Three Phase Fault Analysis with Auto Reset on

Temporary Fault and Permanent Trip Otherwise

ABSTRAC
T
The project is designed to develop an automatic tripping mechanism for the three phase supply
system. The project output resets automatically after a brief interruption in the event temporary fault
while it remains in tripped condition in case of permanent fault.

The electrical substation which supply the power to the consumers i.e. industries or domestic can
have failures due to some faults which can be temporary or permanent. These faults lead to
substantial damage to the power system equipment. In India it is common to observe the failures in
supply system due to the faults that occur during the transmission or distribution. The faults might be
LG (Line to Ground), LL (Line to Line), 3L (Three lines) in the supply systems and these faults in
three phase supply system can affect the power system. To overcome this problem a system is built,
which can sense these faults and automatically disconnects the supply to avoid large scale damage to
the control gears in the grid sub-stations.

This system is built using three single phase transformers which are wired in star input and star
output, and 3 transformers are connected in delta connections, having input 220 volt and output at 12
volt. This concept low voltage testing of fault conditions is followed as it is not advisable to create on
mains line. 555 timers are used for handling short duration and long duration fault conditions. A set
of switches are used to create the LL, LG and 3L fault in low voltage side, for activating the tripping
mechanism. Short duration fault returns the supply to the load immediately called as temporary trip
while long duration shall result in permanent trip.
Chapter: 1
Introduction of Three Phase Fault
This type fault is damage the load so we prepared the protection circuit which is introduce below;

Six numbers of steps down transformers are used for forming star and delta secondary‟s
at low voltage output. Fault condition is created with a set of switches to input LL, LG, 3L fault to the
circuit. This triggers a 555 timer in monostable to reset after fault clearance in a short duration
temporary fault or permanently trip the output in case of prolonged fault.

We know that if the fault accurse then it creates many problems to the load. Many times
load is damaged. So it is very important to protect the system again the faults.

Different type of fault in 3 phase is:

L-L fault (line to line fault) L-G fault

(line to ground fault) 2L-G fault (double
line to ground fault)

Mostly L-G fault (line to ground) fault is occurs in industries, sub station and any other
places where three phase supply is used, other fault is occur in bed condition compare to L-
G fault.
Chapter:2 Block Diagra
m
Fig: 2.1 Block Diagram
2.1
Introduction of Block Diagram
In prevention circuit six numbers of steps down transformers are used for forming star and
delta secondary‟s at low voltage output.

• Fault condition is created with a set of switches to input LL, LG, 3L fault to circuit. This
triggers a 555 timer in monostable to reset after fault clearance in a short duration temporary fault
clearance in short duration temporary fault or permanently trip the output incase of prolonged
fault •

The electrical substation which supply the power to the consumers i.e. industries or domestic
can have failures due to some faults which can be temporary or permanent. These faults lead
to substantial damage to the power system equipment. In India it is common to observe the
failures in supply system due to the faults that occur during the transmission or distribution.
The faults might be LG (Line to Ground), LL (Line to Line), 3L (Three lines) in the supply
systems and these faults in three phase supply system can affect the power system. To
overcome this problem a system is built, which can sense these faults and automatically
disconnects the supply to avoid large scale damage to the control gears in the grid sub-
stations. •

This system is built using three single phase transformers which are wired in star input and
star output, and 3 transformers are connected in delta connections, having input 220 volt and
output at 12 volt. This concept low voltage testing of fault conditions is followed as it is not
advisable to create on mains line. 555 timers are used for handling short duration and long
duration fault conditions. A set of switches are used to create the LL, LG and 3L fault in low
voltage side, for activating the tripping mechanism. Short •
duration fault returns the supply to the load immediately called as temporary trip while long
duration shall result in permanent trip.
• In an electric power system, a fault is any abnormal electric current. For example, a short
circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load. An open-circuit fault occurs if a
circuit is interrupted by some failure. In three-phase systems, a fault may involve one or more
phases and ground, or may occur only between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth fault", charge
flows into the earth. The prospective short circuit current of a fault can be calculated for power
systems. In power systems, protective devices detect fault conditions and operate circuit breakers
and other devices to limit the loss of service due to a failure. •

In a poly-phase system, a fault may affect all phases equally which is a "symmetrical fault". If
only some phases are affected, the resulting "asymmetrical fault" becomes more complicated
to analyze due to the simplifying assumption of equal current magnitude in all phases being
no longer applicable. The analysis of this type of fault is often simplified by using methods
such as symmetrical components. •

Design of systems to detect and interrupt power system faults is the main objective of power
system protection. •
Chapter:3 HARDWARE COMPONENTS
 • TRANSFORMER •
•
• VOLTAGE REGULATOR •
•
• FILTER •
•
• 555 TIMER •
•
• DIODE •
•
• RELAY •
•
• RESISTOR •
•
• CAPACITOR •
3.1
Transformer
Fig: 3.1 Transformer Circuit

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between its
winding circuits. A varying current in the primarywinding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary winding.
Transformers can be used to vary the relative voltage of circuits orisolate them, or both.

