipe radicem istius herbe et eam pista et da ei bibere; subito sanabitur et urinabit. Item si quis patitur dolorem in corpore. Accipiat radicem istius herbe et comedat et subito curatur et est probatum.

If someone cannot urinate, take the root of this herb, grind it, and let them drink it; they will immediately be healed and urinate. Also, if someone suffers from pain in the body, take the root of this herb and let them eat it, and they will be immediately cured, and this has been proven.

Herba Triacho. 11.

Ad sanandum dolorem capitis. Accipe de ista herba et utere et comede ieiuno stomacho cum vino et sic curabitur dolor capitis et splenis et est probatum. Item ad sanandum unum vulnus inveteratum. Accipe folia istius herbe et recentia si potest habere et pulverizentur et de pulvere pone super vulnus. Et saldabitur et curabitur. Nascitur in terrenis salvaticis et nemorosis.

For healing the pain of the head, take this herb and use it and eat it on an empty stomach with wine, and the pain of the head and spleen will be healed, and it is proven. Also, for healing an inveterate wound, take the leaves of this herb, and if possible, fresh, powder them and put the powder on the wound. It will be healed and cured. It grows in wild and wooded terrain.

Herba Bososilles. 12.

Si esset aliqua femina que non posset parere. Accipiat de ista herba et teneat super cossam destram: statim pariet et est probatum. Item ad sanandum oculum maculatum. Accipe folia istius herbe et emplastrentur super oculum vel super oculos maculatos per spatium XV dierum et subito removentur macule oculorum.

If a woman cannot give birth, take this herb and hold it on her right thigh: she will immediately give birth, and it is proven. Also, for healing a spotted eye, take the leaves of this herb and apply them as a plaster on the spotted eye or eyes for fifteen days, and the spots will be immediately removed.

Herba Angalles. 13.

Ad faciendum pretiosum et optimum unguentum apropriatum ad omnia mala. Accipe succum foliorum istius herbe et onzias decem trementina et onzias X incensi et onzias X cere albe que sit virgo et duos cyatos vini et duos cyatos suci foliorum istius herbe; et omnia ista fac bullire simul tantum quod incorporentur et postea pone in uno vaxe et dimite quiescere per duos dies, postea pone super feritas vel super plagas natas et super cancrum et subito saldatur et curatur omne vulnus. Nascitur in alpibus claris et collige die X lune mensis augusti.

For making a precious and excellent ointment suitable for any ailment, take the juice of the leaves of this herb, ten ounces of turpentine, ten ounces of incense, and ten ounces of white wax, which must be virgin. Also, two cups of wine and two cups of the juice of the leaves of this herb. Boil all these together until they are incorporated, then put them in one container and let them rest for two days. Afterward, apply it on wounds, ulcers, and cancers, and immediately all wounds will be healed. It grows in clear mountains, and it should be collected in August on the tenth day of the moon .

Herba Toros / Tors. 14. [BNF Lat. 17848 f7v]

Si quis momorderit serpens. Accipe folia istius herbe et emplastrent super morsuram, subito removet dolorem et venenum et infraentum morsure et est probatum. Quando colligitur ista herba, debent dici ista verba: “Gloria. Exorzizo te herba toros per deum patrem vivum nostrum et venias ad me cum omni tua virtute dicta superius. Vos scitis quod ego precor vos et peto”. Per omni macula oculorum. Accipe succum istius herbe cum bono vino mixtum per XI dierum spatium et sanabuntur et clarificabuntur oculi, et est probatum. Nascitur herba ista in montibus altis et frigidis.

If someone is bitten by a snake, take the leaves of this herb and apply them as a plaster on the bite; it will immediately cure the pain, the poisoning and the wound[?] of the bite, and it is proven. When this herb is collected, these words should be said: “Glory. I exorcise you, herb Toros, by our living God, come to me with all your virtues said above. You know that I pray and invoke you”. For all eye spots. Take the juice of this herb mixed with good wine for the space of eleven days, and the eyes will be healed and clarified, and it is proven. This herb grows in high and cold mountains.

Herba Grancia / Grantia. 15.

Ad extrahendum ferum vel lignum. Accipe folia istius herbe et pistentur et postea emplastrentur super feritam ubi est ferrum aut lignum et subito extrahit illud ad se per spatium trium horarum. Et si vis probare istud accipe unam acum magnam et finge quo vis, videlicet in uno corpore alicuius bestie mortue et videbis virtutem istius herbe. Itam si quis haberet testiculos inflatos: accipe radicem istius herbe et fac emplastrum super testiculos et da ei comedere ieiuno stomacho et subito curabitur. Nascitur in terrenis alpestribus videlicet in locis frigidis.

For extracting iron or wood, take the leaves of this herb, grind them, and apply as a plaster where the iron or wood is. It will soon be extracted, within three hours. And if you want to test it, take a large needle and insert it wherever you want, for instance in the body of a dead animal, and you will see the power of this herb. Likewise, if someone has swollen testicles, take the root of this herb and make a plaster on the testicles, let the patient eat the root on an empty stomach, and he will immediately be cured. It grows in alpine terrain, namely in cold places.

Herba Tortorollis / Tortorellis. 16.

Ad sanadum mamillam inflatam: accipe folia istius herbe cum Menta; postea emplastrentur super mamillam per tres dies et sanabitur. Nascitur in terrenis domesticis et in plannitiis non petrosis.

For healing a swollen breast, take the leaves of this herb with mint. Then apply them as a plaster on the breast for three days, and it will be healed. It grows in domestic terrain and in non-rocky plains.

Herba Lingua cornena. 17.

Si esset aliquis schotatus in igne vel in aqua. Accipe folia istius herbe cum vino cocta et pone super scotaturam: subito sanabitur. Item si quis esset ydropicus. Accipe radicem istius herbe et fac pulverem et da ei bibere cum brodio pedini cocti et bibat de isto per spatium XXX dierum et sanabitur, item ad sanandum costam fractam in corpore. Accipe radicem istius herbe ei da ei bibere cum vino. Facit desinflare cassum et sanare costam. Item ad sanandum malum splenis. Accipe folia istius herbe et fac pulverem et de ei bibere cum vino ieiuno stomacho per spatium dierum XV, sanabitur et est probatum. Nascitur in terrenis salvaticis et obscuris ubi sol nunquam lucet.

If someone was burned by fire or water, take the leaves of this herb with cooked wine, and apply them on the burn: it will be healed immediately. Also, if someone has dropsy, take the root of this herb, make a powder, and let them drink it with the broth of pig’s feet for thirty days, and they will be healed. Likewise, for healing a broken rib in the body, take the root of this herb and let them drink it with wine. It will reduce swelling and heal the rib. Also, for healing the illness of the spleen, take the leaves of this herb, make a powder, and let them drink it with wine on an empty stomach for fifteen days. It will be healed, and this is proven. It grows in wild and dark terrain where the sun never shines.

Herba Trifolio. 18.

Ad sanandum oculum machulatum. Accipe folia istius herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere ista pone in oculo: sanabitur per spatium XV dierum et probatum est.

For healing eye spots, take the leaves of this herb, make a powder, and put the powder in the eye: it will be healed within fifteen days, and it is proven.

Herba Ariola. 19.

Ad sanandum unam feritam vel aliquod aliud vulnus. Accipe folia istius herbe et pistentur et postea pone super feritam vel super vulnus et subito sanabitur; est probatum. Ista herba nascitur ad fontes obscuras et in locis petrosis et salvaticis.

For healing a wound or any other injury, take the leaves of this herb, grind them, and then apply them on the wound or injury, and it will be immediately healed; it is proven. This herb grows near dark springs and in rocky and wild places.

Herba Superna. 20.

Ad sanandum omnem infirmitatem cuiuscumque modis sit, ista herba est apropriata. Sed operare debes eam secundum infirmitatem. Si infirmitas est in corpore, de herba ista debes comedere. Si surdus, in aure debes ponere et sic debes operari ad omnem infirmitatem. Nascitur in montibus ubi nascitur marmotus.

This herb is suitable for healing any illness of any kind, t. But you must use it according to the illness. If the illness is in the body, you must eat this herb. If it is deafness, you must place it in the ear, and operate like this for every illness. It grows in mountains where the marmot lives.

Herba Faba inversa. 21.

Si esset aliquis qui non haberet bonum visum. Accipe grana istius herbe et prime si sunt recentia, et si non, pone in bono vino et postea pistentur et accipe succum istorum granorum et pone in oculis; facit clarificare oculos et videre. Item radix istius herbe est apropriata ad omnia vulnera. Accipe radicem istius herbe et unam branchatam salis et conbure in uno testo et pulverem pone super vulneribus et subito sanabuntur vulnera et curabuntur.

If someone does not have good vision, take the seeds of this herb and press them if they are fresh. If not, put them in good wine, then grind them. Take the juice of these grains and put it in the eyes; it makes the eyes clear and able to see. Also, the root of this herb is suitable for all wounds. Take the root of this herb and a handful of salt, and burn them in a pot. Put the powder on the wounds, and they will immediately be healed and cured.

Herba Paris. 22.

Ad sanandum os fractum per febrem aut per aliam malitiam. Accipe succum istius herbe cum oleo dulci mistum et unge os fractum; per spatium quinque dierum curatur. Item si quis esset stultus per infermitatem aut per cibum sumptum. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere cum ovo aut cum alia re aut da ei bibere cum vino in pulvere facta per spatium dierum XXXIII cum vino et erit in sua memoria sicut in primis. Nascitur in montibus et in obscuris locis.

For healing a broken bone due to fever or other ailments, take the juice of this herb and mix it with sweet oil, and anoint the broken bone. It will be healed within five days. Also, if someone were stunned due to illness or food intake, take this herb and let them eat it with an egg or with something else, or let them drink it as a powder with wine for thirty-three days, and they will recover their memory as it was before. It grows in mountains and in dark places.

Herba Ciloga. 23.

Ad sanandam malum flanchi. Accipe onzias X de ista herba et coque in aqua. Postea implastretur super flanchum et subito sanabitur absque dubio. Item ad dolorem dentium. Accipe de radice istius herbe et pone subtus dentem calida et statim removet dolorem. Nascitur in terrenis petrosis.

For healing the illness of the side, take ten ounces of this herb and cook it in water. Then apply it as a plaster on the side, and it will be immediately healed without a doubt. Also, for toothache, take the root of this herb and place it warm under the tooth, and the pain will be immediately removed. It grows in rocky terrain.

Herba Antollas. 24.

Si quis haberet venenum ad os suum. Accipe de herba ista et fac pulverem et de pulvere da ei bibere cum aceto forti; subito iactat venenum per os et est probatum. Item ad faciendum stagnare sanguinem et feritas saldare. Accipe de ista herba et pista et emplastrentur ubi exit sanguis, subito stagnatur sanguis et ferite saldantur et est probatum. Nascitur in pratis sabionosis in quibus vix longo tempore non moratur et colligitur de mense maii vel iunii.

If someone has poison in their mouth, take this herb and make a powder, and let them drink it with strong vinegar; they will immediately expel the poison through their mouth, and it is proven. Also, for making blood coagulate and wounds heal, take this herb, grind it, and apply it as a plaster where the blood flows. The blood will immediately coagulate, and the wounds will heal, and it is proven. It grows in sandy meadows where it does not last for a long time and is collected in the months of May or June.

Herba Antolla lupanas / Antola lupanas. 25.

Si quis pataretur malum lupe. Accipe de ista herba et emplastretur super malum lupe per spatium XXV dierum: curatur malum lupe vel alia mala pessima et est probatum vere. Item si qua femina esset cui sanguis exiret inferius: bibat de succo istius herbe per spatium decem dierum ieiuno stomacho: subito curatur. Nascitur in alpibus frigidis et obscurissimis.

If someone suffers from the illness of lupus, take this herb and apply it as a plaster on the lupus for twenty-five days: the lupus or other severe illnesses will be cured, and it is truly proven. Also, if any woman has blood flowing from below, let her drink the juice of this herb for ten days on an empty stomach: she will be immediately cured. It grows in cold and very dark mountains.

Herba Cofflesanas. 26.

Ad sanandum sanguinem qui exiret de naso aut de aliqua allia parte persone. Accipe succum istius herbe et pone in illo loco a quo exit sanguis: subito stagnatur sanguis nasi et ferite et est probatum. Item si quis amixisset loquellam per aliquam malitiam: accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere vel bibere per spatium XXVII dierum, restauratur loquella si amixisset propter infirmitatem et est probatum per magistrum Tadeum florentinum doctorem in artibus medicinarum. Nascitur in terreno alpestro et frigido.

For healing blood that flows from the nose or any other part of the body, take the juice of this herb and put it in the place where the blood flows: the blood from the nose and wounds will immediately coagulate, and it is proven. Also, if someone has lost the ability to speak due to some illness, take this herb and let them eat or drink it for twenty-seven days, and their speech will be restored if they lost it due to illness, and it is proven by Master Thaddeus the Florentine, a doctor in the arts of medicine. It grows in alpine and cold terrain.

Herba Canceallis / Cancealis. 27.

Ad sanandum malum fistulle aut cancri et alia mala et omnes plagas inveteratas. Accipe de ista herba et pista eam et pone super plagas et utere per spatium XXII dierum, sanabitur fistula et alia curantur ut supra. Item si quis haberet porros ad manus aut ad alium locum persone sue accipiat succum istius herbe et ponet super porros. Subito curatur et probatum est.

For healing the illness of a fistula, cancer, and other severe illnesses and all inveterate wounds, take this herb, grind it, apply it on the wounds, and use it for twenty-two days, and the fistula and other illnesses will be healed as mentioned above. Also, if someone has warts on their hands or elsewhere on their body, take the juice of this herb and apply it on the warts. They will be immediately cured, and this is proven.

Herba Toffanas. 28.

Ad sanandum malum pulmonis. Accipe de ista herba et de herba Istatoris et insimul misce et coque cum ovis ad modum herbolate et comede per spatium XV dierum curatur et sanatur et probatum est per magistrum Nicholaum de Pisiis et per magistrum Donatum de Ianua. Item ad feritam manuum et pedum aut aliorum membrorum nervosorum. Accipe de ista herba et pistetur cum sungia ursi et postea pone super feritam: subito curatur et saldatur ferita. Nascitur in alpibus frigidis et herbatiis longis.

To heal a lung ailment. Take this herb and the herb Istatoris, mix them together, and cook with eggs in the manner of a herbal preparation. Eat it for a period of fifteen days; it is cured and healed. This has been proven by Master Nicholas of Pisa and Master Donatus of Genoa. Also, for wounds on hands, feet, or other sinewy body parts. Take this herb and grind it with bear’s fat, then apply it to the wound: it is immediately healed, and the wound closes. It grows in cold mountains and wide meadows.

Herba Brancha lupina. 29.

Ad sanandum omnem plagam aut carbonos aut pariochle aut omnem pessimam infirmitatem. Accipe radicem istius herbe et postea pista et sic pistata pone supra malum et facit mortificare malum.

For healing any wound, carbuncle, or abscess or any other wicked disease, take the root of this herb, grind it, and apply it on the wound, and it will immediately eliminate the wound.

Herba Salsifica. 30.

Ad sanandum unum puerum crepatum. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere ieiuno stomacho per spatium XV dierum, sanabitur. Item ad sanandum tussim que venerit propter frigus. Accipe folia istius herbe et coque in aqua cum melle et da ei bibere in mane et in sero: cito liberabitur adiutorio Dei; et est probatum. Ad volendum sanare omnia mala vulnera. Accipe folia istius herbe et emplastrentur et pone super vulnus: subito saldatur et curatur et removet omnem quem infert plaga.

For healing a child afflicted with sores, take this herb and let them eat it on an empty stomach for fifteen days, and they will be healed. Also, for healing a cough due to cold, take the leaves of this herb, cook them in water with honey, and let them drink it in the morning and evening: they will quickly be relieved with the help of God, and it is proven. To heal all bad wounds, take the leaves of this herb, make a plaster, and apply it on the wound: it will be immediately healed, and it removes whatever harm the wound inflicts.

Herba Sabastrela / Sabastrella. 31.

Ad sanandum malum yecoris. Accipe de ista herba et de herba que dicitur Perozella et iste due herbe misceantur simul crude et da ei comedere ieiuno stomacho. Super alias medicinas ista est valde probata. Item si quis haberet curtum videre aut obscurum, comedat de ista herba omni die in omni sua vivanda et, si comederet ieiuno stomacho, esset melior et sanior.

For healing the illness of the liver, take this herb and the herb called Perozella. Mix these two herbs raw and let them eat it on an empty stomach. This medicine is very proven over other medicines. Also, if someone has a short or dark sight, let them eat this herb every day with every meal, and if they eat it on an empty stomach, they will feel better and healthier.

Herba Amorsu serpentis. 32.

[Morgan PML 22222, Herba cros amorosos]. Ad vulneraturam de serpente, accipe folia & pone super malum, acepit extra dolorem & inflaturam sanat; et est probatum. Et quando tu accipis hanc herbam, dic hec verba: gloria forma floriano, & statim accipe herbam per † deum vivum & verum; venias ad me cum tua virtute. Item ad omnem maculam de oculis, accipe succum de ista herba cum vino miste per spacium XV dierum, liberatus est, et est probatum. Et nascit in montibus altissimis in locis frigidis. Ad malum de dentibus, comede de ista herba quod est bona; eet firmat dentes & sanat zencinias. Et accipe in dei veneri de mense madio ad ieiunium.

[Morgan PML 22222]. To treat a snakebite, take the leaves and place them on the wound; it takes away the pain and heals the swelling, and it is proven. And when you collect this herb, say these words: “Gloria forma Floriano,” and immediately pick the plant “for the sake of † the living and true God; come to me with your power”. Also, for all eye spots, take the juice of this herb mixed with wine for a period of fifteen days, and one is freed, and it is proven. It grows in the highest mountains in cold places. For toothache, eat this herb as it is good; it strengthens the teeth and heals gum issues. And collect it on Venus’s day [Friday] in the the month of May on an empty stomach.

[BNF Lat 17848 f16v] Caro caruit sanum redece reduce sanum hemanuel paraclitum.

[BNF Lat 17848 f16v; a fragment of a different charm] The flesh was lacking, health returns, restore health, Emmanuel, comforter.

Herba Teodorixe / Tedorixe. 33.

Si quis esset malsanus. Accipe de istius herbe et da ei comedere cum ovo vel cum alia re per quam possit comedere et collige dictam herba tertia die lune mensis iunii et, si portaveris tecum, omnes malefactores ad te fugient. Nascitur in montibus Cicilie vel in montibus nostris et in nocte facit magnum splendorem et si nesciret quod herba esset tu credes quod fantasma esset. Probatum est pro certo esse veram.

If someone is sick, take this herb and let them eat it with an egg or with something they can eat. Collect this herb on the third day of the moon in June, and if you carry it, all evildoers will flee from you. It grows in the mountains of Sicily or in our mountains and shines very brightly at night, and if you did not know that the cause is this herb, you would believe it to be a ghost. It is proven to be true.

Herba Lucea et de novem una [one of nine]. 34. [BNF Lat 17848 f17v]

Ad sanandum oculos infirmos. Accipe folia istius herbe et fac aquam et pone in oculis et subito curatur et sanatur.

For healing weak eyes, take the leaves of this herb, make water with them, and apply it to the eyes. The eyes will be immediately healed and restored.

Herba Ditimo bianco / Ditimo biancho. 35.

Si quem momorderit serpens aut alia bestia venenosa. Accipe radicem istius herbe et pistetur et tempera cum aceto et emplastretur super morsuram, subito removet dolores et sanatur. Item accipe de dicta radice suprascripte herbe et da ei comedere et subito sanatur et tollitur inflatura. Item si quis receperit tosichum aut venenum per os suum. Accipe de radice istius herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere da ei bibere cum vino et subito sanatur: est probatum. Item ad stagnandum sanguinem plage vel ferite. Accipe folia istius herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere pone super plagas: subito sanabuntur et stagnabitur sanguis. Item ad omnem dolorem ventris. Accipe de radice supradicte herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere da ad bibendum cum vino et subito sanabitur. Item ad dolorem dentium. Accipe de radice istius herbe et calefac ad ignem et postea pone in oleo et sic calidam pone super vel sub dentem, et removet dentium dolorem.

If someone is bitten by a snake or any other poisonous creature, take the root of this herb, grind it, mix it with vinegar, and apply it on the bite. It will immediately relieve pain and promote healing. Also, take the mentioned root, give it to the affected person to eat, and the swelling will be promptly reduced. Additionally, if someone ingests poison through their mouth, take the root of this herb, make a powder, and let them drink it with wine, and they will be immediately healed; it is proven. Moreover, for stopping the blood in wounds or injuries, take the leaves of this herb, make a powder, and apply it on the wounds; the wounds will heal immediately, and the blood will coagulate. Also, for any abdominal pain, take the root of the aforementioned herb, make a powder, and let the person drink it with wine; the pain will be relieved promptly. Likewise, for toothache. Take the root of this herb and warm it by the fire. Afterwards, add oil and apply the warm mixture either over or under the tooth, and it removes the pain of the teeth.

