Entity Relationship Diagram – ER

Diagram in DBMS
BY CHAITANYA SINGH | FILED UNDER: DBMS

An Entity–relationship model (ER model) describes the structure of a

database with the help of a diagram, which is known as Entity Relationship
Diagram (ER Diagram). An ER model is a design or blueprint of a database that
can later be implemented as a database. The main components of E-R model
are: entity set and relationship set.

What is an Entity Relationship Diagram (ER Diagram)?

An ER diagram shows the relationship among entity sets. An entity set is a group
of similar entities and these entities can have attributes. In terms of DBMS, an
entity is a table or attribute of a table in database, so by showing relationship
among tables and their attributes, ER diagram shows the complete logical
structure of a database. Lets have a look at a simple ER diagram to understand
this concept.

A simple ER Diagram:

In the following diagram we have two entities Student and College and their
relationship. The relationship between Student and College is many to one as a
college can have many students however a student cannot study in multiple
colleges at the same time. Student entity has attributes such as Stu_Id,
Stu_Name & Stu_Addr and College entity has attributes such as Col_ID &
Col_Name.

Here are the geometric shapes and their meaning in an E-R Diagram. We will
discuss these terms in detail in the next section(Components of a ER Diagram)
of this guide so don’t worry too much about these terms now, just go through
them once.

Rectangle: Represents Entity sets.

Ellipses: Attributes
Diamonds: Relationship Set
Lines: They link attributes to Entity Sets and Entity sets to Relationship Set
Double Ellipses: Multivalued Attributes
Dashed Ellipses: Derived Attributes
Double Rectangles: Weak Entity Sets
Double Lines: Total participation of an entity in a relationship set

Components of a ER Diagram
As shown in the above diagram, an ER diagram has three main components:
1. Entity
2. Attribute
3. Relationship

1. Entity

An entity is an object or component of data. An entity is represented as rectangle

in an ER diagram.
For example: In the following ER diagram we have two entities Student and
College and these two entities have many to one relationship as many students
study in a single college. We will read more about relationships later, for now
focus on entities.
Weak Entity:
An entity that cannot be uniquely identified by its own attributes and relies on the
relationship with other entity is called weak entity. The weak entity is represented
by a double rectangle. For example – a bank account cannot be uniquely
identified without knowing the bank to which the account belongs, so bank
account is a weak entity.

2. Attribute

An attribute describes the property of an entity. An attribute is represented as

Oval in an ER diagram. There are four types of attributes:

1. Key attribute
2. Composite attribute
3. Multivalued attribute
4. Derived attribute

1. Key attribute:
A key attribute can uniquely identify an entity from an entity set. For example,
student roll number can uniquely identify a student from a set of students. Key
attribute is represented by oval same as other attributes however the text of key
attribute is underlined.

2. Composite attribute:

An attribute that is a combination of other attributes is known as composite

attribute. For example, In student entity, the student address is a composite
attribute as an address is composed of other attributes such as pin code, state,
country.
3. Multivalued attribute:

An attribute that can hold multiple values is known as multivalued attribute. It is

represented with double ovals in an ER Diagram. For example – A person can
have more than one phone numbers so the phone number attribute is
multivalued.

4. Derived attribute:

A derived attribute is one whose value is dynamic and derived from another
attribute. It is represented by dashed oval in an ER Diagram. For example –
Person age is a derived attribute as it changes over time and can be derived
from another attribute (Date of birth).

E-R diagram with multivalued and derived attributes:

3. Relationship

A relationship is represented by diamond shape in ER diagram, it shows the

relationship among entities. There are four types of relationships:
1. One to One
2. One to Many
3. Many to One
4. Many to Many

1. One to One Relationship

When a single instance of an entity is associated with a single instance of
another entity then it is called one to one relationship. For example, a person has
only one passport and a passport is given to one person.

2. One to Many Relationship

When a single instance of an entity is associated with more than one instances of
another entity then it is called one to many relationship. For example – a
customer can place many orders but a order cannot be placed by many
customers.

3. Many to One Relationship

When more than one instances of an entity is associated with a single instance of
another entity then it is called many to one relationship. For example – many
students can study in a single college but a student cannot study in many
colleges at the same time.
4. Many to Many Relationship

When more than one instances of an entity is associated with more than one
instances of another entity then it is called many to many relationship. For
example, a can be assigned to many projects and a project can be assigned to
many students.