Transformers range in size from thumbnail-sized used in microphones to units weighing hundreds of
tons interconnecting the power grid. A wide range of transformer designs are used in electronic and
electric power applications. Transformers are essential for the transmission, distribution, and
utilization ofelectrical energy.
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns
of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the
windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the
mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in
energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the
power supply. It is not directly a power loss (see Stray losses below), but results in inferior voltage
regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage,
particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage
inductance. Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux because it plays an essential
part in the operation of the transformer. The combined effect of the leakage flux and the electric field
around the windings is what transfers energy from the primary to the secondary.
Fig: 3.2 Transformer
High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of
braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-effect and proximity effect .]

In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic
bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current
it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such
as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become
periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.

The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the
individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels
lossesLarge power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low
throughout every turn. For small power and signal transformers, in which currents are low and the
potentialfrequencies
power difference between adjacent
non-uniform turns is small,
distribution the coilswould
of current are often wound from
otherwise existenamelled magnet
in high-current
wire, such Each
windings. as Formvar
strand wire. Larger power
is individually transformers
insulated, and theoperating at high
strands are voltages
arranged mayatbe
so that woundpoints
certain with
copper
in rectangular
the winding, strip conductors
or throughout insulated
the whole by oil-impregnated
winding, paper and
each portion occupies blocks relative
different pressboard
positions in
the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the
conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more
flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.

The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve
high-frequency response. Coils are split into sections, and those sections interleaved between the
sections of the other winding.

Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the winding, usually on the
higher voltage winding side, for voltage adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual
or automatic switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load tap changers are used in
electric power transmission or distribution, on equipment such
as arc furnace transformers, or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency
transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow
adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output
stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters
are very similar.
Dry-type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of standard open-wound 'dip-and-bake'
construction or of higher quality designs that include vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI), vacuum
pressure encapsulation (VPE), and cast coil encapsulation processes. In the VPI process, a
combination of heat, vacuum and pressure is used to thoroughly seal, bind, and eliminate entrained air
voids in the winding polyester resin insulation coat layer, thus increasing resistance to corona. VPE
windings are similar to VPI windings but provide more protection against environmental effects, such
as from water, dirt or corrosive ambients, by multiple dips including typically in terms of final epoxy
coat.

Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround the
core, the transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell
form. Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer
applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils. Core form design tends
to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for
high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges
(less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form
transformers tend to be more prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra high voltage
and higher MVA applications because, though more labor intensive to manufacture, shell form
transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit
strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.

3.2 Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level . A voltage

regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative
feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components.
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
Fig: 3.3 Voltage Regulator

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they
stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and
central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric
power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution
lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the
line.

load regulation is the change in output voltage for a given change in load current (for example:
"typically 15 mV, maximum 100 mV for load currents between 5 mA and 1.4 A, at some specified
temperature and input voltage").

line regulation or input regulation is the degree to which output voltage changes with input
(supply) voltage changes -as a ratio of output to input change (for example "typically 13 mV/V"),
or the output voltage change over the entire specified input voltage range (for example "plus or
minus 2% for input voltages between 90 V and 260 V, 50-60 Hz").
Other important parameters are:
Temperature coefficient of the output voltage is the change with temperature (perhaps averaged
over a given temperature range).

Initial accuracy of a voltage regulator (or simply "the voltage accuracy") reflects the error in
output voltage for a fixed regulator without taking into account temperature or aging effects on
output accuracy.

Dropout voltage is the minimum difference between input voltage and output voltage for which
the regulator can still supply the specified current. A low drop-out (LDO) regulator is designed to
work well even with an input supply only a volt or so above the output voltage. The input-output
differential at which the voltage regulator will no longer maintain regulation is the dropout
voltage. Further reduction in input voltage will result in reduced output voltage. This value is
dependent on load current and junction temperature.

Absolute maximum ratings are defined for regulator components, specifying the continuous and
peak output currents that may be used (sometimes internally limited), the maximum input
voltage, maximum power dissipation at a given temperature, etc.

Output noise (thermal white noise) and output dynamic impedance may be specified as graphs
versus frequency, while output ripple noise (mains "hum" or switch-mode "hash" noise) may be
given as peak-to-peak or RMS voltages, or in terms of their spectra.