Herba Riquilizie / Requilitie / Requificia. 36.

Ad sanandum malum catarrhi aut omnem saramentum pectoris. Accipe de ista herba et ficos sicos et mel et zucharum album et de istis rebus accipe onzias III cuiuslibet rei et fac bullire in aqua et de illa aqua da bibere cuilibet persone patienti malum et utatur per spatium dierum X de dicta aqua et sanabitur. Item ad sanandum malum bonamathici. Accipe de dicta herba et emplastretur super malum et subito curatur. Nascitur in plannitiis marinis et in silvis maris et est probatum.

For healing the illness of catarrh or any ailment of the chest. Take this herb and dried figs, honey, and white sugar. Take three ounces of each and boil them in water. Let the patient drink the water over ten days and he will be healed. Also, for healing the illness of “bonamatichus” [unidentifiable illness or body part, possibly related with the uterus, “matrix”], take the herb mentioned above, make a plaster, and apply it on the ailment and it will be immediately healed. It grows in seashores and maritime forests and it is proven.

Herba Illocharias. 37.

Ad sanandum dolorem aut percussionem dentium. Accipe radicem istius herbe et coque in aceto forti et postea sic calidum pone super dentem qui patitur dolorem: subito removet dolorem et sanatur cito et sciendum est quod ille dens amplius non sentiet dolorem et est probatum. Item ad sanandum malum splenis. Accipe folia istius herbe cum ovis cocta et da ei comedere per spatium V dierum curabitur et sanabitur. Nascitur in terrenis alpestribus, in pratis.

For healing toothache or a blow to the teeth. Take the root of this herb, cook it in strong vinegar, then apply it warm over the aching tooth. It immediately removes pain and heals quickly. It should be noted that the tooth will no longer feel pain; it is proven. Also, for healing spleen issues, take the leaves of this herb with cooked eggs and let the person eat them; within five days, they will be healed. It grows in mountain meadows.

Herba Folleas / Foleas. 38.

Si esset inspirtatus. Accipiat de ista herba et portet super se; statim liberabitur. Et in illa domo in qua esset dicta herba non posset stare spiritus malignus: imo fugit per virtutem istius herbe. Et si qua factura esset facta in illa domo in qua esset ista herba subito erit devastata per virtutem istius herbe et quilibet fur vel homo debilis qui esset in illa domo in qua esset dicta herba subito fugiet et non poterit stare in ea et colligitur in mense maii in poncto lune quod vocatur Gemini et colligi debet in die Veneris in illo puncto quod superius dixi. Nascit in marchia de Anchona, in montibus Frianze.

If someone is possessed, let them take this herb and carry it with them; immediately, they will be freed. In the house where this herb is present, no evil spirit can stay; rather, the power of this herb makes it flee. If the evil eye is cast in the house where this herb is, the curse will be quickly removed by the virtue of this herb, and any thief or wicked person in that house will suddenly flee and cannot stay there. It should be collected in the month of May, at the position of the moon called Gemini, and it must be gathered on the day of Venus [Friday] when the moon is in the position mentioned earlier. It grows in the region of Ancona, in the mountains of Frianza [Fiastra?].

Herba Angalles / Angales. 39.

Ad sanandum malum centebrii [cerebri?] id est tegne. Accipe folia istius herbe cum sungia vetera et emplastretur super caput ubi est tegna per spatium X dierum, sanatur et curatur et super omne.

For healing the illness of the skull, that is, scabies. Take the leaves of this herb with old fat and plaster them on the head where there is scabies for a period of ten days; it will heal and be cured completely.

Herba Luza mandragora / Luza mandragola. 40.

Ad sanandum feritas sine unguento. Accipe folia istius herbe et pista. Postea pone super feritas per spatium trium horarum aut quatuor; saldabitur omnis ferita cuiuscumque modi sit. Item si esset aliqua femina que non posset concipere filios. Accipe de ista herba Mandragolla et herbam suam da ei comedere sicut esset radix cum salle et subito quando comederit utatur viro suo per tres vices et in mane erit gravida per virtutem istius herbe et colligitur de mense maii die tertia lune. Et faciendo strapare cum uno cane vel cum alio animali aut alio modo et aspice quando fodis eam ut non tanges eam. Et vides manus et pedes noli timere sed subito accipe canem et liga ad pedes Mandragolle et sta alonge ut non audias rumorem Mandragore qui veneit tum gravis quod canis subito moritur.

For healing wounds without ointment. Take the leaves of this herb and crush them. Then place them on the wound for three or four hours; any kind of wound will be healed. Also, if there is any woman who cannot conceive children, take this Mandrake herb and give it to her to eat as if it were a root with salt. Immediately, when she consumes it, let her conjoin with her husband three times, and in the morning, she will be pregnant by the virtue of this herb. It should be collected in May on the third day of the moon. And when extracting it with a dog or another animal or in another way, be careful not to touch it while you dig. And when you see its hands and feet, do not be afraid but quickly take a dog and tie it to the feet of the Mandrake, and stand far away so that you don’t hear the cry of the Mandrake, which is so powerful that the dog suddenly dies.

Herba Illiloris / Illioris. 41.

Ad sanandum unam feritam. Accipe folia istius herbe et emplastrentur super feritam per spatium V dierum; saldatur ferita et hoc est probatum per magistrum Miniatum de Florentia. Item ad sanandum unum crepatum. Accipe radicem istius herbe in aqua cocta et emplastra super petenegium crepati per spatium XV dierum; sanabitur et hoc est probabtum. Item si quis portabit super se de ista herba amabitur ab omnibus personis qui videbunt eum, et debet colligi de mense maii quinto decimo die.

For healing a wound. Take the leaves of this herb and plaster them on the wound for five days; the wound will heal, and this is proven by Master Miniatus of Florence. Also, for healing sores. Take the root of this herb in boiled water and plaster it on the sore for fifteen days; it will heal, and this is proven. Also, if anyone carries this herb with them, they will be loved by all the people who see them. You should gather it on the fifteenth day of May.

Herba Tilles. 42. [BNF Lat. 17848 f21v]

Ad faciendum ut pilli aut capilli nascantur super persona ubi vis. Accipe succum istius herbe et mel cum songia galli et fac unguentum et pone ubi vis ut pilli aut capilli nascantur per spatium XV dierum, subito nascuntur pilli aut capilli. Item folia istius herbe saldant omne vulnus. Nascitur in terreno alpestro et in pratis sabinosis. Et reperitur in saltarona et in aliis alpibus. Et debes colligere flexis genibus et nudis dicendo ista verba: “Herba Tiles, precor te ut per Deum sanctum et per amorem Dei nostri quod tu venias ad me cum omni tua virtute et mihi praesta tuam virtutem et obedi mihi in omnibus que ego praecipiam tibi. Sicut Abraam obedivit Deo prima de sacrificio.” Et collige ieiuno stomacho die XV Lune, et hoc est probatum.

To make hair grow wherever you want on the body. Take the dried part of this herb and honey with rooster’s fat and make an ointment. Apply it where you want hair to grow for fifteen days; soon, hair will grow. Also, the leaves of this herb heal all wounds. It grows in stony and sandy terrain. And it is found in Saltarona [Saltara?] and other mountain regions. You must collect it with bent knees and bare, saying these words: “Herb Tiles, I pray you by the Holy God and by the love of our God that you come to me with all your power and grant me your power and obey me in all that I command you. As Abraham obeyed God before the sacrifice.” Collect it on an empty stomach on the fifteenth day of the moon, and this is proven.

Herba Paroiscas / Paroischas / Paroyschas. 43.

Ad sanandum morsuram serpentis. Accipe de ista herba et emplastra super morsurum; removet dolorem et venenum et hoc est probatum. Item ista herba habet istum virtutem quia si quis portaverit eam super se serpens non potest sibi appropinquare sed fugit cum sentit odorem istius herbe. Et colligi debet de mense maii in poncto lune quod vocatur Taurus. Nascitur in montibus frigidis.

For healing a snake bite. Take this herb and plaster it on the bite; it removes pain and poison, and this is proven. Also, this herb has this virtue that if someone carries it with them, a snake cannot approach but flees when it smells the scent of this herb. It should be collected in May at the position of the moon called Taurus. It grows in cold mountains.

Herba Corborelis / Corporelis. 44.

Ad sanandum malum magistri[?]. Accipe de ista herba et comede per spatium IX dierum in mane et in sero; per spatium suprascriptorum IX dierum curatur et sanatur et hoc est probatum et vere. Item ad sanandum feritas dubitativas. Accipe de ista herba et fac unguentum cum trementina et cera alba et de isto unguento pone super feritas dubiosas aut super alias plagas pessimas; valet istud unguentum super omne unguentum. Colligitur de mense iunii decima die lune et habet XXII virtutes in se dicta herba. Nascitur super montes frigidissimos.

For healing the illness “of the master”[?]. Take this herb and eat it for nine days in the morning and evening; it is cured and healed, and this is proven and true. Also, for healing doubtful wounds. Take this herb and make an ointment with turpentine and white wax, and place this ointment on doubtful wounds or other serious wounds; this ointment is better than any other ointment. It is collected on the tenth day of the moon in June, and the said herb has twenty-two virtues in itself. It grows on the coldest mountains.

Herba Cipolla marina / Cipola marina. 45.

Ad sanandum vulnus inveteratum: fac unguentum de radice istius herbe cum sunzia vetera porci rubei et cera alba postea pone super vulnus inveteratum; subito saldatur et sanatur per spatium dierum V. Item si quis haberet cetebrum, id est tigneam, super capud. Accipe radicem istius herbe et fac unguentum cum sonzia vetera porci et emplastrentur simul, postea pone super tegniam de isto unguento. Valet istud unguentum super alias medicinas. Nascitur prope littus maris.

For healing an inveterate wound: make an ointment from the root of this herb with old red pig’s fat and white wax, then apply it to the inveterate wound; it will immediately heal and be cured within five days. Also, if anyone had “cetebrum”, that is, scabies, on their head. Take the root of this herb and make an ointment with old pig fat and plaster them together, then apply this ointment to the scabies. This ointment is better than other medicines. It grows near the seashore.

Herba Palma Christi. 46.

Ad sanandum manus vel pedes vel alia membra que essent inflata. Accipe folia istius herbe et coque in vino; postea pone super membra inflata per spatium decem dierum: sanabitur et liberabitur, et est probatum. Item ad sanandum frigiditatem corporis per maximos humores frigidos. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere per spatium XV dierum, rectificat calorem naturalem et cor letificat. Colligitur de mese maii decima die lune.

For healing hands or feet or other limbs that are swollen. Take the leaves of this herb and cook them in wine; then apply to the swollen limbs for ten days: it will heal and be relieved, and this is proven. Also, for healing the coldness of the body from excessive cold humors. Take this herb and let it be eaten for fifteen days; it rectifies natural warmth and delights the heart. It is collected on the tenth day of the moon in May.

Herba Bazea minor et de novem una [one of nine]. 47.

Ad sanandum unam feritam. Accipe folia istius herbe et pista et pone super plagam. Subito sanabitur et saldatur et hoc est probatum. Et dicta herba habet IV virtutes. Item ad sanandum morsuram serpentis. Accipe folia istius herbe et pista et emplastrentur super morsuram, subito removet dolorem et venenum et sanatur et non est aliquod periculum ad cavendum. Nascitur in terrenis frigidissimis et petrosis.

For healing a wound. Take the leaves of this herb and crush them, then apply them to the wound. It will immediately heal and be cured, and this is proven. And this herb has four virtues. Also, for healing a snake bite. Take the leaves of this herb and crush them, then plaster them on the bite; it immediately removes pain and poison and heals, and there is no danger to beware of. It grows in the coldest, rocky terrain.

Herba Folio. 48.

Si quis vellet temperare ferrum, quod incideret alios ferros. Accipe succum istius herbe cum sanguine yrci mistum et tempera illud ferrum et est probabtum. Nascitur in montibus frigidis et petrosis.

If someone wanted to temper iron so that it would cut all iron. Take the juice of this herb mixed with the blood of a buck and temper that iron, and it is proven. It grows in cold and rocky mountains.

Herba Rigogolla / Rigogola. 49.

Ad sanandum febrem aut dolorem capitis. Accipe de ista herba et pista eam et postea emplastretur super tempora; curatur et sanatur. Item si quis haberet oculos rubeos propter aliquam malitiam. Accipe de ista herba et pistet et postea ponat succum in oculis et subito sanatur et hoc est probatum. Item is quis haberet parechios inflatos. Accipiat de ista herba et pistet cum cera alba et sepio [sebo?] castroni postea ponat super parechios et subito sanabuntur. Et hoc est probatum. Nascitur in terrenis domesticis.

For healing fever or head pain. Take this herb and crush it and then plaster it on the temples; it is cured and healed. Also, if anyone had red eyes due to some illness. Take this herb and crush it and then put the powder in the eyes, and it will immediately heal, and this is proven. Also, if anyone had swollen testicles. Take this herb and crush it with white wax and mutton’s fat, then apply it to the testicles, and they will immediately heal, and this is proven. It grows in domestic terrain.

Herba Pane porcino. 50.

Ad sanandum surdum. Accipe radicem istius herbe et pista bene et accipe humorem qui venit foras et misce cum oleo et lacte asine et ista fac bullire ad ignem tantum quod incorporentur simul, postea pone sic calidum in aure ut possit pati calorem et claude bene aurem cum bambaxio ut non exeat unguentum: subito sanabitur et audiet, Deo concedente. Item si quis esset stiptichus corporis. Accipe de radice istius herbe pistate et fac bullire in aqua et de illa aqua fac unum cristerium et subito sanatur. Item si quis haberet bugnonum supra se. Accipiat de radice istius herbe et pista cum lardo porcino et pone supra bugnonem. Subito sanatur et hoc es probatum.

For healing deafness. Take the root of this herb and crush it well, and take the juice that comes out and mix it with oil and donkey’s milk. Boil this mixture by the fire until they are well incorporated. Then, put it in the ear, so hot that they can endure the warmth, and close the ear well with cotton so that the ointment does not come out: it will immediately heal, and they will hear, God willing. Also, if anyone were afflicted with constipation of the body, take the root of this herb, grind it, and boil it in water. Make an enema with that water, and immediately the ailment is healed. Also, if anyone has a swelling on them, take the root of this herb, grind it with pork lard, and apply it on the swelling. It will be healed immediately, and this has been proven.

Herba Artetica montaria. 51.

Si quis haberet guttas frigidas in nodis manuum vel pedum. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere cum ovis et cum aliis rebus grassis. Item si quis haberet fluxum corporis: accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere cum ovis et subito sanabitur. Item ad sanandum malum matronis. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere: subito sanatur. Nascitur in terrenis frigidis, herbosis et salvaticis.

If anyone had a cold gout in the joints of hands or feet. Take this herb and let it be eaten with eggs and other fatty things. Also, if anyone had bowel incontinence: take this herb and let it be eaten with eggs, and immediately it will be healed. Also, for healing women’s[?] ailments. Take this herb and let it be eaten; they are immediately healed. It grows in cold, grassy, and wild terrain.

Herba Mulla campana / Mula campana. 52.

Ad sanandum dolorem dentium qui dolent propter rheuma frigidum. Accipe radicem istius herbe et pista unum modicum. Et postea pone supra dentem et subito sanabitur. Et si quis pateretur malum matronis vel fragilitatem stomachi. Accipe radicem istius herbe, et fac pulverem et de pulvere da ei bibere cum bono vino calido; subito removet dolorem et calefacit stomachum et letificat cor et facit alargare pectus et facit bonum flatum. Et hoc est probatum. Nascitur in montibus frigidis et radix habet odorem Zinzibris.

To heal toothache caused by cold rheumatism: take the root of this herb and crush it a little. Then, place it on the tooth, and it will heal immediately. And if anyone suffers from women’s ailments or stomach weakness: take the root of this herb, make a powder, and give it to them to drink with good warm wine; it immediately removes the pain, warms the stomach, delights the heart, expands the chest, and produces good breath. And this is proven. It grows in cold and rocky mountains, and the root has the scent of ginger.

Herba Zinzana / Zinziana. 53.

Ad sanandum malum febre. Accipe radicem istius herbe in aqua coctam et de aqua da ei bibere; per spatium trium dierum sanatur. Item si quis esset tosegatus aut mordutus ab aliqua bestia venenosa da ei bibere de aqua radicis istius herbe; subito removet tosicum et venenum. Nascitur in montibus frigidis et descopertis.

For healing fever. Take the root of this herb cooked in water and give it to drink; it is healed in three days. Also, if anyone were bitten or stung by any poisonous beast, give them to drink the water of this herb’s root; it immediately removes the venom and poison. It grows in cold and bare mountains.

Herba Oculus Domini. 54.

Ad sanandum malum lapidis. Accipe radicem istius herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere cum vino da ei bibere per spatium XXX dierum curatur et sanatur. Item ad sanandum guttam arteticham. Accipe folia istius herbe et coque in aqua, postea pone supra guttam per spatium XV dierum, sanatur. Item si quis haberet vermes in corpore; fac pulverem de foliis istius herbe et da ei bibere cum bono vino; subito sanatur. Nascitur in terrenis macris, petrosis et calidis.

For healing kidney stones. Take the root of this herb and make a powder, and give the powder to drink with wine for thirty days; the ailment is healed and cured. Also, for healing arthritic gout. Take the leaves of this herb and cook them in water, then put them on the gout for fifteen days; it is healed. Also, if anyone had worms in their body; make a powder of the leaves of this herb and give it to drink with good wine; they are immediately healed. It grows in thin, rocky, and warm terrain.

Herba Sancta Maria / Santa Maria. 55.

Si qua femina non haberet lac. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere, videlicet de illa que facit signum album, subito lac sibi veniet. Item si quis homo vel femina se corrumperet in sompnis vel aliter da ei comedere de ista herba, videlicet de illa que non habet signa alba, et subito sanabitur a corruptione. Item ad sanandum vulnus inveteratum. Accipe folia et radices istius herbe et pistentur simul et ponantur super vulnus per spatium XV dierum saldabitur vulnus. Et hoc est probatum.

If any woman does not have milk. Take this herb, namely the one that has a white mark, and give it to her to eat and soon milk will come to her. Also, if any man or woman is corrupted in dreams or otherwise, give them to eat of this herb, namely, the one that does not have white marks, and soon they will be healed from corruption. Also, for healing an inveterate wound. Take the leaves and roots of this herb, crush them together, and apply them on the wound for fifteen days; the wound will be healed. And this is proven.

Herba Lunaria greca / Lunaria grega. 56.

Si quis portaverit supra se de ista herbe semper erit letus et nunquam urtebitur ab aliqua persona. Nascitur in montibus frigidis et in locis occultis.

If anyone carries this herb on them, they will always be joyful and never harmed by any person. It grows in cold mountains and hidden places.

Herba Capalias. 57.

Si quis esset surdus. Accipe de humore istius herbe cum oleo communi at misce simul iste duo et de isto pone in aure et fac ut sit calidum et pone de mane et de sero per spatium XV dierum, sanatur. Item si quis haberet vermes in corpore: accipe de ista herba et pistetur et emplastretur supra ventrem: omnes vermes moretur et egredientur inferius et hoc est probatum. Item si quis haberet fluxum corporis. Accipe de ista herba et da ei bibere cum bono vino et subito sanabitur. Nascitur in terrenis alpestris, salvaticis et sabionosis et colligitur de mense maii.

If anyone were deaf. Take the juice of this herb with common oil and mix them together, warm this mixture and put it in the ear, morning and evening, for fifteen days; it is healed. Also, if anyone had worms in their body: take this herb and crush it, then plaster it on the belly; all the worms will die and come out from below, and this is proven. Also, if anyone had bowel incontinence. Take this herb and give it to drink with good wine, and soon, they will be healed. It grows in alpine, wild, and sandy terrain. It is collected in May.

Herba Nascurso. 58.

Si esset aliquis scotatus in igne vel in aqua calida. Accipe de ista herba et pista multum bene folia et emplastrentur supra schotatura; statim removet dolorem et saldare facit. Item si quis esset stiticus in corpore. Accipe de ista herba cocta com aqua virzarum que sint bene grasse et de ista aqua quando vadis in lectum in sero bibe et in mane ieiuno stomacho et corpus manet absolutum. Et hoc est probatum. Nascitur dicta herba in aqua, proprie super aquas, et multum invenitur circa Pisas.

If someone were scalded by fire or hot water. Take this herb, crush the leaves very well, and plaster them on the scald; immediately, it removes the pain and promotes healing. Also, if someone had an obstruction in the body. Take this herb cooked with water from cabbage that is quite fatty, and drink this water, when you go to bed in the evening and on an empty stomach in the morning, the body is relieved. And this is proven. The said herb grows in water, literally above water, and it is abundant around Pisa.