Total Participation of an Entity set

A Total participation of an entity set represents that each entity in entity set must
have at least one relationship in a relationship set. For example: In the below
diagram each college must have at-least one associated Student.
What is Collaboration?
 

Collaboration is a working practice whereby individuals work together for a common

purpose to achieve business benefit. 

Collaboration enables individuals to work together to achieve a defined and common

business purpose. It exists in two forms:

 Synchronous, where everyone interacts in real-time, as in online meetings, through

instant messaging, or via Skype, and
 Asynchronous, where the interaction can be time-shifted, as when uploading documents
or annotations to shared workspaces or making contributions to a wiki

Collaboration at the conceptual level involves:

 Awareness – We become part of a working entity with a shared purpose

 Motivation – We drive to gain consensus in problem-solving or development
 Self-synchronization – We decide as individuals when things need to happen
 Participation – We participate in collaboration and we expect others to participate
 Mediation – We negotiate and we collaborate together and find a middle point
 Reciprocity – We share and we expect sharing in return through reciprocity
 Reflection – We think and we consider alternatives
 Engagement – We proactively engage rather than wait and see

Collaboration relies on openness and knowledge sharing but also some level of focus
and accountability on the part of the business organizations. Governance should be
established addressing the creation and closing of team workspaces with the
assignment of responsibility for capturing the emergent results of the collaborative
effort.
 Characteristic How it’s measured

Accuracy Is the information correct in every detail?

Completeness How comprehensive is the information?

Reliability Does the information contradict other trusted resources?

Relevance Do you really need this information?

Timeliness How up- to-date is information? Can it be used for real-time

reporting?

Accuracy

As the name implies, this data quality characteristic means that information is

correct. To determine whether data is accurate or not, ask yourself if the
information reflects a real-world situation. For example, in the realm of
financial services, does a customer really have $1 million in his bank
account?

Accuracy is a crucial data quality characteristic because inaccurate

information can cause significant problems with severe consequences. We’ll
use the example above – if there’s an error in a customer’s bank account, it
could be because someone accessed it without his knowledge.
Completeness

“Completeness” refers to how comprehensive the information is. When

looking at data completeness, think about whether all of the data you need is
available; you might need a customer’s first and last name, but the middle
initial may be optional.

Why does completeness matter as a data quality characteristic? If information

is incomplete, it might be unusable. Let’s say you’re sending a mailing out.
You need a customer’s last name to ensure the mail goes to the right address
– without it, the data is incomplete.

Reliability

In the realm of data quality characteristics, reliability means that a piece of

information doesn’t contradict another piece of information in a different
source or system. We’ll use an example from the healthcare field; if a
patient’s birthday is January 1, 1970 in one system, yet it’s June 13, 1973 in
another, the information is unreliable. 

Reliability is a vital data quality characteristic. When pieces of information

contradict themselves, you can’t trust the data. You could make a mistake
that could cost your firm money and reputational damage. 

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Relevance

When you’re looking at data quality characteristics, relevance comes into

play because there has to be a good reason as to why you’re collecting this
information in the first place. You must consider whether you really need this
information, or whether you’re collecting it just for the sake of it.

Why does relevance matter as a data quality characteristic? If you’re

gathering irrelevant information, you’re wasting time as well as money. Your
analyses won’t be as valuable. 

Timeliness

Timeliness, as the name implies, refers to how up to date information is. If it

was gathered in the past hour, then it’s timely – unless new information has
come in that renders previous information useless. 

The timeliness of information is an important data quality characteristic,

because information that isn’t timely can lead to people making the wrong
decisions. In turn, that costs organizations time, money, and reputational
damage.

“Timeliness is an important data quality characteristic – out-of-date

information costs companies time and money”

In today’s business environment, data quality characteristics ensure that you

get the most out of your information. When your information doesn’t meet
these standards, it isn’t valuable. Precisely provides data quality solutions to
improve the accuracy, completeness, reliability, relevance, and timeliness of
your data.

Types of Software
Software can take the form of one line of code or, like Microsoft’s Windows operating
system, span into millions.

Software also works with other software to join as a cohesive system. Your smartphone
is a collection of thousands of software components designed to work together.

Code languages and styles vary in size and scope. The software used to work a
modern microwave is very different from the code that runs an Apple Mac.

The remainder of this article helps to explain the different types of software including:

 Application Software
 System Software
 Firmware
 Programming Software
 Driver Software
 Freeware
 Shareware
 Open Source Software
 Closed Source Software
 Utility Software

We provide examples of each and how they could serve your business.