Quiescent current in a regulator circuit is the current drawn internally, not available to the load,
normally measured as the input current while no load is connected (and hence a source of
inefficiency; some linear regulators are, surprisingly, more efficient at very low current loads than
switch-mode designs because of this).

Transient response is the reaction of a regulator when a (sudden) change of the load current
(called the load transient) or input voltage (called the line transient) occurs. Some regulators will
tend to oscillate or have a slow response time which in some cases might lead to undesired
results. This value is different from the regulation parameters, as that is the stable situation
definition. The transient response shows the behaviour of the regulator on a change. This data is
usually provided in the technical documentation of a regulator and is also dependent on output
capacitance.
Mirror-image insertion protection means that a regulator is designed for use when a voltage,
usually not higher than the maximum input voltage of the regulator, is applied to its output pin
while its input terminal is at a low voltage, volt-free or grounded. Some regulators can
continuously withstand this situation; others might only manage it for a limited time such as 60
seconds, as usually specified in the datasheet. This situation can occur when a three terminal
regulator is incorrectly mounted for example on a PCB, with the output terminal connected to the
unregulated DC input and the input connected to the load. Mirror-image insertion protection is
also important when a regulator circuit is used in battery charging circuits, when external power
fails or is not turned on and the output terminal remains at battery voltage.
A simple voltage regulator can be made from a resistor in series with a diode (or series of diodes).
Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage across the diode changes only slightly
due to changes in current drawn or changes in the input. When precise voltage control and efficiency
are not important, this design may work fine.

Feedback voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some fixed reference
voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element in such a way as to
reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback control loop; increasing the open-loop gain
tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability (avoidance of oscillation, or ringing during
step changes). There will also be a trade-off between stability and the speed of the response to
changes. If the output voltage is too low (perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current
increasing), the regulation element is commanded, up to a point, to produce a higher output voltage–
by dropping less of the input voltage (for linear series regulators and buckswitching regulators), or to
draw input current for longer periods (boost-type switching regulators); if the output voltage is too
high, the regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage. However,
many regulators have over-current protection, so that they will entirely stop sourcing current (or limit
the current in some way) if the output current is too high, and some regulators may also shut down if
the input voltage is outside a given range (see also: crowbar circuits).
3.3
Timer
The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and multivibrator
applications. The IC was designed by Hans R. Camenzind in 1970 and brought to market in 1971 by
Signetics (later acquired by Philips). The original name was the SE555 (metal can)/NE555 (plastic
DIP) and the part was described as “The IC Time Machine”. It has been claimed that the 555 gets its
name from the three 5 Kω resistors used in typical early
[2]
implementations,but Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary. The part is
still in wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability. As of 2003, it is estimated that
1 billion units are manufactured every year.

FIG 3.6TIMER IC

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20 transistors, 2 diodes and
15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP
[4]
8).Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the 558 (a
16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR
falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).

Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and TLC555. The 7555 is
designed to cause less supply glitching than the classic 555 and the manufacturer claims that it usually
does not require a “control” capacitor and in many cases does not require a power supply bypass
capacitor.

The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a “one-shot”. Applications include
timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency divider,
capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc.
Astable
–
free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers,
pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation,
etc.
 Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree latched switches, etc.

Usage

The connection of the pins is as follows:

Pin
Name
Purpose
1
GND
Ground, low level (0 V)
2
TRIG
OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3 VCC.
3
OUT
This output is driven to +VCC or GND.
4
RESET
A timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to GND.
5
CTRL
“Control” access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
6
THR
555 Basics
The 555 timer IC is a sim ple 8 pin DIL package IC. It can:

 be used as a monostable

 be used as an astable

 source or sink 100Ma

 use supply voltages of 5v to 15v disrupt the power supply-use a decoupling capacitor

Using the 555 as a buffer

A buffer circuit allows an input circuit to be connected to an ou tput circuit, it is like an interface
between one cir cuit and another. The buffer circuit requires very little input current but should be
able to supply adequate output current. The 555 can supply in excess of 100Ma of current and so can
be used as a convenient buffer for logic gates which cannot supply much
current. The 555 can also „sink‟ a similar amount of current.

The circuit used is:

T = 1.1 R C
T – seconds, R – ohms, C – Farads

FIG : 3.8 TIMER AS A BUFFER The circuit acts like an inverter or NOT gate. When the
input is held low, the output is high and will provide (source) current. When the input is held high, the
output is low and will sink current. Remember, for a buffer for even higher power devices that require
even larger currents, the 555 buffer can be used to drive a relay or a transistor circuit.

Using the 555 as a monostable

 The 555 can be used as a monostable using the circuit shown:  The output is

normally low but will go high for a short length of time depending on the
 values of the other components.