Herba Belletolis / Belletollis. 59.

Ad sanandum malum dentium. Accipe de ista herba et tene in ore, statim facit dentem venire foras. Item ad faciendum ut ameris a qualibet persona. Accipe de ista herba que sit collecta die XII lune et debet colligi in nomine illius persone a qua cupis amari, et postea dicta herbam porta super te in modum quod aliquis non videat. Et quando habebis tecum, illa persona in cuius nomine fuerit collecta veniet tecum ubique et multum amabit homo vel femina. Nascitur in montibus frigidis.

For healing toothache. Take this herb and hold it in your mouth; it immediately makes the tooth come out. Also, to make someone love you. Take this herb collected on the twelfth day of the moon, and it should be collected in the name of the person you want to be loved by, and afterward, carry the herb with you in such a way that no one can see it. And, when you have it with you, the person in whose name it was collected will come with you anywhere, and people, whether man or woman, will love you very much. It grows in cold mountains.

Herba Metries. 60.

Ad sanandum guttas frigidas. Comede de ista herba cum ovis ieiuno stomacho per spatium XV dierum, sanabuntur gutte et hoc est probatum. Item ad sanandum malum splenis machulate. Accipe de ista herba et fac pulverem et de pulvere bibe cum bono vino per spatium X dierum, subito sanabitur et hoc est probatum. Nascitur in terrenis marinis in littore maris et colligitur de mense maii vel aprilis.

For healing a cold gout. Eat this herb with eggs on an empty stomach for fifteen days; the gout will be healed, and this is proven. Also, for healing a spotted spleen ailment. Take this herb and make a powder, and drink the powder with good wine for ten days; it will be immediately healed, and this is proven. It grows in marine terrain on the seashore and is collected in May or April.

Herba Ystatoris / Istatoris. 61.

Si esset aliqua femina que non posset concipere filios. Accipe de ista herba cocta et da ei comedere per spatium XV dierum postea utatur viro suo et concipiet adiutorio Dei et istius herbe. Et si qua persona portaret supra se de ista herba securus esset ab omni periculo et nullum poterit ei nocere. Et colligitur in puncto lune quod vocatur Taurus aut Gemini. Nascitur in Ispania in monte Caro et in monte Sacro.

If there were any woman who could not conceive children. Take this herb cooked and give it to her to eat for fifteen days, then let her conjoin with her husband, and she will conceive with the help of God and this herb. And if anyone carries this herb with them, they will be safe from all danger, and nothing can harm them. And it is collected at the position of the moon called Taurus or Gemini. It grows in Spain on Mount Caro and Mount Sacro.

Herba Polexinas. 62.

Ad sanandum malum capitis et algorem pectoris: accipe de ista herba et comede cum ovis in sero et in mane et hoc est probatum ad dolorem capitis. Item ad sanandum mala nata que non possunt sanari: fac pulverem de ista herba et pone super plagas veteres; subito saldabitur per spatium X dierum.

For healing head ailments and chest colds: take this herb and eat it with eggs in the evening and in the morning, and this is proven for head pain. Also, for healing persistent wounds that cannot be healed: make a powder of this herb and put it on the inveterate wounds; they will be healed within ten days.

Herba Serpentina. 63.

Si quis haberet tibias fractas. Accipe folia et radices istius herbe et postea misceantur cum cera alba cum oleo et lardo et fac unguentum et pone super plagas; subito saldantur et curantur.

If someone had broken shinbones. Take the leaves and roots of this herb, and mix them with white wax, with oil and lard and make an ointment, then put it on the wounds; they will be immediately healed and cured.

Herba Pionica. 64.

Ad sanandum malum matronis vel matricis. Accipe radicem istius herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere cum vino da ei bibere ieiuno stomacho per spatium triginta dierum: sanabitur. Item si quis vellet cognoscere personam indemoniatham. Accipiat de dicta herba et ponat super eam, si erit demoniacha non poterit pati quod dicta herba maneat super se et clamabit fortiter. Item si quis portabit super se de dicta herba nullus demon poterit ei nocere. Item ad sanandum omnem feritas folia istius herbe sunt multum bona. Item ad morbum caducum. Accipe de radice istius herbe et bibe cum bono vino per spatium XXXX dierum, curatur et sanatur. Nascitur dicta herba in montibus petrosis ubi sol ferit.

For healing ailments of women or of the uterus. Take the root of this herb, make a powder, and give the powder to drink with wine on an empty stomach for thirty days: it will be healed. Also, if anyone wanted to recognize a demon-possessed person. Take this herb and place it on them; if they are demoniac, they cannot endure the herb remaining on them and will cry out loudly. Also, if anyone carries this herb with them, no demon can harm them. Also, for healing any wound, the leaves of this herb are very good. Also, for epilepsy. Take the root of this herb and drink it with good wine for forty days; it is cured and healed. The said herb grows on rocky mountains where the sun strikes.

Herba Ruga salvatica / Ruca salvaticha. 65.

Ad sanandum guttas frigidas. Accipe de ista herba et misce cum herba Istolaria et coque cum vino vermegio et postea emplastrentur super guttas frigidas per spatium XV dierum; sanabuntur et hoc est probatum per magistrum Petrum de Perosa et per magistrum Antonium romanum. Item ad sanandum dolorem renum et flanchi. Accipe de ista herba, Cnevedolla[?] et folia Absintii, et ista omnia coque in oleo veteri quinque aut sex annorum et emplastrentur super dolorem per spatium XII dierum, curatur et sanatur. Item ad sanandum iecur maculatum. Accipe de ista herba cruda et comede ieiuno stomacho per spatium XII dierum, sanatur. Nascitur in terrenis domesticis.

For healing a cold gout. Take this herb and mix it with Istolaria herb and cook it with red wine, then plaster it on the cold gout for fifteen days; it will be healed, and this is proven by Master Petrus of Peroxa [Perosa?] and Master Antonius the Roman. Also, for healing kidney and flank pain. Take this herb, Cnevedolla, and Absinthe leaves, and cook all of these in five or six years old oil, and plaster them on the pain for twelve days; it is cured and healed. Also, for healing a spotted liver. Take this herb raw and eat it on an empty stomach for twelve days; it is healed. It grows in domestic terrain.

Herba Caspetres. 66.

Ad faciendum ventositatem […]. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere […] petezare […] facet […] aliud quem petezare. Item si quis vellet esse invisibilis, accipiat de ista herba et ponat in ore et teneat os clausum plus quam possit inter gentes: nunquam videbitur. Et collige dictam herbam in ponto lune quod vocatur crepusculum. Nascitur dicta herba in marina vel in littore marino.

For producing flatulence […] Take this herb and give it to eat […] to provoke flatulence. Also, if anyone wanted to be invisible, let them take this herb and put it in their mouth, and keep the mouth closed as much as than possible among people: they will never be seen. And collect this herb at the moon’s position called dusk. The said herb grows near the sea or on the seashore.

Herba Brancha / Branca. 67.

Si quis portaret super caput suum de ista herba, nunquam haberet infirmitatem oculorum nec calor solis nec ignis nunquam offenderet oculos. Et quando aquila volat in altum portat in rostro suo de dicta herba ut sol non offendat oculos suos.

If someone carried this herb over their head, they would never have eye ailments, nor would the heat of the sun or fire ever harm their eyes. And when an eagle flies high, it carries in its beak some of this herb so that the sun does not harm its eyes.

Herba Spigonarda. 68.

Ad faciendum unguentum pretiosum. Accipe radicem istius herbe et fac pulverem cum totidem cera vel trementina et fac unguentum de istis rebus.

For making a precious ointment. Take the root of this herb and make a powder with an equal amount of wax or turpentine, and make an ointment from these things.

Herba Lunaria. 69. [BNF Lat. 17844 f69v]

Ad falsificandum monetam. Accipe folia et radices istius herbe. Item ad saldandum omnem feritam per spatium unius hore. Item si quis portabit supra se erit semper in gratia cuiuslibet persone et numquam ei deficiet.

For making false coins. Take the leaves and roots of this herb. Also, to heal every wound within an hour. Also, if someone carries it upon themselves, they will always be in favor with any person, and it will never fail them.

Herba Rigano. 70.

Si quis haberet fluxum corporis. Accipe de ista herba et da ei comedere, subito sanatur. Item si quis pissaret sanguinem: da ei comedere per spatium XV dierum, sanabitur. Item si quis esset fractus in petenegio comedat de ista herba, per spatium XXX dierum: sanabitur. Item ad sanandum feminam que haberet corruptionem sanguinis inferius. Comedat de ista herba per spatium XV dierum: sanabitur.

If someone had bowel incontinence. Take this herb and give it to them to eat; they will be healed immediately. Also, if someone were urinating blood: give it to them to eat for fifteen days; they will be healed. Also, if someone had ulcers in the pubis, let them eat this herb for thirty days: they will be healed. Also, for healing a woman who has a corruption of lower blood. Let her eat this herb for fifteen days: she will be healed.

Herba Sigillo de Santa Maria / Sigillo de Sancta Maria. 71.

Ad sanandum unum crepatum. Da ei comedere cum ovis de radice istius herbe per spatium XXX dierum et subito sanabitur. Item si quis esset frigidus propter nimios humores corporis: accipe de radice istius herbe et coque in vino albo et quando est bene cocta emplastrentur cum una unzia gariofolorum et media libra melis et omnia ista simul mista comede ieiuno stomacho cum bono vino albo et subito sanabitur.

For healing an ulcer. Give them to eat with eggs from the root of this herb for thirty days, and they will be immediately healed. Also, if someone were cold due to excessive body humors: take the root of this herb and cook it in white wine, and when it is well-cooked, plaster it with an ounce of cloves and half a pound of honey. All these mixed together, eat on an empty stomach with good white wine, and they will be immediately healed.

Herba Rapillis. 72.

Ad sanandum unum crepatum. Accipe de ista radice istius herbe et coque in aqua. Et postea emplastretur supra petenegium crepati per spatium XV dierum, sanabitur. Item ad sanandum yecur maculatum. Accipe folia istius herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere cum bono vino da ei bibere per spatium XII dierum, sanabitur. Item ad sanandum morbum caducum: accipe folia istius herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere cum bono vino da ei bibere per spatium XV dierum. Sanabitur et hoc est probatum.

For healing an ulcer. Take the root of this herb and cook it in water. And afterward, plaster it over the ulcerated pubis for fifteen days, and it will be healed. Also, for healing a spotted liver. Take the leaves of this herb and make a powder, and give the powder to drink with good wine for twelve days, and it will be healed. Also, for healing epilepsy: take the leaves of this herb and make a powder, and give the powder to drink with good wine for fifteen days. It will be healed, and this is proven.

Herba Bustania. 73.

Si quis caderet in terram, subito accipe de radice istius herbe et fac pulverem et de pulvere cum vino da ei bibere. Statim resurget sicut si non haberet aliquod malum. Item si quis poneret de radice istius herbe ad nasum subito caderet in terram tamquam mortuus et si vis adiuvare eum unge pulsum suum cum vino vel cum aceto et subito removet mulum et reveniet, et non habebit aliquod malum. Nascitur in litore maris et quando fodis eam cave bene ne olimentum vadat ad nasum.

If someone fell to the ground, immediately take the root of this herb and make a powder, and give them the powder to drink. They will immediately rise as if they had no ailment. Also, if someone were to put the root of this herb to their nose, they would immediately fall to the ground as if dead, and if you want to help them, anoint their wrist with wine or vinegar, and immediately they will be revived, and they will have no ailment. It grows on the seashore, and when you dig it, be careful that the fragrance does not go to your nose.

Herba Forus. 74. [BNF Lat. 17848 f34v]

Si quis portaret super se de ista herba, semper habebit bona fortuna. Et amabitur a qualibet persona istius mundi. Et collige in puncto lune quod vocatur gemini vel taurus. Et quando colligis dic ista verba: “Herba Forus veni ad me ex parte Spiritus Sancti”. Nascitur in montibus frigidis et petrosis.

If someone carried this herb with them, they would always have good fortune. And they would be loved by everyone in this world. And collect it at the moon’s position called Gemini or Taurus. And when you collect it, say these words: “Herb Forus come to me from the part of the Holy Spirit.” It grows in cold and rocky mountains.

Herba Capalarices / Capilarices. 75. [BNF Lat. 17848 f35v]

Ad faciendum aquam bonam ad omnem infirmatem oculorum. Accipe florem istius herbe et fac aquam ad campanam et de ista aqua pone in oculis per spatium XX dierum. Clarificabuntur oculi et removebitur omnis infirmitas et hoc es probatum. Item si quis vellet ponere scbndblxm kntfr dxbs perspnbs [scandalum inter duas personas]. Accipe de ista herba in uno die Jovis de nocte et pone super hostium per quod transibunt ille due persone. Et collige die XII lune si vis operari pro medicina.

For making a good water for all eye ailments. Take the flower of this herb and make water [by distillation] in a bell, and apply it to the patient’s eyes for twenty days. The eyes will be cleared, and any ailment will be removed, and this is proven. Also, if someone wanted to cause [following words in a simple cipher:] a scandal between two people. Take this herb at night on Jupiter’s day [Thursday] and place it on the door through which those two people will pass. And collect it on the twelfth day of the moon, if you want to use it for medicine.

Herba Luminellas. 76.

Si quis haberet maculam in oculo: accipiat de ista herba et pistet eam; emplastretur super oculum et subito sanabitur.

If someone had a spot in the eye: take this herb and pound it; plaster it on the eye, and it will be immediately healed.

Herba Ruschasia. 77.

Ad sanandum omnem maculam oculorum. Accipe folia istius herbe, et fac aquam distillatam et de ista aqua pone in oculis; subito sanabitur infirmitas et revidere remanet clarum. Item si quis haberet visum obscurum comedat de ista herba in suis vivandis. Facit visum clarum et manutenebit.

For healing spotted eyes. Take the leaves of this herb, and make water by distillation, and apply some of this water to the eyes; the ailment will be immediately healed, and the sight will remain clear. Also, if someone had dim sight, let them eat this herb in their food. It clears the sight and maintains it.

Herba Scudaria. 78.

Ad sanandum unum malsanum; da ei comedere de ista herba cum ovis per spatium XV dierum et sanatur ab omnia malsania. Item si quis haberet plagas malas in cruribus. Accipe de ista herba et fac unguentum cum sonzia porci. Et unge plagas cum isto unguento per spatium X dierum. Sanabitur et hoc est probatum. Item ad volendum currere plus quam alia persona, porta supra te de radice istius herbe in cropa, in pelle leporis que sit capta in die Veneris et curres plus quam alia persona portando supra te de ista herba. Et omnes qui te videbunt tenebunt te sicut esses magnus et fac ut sis castus si debes operari ista.

For healing an unwell person; give them to eat of this herb with eggs for fifteen days, and they will be healed of all illnesses. Also, if someone had bad sores on their legs. Take this herb and make an ointment with pig fat. And anoint the sores with this ointment for ten days. It will be healed, and this is proven. Also, if you want to run faster than anybody, carry with you the root of this herb in a leather pouch made of the skin of a rabbit captured on Venus’ day [Friday], and you will run faster than anybody by carrying this herb. And all who see you will hold you as if you were great. Act chastely, if you need to accomplish these things.

Herba Lunaria. 79. [BNF Lat. 17848 f43v]

Ad sanandum unum qui haberet cilia grossa sive oculos lessos vel nizatos. Accipe de ista herba et ipsam pulveriza et des infirmo ad bibendum cum vino calido mediam octavam dicte pulveris usque ad VIIII aut X dies in sero pro qualibet vice et sanabuntur oculi. Item si quis not posset urinare propter malum petre vel ranelle vel propter aliam causam, des ei ad bibendum mediam octavam pulveris ante dicte per qualibet vice cum modico vini calidi per dies XX in mane et sanabit. Item si quis haberet dolorem renum aut flanchi aut capiti, bibat.

For healing one who has swollen eyelashes or injured or twisted eyes. Take this herb and make a powder of it, and give it to the sick to drink with warm wine, one eighth [of an ounce] of the said powder up to nine or ten days in the evening each time, and the eyes will be healed. Also, if someone could not urinate due to bladder or kidney pain or for another reason, give them to drink one eighth [of an ounce] of the said powder for each dose with a little warm wine for twenty days in the morning, and they will be healed. Also, if someone had pain in the kidneys, flank, or head, let them drink.

Herba Tunegi. 80.

Ad dolorem cordis et stomachi removendum. Des ad bibendum cum vino calido pro qualibet vice mediam unziam pulveris dicte herbe et Deo concedente liberabitur.

For removing heart and stomach pain. Give to drink with warm wine half an ounce of the powder of this herb for each dose, and with God’s grace, they will be relieved.

Herba Lactica. 81.

Ad stricturam pectoris et tussim eiciendam: accipe mediam unziam pulveris huius herbe Lactice pro qualibet vice et ipsam bibe cum uno modico vini calidi in sero per spatium XV dierum aut XVI et sanaberis.

For relieving chest tightness and coughing: take half an ounce of the powder of this Lactica herb for each dose and drink it with a little warm wine in the evening for fifteen or sixteen days, and you will be healed.

Herba Barbaria. 82.

Ad fistolas sive grandes pustemas in gambas, in brachiis aut in toto tergo existens veraciter refugandas, per spatium dierum XI, tempore matutino, pulverem ex dicta herba factam fistulas et pustemis superpone et fugabuntur.

For effectively removing fistulas or large pustules in the legs, arms, or the entire back, for eleven days, in the morning, place powder made from this herb on fistulas and pustules, and they will disappear.

Herba Tura. 83.

Ad dolorem capitis sanandum. Accipe unum quartum huius herbe Ture et ipsum pone supra carbones ignitos et fumum ex inde egredientem recipe per nasum per os per vultum et sic dolor capiti recedit.

For healing headache. Take one quarter [of an ounce] of this herb Tura and place it on hot coals, and inhale the smoke coming from it through your nose, mouth, and face, and thus, the headache recedes.

Herba Gerbia. 84.

Ad sanandum aliquem habentem spasimum ad gulam vel strictum in pectore. Des ei ad bibendum mediam unziam pulveris dicte herbe per omni vice usque ad dies XIX vel XX de mane et sanatur.

For healing someone with a spasm in the throat or tightness in the chest. Give them to drink half an ounce of the powder of this herb for every dose for nineteen or twelve days in the morning, and they will be healed.

Herba Bruza. 85.

Ad debilitatem stomachi et capitis abiciendum. Accipe de pulvere istius herbe Bruzie et de ipsa exhibe ad bibendum cum modico vini calidi et sic faciendo capitis et stomachi dolorem abicietur.

For removing stomach and head weakness. Take the powder of this Bruzia herb and give it to drink with a little warm wine, and by doing so, the pain in the head and stomach will be removed.

Herba Lunaria tertia / Lunaria tercia. 86. [BNF Lat. 17848 f38v]

Si quis esset refrigidatus in capite aut in tota eius persona. Accipe de ista herba pistata et bene pulverizata et bibat ille qui est refrigidatus cum uno modico boni vini calidi mediam octavam per omni vice per aliquot dies et sanabitur.

If someone were cold in their head or in their whole body. Take this herb well ground and reduced to a powder and let the one who is cold drink one eighth [of a an ounce] with a little good warm wine every time for several days, and they will be healed.

Herba Attillia. 87.

Ad malum yecoris. Accipe de pulvere huius herbe onziam mediam pro qualibet vice et des ad bibendum cum vino frigido et sanitatem obtinebit. Item si quis haberet stomachum inordinatum sive guastum, bibat omni mane pro qualibet vice usque ad dies XV vel XVI de pulvere dicte et sanabitur.

For the illness of the liver. Take half an ounce of the powder of this herb for every dose and give it to drink with cold wine, and they will obtain health. Also, if someone had an upset or damaged stomach, let them drink every morning for every time up to fifteen or sixteen days of the said powder, and they will be healed.

Herba Victoria. 88.

Ad sanandum malum madroni. Accipe per qualibet vice de pulvere istius herbe onzium mediam et da ad bibendum patienti et sanabitur. Item si quis haberet malum stomachi. Accipe de pulvere dicte herbe et da bibere illi qui patitur quater aut quinquies mediam untiam per qualibet vice et liberabitur.

For healing the illness of the uterus. Take half an ounce of the powder of this herb for each dose and give it to drink to the patient, and they will be healed. Also, if someone had an illness of the stomach. Take the powder of this herb and give it to drink to the one who suffers four or five half-ounces for every dose, and they will be relieved.

Herba Rondella. 89.

Ad sanandum aliquem vel aliquam personam, habentem gulam grossam vel inflatam. Accipe de pulvere istius herbe mediam unziam pro qualibet vice et da ei bibere de mane infirmo per dies XV aut XVI et liberabitur. Et bibi debet dicta pulvis cum vino calido. Item ad sanandum scrofulas da bibere de suprascripta herba facta pulvere tot diebus ut supra et sanabitur.