 R and C determine the time period of the output pulse.

 The input is normally high and goes low to trigger the output (falling edge triggered).

 The length of the input pulse must be less than the length of the output pulse.

 The 47Uf capacitor ‘decouples’ the supply to avoid affecting other parts of the circuit.

 It is standard to add a 10Nf capacitor from pin5 to gnd.

The minimum value of R should be about 1k to avoid too much current flowing into the 555. The
maximum value of R should be about 1M so that enough current can flow into the input of the 555
and there is alsocurrent to allow for the electrolytic capacitors leakage current. The minimum value
of C = 100Pf to avoid the timing equation being too far off. The maximum value of C should be
about 1000µF as any bigger capacitors will discharge too
much current through the chip.
These maximum and minimum values give a minimum period of 0.1
µs and a maximum period of 1000s.
Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave

3.4 Diode

rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1.Maximum forward current capacity 2.Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3.Maximum forward voltage capacity

Fig: 3.10 PN Junction diode

Fig: 1N4007 diodes The number and voltage capacity of some of the important
diodes available in the market are as follows: Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004,
IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum
forward current capacity of 1 Amp.

Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more capacity can
be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used in place of diode
of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or
IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by company BEL is equivalent of
diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is
equivalent to diode IN4007.
PN JUNCTION OPERATION

Now that you are familiar with P-and N-type materials, how these materials are joined together
toform a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the operation of the
PNjunction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we must first consider current
flow inthe materials that make up the junction and what happens initially within the junction when
these twomaterials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper wire. Thatis,
with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal just as current
wouldflow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive potential of the battery will
attract thefree electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal and flow into the positive
terminal ofthe battery. As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron from the negative terminal of the
battery willenter the crystal, thus completing the current path. Therefore, the majority current carriers
in the N-typematerial (electrons) are repelled by the negative side of the battery and move through the
crystal towardthe positive side of the battery.
Current Flow in the P-Type Material
Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material isby positive
holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P materialto the
negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal of the material
andfill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons are removed from the
covalentbonds, thus creating new holes. This process continues as the steady stream of holes (hole
current) movestoward the negative terminal

3.5 Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching
mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is
necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between
control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first
relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit
and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other
loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics
and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults;
in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protective relays".

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or
more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and
mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that
when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the
two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open.
Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the
picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit
between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB)
via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
[1]

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending
upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay
was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if
the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is
provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or
current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate the
energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage
spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive relays include a diode inside
the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in
series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating
current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a
small out-of-phase current which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.

A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the control
signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a light-emitting diode
(LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and controlled circuits.
Relays are used for:
o A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a long wire
o Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or audio
amplifiers, o Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile,
Fig: 3.11 Relay

Amplifying a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a small operating power.
Some special cases are:

Detecting and isolating faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers (protection relays),

A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

Isolating the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch.
The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily
installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be
controlled by room occupancy detectors to conserve energy,

Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting normally
open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in
parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function.
Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed
contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used fo r designing relay logic networks.
o The application of Boolean Algebra to relay circuit design was formalized by Claude Shannon in A
Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Sw itching Circuits
o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical elements i n digital
computers. See
electro-mechanical
co mputers such as ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3. o Safety-cri tical logic.
Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in
safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery.

Time delay funct ions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of
contacts. A very s hort (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for
a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute)
delay, a dashpot i s used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid t hat is allowed to escape
slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or decre asing the flow rate. For longer
time perio ds, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.
Vehicle battery isolation. A 12v relay is often used to isolate any second battery in cars, 4WDs,
RVs and b oats. Switching to a standby power supply.

3.6 Resistor

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a

circuit element.

The current through a res istor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals.
This relationship is repre sented by Ohm's law:
where
I
is the current through the conductor in units of amperes,
V
is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and
R
is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.
Fig: 3.12 Resistor

The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the
circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the
voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well
as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are
also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.

The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial

resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nineorders of magnitude. When specifying
that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require
attention to themanufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage
circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
While there is no minimum working voltage for a given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's
maximum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when current is run through it.
 Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications
can be important in high-frequency applications. In alow-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise
characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and
temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the
resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors
manufactured using a particular technology.A family of discrete resistors is also characterized
according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or
terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

3.7 Capacitor

A capacitor is a passiveelectronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a

dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static
electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between
the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured
in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between
them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence
capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice
the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric
field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.
Fig: 3.12 Capacitor An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between
them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors
and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting
in a breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality factor of a resonant
circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic circuit, energy capacity in a high-power
system, and many other important aspects.