For healing a man or a woman having a thick or swollen throat. Take half an ounce of the powder of this herb for every time and give it to drink in the morning to the sick for fifteen or sixteen days, and they will be relieved. And the said powder should be drunk with warm wine. Also, for healing scrofula, give to drink from the above-mentioned herb made into a powder for as many days as above, and they will be healed.

Herba Genesiana aliter Genciana / Genziana. 90.

Ad sanandum habentem malum madronis aut dolorem capitis. Accipiat omni vice quando sentit dolorem sibi fore venturum medium quartum pulveris istius herbe et bibat cum modico vini calido et protine cessabit dolor. Item si quis haberet febrem tertianam aut quartanam. Accipiat omni vice unum quartum pulveris dicte herbe. Et ipsam bibat in tribus terminis sive vicibus cum vino calido et liberabitur. Et debet esse Gianzana minor. Genziana maior habet virtutem purgandi stomachum ab omni putredine a pustemis et choleris in eodem coadunatis sive corumpimento corporis, si de pulvere ipsius accepis pro qualibet vice unum quartum et ipsum dederis ad bibendum cum modico vini per dies X aut XI in mane.

For healing someone with illness of the uterus or headache. Let them take, whenever they feel that the pain is coming, half a quarter [ounce] of the powder of this herb, and let them drink it with a little warm wine, and the pain will immediately cease. Also, if someone had a tertian or quartan fever. Let them take every time a quarter [ounce] of the powder of the said herb. And let them drink it in three terms or times with warm wine, and they will be relieved. And it should be lesser Gentian. Greater Gentian has the virtue of purging the stomach of all putrefaction, pustules, and choleric humor gathered in it, or corruption of the body, if you take a quarter ounce of its powder for every time, and you give it to drink with a little wine for ten or eleven days in the morning.

Herba Fiorina. 91.

Ad sanandum aliquam personam habentem in eius stomacho aliquem turpetudinem seu humorem cholericum aut flegmaticum. Accipe de pulvere istius herbe nomine Florine onziam mediam pro qualibet vice et da ei bibere in mane usque ad dies XX et sanabitur.

For healing someone with something foul or a choleric or phlegmatic humor in their stomach. Take half an ounce of the powder of this herb called Fiorina for every time and give it to drink in the morning for twelve days, and they will be healed.

Herba Capillaria / Capilaria. 92.

Ad faciendum capillos pulcros et flavos et ad fugandum tignollas. Accipe onzam unam istius herbe Capillarie et fac ea bullire cum uno bochali de lesivio postmodum lava caput decem aut duodecim vices et fient capilli pulcri, aureo consimiles.

For making hair beautiful and blond and for driving away lice. Take one ounce of this herb Capillaria and boil it with a jug of lye. Afterward, wash the head ten or twelve times, and the hair will become beautiful, similar to gold.

Herba Giralia. 93.

Ad sanitatem reducendam aliquem qui propter scalmanam sive caliditatem esset infirmus vel propter malum stomachi, da ei ad bibendum de pulvere istius herbe Giralie mediam unziam pro qualibet vice in mane usque ad dies XVI et sanus efficeretur.

For restoring health to someone who is unwell due to agitation or overheating. Give them to drink half an ounce of the powder of this herb Giralia for every time in the morning for sixteen days, and they will become healthy.

Herba Gratilia sive Gratiana. 94.

Si quis haberet dolore ad renes vel ad flanchum vel ad gambas vel per totum corpus. Accipe de ista herba et ipsam pulverizet et de pulvere bibat pro qualibet vice unziam mediam et liberabitur.

If someone had pain in the kidneys or in the flank or in the legs or throughout the body. Take this herb and powder it, and from the powder, let them drink half an ounce for every time, and they will be relieved.

Herba Granelaria / Granellaria. 95.

Si quis haberet malum ad gengivas vel si alicui dentes se moverent teneat in ore de ista herba Granelaria et sanabitur.

If someone had an illness in the gums or if someone’s teeth were loose, hold in the mouth of this herb Granelaria, and they will be healed.

Herba Pionia. 96.

Ad confortandum cerebrum et repelendum migraneam et malum procedens ex somatura capitis sive ex vachuatione. Accipe pro qualibet vice mediam unziam istius herbe Pionie et da ei bibere in sero infirmo per spatium dierum XII aut XV et liberabitur.

For strengthening the brain and repelling migraines and the illness arising from the overfilling or emptying of the head. Take half an ounce of this Pionia herb for every time and give it to drink in the evening to the sick for twelve or fifteen days, and they will be relieved.

Consolida major. 97. Consolida minor. 98.

Experimentum verissimum et probatum at conceptum mulierum. Et per hoc multe que steriles fuerant conceperunt. In vigilia […] sancti Johannis Baptiste [accipe] consolidam maiorem, et post minorem. Et […] extrahe de terra ante horam [tertiam, dicendo orationem dominicam, et] eundo et redeundo nemini [loquatur]. […] sucum extrahe de dictis herbis. Et cum illo suco scribe […] ista verba [“Dixit Dominus crescant † uehihoch] † et multiplicentur † [chabathay †” … Istam cartam taliter scriptam dum coit vir ad collum ligatam portet dum masculum habere cupit, et si feminam mulier].

[Most of the original text was censored, then partially overwritten by a later hand; the paragraph was reconstructed on the basis of a similar charm published by Peter van den Hooff, p.77]

A very true and proven experiment for the conception of women. And through this, many who were barren conceived. On the vigil of Saint John the Baptist […] take greater Consolida, and afterward, lesser Consolida. And extract them from the earth before the third hour [saying the Lord’s Prayer]; while going and coming back, [speak] to no one. […] Extract the juice from the said herbs and, with that juice, write […] these words: [“The Lord God said be fruitful † uehihoch] † and multiply † [chabathay †” … If they want a boy, let the man carry the paper written in such a way, tied around his neck, during coitus; if they want a girl, let the woman carry the paper.]

A transcription and translation of the so-called “Alchemical herbal” was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

A while ago I applied to the Voynich manuscript the neural-network software for handwritten text recognition discussed by Harald Scheidl.

Having found suitable online scans of the Codex Seraphinianus (Luigi Serafini, 1981), I applied the same approach to that book. This was in part inspired by a Reddit post by u/maimonidies.

In the following, all page numbers refer to pages in the archive.org PDF from the link above. The scans do not include Serafini’s original numbers that appeared at the bottom of each page. Serafini always stated that the text in the book is meaningless, e.g.: “The writing of the Codex is asemic, i.e. meaningless. It evolved over time, as can be observed by carefully flipping through the text. To me, it looks asemic, and I certainly haven’t encoded any hidden message in it. But perhaps, in the future, it will be discovered that there was an alien spacecraft orbiting Earth in the mid-Seventies, transmitting psycho-messages at a very high frequency. Thus, I might have unconsciously transcribed the images and alphabet of a remote extragalactic civilization.” (translated from this interview by Fabio Pariante, 2022).

EXTRACTION OF WORD IMAGES

Pages from the PDF were converted to images with a 300 DPI resolution.

The text in the Codex is written in regular, well separated horizontal lines and words are separated by wide spaces. So I just treated as text areas those areas of the pages that showed a horizontal pattern. This method only detects paragraph text, so isolated words like image labels and most titles were ignored. 1189 text areas were extracted.

This image shows the 8 text areas extracted from page 106. In this case, bold text was not recognized and was skipped.

I then picked lines as the darker horizontal stripes of each area. Words were separated using the OpenCV connectedComponentsWithStats function. This step produced 44966 images, some of which actually contain a couple of distinct words. About 200 of these turned out to be duplicates and were manually removed.

Each word image was preprocessed by applying a local adaptive threshold (used to enhance the ink / background contrast) and a fixed slant correction of 8.5 degrees.

The following figure shows a couple of word images before and after preprocessing.

TRANSLITERATION ALPHABET

Melka and Stanley (“Performance of Seraphinian in reference to some statistical tests”, 2012) wrote: “The term transcription is formally avoided since it mostly undertones mapping from a sound system to script.” I follow their example and use the term “transliteration” instead.

They manually transliterated three paragraphs from the Codex, for a total of about 200 words. They often mapped sequences of repeated “minims” into different glyphs: the small text they analysed required 40 different glyphs.

Since Serafini’s text looks complex and I needed to be able to pick a sufficient number of samples for each glyph in the transliteration alphabet, I decided on a somewhat simplistic approach. This probably misses some important aspects, but it turned out to be manageable for Neural Network training. In particular:

1. all punctuation and diacritics were ignored (as Melka and Stranley did)

2. small bits of the words were treated as individual glyphs, breaking complex combinations into smaller parts.

The following table shows the 33 ASCII characters used to label the training sample. ‘?’ was used for all rare glyphs that cannot be matched with any other glyph in the table. In addition to these, the space character was also used.

Several of the glyphs mapped to uppercase characters tend to appear word initially. In particular: A, C, D, E, M, P, R, S, W, X. Glyphs that tend to be word final are ‘b’, ‘d’, ‘j’ and ’n’; ’n’ could be decomposed as ‘id’, but since it is extremely frequent and the curl often overlaps vertically with the ‘i’, I chose to handle it as an individual glyph. CS glyphs shown here were also used as a rudimentary “font” to render transliteration output. In order to do so, they had to be adapted to a horizontal arrangement; this required a considerable distortion for L in particular, which tends to appear diagonally oriented from bottom-left to top-right. This issue is only relative to the pseudo-font and had no impact on the Neural Network training and performance.

Z corresponds to one of the symbols that represent numbers: the other digits were not examined, but the presence of Z should be enough to highlight many numeric sequences occurring in the text. The base-21 numeric system used in the book was decoded by Allan C. Wechsler (1987) and Ivan A. Derzhanski (2004).

A major difficulty was that several glyphs show all possible intermediate shapes, e.g. ‘i’ transitions into ‘e’ and ‘r’ into ‘o’, with progressively clearer loops; ‘rg’ (horizontally developing) turns into G (sloping downward) and then into B (vertical); ‘o’ turns into ‘g’ with loops that progressively elongate from the base-line to clear descenders. Boundaries are often hard to set and probably a properly developed Neural Network can be more consistent in classification than myself.

The three words in the image above show the transliteration of the most common glyphs.

TRAINING AND VALIDATION

About 440 images (usually containing a single word) were manually labelled. 10% of the samples were used for validation: i.e. the Neural Network only used this validation-set to check if optimization on the other samples was also resulting in better results on these “unseen” samples. This avoids the “overfitting” problem, when a Neural Network learns its training set perfectly but becomes unable to process anything slightly different from it.

Since the transliteration system requires in a high number of output characters per word, I used Scheidl’s “line-mode” option, originally designed to parse whole lines of text.

At the end of the training, 78/431 (18%) of validation characters were incorrectly classified. Only 12 of the 44 validation samples were correctly parsed.

• 3 of the 32 errors were due to an ‘e’ being read as ‘i’. As discussed above, distinguishing between these two glyphs is tricky because the script forms a continuum with ‘e’s with a clear loop and other cases where the loop is very small or barely visible.
• 4 errors were due to confusion between two other glyphs, in particular: l/L R/s o/r M/B.
• 7 other errors were due to a single missing or added glyph. E.g. expected: ‘Rrgiin’ / output: ‘Rrgiiin’.
• 6 error samples resulted in an edit distance of 2 (e.g. two glyphs being confused with two other glyphs).
• The remaining 12 samples caused a higher number of errors (from 3 to 8).

It can be said that roughly 1/4 of the words are correctly parsed, 1/4 have seriously flowed readings, the remaining half have minor defects.

The worst validation result was ‘Mi_MOrgiifrgeeffeergO_ctg’ (p.292) that was read as ‘Bi?_BOrgiirgieffiirgO_cyg’. The recognized sequence is still visually close to the input, with possibly the missing central ‘f’ being the most obvious of the 8 differences.

The longest of the 12 correctly transliterated validation samples is ‘EleeeeBrrgiiiLb’ (p.87)

Concatenating all the expected labels to form a single text, and the actual output for the validation set to form a second text shows that the neural network output has slightly lower values for both character entropy and character conditional entropy (this was computed with the Entropy.java class that user nablator shared on the voynich.ninja forum). The validation set is small (less than 500 characters) so it is not sure that this measure is meaningful; for what is worth, it seems to suggest that the entropy of the actual text is higher than what the neural network transliteration shows.

TRANSLITERATION OF THE CODEX

The trained neural network was applied to the word boxes extracted from all detected text. This roughly corresponds to 80% of the whole text (labels, titles and undetected paragraphs were skipped).

The transliteration file can be downloaded from github. Lines starting with ‘#’ mark page and text-area boundaries; in a few cases, ‘#’ was also used to manually “comment-out” duplicated transliteration text. Spaces separate the output of distinct word boxes; ‘.’ was used to mark spaces that the Neural Network detected inside individual word boxes. In the following, ‘.’s are treated as spaces: the total number of transliterated words is then 47227. In a relatively small number of cases, ‘id’ was output by the neural network; in the following discussion, these cases were replaced with ‘n’.

Considering the high error rate discussed above, this transliteration cannot of course be regarded as reliable. It can still be used for computing sufficiently robust statistics and extracting features for subsequent human checking.

The image above shows the first two lines of the “stag tree” paragraph from p.91. The top shows the original CS text with Melka and Stanley’s transliteration. The bottom shows the Neural-Network output together with the synthetic recreation of the text.

The first line of the NN transliteration contains one clear error (‘i’ for ‘O’ in the second word). In the second line, the second glyph ‘o’ was read ‘r’ and a spurious ‘e’ was added to the first word, in the fourth word, the initial ‘M’ was read ‘B’ and an ‘u’ was added. In total, 5 errors in 3 different words appear in the two lines. It should be noted that also Melka and Stanley’s transliteration has some dubious points, e.g. the final glyphs of the first and second word are mapped to the same character, though only the first has a loop; for both lines, the transcription starts with ‘d’ but also in this case the glyphs look different.

The longest sequence that the neural network detected in two different passages is ‘Srrgiin Srrgiin Srrgiiiffrrgiin’.

The longest word detected to occur more than once is ‘SrrgiiiGrrgiiiffrrgiin’. Actually, the occurrence at p.194 has a single ‘i’ before the final -n.

The two occurrences of the slightly shorter ‘prrrgOeiiiffrrgiiLj’ look more consistent and could indeed be regarded as two instances of a single word type.

The original edition of the CS was printed in two volumes, with p.179 in the PDF being the first page of the second volume. The following table shows character statistics for the neural-network transliteration of the whole text and of each of the two volumes (V1, 21641 transliterated words, and V2, 25586 words).

The greatest differences between the two volumes are highlighted in green for higher frequency and magenta for lower frequencies. The change in ‘i’ / ‘e’ results in a similar total for the two glyphs in V1 and 2; since the two glyphs form a continuum, this possibly just marks a minimal drift in the handwriting. On the other hand, ‘E’ and ‘S’ are quite different initial glyphs and there is no reason to expect a systematic confusion between the two. Plotting the number of words starting with E/S in pages containing at least 200 words clearly shows that there is a sharp change in perfect correspondence with the V1/V2 boundary.

The following table shows the top 20 most frequent words with a length of at least 3 glyphs in Volume 1 and 2.

In order to get a further idea of the accuracy of the Neural Network output, the following are collections of 18 random samples for two words from V1 (Eliiifrrj) and V2 (Srrgiiin). It’s easy to spot errors, e.g. ‘e’ read ‘l’ at the top and bottom of the Eliiifrrj image; miscounting i-sequences for both words. But the comparison confirms that the system does capture significant differences.

I highlighted ‘E’ and ‘S’ in two fragments from V1 (p.47) and V2 (p.206). This exemplifies the change in distribution between the two volumes.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER TEXTS

The CS transliteration was compared with four natural language texts and with the Voynich manuscript.

The language texts used are:

EN “Alice in Wonderland”

FR “Albertine Disparue” Chapter 2 (a passage appears in CS p.212)

IT “Divina Commedia”

LA “De Bello Gallico”

Punctuation was removed and both a mixed case and a lowercase-only version (prefixed “l”) were processed.

For the Voynich text, the Zandbergen-Landini ZL_ivtff_2b.txt transliteration was used (ignoring uncertain spaces). Only paragraph text was considered. Currier A and B were processed separately and the text was encoded both as the original EVA and as CUVA (conversion table here). Voynich samples are marked V; E and C define the encoding; A and B the Currier subsets.

Samples for CS are marked S. The two volumes (V1 and V2) were processed separately. In addition to the output of the neural network, the text was processed to produce a more compact output:

Ss (single): all repeating characters are reduced to a single occurrence. “Eliiifrrj Srrgiiin” is rendered as “Elifrj Srgin”

Sb (bigram / trigram). Some frequent bigrams and trigrams were replaced with a single character:

• iii->w,
• rrg->Q,
• ii->v,
• rg->q,
• ff->F,
• rj->J,
• El->V,
• in->m,
• ee->U,
• LB->K,
• Lj->k.

For instance: “Eliiifrrj Srrgiiin” -> “VwfrJ SQwn”

A few scatter plots are discussed below. Of course, the values plotted for the Codex Seraphinianus must always be taken with a big grain of salt.

The plot above shows alphabet size (X) vs the frequency of the most frequent character (Y). The raw CS transliteration results in a very high frequency for ‘i’, but this is entirely corrected by both the “bigram” and “single” encodings.

Also the mean and standard deviation of word length are easily adjusted to come close to the examined natural languages. This is not the case for the Voynich manuscript, where both very short and very long words are rare, resulting in a particularly low standard deviation.

On the other hand, character entropy and character conditional entropy behave similarly to the Voynich manuscript. Even when several frequent bigrams and trigrams are replaced with single characters, samples from the CS remain far from natural language samples. Similar plots were published by Koen Gheuens who performed an extensive set of experiments with different substitutions in the context of Voynichese. As discussed above, it is possible that the neural network artificially reduces both h1 and h2, but my impression is that this effect is not very large.

MATTR (moving average type token ratio) was also imported by Keon Gheuens into the field of Voynich research. It was further explored in this paper by Luke Lindemann.

The plot shows MATTR computed on a window of 5 words (X) vs a window of 200 words (Y). Y values are mostly comparable with those of Voynichese and inflected languages like Latin and Italian. X values are lower for Voynichese than for Latin languages and still lower for the CS. This means that the same word tends to often repeat within 5 words from the previous occurrence.

The plot above shows the frequency of perfect reduplication (X) and partial reduplication (Y) as a percentage of the number of words in the text. Partial reduplication is here defined as an edit distance of 1 between two words being 3 or more characters long. Perfect reduplication is the immediate repetition of the same word (words consisting of a single character were ignored). All language samples cluster near the origin, with values very close to zero for both measures. CS Volume1 has a number of reduplication occurrences that is about half the rate observed in the Voynich manuscript. Volume2 has values close to the Voynich manuscript, or higher if words are processed by compressing consecutive repetitions of the same character. Partial reduplication is close to 1%: very high when compared with language texts, but lower than values for the Voynich manuscript. Examples are provided below.

MATTR5 values for the CS are lower than those for the Voynich manuscript, but reduplication rates are comparable, so the difference must be due to some other factor. I generated another plot to check the X.a.X pattern, where two identical word tokens are separated by a third word token.

X shows the total percentage of the X.a.X pattern; Y shows the same measure only considering X with a length of 3 or more. It seems clear that the high MATTR5 values for the CS are due to very short words. Many of these will be OCR errors, or irrelevant sequences like “Z word Z”, “? word ?”. I think it likely that MATTR values for the CS transliteration are underestimated.

This final plot shows the frequency of the most frequent line-initial character (X) compared with the frequency of that same character as word-initial in any line position (Y). Y value is 1 if the character tends to be word initial and line initial with the same frequency; a stronger preference for the line initial positions results in values greater than 1. Lower-case samples for language texts have values close to 1, with the exception of IT (Dante) that (being poetry) is affected by grammar: each verse tends to be a complete sentence. Variable-case samples have values smaller than 1, since uppercase letters often appear at the beginning of lines, making e.g. ‘t-’ in English more likely word initially midline rather than line initially, where it is penalised by the many occurrences of T-.

For Voynich A, EVA ‘o’ appears to be “neutral”, with the same preference for the word initial position independently from also being line-initial. On the other hand, ‘D’ in the CUVA encoded B sample is more than twice as frequent line-initially than it is in general, showing a strong preference to occur there. CS Volume1 shows E as the most frequent line-initial character and it shows a similar frequency word-initially in general. Volume 2 instead shows that the prefix ‘r’ / ‘rrg’ (encoded ‘Q’ in Sb) is 3 times more frequent line-initially than word-initially in general.

In the following detail from the left column of p.347, I highlighted word-initial occurrences of ‘rrg’. The preference for the line initial position is noticeable.

CONSECUTIVELY REPEATED WORDS (REDUPLICATION)

As discussed above, the consecutive repetition of identical words appears to be frequent in the CS.

The transliteration file contains 10 sequences of words that are consecutively repeated 3 or more times. These are the corresponding details from pages 115, 133, 245, 256, 262, 275, 275, 314, 319, 325.

The 7th sample (p.275) is clearly an hallucination due to insufficient training on punctuation samples. All the other samples appear to be valid. Samples 3 (p.245) and 8 (p.314) could be sequences of five consecutive repetitions of words Eliiin and Srrj respectively. If one considers the difference between ‘e’ and ‘i’, the first and last tokens in the p.245 sequence are clearly different, so in this case the number of repetitions is lower.

The total number of repeated words at least two characters long (not counting those that include ‘Z’ and therefore appear to be numbers) is 259: 63 in Volume1 and 196 in Volume2. Some of these will certainly be spurious, but it is also certain that the phenomenon of reduplication is frequent in the Codex.

The longest repeating words detected are:

p.194 right L17 SrrgiiiBrrgiin SrrgiiiBrrgiin

p.21 right L16 SrrgiiiBrrgiin SrrgiiiBrrgiin

p.28 left L17 EleeeBrrgiiLb EleeeBrrgiiLb

p. 345 left L15 SrrgOiiirrgin SrrgOiiirrgin

CONCLUSIONS

The Neural Network system developed by Harald Scheidl appears to be perfectly fit for processing the Codex Seraphinianus. The results presented here were produced with only a few days of work on an old laptop: I have no doubt that more work with more computing power would produce better results. Possibly it would be enough to increase the size of the training set by manually labelling more words, but it’s likely that a revision of the transliteration alphabet would also be beneficial.

However unreliable, the transliteration discussed here was enough to highlight some properties shared with the Voynich manuscript but not with language texts:

• the existence of two distinct sections with different glyph frequencies;
• high rates of both perfect and partial reduplication;
• line effects (in particular the preference for certain glyphs to appear line-initially).

Neural-Network transliteration of the Codex Seraphinianus was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

These experiments are based on the neural-network software that Harald Scheidl discussed in his 2018 online article “Build a Handwritten Text Recognition System using TensorFlow”. Before continuing, I suggest you read Scheidl’s article, which is clearly presented and illustrated.

I used the newest code version of Scheidl’s Python software: the only update needed to make it work was installing TensorFlow 1.15.0 instead of 1.3.

Dataset creation

Scheidl discussion is based on the IAM dataset of handwritten text. In order to experiment with Voynichese, I needed a new dataset with the same structure but with samples extracted from the Voynich manuscript. Possibly, the best way to do this would be to use the word rectangles from the XML files underlying voynichese.com, but I was unable to understand to which images they apply (the coordinates do not seem to be consistent with the Voynich scans at voynichese.com). Therefore, I wrote a few custom scripts to extract labelled samples from the Beinecke scans of the manuscript.

The first step is manually removing all non-word details from the page. This step is not strictly necessary, but it significantly improves the results.

The second step was implemented in Python / OpenCV. The image of a page is processed to extract boxes for individual words. First, horizontal regions corresponding to individual lines are identified: I allow for a couple of degrees of rotation and for a slight distortion of the line: nearly not enough to make this process reliable, given how irregular text lines in the Voynich ms are.

Line images are processed individually to identify areas containing writing. This is done simply by blurring the line image and applying an adaptive threshold. All pixel blobs that are large enough are enclosed into a box. Boxes drawn in white were rejected as noise (typically because they are too small or nested inside larger boxes). Purple boxes are considered as containing writing. Sets of purple boxes that are close to each other are merged into larger green boxes, each hopefully corresponding to something between part of a word and a couple of words.

Another Python script compares the widths of the green rectangles in a line with the lengths of EVA words for that page in the Zandbergen-Landini transliteration. Various combinations of merging image boxes and text words are tried, looking for a way to make box widths and EVA lengths consistently match. When the process is successful (this happens for about 50% of the lines) the boxes are labelled with the corresponding EVA text and they are written as individual images to be used to train the neural network. Uncertain spaces are counted as characters when matching boxes and text, but they are not included in the labels; on the other hand, spaces are included in the labels of boxes that include more than one word. For instance, three green boxes are merged to form a single final box labelled “chckhy.sheky”.

These are the nine training samples produced for the line we are discussing:

The matching process described above often results in false positives (boxes that only include part of a word): these were manually removed, but likely some still appear in the training set. In general, the quality of the dataset is very far from ideal, with boxes that could be more accurately cropped or words that form a significant angle with the box border; apparently, the Neural Network was able to manage this level noise.

I used a bash script to augment the training set. For each sample, several synthetic samples are created by applying small alterations. Each sample is a black and white image normalized to the 0–255 range:

• rotating the image
• adding a border
• slant distortion
• changing the distribution of grey levels (gamma correction)
• horizontal and vertical stretching

These are the resulting samples for the first word in the line:

Two more samples are created by writing the label with the “eva hand 1.ttf” font and processing the result to remove some details. Background noise is added and some of the distortion methods described above are applied to these two samples too:

780 text boxes were extracted from the manuscript. The samples contained a total of 867 word tokens. Each box resulted in 7 training samples, for a total of 5460 samples.

The samples were extracted from the following 22 pages:

f5r f5v f10r f10v f11r f11v f20r f20v f44r f44v (Scribe 1)

f31v f33r f34v f43v f46r f80v f81v f85r1 (Scribe 2)

f104r f104v f106r f106v (Scribe 3)

I organized the samples in a directory hierarchy similar to that in the IAM dataset and added an index file “words.txt” also modelled along the IAM format.

In the labels, I replaced benches and benched-gallows with single uppercase characters (C,S and F,K,P,T — though F is actually not represented in the dataset).

The following 30 characters are included in the dataset labels:

. ‘?@CKPSTacdefghijklmnopqrstxy

Where ‘.’ corresponds to a space between words and was actually encoded with the space character ‘ ’.

‘?’ corresponds to unreadable characters and ‘@’ was used to represent all high‐ascii characters: these two symbols occur in a total of only 5 dataset words.

Since benches and benched-gallows are encoded as single uppercase characters, there are not many remaining occurrences of ‘c’ and ‘h’.

Training and performance

I ran Scheidl’s neural network software on the dataset described above. The training process splits dataset words into two sets:

• 95% of the words are fed to the neural network;
• 5% of the words are used to validate the networks’ performance at each epoch. Training stops when performance on the validation set does not improve for a user-specified number of epochs (30, in this case).

The 5% validation set is needed to avoid over-fitting: i.e. having a Neural Network that is perfect at handling its training set, but somehow “fixated” on it and unable to recognize samples it didn’t “see” before.

Training took about 5 hours on the CPU of my old laptop. Results at the end of training (124 epochs) were:

Character error rate: 7.628865979381444%.

Word accuracy: 69.23076923076923%.

The following are the results of running the neural network on lines that were not included in the training dataset. I manually extracted images for each word; for each line, the normalized grey-scale images that were fed to the software are shown.

Scribe 1, f8v, line 15

NN output: “or”:0.979 “Col”:0.998 “Caas”:0.394 “Ceky”:0.995 “Cor”:0.997 “Ceain”:0.994 “Cal”:0.666 “Ceeky”:0.988 “Cor”:0.996 “y”:0.991

ZL transliteration:

or.chol.chan.ch{ck}y.<->chor.cheain.char.cheeky.chor.ry

Here 4 words out of 10 are not correctly classified: chaas for the expected chan, checky for ‘ch{ck}y’, ‘chal’ for ‘char’, ‘y’ for ‘ry’. It should be noted that, by replacing benches and benched gallows in the training labels, only occurrences of ‘c’ and ‘h’ outside such combinations appeared, therefore the error on the fourth word is somehow expected. The serious error on the second word at least comes with a relatively low confidence score; the chal/char error only has a marginally lower score than the rest. The error on the last word ‘ry’ is further discussed below

Scribe 4 (not included in the training set) f68r2, line 4

NN output: “Col”:0.991 “Cesy”:0.325 “oram”:0.905 “qoeKy”:0.948 “qoKeol”:0.996 “qokeol”:0.964 “Ceool”:0.667 “dColal”:0.417

ZL transliteration: chor.chesy.or[ee:a]d.qoeeckhy.qockheol.qokeol.cheoal.dcholal

Here 50% of words contain errors (4 out of 8). This poor performance is partially explain by the scribe (which the NN did not have a chance to see during training) and to the presence of some relatively bizarre characters (the ‘ee’ sequences in words 3 and 4).

Scribe 2, f82r, line 21

NN output: “daiin”:0.999 “Ceoky”:0.947 “lkedy”:0.996 “sol Sey”:0.639 “daiin”:0.999 “Cey”:0.998 “qol”:0.997 “Cedy”:0.997 “qokeey”:0.998 “dal”:0.947

ZL transliteration: daiin.cheoky.lkedy.salshey.daiin.chey.qol.chedy.qokeey.dal

Here the only error is ‘salshey’, where a space is detected mid-word and the ‘a’ is misread as an ‘o’.

My overall impression is that the ~70% word accuracy reported at the end of training is probably optimistic for the whole text, even if accurate boxes for single words are provided. But considering the limited extent and the poor quality of the training set, I think that the system is performing very well. A better training set would improve performance, though it’s difficult to predict the entity of such improvement.

Neural-network output matrixes

In the following, I visually show the output of the Neural Network where values of the whole matrix were normalized to the 0..1 range.

Columns in the matrix are referred to as “time steps” (since writing occurs left to right in this case, the columns actually represent information that was encoded by the scribe in that temporal order).

Each row in the matrix corresponds to a single character in the target alphabet. For readability, I do not show 6 rows corresponding to characters that only rarely occur in the dataset. The number of columns in the output depends on the geometry of the image: wider images result in more columns. Scheidl’s software is configured for a maximum of 32 time-steps.

These are the matrixes for the two occurrences of ‘daiin’ in f82r, line 21. The top row in a matrix corresponds to the space character that sometimes appears in my dataset when an image includes more than one word. The bottom row is a ‘blank’ character whose high values mark time-steps where the Neural Network could not detect any character; this appears as a 31st character in the alphabet.

The identified word and its corresponding probability are computed from this matrix according to a method called Connectionist Temporal Classification (CTC). During this process, the highest scoring character is collected for each row. For instance, for the image on the left, this step results in:

-----daaiii-iii-n

where ‘-’ represents the bottom row ‘blank’.

Now all consecutively repeated characters are removed, resulting in:

-dai-i-n

Finally, the blank space is removed: ‘daiin’

The probability of an individual decoding is computed as the product of the probabilities for each time-step. There are many paths in a single matrix that result in the same word, e.g.:

--ddddaaiii-iii-n
ddd-aai--iiiii--n
dai----------in--
--d--a--i--i--n--

The probability for the word is the sum of the probabilities for all such possible paths. As Scheidl discusses in this other post, CTC makes it possible to train the NN on images of whole words that are only labelled with the word itself: the positions of individual characters are learned by the Network during training.

A side effect of this method is that the matrix and the input image are not exactly aligned. For instance, the last character of the word often activates the rightmost column of the matrix, even if the image contains some space near its right-side border.

The following two graphs show the matrixes for f68r2.line4 qoeeckhy (misread as ‘qoeKy’=’qoeckhy’, with a single ‘e’) and f82r.line21 ‘qokeey’ (which was correctly identified). The first plot clearly shows that the problem is with the anomalous ‘e’s: this causes a lower probability, as well as the more serious problem of a single cell in the ‘e’ row being the highest value for its column, hence a single ‘e’ instead of ‘ee’. It is possible that the noisy background also contributes to the problem. The matrix on the right shows two clear ‘e’ spikes separated by a darker cell corresponding to an occurrence of the bottom-row ‘blank’, allowing for the correct reading ‘ee’.

The following matrixes illustrate another error, where the last word in f8v.line15 is read as ‘y’ instead of ‘ry’.

Here the problem is likely due to the different contrast level between the two letters, with ‘r’ being blotched and quite dark and ‘y’ being faded and barely readable. If the image is processed by applying a local adaptive threshold (right-side plot) the word is correctly identified. It seems strange that the most clearly readable character is not “seen” by the NN, which focuses on the faded ‘y’ instead. Anyway, this example possibly shows that min-max normalization is not always a sufficient preprocessing step for both the training samples and the words submitted for identification.

This is the processing of the word “thronu[m]” from the St.Gall Latin manuscript CSG 942. The image on the left shows that the system fits the word to something that is close to an acceptable Voynichese word (EVA:dyeoaiin), but the resulting probability is rather low (20%). The image on the right was edited according to my guess of how the NN interpreted the word, and this considerably increases the probability of the recognized word (60%).

The previous example illustrates another interesting feature of this system: during its training, the Neural Network also learns about the structure of Voynichese words, so that it can use context to identify the correct character. This can be also be shown by running the system on random input: the recognized word has a very low confidence (2%), but it is almost plausible according to Voynichese morphology (EVA:chdody).

Conclusions

The technology discussed by Scheidl is promising for the creation of a full machine transcription of the Voynich manuscript. Of course, instead of simply applying what he developed for a rather different use-case, custom software could result in better results (Scheidl provides many suggestions about ways to improve the qualitative performance of the NN for different scenarios). A robust extraction of words from page images should be implemented, e.g. by using the voynichese.com XML files, or maybe, with more effort, by more neural network technology. It is well possible that line-level or maybe even paragraph-level processing could also be successfully tackled.

Neural-Network Handwritten Text Recognition for the Voynich manuscript was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

The Guardian British newspaper recently published a photograph by Gleb Zilberstein of “a letter written by Vlad Dracula in 1475 to the people of Sibiu informing them he would be taking up residence in their town”. The photograph was posted and discussed on Reddit r/ArtefactPorn. Though the resolution of the photo is not enough to allow reading the whole text, I could identify a few words and search for a complete translation that I found on siebenbuergenurkundenbuch.uni-trier.de.

The document is written in Latin. It says nothing about the Voivod taking residence in Sibiu. It is instead a receipt for a tribute of 200 florins paid by that town. Below you can find a slightly edited transcription based on the one I linked above and my English translation.

Transcription: Nos Ladislaus Dragkwlya vaivoda partium Transalpinensium notificamus et recognoscimus / publice per praesentes quibus incumbit universis, quomodo spectabilis vir magister Thomas / Altemberger magister civium civitatis Cibiniensis in sua et aliorum civium civitatis / praedicte et Brassowiensis personis ad rationem arendationis vigesimae ad literatorium / mandatum gratiosissimi domini nostri regis ducentos florenos Vngariales effective nobis / dedit et assignavit. Super quibus ducentis florenis dictum magistrum civium et consules / praedictarum civitatum liberos reddimus et per omnia absolutos harum nostrarum vigore / et testimonio literarum mediante. Datis in Bolkach in festo Colomani martyris, anno domini / Mo CCCCo LXXV.

Translation: We, Vladislav Dracul, voivode of the Transalpine regions, publicly notify and recognize / by the present witnesses, who are all responsible, that the illustrious master Thomas / Altemberger, master of the people of the town of Sibiu, for himself and the other people of / said town and of the town of Brașov, in order to pay the twentieth-part [tax] as by written / command of our gracious lord and king, effectively gave and allotted to us two hundred / Hungarian florins. About those two hundred florins, we free the said master and the consuls of the / aforementioned towns, making them unencumbered and entirely released by the power and / testimony of this document. Written in Bălcaciu, in the day of St. Coloman martyr, in the year of the lord / 1475.

The king mentioned in the text is Matthias Corvinus. This Romanian blog post provides a transcription of the royal written order to Thomas Altemberger mentioned in the previous document.

Transcription: Mathias dei gratia rex Hungariae, Bohemiae et cetera. Prudens et circumspecte fidelis nobis dilecte. Mandamus tibi, quatenus statim receptis praesentibus de pecuniis tricesimalibus vel de proventibus camerae Offenbanya fideli nostro Drakwlye ducentes florenos pro subsidio dare debeas ad rationem nostram Et aliud sub nostra gravissima indignatione facere non praesumpmas. Praesentes autem, quas etiam pro maiori securitate tua propriae manus nostrae scripto signavimus, facta restitutione eorundem ducentorum florinorum pro tua expeditione apud te conserves. Datum Budae in festo beati Mathei apostoli et evangelistae, anno et cetera LXXmo quinto, regnorum nostrorum Hungariae et cetera anno XVIImo, Bohemiae vero septimo. Mathias rex manu propria. (ANS, UII, Nr.361)

Translation: Matthias, king of Hungary, Bohemia etc. by the grace of God. Dearest, prudent, careful and loyal to us. We command you, as soon as you receive the present message, to give to our loyal Dracul two hundred florins from the thirtieth tax or from the income of Baia de Arieş (Offenbanya) by our order. Do not dare to do anything different or you will face our serious indignation. After delivering those two hundred florins, you shall keep this document, which for your greatest security we signed with our own hand. Written in Buda, in the feast of Matthias apostle and evangelist, in the year etc 75th, the 17th of our reign on Hungary etc, the 7th upon Bohemia. King Matthias by his own hand.

A Latin document by Vlad Dracula was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Near year 1000, in Northern Italy the vice-comes (viscount) was an official often in charge of military command. In Milan, around the year 1100, the title became hereditary and a single family assumed the surname Vicecomites (Italian: Visconti). In 1277 the bishop Ottone Visconti, leader of the ghibelline party, defeated the guelphs lead by the Torriani family and the Visconti became Lords of the city. The family ruled in Milan until the death of Filippo Maria (1447), whose daughter Bianca Maria had married Francesco Sforza; their descendants ruled until 1535.

The heraldic device of the Visconti-Sforza family is known as the “biscione” (large snake); it represents a blue snake with a red person in its mouth. Its origins are unknown. A research published by Regione Lombardia (“L’araldica della regione Lombardia”, 2007) points out two major problems:

• It is not known if the Visconti family is from Milan or further North in Lombardy.
• The device could have originated either as an emblem of the city of Milan (later transferred to the Visconti) or directly as a device of the family.

Among the several hypothesis that have been put forward, Emilio Galli (“Sulle origini araldiche della biscia viscontea”, 1919) proposed that the device originally belonged to the city of Milan and that it was inspired by a bronze snake that can still be seen in the St. Ambrose church. The sculpture was possibly brought from Constantinople to Milan around the year 1000.
Michel Pastoureau (“Une histoire symbolique du Moyen Âge occidental”, 2004) suggested that the Visconti were originally the lords of Angera, on Lake Maggiore. The “biscione” could then be a canting device, since the name Angera can be interpreted as “the place of the snakes” (“anguis” is Latin for “snake”).

The following are a few mythical stories from ancient works discussing the origins of the biscione. This collection is certainly not exhaustive.

Bonvesin de la Riva, “De magnalibus urbis Mediolani” (About the great things of the city of Milan), 1288

[Note that the Ottone Visconti mentioned here is not the historical Ottone, who lived more than a century after the first crusade]

“Offeretur quoque ab ipso [communi] alicui de nobilissimo Vicecomitum genere, qui dignior videatur, vexillum quoddam cum vipera indico figurata collore quendam Sarracenum rubeum transgluciente; quod quidem vexillum prefertur; nec alicubi unquam castrametatur noster exercitus, nisi prius visa fuerit vipera super arborem aliquam locata consistere. Hanc autem dignitatem propter excelentem cuiusdam Ottonis Vicecomitis, viri strenuissime indolis, probitatem et victoriam, quam contra Saracenos ultra mare in bello exercuit, dicitur [illis de sua] nobilissima parentella [concessum].

Translation: The same [city] offered to the most worthy of the very noble Visconti family a device with a blue viper swallowing a red Saracen; this device is brought in front [of the army] and they never make camp anywhere, unless the viper is first seen placed upon a tree. Those of this very noble family say that the device was given to Ottone Visconti, a man of great valour, for his probity and success in fighting against the Saracens across the sea.

Galvano Fiamma, “Chronicon extravagans de antiquitatibus mediolani” (An ample chronicle of Milanese antiquity), first half of the 14th Century.

[Bonvesin’s story is expanded with addition of a duel with a Saracen king]

“Antiquitus nostri cives totum suum studium in armis posuerunt. Primum quod apparere consuevit in exercitu est vexillum vipere; istud vexillum prefertur exercitui, nec licet alicui figere castra, nisi prius vipera fuerit in aliqua alta arbore collocata. Hoc privilegium est Vicecomitum, quorum est illud vexillum, quod datum fuit Ottoni Vicecomiti, qui super portam civitatis Ierusalem singulari duello de capite cuiusdam regis saracinorum optinuit. Depingitur enim collore azurrii anullosa circulis terribilibus occulis quendam rubeum sarracenum devorans.”