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-conductor.
Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer
of insulating film.

Fig:-3.13 Capacitors
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to
store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one
common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors
are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
 Chapter: 4 Descriptions
COMPARATOR

How an op-amp can be used as a comparator?

Potential dividers are connected to the inverting and non inverting inputs of the op-amp to give some
voltage at these terminals. Supply voltage is given to +Vss and –Vss is connected to ground. The
When there
output of thisiscomparator
a potentialwill
difference across
be logic high thesupply
(i.e., conductors,
voltage)anif electric field develops
the non-inverting across
terminal inputthe
is
dielectric,
greater thancausing positive
the inverting chargeinput
terminal to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate.
of the comparator.
Energy is i.e.,
stored
Nonininverting
the electrostatic
input (+) field. An ideal
> inverting inputcapacitor is characterized
(-) = output is logic high by a single constant
value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, which is equal to one coulomb per volt.
If the inverting terminal input is greater than the non-inverting terminal input then the output of the
comparator will be logic low (i.e., gnd)

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence
i.e., inverting input (-) > Non inverting input (+) = output is logic low
capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice,
the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric
field strength limit, the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired
inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant
circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems they
stabilize voltage and power flow.

.
Chapter: 5 OPERATION EXPLANATION
WORKING:

The project uses 6numbers step-down transformers for handling the entire circuit under low voltage
conditions of 12v only to test the 3 phase fault analysis. The primary of 3 transformers are connected
to a 3 phase supply in star configuration, while the secondary of the same is also connected in star
configuration. The other set of 3 transformers with its primary connected in star to 3 phase have their
secondary‟s connected in delta configuration. The output of all the 6 transformers are rectified and
filtered individually and are given to 6 relay coils. 6 push buttons, one each connected across the relay
coil is meant to create a fault condition either at star i.e. LL Fault or 3L Fault. The NC contacts of all
the relays are made parallel while all the common points are grounded. The parallel connected point
of NC are given to pin2 through a resistor R5 to a 555 timer i.e. wired in monostable mode. The
output of the same timer is connected to the reset pin 4 of another 555 timer wired in astable mode.
LED‟S are connected at their output to indicate their status. The output of the U3 555 timer from pin3
is given to an Opamp LM358 through wire 11 and d12 to the non inverting input pin3, while the
inverting input is kept at a fixed voltage by a potential divider RV2. The voltage at pin2 coming from
the potential divider is so held that it is higher than the pin3 of the Op-amp used as a comparator so
that pin1 develops zero logic that fails to operate the relay through the driver transistor Q1. This relay
Q1 is „3CO‟ relay i.e. is meant for disconnecting the load to indicate fault conditions.

OPERATING PROCEDURE:

While the board is powered from a 3phase supply all the 6 relay coils get DC voltage and their
common point disconnects from the NC and moves on to the NO points there by providing logic high
at pin2 of 555 timer U1 i.e. that is kept on monostable mode. While any push button across the relay
is pressed it disconnects that relay and in the process in common contacts moves to the NC position to
provide a logic low at trigger pin of 555 timer to develop an output that brings the U3 555 timer
which is used in astable mode for its reset pin to high such that the astable operation takes place at its
output which is also indicated by flashing D11 LED. If the fault is off temporary in nature i.e. if the
push button pressed is released immediately the U1
monostable disables U3 the output of which goes to zero in the event of any push button kept pressed
for a longer duration the monostable output provides a longer duration active situation for U3 the
astable timer the output of which charges capacitor C13 through R11 such that the output of the
comparator goes high that drives the relay to switch off three phase load.
The output of Op-amp remains high indefinitely through a positive feedback provided for its pin1 to pin3
through a forward biased diode and a resistor in series. This results in the relay permanently switched on to
disconnect the load connected at its NC contacts permanently off. In order to maintain the flow of DC supply
the star
connected
secondary set DC‟S are paralleled through D8,D9& D10 for uninterrupted supply to the circuit voltage of 12v
DC and 5v DC derived out of voltage regulator IC 7805.
Chapter6 Applicatio
n
• Substation, •
• Transmission Line. •

•
• Transformer, •
•
• Drives & Relay, •
•
Chapter:7 Advantages
 • Safety Equipment •
•
• Work Complete Time to Time •
•
• More Efficiency •
•
• Reduce Losses •
•
• More Reliable •
Chapter:8 Reference
䘀椀最㨀㈀⸀㄀䈀氀漀挀欀䐀椀愀最爀愀洀

 Power system protection by dipak s.bankar  Analog and

digital communication, tech max publication  Electrical

machines by b.l.thereja

 Swich gear and protection by s.s.rao