Translation: Our ancient citizens put all their efforts in making war. What first appears of the army is the banner with the viper; this banner is brought in front of the army and nobody is allowed to make camp if the viper is not first placed above a high tree. This is a privilege of the Visconti, who own this device; it was first given to Ottone Visconti, who took it from the head of a Saracen king after a duel in front of the gates of Jerusalem. Indeed it is painted of a blue colour, with rings and terrifying eyes, as it devours a red Saracen.

Francesco Petrarca, “Rerum Memorandarum Libri” (Books about Memorable Things), 1343–45

[Petrarch adds a completely different story which dates the origin of the emblem to the battle of Altopascio (1325), where the ghibellines from Lucca and Milan defeated the guelphs from Florence and Siena. Such a late date is of course incompatible with other evidence (e.g. Bonvesin).]

Et quoniam prima pars tractatus huius erat de ominibus, attingam quod dum Bononie adolescens in studiis versarer audiebam. Azzo Vicecomes, qui post dominium Mediolani obtinuit, iuvenis satis nempe victoriosus, antequam podagris vinceretur, iussu patris profectus cum exercitu Apenninum transiit; et victis nobis apud Altipassum, duce quidem hostium Castrucio, sed egregia opera eius adiuto, ad vincendum Bononienses pari impetu fortunaque se convertit. In ea expeditione dum forte equo descendens requiescit, ingens vipera nullo comitum advertente in galeam iuxta positam irrupit. Quam cum mox capiti reponeret, sinuoso quidem et horribili sed prorsus innocuo lapsu per decoras interriti ducis genas illa descendit. Eam a nemine ledi passus animosus adolescens ad omen gemine victorie traxit, hinc precipue quod ipse pro signo bellico vipera uteretur.

Translation: Since the first part of this book was about omens, I will add what I heard when I was a boy and studied in Bologna. Azzone Visconti, who later was lord of Milan, was a young man almost always victorious, until he was defeated by gout. By order of his father, he left with the army and crossed the Apennine mountains. Under the command of one Castruccio [Castracani], but with the help of Azzo’s excellence, [the Milanese] defeated our [i.e. the Florentine] army near Altopascio. [Azzone] then devoted himself, with the same commitment and fortune, to defeating the Bolognese. During that campaign, he dismounted his horse to rest and a large viper entered his helmet that was lying next to him; this was not noticed by any of his companions. When he hastily put his helmet on his head, the snake went down the noble cheeks of the fearless duke with a sinuous and horrible, but unharmful, jump. The bold young man ordered that nobody hurt the viper and he interpreted this episode as an omen of a second victory; from here he took the viper as his war emblem.

Andrea Alciati, “Emblematum Liber” (A Book of Emblems), 1531

[Alciati / Alciato was a Milanese jurist who started the very successful tradition of emblem books. The first emblem in his book is a dedication to the duke of Milan. Here the snake is associated with a Hellenistic myth about Alexander the Great: he was said to be the son of Jupiter-Ammon who, under the aspect of a snake, impregnated his mother Olympias. In this way, Alciati suggests a parallel between the greatness of the Dukes of Milan and that of Alexander.]

Insigna Ducatus Mediolanensis

Exiliens infans sinuosi e faucibus anguis,
Est gentilitiis nobile stemma tuis.
Talia Pellaeum gessisse nomismata regem
Vidimus, hisque suum concelebrasse genus:
Dum se Ammone satum, matrem anguis imagine lusam,
Divini et sobolem seminis esse docet.
Ore exit. Tradunt sic quosdam enitier angues.
An quia sic Pallas de capite orta Iovis?

Translation from https://www.mun.ca/alciato/f001.html (Memorial University of Newfoundland)

The arms of the Duke of Milan

An infant springing from the jaws of a curling snake
is your family’s noble device.
We saw the Pellaean king [Alexander the Great] had made such coins,
and had celebrated with them his own descent.
It teaches that while he was sown from the seed of Ammon, his mother was fooled by the image of a snake
and that he was the offspring of divine seed.
He comes forth from the mouth. Is it because in this way, some claim, certain snakes bear their young,
or because Pallas sprang that way from the head of Jupiter?

Paolo Giovio, “Vitae duodecim Vicecomitum Mediolani Principum” (Lives of the Twelve Visconti Princes of Milan), 1549

[Here Alciati’s poetical mention of Alexander the Great is incorporated in an expanded version of Ottone’s story.]

Fuit hic [Galvanius] (ut annales ferunt) Othonis nepos, eius qui ab insigni pietate magnitudineque animi, canente illo pernobili classico excitus, ad sacrum bellum in Syriam contendit, communicatis scilicet consiliis atque opibus cum Guliermo Montifferrati regulo, qui a proceritate corporis “Longa Spatha” vocabatur. Voluntariorum enim equitum ac peditum delectae nobilitatis viginti milia ad Boemundum a Brundusio transitantem adduxere, ne Itali vel studio religionis, vel bellica laude, Gallis inferiores esse viderentur. Caeterum Otho iam duobus asperrimis ad Nicaeam atque Orontem praeliis spectatae virtutis famam consequutus, oppugnante demum Hierosolymas Gothifredo, gloriosa totius exercitus acclamatione, coronam promeruit, quum Volucem Saracenorum ducem medio in campo ad singulare certamen, fortissimum quenque ex Christiana acie provocantem, ipse unus ante alios, nihil eius immanis barbari ferocia, vel terribili insignium armorum specie permotus, fortiter atque feliciter devicit, retulitque de confossi hostis galea opimum plenumque immortali gloria spolium, auritam scilicet viperam inexplicatis spiris minaciter a cono cassidis erectam, et puerum passis manibus devorantem: quod unum auspicatae virtutis argumentum, non modo gentilitiae laudis gestamen fuit, sed et posteris id insigne audacter usurpantibus, et imperia, et opes, et late gloriam protendit. Fuere qui existiment Volucem ex stirpe Alexandri Magni progenitum, tulisse pro insigni viperam, ex Olypiadis fabula, puerum parturientem, quod ea a dracone se compressam fuisse, Iovis imaginem praedicaret.

Translation: The chronicles say that [Galvanius] was the nephew of Ottone who, following with great piety and outstanding courage the call of a very noble war trumpet, fought in the crusade in Syria. He shared decisions and actions with the prince William of Montferrat who, for his height, was called “Longsword”. They brought twenty thousand volunteers, knights and infantry of chosen nobility, to Bohemond [of Taranto] when he passed from Brindisi, so that the Italians did not appear to be lesser than the Gaul for either religious zeal or praise in war. He obtained fame of great valour in two terrible fights in Nicea and on the Orontes. During the siege of Jerusalem led by Godfrey [of Bouillon], [Ottone] deserved the wreath by acclamation of the whole army: in the middle of the field, he faced in single combat Voluce, leader of the Saracens, who had been insistently challenging the Christian camp. Among all the others, only he was not scared of the great ferocity of the barbarian, nor of the frightful emblems on his armour. He won completely and happily and he took from the helmet of the dead enemy a trophy of immortal glory: a eared viper with ringed spires threatening from the top of the helmet in the act of devouring a child up to his arms. That emblem was an omen of future virtue, not only of the pride of the family, but it also extended to his descendants boldly taking power and to their rule, deeds and great glory. Some believe that Voluce descended from the lineage of Alexander the Great: he took as his device a viper giving birth to a child because of the fable about Olympias coupling with Jupiter in the shape of a dragon.

Carlo Torre, “Ritratto di Milano” (A portrait of Milan), 1714

[A passage from a much later source that presents three different legends in a sceptical tone. The last story was modelled on Petrarch’s, taking it back in time from the 14th to the 8th Century.]

Sentiste poc’anzi a dirvi essere questa chiesa [San Sepolcro] la vera effigie di quel Tempio che eretto stassi in Palestina, per tale io la assicuro. Furono dal Cavaliere [Rozinus] di Cortesella a minuto portate da quelle parti a Milano le misure giuste, e sulle stesse volle egli osservare innalzate le sue fattezze; haverete altre volte inteso ancora come in quella battaglia seguì fiero duello tra Otto Visconte ed un saraceno chiamato Voluce, il quale vinto dal milanese eroe videsi astretto con la perdita della vita a lasciarsi levar d’addosso gli militari corredamenti, quindi acquistata havendo il Visconte la celata, in cui veggavasi scolpita una vipera divoratrice d’umano aspetto, determinò d’ergere tal figura nell’insegna di sua casa, la cui prodezza leggesi rammemorata dal prencipe dell’eroica poesia italiana, dicendo nel Canto Primo della Gerusalemme [Liberata]:

E’l forte Otton, che conquistò lo scudo,
In cui da l’angue esce il fanciull’ignudo.

Ma ditemi, che ve ne prego, per qual cagione a tal racconto voi tutti havetemi in faccia immobiliti i vostri lumi? Forse parvi ch’io habbiavi detto menzogna? Non lo vi pensate, parlano in tal guisa molti istorici di non poca autorità. Settemila furono i milanesi soldati che trovaronsi alla conquista del Sacro Avello, essendovene capitan generale quest’Otto Visconte sì generoso, come già dissivi, e ritornatosene glorioso alla nativa città, dopo varie feste in allegrezza di così insigne vittoria, essendosi anche accettata per pubblica insegna della stessa città l’effigie dell’ottenuta vipera, fugli consegnato il governo civile, e poscia accasatosi con Lucrezia di sangue regio francese, restò per sua cagione fiorita in più secoli di prencipi de’ Visconti la pianta.
Io m’immagino c’habbiate sentito altri racconti intorno all’insegna della viscontea vipera, e che non troppo autentica vi dimori nel credito l’acquistato arnese del saraceno Voluce: attendetemi, che narrerovvi ciò che tiensi da altri scrittori in questo particolare.
Da mostruoso drago sofferiva Milano incontri fieri, successa di poco la morte di Sant’Ambrogio: questi annidavasi dove ora s’innalza il tempio di San Dionigi in profonda caverna, ch’essendo quel sito lungi dalle cittadine mura rimaneva disabitato, e da commerci assai lontano, gli danneggiamenti erano orribili, le morti copiose, e le temenze spaventevoli. Non sorgeva giorno che qualche persona non lo segnasse col proprio sangue, che prima dell’occaso del sole non cadesse nella voragine di sua gola, della di lui fierezza ne discorreva ogn’uno, ma ad abbassar suo orgoglio riusciva tenue ogni ardire, alla tema si sospendevano gl’impieghi Civili, anzi, racchiusi nelle proprie abitazioni, gli stessi cittadini sapevano solo contribuire alla speranza quasi disperata stentati spiriti. In tante angoscie, che il cielo alla fine non priva mai alcuna patria o di valorosi cavalieri o di generosi Curzii, ad esporre ai perigli la propria salvezza per arrecarle soccorso; un tal’Uberto Visconte, uso agli usberghi per essere seguace di Marte, vantossi di dargli la morte. Accintosi dunque all’impresa, non uscì dal campo se non cinto di lauro, quando altri attendevanlo vestito di languori. Troncato il teschio al mostro a perpetua raccordanza lo desiderò per impresa del suo casato, e vogliono molti che da questo eroe la biscia de’ Visconti sia nata.

Ecci anche un altro racconto, per non passarvi nulla sotto silenzio, che non ha dell’improprio. Desiderio, ultimo re de’ Longobardi, germe de’ conti d’Angera, che tanto vuol dire Visconti, dormiva un dopo pranzo all’uso de’ soldati sull’erba, stanco per intraprese faccende belliche, e parendo a’ cortigiani suoi che troppo si smenticasse nel sonno, giacché la guerra non vuol per amici intrinseci gli agi, volgendosi a lui per risvegliarlo, fu scoperto haver d’attorno alla fronte, che gli faceva corona, una vipera, ambiziosa forse di farsi vedere una volta cerchio regio di un eroe, a dispetto della sua sorte che constringevala ad essere sempre nodo di ruvide zolle. Distoltosi dal sonno illeso da’ suoi morsi, e stimando prodigiosa l’azione, dicesi che anch’egli volle tanto eccesso eternare esponendo a pubblici sguardi nella sua insegna l’effigie di tal serpe. Sonovi altri successi ancora, ma gli tralascio tacendo, per non dimostrarmivi troppo prolisso in narrazioni. Da una di queste istorie è divenuta la viperina insegna de’ Visconti, poco importandomi che ne sia l’autore od Uberto, o Desiderio, od il guerriere che in Palestina vinse il saraceno Voluce.

Translation: I said that this church [San Sepolcro] is the true effigy of that Temple which is found in Palestine, of this I assure you. The right measurements were brought from those parts to Milan by the Knight [Rozinus] of Cortesella, and he wanted to build a replica; you may have heard on other occasions how in that battle a fierce duel ensued between Ottone Visconti and a Saracen called Voluce, who, defeated by the Milanese hero, lost his life and was stripped of his military gear. Ottone, having obtained the helmet, in which a viper devouring a man was carved, decided to use this figure in the insignia of his house, whose prowess can be read mentioned by the prince of heroic Italian poetry, saying in the First Canto of Jerusalem [“Jerusalem Delivered”, 16th Century poem by Torquato Tasso]:

It is strong Ottone who conquered the shield
In which the naked child emerges from the snake.

But tell me, please, why do you all fix your eyes on my face at this story? Perhaps it seems to you that I told you a lie? Don’t think so, many historians of no small authority speak in this way. Seven thousand Milanese soldiers took part in the conquest of the Holy Sepulchre, this Ottone Visconti being their generous captain general, as I told you. When he returned to his native city in glory, after various celebrations in rejoicing at such an illustrious victory, the effigy of the viper was also accepted as a public sign of the same city, and government was handed over to him. [Ottone] married Lucrezia, of French royal blood, and the plant of the Visconti princes flourished for several centuries.
I imagine that you heard other stories about the Visconti’s device of the viper, and that the helmet of the Saracen Voluce does not seem too authentic to you: I will tell you what other writers say on this subject.
Milan suffered violent attacks from a monstrous dragon, shortly after the death of Sant’Ambrogio: it nestled in a deep cave where the temple of San Dionigi now stands; since that site was far from the city walls, it remained uninhabited and very far from commerce. Damage was horrific, deaths copious and there was much fear. Not a day rose that some people did not mark it with their own blood, that before sunset someone did not fall into the abyss of the dragon’s throat. Everyone talked about its pride, but nobody dared to face it; because of its fear, they suspended civil affairs, indeed, locked in their homes, the citizens themselves could only contribute their halting sighs to an almost desperate hope. In such distressful times, in the end heaven never deprives any homeland of valiant knights or a generous [Marcus] Curtius, to bring assistance and salvation from dangers; a certain Uberto Visconti, accustomed to arms for being a follower of Mars, had the honour of killing the dragon. So set about the enterprise, he did not leave the field until girded with laurel, when others expected him dressed in suffering. Cutting the monster’s head, in perpetual memory, he chose it as the emblem of his family. Many think that the Visconti snake was born from this hero.

There is also another story which deserves to be mentioned, in order not to omit anything. Desiderius, the last king of the Lombards, offspring of the counts of Angera, which means so much as the Visconti, slept one after lunch on the grass as usual with soldiers, tired from undertaking warlike matters. It seemed to his courtiers that he slept too much, since war does not want comfort for its intrinsic friends; when they turned to him to awaken him, he was discovered to have around his forehead a viper, which was like a crown; maybe the snake wanted to once show itself as a hero’s royal circlet, in spite of its fate that forced it to always be a knot among rough clods. Awakening from sleep unharmed by its bite, Desiderius deemed the fact prodigious. It is said that he too wanted to eternalize such great feat by showing the effigy of this snake to public gazes on his banner. There are still other stories, but I omit them in silence, so as not to appear too long-winded in narratives. The viper coat of arms of the Visconti comes from one of these stories, it matters little to me whether its author is Uberto, or Desiderius, or the warrior who defeated the Saracen Voluce in Palestine.

Mythical Origins of the Visconti Coat of Arms was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

A particularly complex device is described and illustrated at f29v-31r.

Transcription (by Battisti and Battisti): [29v] Simile quaxi artingenium fere videbitur, si super linea zirativam in matre signatam, posuerimus rem corpoream modice spissitudinis, et inter concavum et convexum remaneat vacuum angustum. Oportet ulterius multas dentatas rotulas in ventre illius serpentei corporis propinquas valde posuisse, que ad libitum possint circunduci. [30r] Abscondantur taliter, quod non nixi unus denticulus cerni distinte possit extra convexum corporis zirativi. Et contineat omnis rotula alfabetum in sui denticulis. Item cuiuslibet rote axis, per superiorem superfitiem serpentei corporis, mediam inter concavum et convexum, ex quodam egrediatur [30v] foramine notabiliter, sic quod manu capi possit, cum rotulas volvere voluerimus. Et quando velis experiri, volve sperula[s] inveniendo literas tibi necessarias ut supra. Et aparebunt denticuli spine serpentis in dorso; ac opus totu[m] serpens vocavi propter similitudinem.

Translation: [29v] The device will look almost like an animal if, upon the turning points marked in the inner part, we place a thin solid shell, leaving some space between the concave and convex halves. It will also be necessary to place several small gear wheels close to each other inside the belly of the snake; it will be possible to turn them at will. [30r] The wheels will be hidden in such a way that each one only shows a single tooth out of the convex body. Each small wheel will contain the whole alphabet upon its teeth. Also, the axis of each wheel should protrude [30v] from a hole in the upper surface of the snake’s body, so that it can be grasped with one’s hand when one wants to turn the wheel. When you want to use the tool, turn the wheels, finding the letters that you need, as said above [for the other tools]. The small teeth look like spikes on the snake’s spine. I called this whole creation “snake” for its similarity.

The smaller illustration at f30v is labelled “Rotula que in dorso serpentis latet” (the small wheel hidden in the back of the snake). The illustration at f31r is labelled “Serpens” (snake); I could not interpret the larger cipher word at the bottom of the page.

Battisti and Battisti (“Le macchine cifrate di Giovanni Fontana”, 1984) transcribe the sentence on the spine of the illustrated snake as: “scias quod ego sum serpens qui circulariter volvor ad memorandum omnia que dia[?] possunt infermare”. They also note that the inscription is only partially readable.

The intended meaning could be:

scias quod ego sum serpens qui circulariter volvor ad memorandum omnia qua diu possunt infirmare (know that I am a snake turning in circles to remember all those things that could weaken in time)

The gear wheel at page 30v illustrates the inner parts of the device that are mostly invisible in the f31r illustration. The body of the snake must be made in such a way that a single tooth is visible for each wheel. Each wheel can be turned by its axis that protrudes from a small hole. By selecting individual letters on the wheels, one can use this instrument to show a specific sentence. I could not think of a way to reastically arrange the wheels so that their teeth look like spikes on the back of the snake (as described by Fontana).

The device can seem trivial when seen through modern eyes, but one should consider that Fontana’s manuscript was written a few years before Gutenberg used movable characters to print books (1439). The alphabetic gear wheels can also be seen as ancestors of printing daisy wheels.

The series of mnemonic devices in the manuscript starts with a wheel called Speculum (mirror, f21r). This is a simpler device by which it is possible to compose a five letter word by independently turning the five alphabetical wheels.

The inclusion of a mirror and a snake in a series of mnemonic devices might suggest a symbolic value. The two objects were the standard attributes of Prudentia (prudence/wisdom) in personifications of this virtue.

The inscription in Palumba’s engraving was transcribed and translated by Herbert Grabes (The Mutable Glass, 1982) “Istantia Expendo Praeteritis Sequentia Necto” (I weigh the present and link the future with the past). This sentence actually explains the two faces that appear in Pisano’s and Della Robbia’s personifications: they represent the capability of looking into the past and into the future. Of course, knowledge of the past requires memory.

The connection between Memoria and Prudentia is stated by as authoritative a source as Cicero.

Cicero, “De Inventione”, II LIII 160: prudentia est rerum bonarum et malarum scientia; partes eius sunt memoria, intelligentia, providentia (wisdom is the knowledge of things that are good or bad or neither; its parts are memory, intelligence and foresight)

Cicero, “Ad Herennium”, III: appellatur prudentia scientia cuiusdam artificii; item appellatur prudentia rerum multarum memoria et usus conplurium negotiorum (the knowledge of an art is called wisdom; and again, a well-furnished memory, or experience in diverse matters is termed wisdom)

An overall analysis of the personifications of Prudentia can be found in Cesare Ripa’s Iconologia, a collection of allegories first published in the late XVI Century:

Woman with two faces, similar to Janus, who looks herself in a mirror with a snake wrapped around one arm. The two faces mean that prudence is true and certain knowledge, which orders what must be done and arises from the consideration of past and future things together. This virtue is so excellent that, by it, past things are remembered, present things are ordered and future things are foreseen. The man who is without it does not know how to regain what he has lost, nor to preserve what he possesses, nor to find what he seeks. Mirroring oneself means knowing oneself, since no one can regulate his actions if he does not know his own defects. When a serpent is attacked, it opposes its whole body to the blows, protecting its head with many spires; this shows that, in order to preserve virtue, which is almost our head and our perfection, we must expose all other things to the blows of luck; this is true for prudence as well. Therefore in the Sacred Scriptures it is said: ‘Estote prudentes sicut serpentes’ [be as prudent as snakes].”

The mnemonic snake in “Secretum de Thesauro” (Giovanni Fontana, 1430 ca) was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

This post is an update of the Voynich Part Of Speech (POS) tagging research I began exploring in February 2019. Please refer to that post for an introduction to the tools discussed here. The results of these experiments are not particularly exciting, but I decided to write them down in order to have something to use as a basis for further research and to hopefully collect suggestions.

I have used the Zandbergen-Landini transliteration ZL_ivtff_1r.txt, ignoring uncertain spaces.

Differently from the previous post, I now tried Alexander Clark’s variant of Hermann Ney’s POS inference algorithm. Clark’s variant is biased “so that it will put words that are morphologically similar in the same cluster”. The effect is that both members of word couples like these/those, hiding/hitting, hiding/hidden will typically be assigned to the same cluster. With respect to the VMS, this means that I am making the assumption that Voynichese words that are similar to each other are related. In general, I would also say that I am assuming that Voynichese words correspond to words in some language, tough this search for patterns in the text is largely independent from this assumptions. If Voynichese words do corresponds to words in some language, there are several reasons why similar Voynichese words can be expected to behave similarly:

• different inflections of a single root (e.g. man / men);
• particles attached to words (e.g. the Latin -que);
• arbitrary spelling variation by part of the scribe (e.g. color / colour);
• different abbreviations (e.g. communem, 9unem, communē in Latin);
• inconsistent spacing (e.g. “a word” sometimes written as “aword”).

As a first experiment, I introduced the pseudo-word “nlnl” which corresponds to line breaks (New Line). In the 2019 post, I proposed a diagram representation of frequent sequences in the tags produced by the POS-tagging algorithm. I used graphviz to write a script that generates such diagrams on the basis of the POS-tagged text.

This graph represents the frequent sequences among six POS classes induced on Voynich Quire 20 (the “starred-recipes” section at the end of the ms). Each POS class is represented by the numeric ID generated by Clark’s software and the most frequent word types belonging to that class. The entry point to the “grammar” is highlighted in yellow. The 14 most frequent POS-class sequences are represented as edges, with thickness and colour corresponding to absolute frequency.

The following table lists the 10 most frequent word types in each class; for each word-type, the number of tokens is listed.

CL 0:nlnl         CL 1:qokaiin      CL 2:daiin
 tokens:1281       tokens:2399       tokens:1092
 types:168         types:718         types:538
 ratio:7.6         ratio:3.3         ratio:2.0
 hapax:150 ___     hapax:499 ___     hapax:425 ___
   1 nlnl 1085       1 qokaiin 118     1 daiin 109
   2 ral 7           2 qokain 99       2 dain 42
   3 chdor 7         3 okaiin 95       3 saiin 39
   4 chs 3           4 otaiin 75       4 dar 34
   5 cheolor 3       5 okain 66        5 sain 24
   6 rorol 2         6 otain 50        6 dair 22
   7 qoteor 2        7 otar 50         7 sar 16
   8 qoteol 2        8 otal 43         8 ycheey 15
   9 qoteeol 2       9 raiin 40        9 yteedy 12
  10 qotchd 2       10 qotaiin 39     10 ykeey 12

CL 3:aiin         CL 4:dal          CL 5:chedy
 tokens:1630       tokens:840        tokens:3933
 types:355         types:538         types:1073
 ratio:4.5         ratio:1.5         ratio:3.6
 hapax:241 ___     hapax:429 ___     hapax:721 ___
   1 aiin 122        1 dal 18          1 chedy 175
   2 ar 106          2 am 18           2 qokeey 146
   3 chey 104        3 otam 16         3 qokeedy 124
   4 al 84           4 qokam 12        4 shedy 106
   5 ol 81           5 lol 10          5 okeey 91
   6 shey 68         6 aral 9          6 qokedy 58
   7 cheey 67        7 otor 8          7 oteey 59
   8 sheey 44        8 opchdy 8        8 oteedy 56
   9 or 40           9 okam 8          9 otedy 56
  10 ain 35         10 dam 8          10 chol 51

This graph is easy to describe: the algorithm captured the peculiar line effects that are so typical of Voynichese.
After a newline (CL0) specific words tend to occur. The most frequent of them (daiin) also occurs in other positions, but words like ‘saiin’ or ‘sar’ have a strong preference for the line-initial position. These words are grouped together in CL2.
Similarly, the character EVA:m has a strong preference for the line-final position. CL5 represents those words that tend to appear immediately before a newline (CL0).
The remaining 3 classes CL1, CL3 and CL4 form a tightly connected triangle that basically represents all “normal words” that have no preference for appearing at line boundaries.

These are a couple of examples of POS-tagged Quire 20 lines:

0:nlnl 2:ysheor 3:aiin 1:char 1:okaiin 5:qokeechy 5:checkhy 5:qokeod 3:ar 5:qokeo 5:lkeo 4:lchorom 
<f106r.5,+P0> ysheor aiin char okaiin qokeechy checkhy qokeod ar qokeo lkeo lchorom

0:nlnl 2:saiin 5:chol 1:qotain 1:qokain 3:chl 3:lr 1:chdain 5:qoteey 5:rcheey 3:r 3:ar 4:rodam 
<f115v.15,+P0> saiin chol qotain qokain chl lr chdain qoteey rcheey r ar rodam

I used ideas put forward by other researchers to try and remove the supposed alterations that possibly cause these prominent line effects. The goal is to examine paragraph structure and hopefully to get some glimpse of actual POS categories and grammar. I first checked that significant grammatical structures can be detected on a simple text in a known language.

ENGLISH GENESIS

I started by analysing paragraph structure in the first 10,000 words in King James Genesis. This text is of course much more accessible than the VMS, not only because it can be read, but because it has a limited vocabulary and many repeating word sequences.
I ignored line breaks and I introduced instead a paragraph break (“npnp”: New Paragraph) based on punctuation.
This graph illustrates the results I get for 8 POS-classes and the 14 most frequent edges:

The top 10 words in each class:

CL 0:he         CL 1:earth      CL 2:years      CL 3:and
 tokens:1664     tokens:1062     tokens:945      tokens:2609
 types:207       types:218       types:214       types:80
 ratio:8.0       ratio:4.8       ratio:4.4       ratio:32.6
 hapax:97 ___    hapax:95 ___    hapax:103 ___   hapax:31 ___
  1 he 141        1 earth 98      1 years 65      1 and 1098
  2 god 102       2 lord 81       2 sons 47       2 of 434
  3 i 100         3 name 34       3 man 45        3 in 159
  4 it 91         4 land 33       4 hundred 44    4 was 107
  5 him 73        5 waters 32     5 day 32        5 thou 81
  6 thee 65       6 wife 31       6 days 30       6 is 77
  7 they 60       7 seed 27       7 thing 20      7 were 66
  8 abram 59      8 ark 26        8 daughters 20  8 after 66
  9 them 51       9 king 23       9 heaven 17     9 for 63
 10 noah 40      10 face 23      10 good 17      10 from 59

CL 4:to         CL 5:the        CL 6:npnp       CL 7:every
 tokens:1494     tokens:1257     tokens:1200     tokens:491
 types:190       types:22        types:123       types:97
 ratio:7.8       ratio:57.1      ratio:9.7       ratio:5.0
 hapax:69 ___    hapax:6 ___     hapax:59 ___    hapax:44 ___
  1 to 126        1 the 850       1 npnp 542      1 every 69
  2 unto 117      2 his 129       2 that 136      2 begat 64
  3 shall 87      3 a 93          3 which 48      3 an 29
  4 said 87       4 thy 65        4 lived 34      4 two 21
  5 be 85         5 their 36      5 went 29       5 three 15
  6 all 75        6 s 33          6 also 25       6 shem 13
  7 with 63       7 your 11       7 as 24         7 great 14
  8 will 50       8 thine 7       8 out 22        8 five 14
  9 not 42        9 whose 6       9 old 16        9 nine 12
 10 had 37       10 no 6         10 up 14        10 thirty 11

The classification is obviously not perfect, but it does represent some basic notions. For instance, compare CL1 and CL5: they contain roughly the same number of tokens, but the numbers of word types differ by almost an order of magnitude. Classes with a high number of tokens per type (“ratio”) correspond to content words (nouns) while classes with a low ratio correspond to function words. CL7 is also interesting in that it appears to group together most quantifiers (but then words like “begat” and “shem” were misclassified).

The most apparent structure in the graph appears to be the triangle that has been highlighted in green. Paragraph break “npnp” (in yellow) is directly connected to the triangle, since most of the sentences begin with the word “and”. This 3,5,1 structure obviously corresponds to sequences of noun phrases and prepositional phrases like the following:

6:npnp 3:and 5:the 1:evening 3:and 5:the 1:morning
6:npnp 3:thus 5:the 1:heavens 3:and 5:the 1:earth
6:npnp 3:in 5:the 1:sweat 3:of 5:thy 1:face
6:npnp 3:and 5:the 1:door 3:of 5:the 1:ark
6:npnp 3:and 5:the 1:beginning 3:of 5:his 1:kingdom
6:npnp 3:and 5:the 1:border 3:of 5:the 1:canaanites
6:npnp 3:and 5:the 1:angel 3:of 5:the 1:lord

The following are the most frequent 5 long POS-class sequences in the tagged 10k words Genesis text. As can be seen, they are all based on the 3,5,1 triangle.

_5_1_3_5_1_ 129
_3_5_1_3_5_ 113
_6_3_5_1_3_ 88

VOYNICH MANUSCRIPT (VMS) QUIRE 20

Since there is no punctuation, in the case of the Voynich manuscript we don’t know where sentence boundaries are. What can be easily done is analysing each paragraph as a separate sequence. As I mentioned above, I applied a set of tentative transformations aimed at reducing the impact of line effects:

• Word initial EVA:s,t,p,y where removed (with the exception of sh- which is unchanged). In Quire 20, these characters are much more frequent line-initially than elsewhere. For instance, 27 of 39 occurrences of saiin appear at the beginning of lines. See also Emma May Smith’s discussion of linestart transformation. Word initial p- is also connected with Grove words (appearing as the first words of paragraphs).
• The gallows characters EVA:p and EVA:f, which concentrate in the first line of paragraphs, were replaced with EVA:k and EVA:t respectively.
• The two symbols EVA:m and EVA:g, which are strongly correlated with the line-ending positions are assumed to be abbreviations. They were replace with EVA:iin and EVA:dy respectively. These replacements were based on the characters that typically precede m/g and what follows those characters in non-line-final positions (e.g. the most frequent -m words in Quire 20 are am and otam, while the most frequent a- word is ‘aiin’ and the most frequent ot- word is otaiin).

Overall, these transformations affect 6% of the words.

The following is the resulting graph for Quire 20 (8 classes, 14 edges). The classes that have been coloured are discussed below.

Examining the details of the 8 classes makes clear that CL2 and CL5 include considerably fewer tokens than the other classes: this is the reason why none of the 14 most frequent edges connects them.

CL 0:okeey      CL 1:ol         CL 2:chedaiin   CL 3:chedy
 tokens:1366     tokens:1287     tokens:429      tokens:1813
 types:538       types:397       types:216       types:414
 ratio:2.5       ratio:3.2       ratio:1.9       ratio:4.3
 hapax:405 ___   hapax:272 ___   hapax:167 ___   hapax:281 ___
  1 okeey 93      1 ol 92         1 chedaiin 30   1 chedy 201
  2 oteey 59      2 al 90         2 chedar 25     2 shedy 113
  3 oteedy 57     3 cheol 59      3 chdaiin 15    3 chey 110
  4 otedy 56      4 chol 54       4 chedain 14    4 cheey 83
  5 okeedy 45     5 otar 51       5 shedain 11    5 shey 79
  6 otchedy 41    6 otal 46       6 chdar 10      6 sheey 48
  7 okedy 32      7 okal 39       7 shear 9       7 chdy 43
  8 oty 26        8 char 28       8 cheodaiin 9   8 cheody 40
  9 otchey 21     9 chedal 26     9 chaiin 9      9 chckhy 39
 10 olkeedy 19   10 shol 21      10 chdor 8      10 cheedy 30

CL 4:qokaiin    CL 5:daiin      CL 6:npnp       CL 7:qokeey
 tokens:1239     tokens:678      tokens:1883     tokens:1674
 types:318       types:288       types:350       types:415
 ratio:3.8       ratio:2.3       ratio:5.3       ratio:4.0
 hapax:218 ___   hapax:237 ___   hapax:232 ___   hapax:254 ___
  1 qokaiin 130   1 daiin 119     1 npnp 280      1 qokeey 146
  2 qokain 99     2 okain 68      2 aiin 195      2 qokeedy 124
  3 qotaiin 52    3 dain 42       3 ar 133        3 qokedy 58
  4 raiin 48      4 l 26          4 okaiin 103    4 lchedy 48
  5 lkaiin 42     5 y 17          5 otaiin 99     5 qokey 36
  6 qokal 38      6 chodaiin 14   6 ain 62        6 qotchedy 35
  7 qokar 36      7 chy 9         7 otain 51      7 qokchedy 33
  8 dar 35        8 cheodain 8    8 or 47         8 lkeey 34
  9 qotain 34     9 ched 8        9 okar 40       9 qoteedy 30
 10 kaiin 31     10 ral 7        10 air 38       10 lkeedy 30

The following are the most frequent 5 long POS-class sequences in the tagged text:
_3_7_7_7_7_ 14
_3_7_0_7_7_ 11
_7_7_7_7_7_ 9

Though the length of the text is nearly identical to the fragment from the English Genesis, tagging of the English text results in sequences that are 10 times more frequent than in the VMS. The results also make clear that, while frequent sequences in the Genesis are due to the alternation between some of the classes, in the VMS they are due to the consecutive occurrence of words belonging to CL7. These figures point out that results for the VMS are poor and do not highlight any frequent grammatical structures.

As discussed in the previous post, it is also confirmed that Voynich words belonging to the same class tend to be much more similar than in the English text. In these plots, the green line represents the average Levenshtein ratio (a similarity measure in the 0..1 range) between the 160 most frequent words in the text. The red bars correspond to similarity between the 20 most frequent words assigned to the each class.

VOYNICH MANUSCRIPT (VMS) QUIRE 13

The only promising result of this exploration is that applying the same transformations and analysis method to Quire 13 produces results that are somehow comparable with Quire 20.
These are the two graphs presented side by side.

The top 10 words in the 8 classes for Q13:

CL 0:shey      CL 1:qokedy    CL 2:shedy     CL 3:dal       
tokens:786     tokens:1144    tokens:1182    tokens:415     
types:178      types:217      types:176      types:168      
ratio:4.4      ratio:5.2      ratio:6.7      ratio:2.4      
hapax:118 ___  hapax:160 ___  hapax:99 ___   hapax:121 ___  
 1 shey 92      1 qokedy 151   1 shedy 225    1 dal 51      
 2 chey 83      2 qokeedy 146  2 chedy 208    2 dol 22      
 3 chckhy 40    3 qokeey 83    3 otedy 49     3 lchey 19    
 4 cheey 39     4 qol 79       4 okedy 41     4 edy 19      
 5 sheey 32     5 lchedy 56    5 dy 40        5 lol 17      
 6 shckhy 28    6 qoky 54      6 okeedy 39    6 rol 14      
 7 oly 28       7 qotedy 43    7 sheedy 36    7 ldy 8       
 8 chcthy 26    8 qokey 42     8 olshedy 24   8 dor 8       
 9 olkeey 22    9 qoteedy 38   9 lshedy 23    9 ral 7       
10 sheckhy 20  10 qoty 24     10 cheedy 24   10 kar 7

CL 4:qokain    CL 5:olchedy   CL 6:npnp      CL 7:ol        
tokens:933     tokens:530     tokens:649     tokens:789     
types:194      types:181      types:212      types:145      
ratio:4.8      ratio:2.9      ratio:3.0      ratio:5.4      
hapax:144 ___  hapax:126 ___  hapax:152 ___  hapax:99 ___   
 1 qokain 161   1 olchedy 38   1 npnp 84      1 ol 191      
 2 qokal 102    2 al 36        2 or 57        2 aiin 68     
 3 qokaiin 91   3 sheol 25     3 dar 56       3 okain 44    
 4 daiin 79     4 olkedy 24    4 cheol 30     4 ar 35       
 5 dain 47      5 olor 17      5 checkhy 20   5 okaiin 32   
 6 qokar 47     6 shol 16      6 okar 19      6 olkain 29   
 7 ain 43       7 sheky 15     7 oty 17       7 otain 22    
 8 qotain 21    8 olshey 15    8 checthy 17   8 okal 23     
 9 raiin 15     9 oldy 13      9 chol 13      9 qokol 20    
10 otaiin 15   10 olky 11     10 sheor 11    10 otar 19

There is a good correspondence among the blue, pink and gray classes in the two quires. There also are differences, most notably ‘chey’ and ‘shey’ belong to the pink class in Q20 but in Q13 are assigned to a different class CL0 (rather than CL2 with ‘chedy’ and ‘shedy’). I have not gone into the details of these differences yet. One could see them as a manifestation of the difference between section-dialects: i.e. the fact that Currier languages A and B have smaller variations and could be seen as a continuum of contiguous and slightly different dialects rather than two clearly separated languages. I hope to explore this aspect in future posts.
Things are more tangled for the yellow and green classes. For instance ‘aiin’ and ‘ar’ belong with the paragraph separator npnp in Q20 but are in the green class in Q13.

Since words belonging to each class tend to be rather omogeneous, it is possible to define regular expressions that approximate the classification produced by Clark’s algorithm.

A: corresponds to yellow and green classes (excluding the special symbol ‘npnp’).
Words starting with one of {o,a,c,s} and ending with one of {l,r,n}.
[^ ]* matches any sequence of non-space characters
[oacs][^ ]*[lrn]

B: corresponds to pink classes, but also including the similar words that were assigned to CL0 in Q13.
Words starting with a bench {ch,sh} and ending with -y.
[cs]h[^ ]*y
Note that for both quires the class highlighted in pink have a relatively high number of tokens per class: they are the best candidates as function-word classes.

C: corresponds to blue classes: words starting with qo- and ending with -y.
qo[^ ]*y

D: corresponds to grey classes: words starting with qo- and ending with something different from -y.
qo[^ ]*[^y]

The following table presents counts of various five-words sequences based on the regular expressions defined above. Actual counts are compared with the average number of counts in 100 random permutations of each text.

The fact that the numbers are so small confirms that these experiments have not been particularly successful. The numbers are significantly higher than those observed in the scrambled files, but this is not surprising, since these patterns are largely based on the well known preference for -y words to be followed by q- words. Still it seems interesting that four paragraphs start with occurrences of this pattern; this particular count is 40 times higher than what observed in the scrambled files. But the two quires include a total of 364 paragraphs, so the pattern is only observed in 1% of them.
The following are the details of the four paragraph-start matches:

A,B,C,D:
<f77r.38,+P0> <%>pol shedy qoeedy qokaiin chcphey qol ltaiin shedy qol

A,B,C,C:
<f78r.3,@P0> <%>tshedor shedy qopchedy qokedy dyqokol oky
<f79r.13,+P0> <%>pshorol shckhy qotshdy qokaldy opchedy qotar oraiinol
<f115v.29,+P0> <%>polor sheedy qoteedy qokechy lralylshey sheot shedy chteey lky raram

The following occurrence of the non-paragraph-initial pattern could be compared with the last line above:

A,A,B,C,C,D
<f79v.9,+P0> sar.ol.sheey.qokeedy.qokechey.qol<$>

In all the five examples above, the first word has been stripped of the first character, since (as mentioned above) it belongs to those that appear to be the effect of a line-initial transformation. For instance, pol is treated as ol and matches the regular expression for A.

Finally, this is an example of the A,B,C,D pattern occurring across lines:

<f80r.21,+P0> shedy.qokey.shckhey.qotar.chckhy.otol.teol.sheol.qotal.oltain.chcthy
<f80r.22,+P0> qokeedy.qol.shecthy.qokalkeol.qoky.qokal.shedy.sal.olkain.shey.qokl

FURTHER RESEARCH

Though the results presented here are extremely limited, there are several possible lines of investigations that could possibly take this research a little further.
First, I haven’t really explored one of the options listed at the end of the 2019 post:

Performing a more detailed analysis of the composition of each class. Here I focussed on the 20 most frequent words of each class, but looking at all words could provide different insights.

By examining the list of words associated with each class, it seems clear that certain small variations in words result in words that belong to the same class. For instance, for both quires all the words belonging to the o[tk]ee*dy pattern are classified together:

okedy,okeedy,okeeedy,otedy,oteedy,oteeedy

Words following the [sc]he*d*y pattern (e.g. chdy, chedy, cheedy, cheeey, cheey, chey, chy and their sh- counterparts) are classified together in Q20 only. In Q13, -dy words are in CL2, while -ey words are in CL0.

This kind of analysis could point to word differences that appear to be irrelevant for word behaviour, either because they represent different inflections of the same word or because they are arbitrary spelling variations. These could be removed by further pre-processing transformations, while distinctions that could be significant (like possibbly -edy/-ey) would be preserved.

o- vs qo-

I would like to look into the details of qo- vs o-. As discussed by Emma May Smith, these two families of words are clearly related, but the nature of this relationship is unclear. Clark’s algorithm appears to assign o- and qo- words to different classes. This could be largely due to the fact that after -y words the qo- variant appears to be preferred, but it is likely that there is more to this. One could also explore the idea that q- is semantically irrelevant: all occurrences of q- could be removed and we could see if this allows the detection of more patterns.

Uncertain spaces

The Zandbergen-Landini transliteration distinguishes between certain and uncertain spaces. About 8% of spaces are marked as uncertain, since each space affects both the words it separates, the impact on the text is considerable. Here I have ignored uncertain spaces. I would be interested in defining a system to accept an uncertain space if it makes the text more regular (e.g. if it results in a couple of words that appear elsewhere in the ms).

Different transliterations

Clark’s similarity-based algorithm might give different results using different transliteration systems. Here I used EVA-encoded words. In the future, I could run experiments with the Currier and/or CUVA systems.

Mapping dialects

Carefully comparing the results for Q13 and Q20 could allow some insight about a problem that Nick Pelling put forward: mapping Currier A into Currier B (or vice-versa). Both Q13 and Q20 belong to Currier B, but the dialects corresponding to the two quires are significantly different. Transforming these two sections into something more homogeneous could be a small progress in this area of research. Also, the sum of Q13 and Q20 would result in about 16,000 words of text and the longer the text the better the results from statistical algorithms like Clark’s.

Labels

Quire 13 includes several labels, some of which also appear in the text. It should be possible to search for specific patterns in paragraph text that involve labels or words very similar to labels.

Grammar Inference
I have been experimenting with the JMotif Java implementation of the Re-Pair grammar inference algorithm (Larsson, N.J.; Moffat, A., Offline dictionary-based compression, 1999). I could get promising results for the simple English Genesis text. If I manage to make some progress on the much harder Voynichese Q13+Q20, I could be able to try inferring an actual grammar and generating actual parse trees.

Voynichese Part of Speech tagging: an update was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

The anonymous “Book about the Nature of Animals” (Libro della Natura degli Animali) is a late medieval Italian bestiary that survives in a number of manuscripts. On this web page, Davide Cecchi provides an extensive list of copies of this work as well a discussion of its sources.

Here I publish a translation of a passage that I transcribed from BNF It. 450 (XIV Century) also referencing the partially different Wellcome MS 132 (XV Century). A transcription of the BNF manuscript was published by Garver and McKenzie in 1912.

The “Calcatrice” dragon appears to be based on crocodile; the four syllables of the name could be related with the Latin “cocodrilus”. The Book about the Nature of Animals does not contain medical or magical information: all animals are interpreted as moral allegories. In this case, a hydra-like reptilian with many heads that kills the Calcatrice from the inside is interpreted as a symbol of the many virtues that promote the inner change of “the spiritual man”.

Transcription:

[BNF:16r] Della natura della Calchatrice

La Calchatrice si e uno serpente grandissimo e la sua factezza come di drago[?]. E aue cotale natura che sella troua alcuno homo si selo mangia. E possa ch’ella lae mangiato sillo piangie tutto lo tempo de la sua uita et e un altro serpente che aue multe teste quando neghe tagliata una si nelli nascie due troua questa calcatrice. pianghe lo homo che ae manducato si se giecta in terra per tradito [Wellcome: per morto] E la Calchatrice uiene e eli lo mangia sansano equando questo sie in corpo si li rompe le budella e sale fuore del corpo e fanne grande allegrezze e questa si buga di fare incontenente chelli uede la calcatrice che auea mangiato lo homo. E anco aue la calcatrice una altra natura. che quando ella magnia non mena si nolla masella di sopra. Questa Calchatrice in cio chella mangia homo e possa lo pianghe tutto lo tempo della sua uita si se poe similiare ad alquante spiritale persone di questo mondo che anno dentro daloro cuore in corporato lo uerace dio. e homo che fu crucifixo per recompare lumana generatione che quando lo spiritale homo si rimenbra che cosie alto signore uolse discendere in del corpo della nostra donna e uolse fare tutte le suggestione che homo dee fare a padre e a madre e uolse essere pouero e digiuno e eciandio uolse sufferire chelli fusseno

[BNF:16v left column] date le collate e le gottate e sputato in faccia e smentito e battuto alla columna e iudicato a morte. e posto in croce chiauato con acuti grossissimi. portando si li pessi de la carne innanci e de le uerbera. e postoli corona di spine fue guinchi in armi che li pertusono la testa fin al ossa e dateli beuere aceto e felle meschiato e ferito in del costato con una lancia si li uene a lospitale homo grande compassione e grande dolore dentro del suo cuore. Si como diuiene di messer sancto francisco Che si grande fue la sua conpassione chebbe delle dure cose chelli uenneno le simigliante chiauella in delle mane in delli piedi che che uenneno in similitudine che el nostro segnore ihu xpo equando in del cuore del homo uiene questa uerace compassione in mantenente e apparechiata una nobile uertute chessi chiama caritade si ae molte capite bone e in carita gia en pieno li comandamenti di dio cio e amar dio e lo proximo come se medesimo e chi ama lo proximo si ama dio chellimo non puo amare senca laltro. e chi ane uerace mente carita si si do dire chelli abbia in se tutte laltre uirtude dunque uene in lui bene quella uirtude che ane molte capita E si diuiene

[16v right column] di carita chomo del serpente che mette due capi quando homo ne li taglia uno Quando homo tollesse aquilli che a in se carita una gonnella si la radoppia apolo nostro segnore e criatore. che elli a apparecchiato perdono e umiltade e quando homo li tollesse la persona si la radoppia dio chellomo li tolle lo corpo uile e dio li intendera glorificato per la patientia chelli a in se cussi diuene di tutti laltre cose che homi li potesse in noiare. E si como la calcatrice che mena pur le maselle de sopra quando mangia lo simigliante adiuene delli boni homini chelli ragionano e pensano pur delle sourane cogitatione per le quale espectano la gloria del paradyso.

Translation:

[16r] About the nature of the Calcatrice

The Calcatrice is a very large snake and its appearance is like a dragon. It has such a nature that, whenever it finds a man, it eats him. After eating him, it cries for him for the whole time of its life. There is another snake, which has many heads and when one if its heads is cut, it grows two new heads. When this snake finds the calcatrice which is crying the man it ate, it falls to the ground pretending to be dead. The calcatrice comes and eats the entire snake; when the snake is inside the body of the calcatrice, it breaks its entrails and exits from its body with the greatest happiness. It does so as soon as it sees the calcatrice that ate a man. The calcatrice has another peculiarity: when eating, it only moves its upper jaw. Because the calcatrice cries the whole time of its life the man it ate, it can be compared with the spiritual men of this world. They incorporated within their heart the true god and man who was crucified to save humanity. The spiritual man remembers that such a high lord chose to descend into the body of our lady, to perform all the devotions that a man must show to his father and his mother, to be poor and hungry, to suffer to be

[16v left column] beaten on his neck and cheeks and spit upon his face, to be bound at a column and sentenced to death and crucified with large nails, offended in his flesh and with words, tortured with a crown of thorns that pierced his head to the bone; he drank vinegar mixed with bile and was wounded in his chest with a spear. Remembering all this, the pious man feels great compassion and pain in his heart. This happened to Saint Francis, whose compassion for these sufferings was so great that he had in his hands and feet the same wounds of the nails as our lord Jesus Christ. Whenever this sincere compassion appears in the heart of a man, immediately the noble virtue of charity is also produced; this brings many good “heads” and fulfils the commandments of God: love God and your neighbour like yourself. Whoever loves his neighbour loves God, because one cannot be loved without the other. And one can say that whoever has charity also has all other virtues: he has in himself a virtue that has many heads. Charity is like

[16v right column] the snake which grows two heads when one is cut. If somebody takes a cloth from a charitable man, it is doubled by our lord and creator, who has readied forgiveness and humbleness. If somebody takes the life of this man, God doubles it in such a way that the vile body is taken and God glorifies him for his patience. And the same happens for any trouble that a man can have. And like the calcatrice only moves its upper jaw when eating, similarly good men only think and care about upper meditations, by which they hope to obtain the glory of heaven.

The “Calcatrice” Dragon from an Italian Moralized Bestiary was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

BAV ms Chigi M.V.117 is a XV Century Italian manuscript containing several unrelated texts, including a History of Rome and a Bestiary. Near the end of the volume (f122v-123r) two charms were copied.
The first of the two is illustrated by a diagram that makes use of the T-O arrangement to represent the holy trinity. The cross at the top of the diagram could allude to the cross-bearing orb (globus cruciger), a symbol of temporal and spiritual power that is often see in medieval works of art.
The quality of the online scans of the book is low, but the script is clear enough to allow reading the text. Overall, the page appears to be based on a series of three-fold entities: the Trinity, the three Magi and possibly the three continents, suggested by the T-O diagram.

Transcription:
[Diagram] Pater est veritas. Filius est vita. Spiritus Sanctus est remedium.

In nomine patris et filii et spiritu sancti amen /
Messias, Soter, Emanuel, Sabbaoth, Sapiens, Salvator, /
Vita, Veritas, ego sum agnus, misericors, vitulus,
creator, thalamus, Spiritus Sanctus, trinitas, unitas, Ga- /
spar, [deleted: mir] fert mirram, thus Malchion Baldasar /
aurum. Haec tria qui secum portaverit nomina regum sol- /
vitur a morbo Christi pietatis [pietate] caduco. In nomine patris /
et filii et spiritu sancti. Amen.

Translation:
[Diagram] The Father is Truth. The Son is Life. The Holy Spirit is the remedy.

In the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, amen. /
Messiah, Soter, Emmanuel, Sabaoth, Wise, Saviour, /
Life, Truth. I am the merciful lamb and calf, /
creator, marriage [?], Holy Spirit, trinity, unity. /
Gaspar brings myrrh, Malchion frankincense, Baldasar /
gold. Whoever brings with himself the names of these three kings /
will be freed from epilepsy, by the mercy of Christ. In the name of the Father /
and the Son and the Holy Spirit. Amen.

An almost identical form of the last part of the incantation can be seen at the end of BNF Lat.1403, a book of hours created at the end of the XIV Century for Isabeau of Bavaria, queen of France. In this luxury manuscript, the crosses that so often appear in medieval charms are written in gold like capital letters.

Transcription: Iaspar fert mirram + Thus melchion + Balthazar aurum. Hec tria qui secum portabit nomina regum Solvitur a morbo Christo mediente [mediante] caduco. A quo nos protegat ille qui sine fine vivit et regnas [sic]. Amen

Translation: Iaspar brings myrrh + Melchion frankincense +Balthazar gold. Whoever brings with himself the names of these three kings will be freed from epilepsy, with the help of Christ. Let him who lives and rules forever protect us for this [illness]. Amen

The history of this incantation is discussed by Katelyn Mesler in The Three Magi and Other Christian Motifs in Medieval Hebrew Medical Incantations.

A T-O Trinity Diagram was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Reeds’ paper discusses the numeric ciphers in the third part of Steganographia. Here I intend to focus on the much simpler ciphers which appear in the first pages of the book, disguised as magical conjurations.

While the ciphers in the third part remained a mystery for several centuries, other ciphers in Steganographia were soon disclosed in printed books, apparently based on explanations by Trithemius himself. The system I will discuss is well described in Johannis Trithemii Steganographia Vindicata (Wolfgang Ernst Heidel, 1721) p.132–133. The cipher text (Conjuratio I, first conjuration) is reproduced before the explanation (Clavis / key). The conjuration originally appeared at p.2 of the 1606 edition.

My translation of the “key”: The reader will be instructed about the single key for the conjurations. 1. The first and last words are not relevant. 2. After removing them, only the first, the third (and so on alternating) of the remaining words contribute to the message. 3. All the valid words should be concatenated. [In the resulting character sequence], the first character is irrelevant, the second one is valid, the third character is again irrelevant, the fourth valid and so on. 4. The Greek ‘Y’ stands for the Latin ‘I’. 5. From time to time, a simple ‘e’ is used instead of the diphthong Æ written in the style of the ancients. The reader can then arrange this and all the following conjurations in the described way. He will easily read the message.

After the key, the concatenation of the valid words is printed, with the meaningful characters appearing in upper case. If one reads these letters, the following message is revealed:

Sum tali cautela ut primae literae cuiuslibet dictionis secretam intentionem tuam reddant legenti.

Meaning: I am so careful that [only] the first character of each word conveys your secret message to the reader. — This describes a simple “acrostic” cipher method: each letter of the original message is represented by a whole word in the cipher message, with only the first character of each “cipher” word being meaningful.

The 1606 includes a “key” to the work as an appendix. The following fragment (p.7 of the appendix) is an example of the simple acrostic method:

… nutritor egentium, salusque tribulatorum, miserorum adiutor, nobilium triumphator, administrator gratiarum …

The passage is grammatical Latin and can be translated as: feeder of the needy, saviour of the troubled, helper of the miserable, conqueror of the proud, donor of favours…

Considering the first character of each word, the text can be deciphered as “nest mantag”, corresponding to the German Nächst Montag (Next Monday). Apparently, in order to fit the message into correct Latin, it was necessary to take some liberties with German spelling.

The conjuration cipher is in some respects more sophisticated than the “acrostic” cipher it describes, tough it has the similar problem of a low rate of meaningful vs meaningless characters (only 25% convey meaning). It also has a major flow that is not shared with the acrostic cipher: brittleness due to words and characters being selected according to position. If two words are not accurately spaced, or if a typo like skipping a single character occurs, the whole text gets very hard to recover. Apparently, this happened in the 1606 printed edition of Steganographia. If you compare the text in the 1606 edition with the text in the 1721 Steganographia Vindicata, you will see that the sixth word is “charustea” instead of the correct “charustrea”: the missing letter causes a misalignment of all the following letters, so that the irrelevant letters are selected instead of the valid ones. ‘Atloor’ for ‘atleor’ is another typo, but since the number of characters is unchanged, a single character is affected. A third typo, ‘thalmon’ instead of ‘thalmo’, accidentally corrects the shift due to ‘charustea’, restoring the correct alignment.

Ignoring other typos in the 1606 edition, the two variants produce the following clear text messages:

1721 Steganographia Vindicata:

pamersiel oShUrMi delmuson ThAfLoYn peano ChArUsTrEa melany LyAmUnTo colchan PaRoYs madyn MoErLaY bulre+ aTlEoR don mElCoUe peoloin IbUtSyL meon mYsBrEaTh alini DrIaCo person CrIsOlNaY lemon aSoSlE mydar iCoRiEl pean ThAlMo asophiel IlNoTrEoN baniel oCrImOs esteuor NaElMo besrona ThUlAoMoR fronian bElDoDrAyN bon oTaLmEsGo merofas ElNaThYn bosramoth

SUM TALY CAUTELA UT PRYME LYTERE CUIUSLYBET DICCIONYS SECRETAM INTENCIONEM TUAM REDDANT LEGENTY (sum tali cautela ut primae litterae cuiuslibet dictionis secretam intentionem tuam reddant legenti)

1606 Steganographia:
pamersiel oShUrMi delmuson ThAfLoYn peano CHARUSTEA melany lYaMuNtO colchan pArOyS madyn mOeRlAy bulre+ ATLOOR don MeLcOuE peoloin iBuTsYl meon MySbReAtH alini dRiAcO person cRiSoLnAy lemon AsOsLe mydar IcOrIeL pean THALMON asophiel IlNoTrEoN baniel oCrImOs esteuor NaElMo besrona ThUlAoMoR fronian bElDoDrAyN bon oTaLmEsGo merofas ElNaThYn bosramoth

SUM TALY CAUTAYM NO AOSORA ALOMLO EBTYMS RAHRAOR SLAAO LIOILHLO INTENCIONEM TUAM REDDANT LEGENTY (the central part of the hidden message is lost)

Not only word spacing in the cipher message is vital to the correct selection of meaningful characters, spaces must also be inserted manually in the deciphered message on the basis of the reader’s knowledge of the clear-text language. A last interesting detail about this cipher text is that the supposed conjuration includes the cross symbol, mimicking the medieval convention used to mark points in incantations where the officiant was supposed to cross himself.

Trithemius.com provides an English translation of the Latin text of Steganographia. The site can also show the decipherment of the conjurations, but since the text includes the typos that appear in early printed editions, the output is not always fully meaningful. The following are a few more conjurations with the corresponding clear-text derived from Steganographia Vindicata.

“Lamarton Anoyr” Conjuration p.2

lamarton aNoYr bulon MaDrInEl traschon EbRaSoThEa panthenon NaBrUlGeS camery iTrAsBiEl rubanthy NaDrEs calmosi OrMeNu lan YtUlEsRaBiOn hamorphin

Hidden message: NYM DIE ERSTEN BUGSTABEN DE OMNY UERBO (i.e. nim die ersten buchstaben de omni verbo)

The clear text is a mixture of German and Latin meaning “take the first character of each word”. The filler word “panthenon” exemplifies how the text was intentionally made to look like Greek.

“Padiel Aporsy” Conjuration p.8

The second chapter of the book is devoted to the powerful spirit-prince Padiel. Since the first word of each conjuration plays no role in the cipher, Trithemius was free to use it by explicitly naming the object of the spell.

padiel aPoRsY mesarpon oMeUaS peludyn mAlPrEaXo condusen VlEaRo thersephi BaYl merphon PaRoYs gebuly Ma ilthomion IlThEaR tamarson aCrImY lon pEaTa casmy ChErTiEl medony ReAbDo lasonti OaCiEl mal ArTi bulomeon AbRy pathulmon ThEoMa pathormyn

Hidden message: PRYMUS APEX VERBY PRYMI TERCIY ET CETERA DOCEAT ARTEM (i.e. primus apex verbi primi, tercii et cetera doceat artem)

Translation: “the first character of the first word, of the third etc. This will teach you the art” — The hidden message describes a variant of the acrostic cipher where the first character is only meaningful in half the words, so that the quantity of meaningless text is even lower than with the other techniques.

This conjuration is discussed in Jim Reeds’ 1998 paper Solved: The Ciphers in Book III of Trithemius’s Steganographia. Also in this case, the 1606 edition contains a typo: the two words ma ilthomion were printed as the single word “mailthomyon”. This causes the decipherer to consider irrelevant words as containing cipher text and to ignore valid words. Presumably because of this typo, Reeds could only decipher the text up to where the error occurred. Reeds’ paper was quoted in a wide number of following publications (e.g. “Investigator’s Guide to Steganography”, Kipper, 2003; “Hildegard of Bingen’s Unknown Language: An Edition, Translation, and Discussion”, Higley, 2007) which repeat the typo and only present the decipherment of the first few words of the conjuration.

“Padiel Ariel” Conjuration p.8

padiel aRiEl vanerhon ChIo tarson PhYmArTo merphon AmPrIsCo ledabarym ElSePhRoY mesarpon aMeOrSy paneryn AtLe pachumgel ThEaRaN beslonty lAs gomadyn TrIaMy mefarnothy

Hidden message: RECIPYAT APICES PRYMOS ALTERNATIM (i.e. recipiat apices primos alternatim)

Translation: “Take the first characters alternating” — The same “alternating acrostic” cipher discussed in “Padiel Aporsy”.

The conjuration itself exemplifies the great freedom provided by the low rate of meaningful characters. Six of the 21 words end with -n and five by -y, so that the whole text is also suggestive of Greek.

Trithemius could also make so that 3 of the 21 words end with the suffix -el, as appropriate for spirit names in the tradition of Christian kabbala. The word “Ariel” is the only one of the three to contribute to the cipher message, providing the first two characters of “recipiat”. Ariel also is the name of a spirit in other parts of the book (p.172).

The spirit name “Ariel” occurs in Agrippa’s “De occulta philosophia”: it could derive from Trithemius, who was one of Agrippa’s teachers at Würzburg. But it is also possible that both authors shared a common earlier source, in particular the word “ariel” appears in the Hebrew bible. In his 1951 paper The Genesis of Ariel, Stacy Johnson discusses a scholar (Abel Lefranc) who believed that Trithemius was the source of Shakespeare’s Ariel; Stacy Johnson also points out that The Geneva Bible (London, 1594) mentions the Hebrew word and appears to be a more likely source.

Conjuration ciphers in Trithemius’s “Steganographia” was originally published in ViridisGreen on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.