You’ll see the difference between applications versus system software and how the
industry has evolved over the years to the IT juggernaut it’s become today. 

Application Software

Application software is a software program or group of programs designed for end-

users. There are many types of application software.

Types of Application Software and Examples

 Word Processing Software: Google Docs, Microsoft Word, WordPad and Notepad
 Database Software: MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Access, Oracle, IBM DB2
and FoxPro
 Spreadsheet Software: Google Sheets, Apple Numbers and Microsoft Excel
 Multimedia Software: Media Player, Winamp, QuickTime and VLC Media Player
 Presentation Software: Google Slides, Microsoft Powerpoint, Keynotes, Prezzy
 Enterprise Software: customer relationship management (CRM) software (HubSpot,
Microsoft Dynamic 365)), project management tools (Jira, Monday), marketing
automation tools (Marketo, HubSpot), enterprise resource planning (ERP) software
 (SAGE, Oracle, Microsoft Dynamics), treasury management system (TMS) software
(SAP S/4HANA Finance, Oracle Treasury), business intelligence (BI) software (SAP
Business Intelligence, MicroStrategy, Microsoft Power BI)
 Information Worker Software: Documentation tools, resource management tools
 Communication Software: Zoom, Google Meet, Skype
 Educational Software: Dictionaries – Encarta, Britannica; Mathematical: MATLAB;
Others: Google Earth, NASA World Wind
 Simulation Software: Flight and scientific simulators
 Content Access Software: Accessing content through media players, web browsers
 Application Suites: Apache OpenOffice, Microsoft Office365, Apple’s iWork, LibreOffice,
G-Suite, Oracle E-Business Suite
 Software for Engineering and Product Development: IDE or Integrated Development
Environments
 Email Software: Microsoft Outlook, Gmail, Apple Mail

Benefits of Application Software

Applications are the lifeblood of our digital devices.

Mobile app developers create solutions to let businesses sell and market themselves
online. Financial applications run the stock market. The banking system uses
applications to transfer money and log transactions.

If your business needs a digital solution it usually comes in the form of an app.

System Software

System software provides a platform for other software and includes the programs
managing the computer itself, such as the computer’s operating system, file
management utilities and disk operating system (or DOS). The system’s files consist of
libraries of functions, system services, drivers for printers and other hardware, system
preferences and other configuration files. The programs in system software encompass
assemblers, compilers, file management tools, system utilities and debuggers.

While application software is non-essential and won’t shut down your device by being
uninstalled, system software is essential and creates a platform that apps sit inside. 

Examples of System Software

System software runs things in the background and operating systems are an example
of system software.

For desktop computers, laptops and tablets:

  Microsoft Windows
 MacOS (for Apple devices)
 GNU/Linux

For smartphones:

 Apple’s iOS
 Google’s Android
 Windows Phone OS

Other examples include game engines, computational science software, industrial

automation software and software as a service applications.

Other than operating systems, some people also classify programming software and
driver software as types of system software. However, we will discuss them individually
in the next two sections.

Benefits of System Software

Open-source operating systems let businesses create their own OS.

Firmware

Firmware is software that’s stored on a computer’s motherboard or chipset.

Its job is to ensure the device works directly. When you switch on your laptop, the Basic
Input Output System (BIOS) wakes everything up.

It checks the drive for errors then queries if the operating system is present. If so, it then
turns control over to the likes of Windows 10.

Programming Software

How does software get developed? The answer is by using programming software.

Most code is written in English using a specific format or syntax. High-level

programming languages are then converted into machine code. It then takes another
type of software called a compiler to achieve this.

Programming software, also known as a programming tool or software development

tool, is a program that assists software developers or programmers with creating,
debugging and maintaining other programs and applications. Programming software is
considered to be a subset of system software, although there is debate regarding this.
Examples of Programming Software

It’s possible to write computer languages like Java or PHP in plain-text editor apps, but
more robust, industry-standard applications are available. Compilers, assemblers,
debuggers, interpreters etc. are examples of programming software. Integrated
development environments (IDEs) are combinations of all these software.

Most software developers use programming software apps like:

 GitHub
 GitLab
 Android Studio
 Visual Studio Code
 Eclipse
 XCode
 Notepad++
 Atom

They’re termed IDEs or integrated development environments and programmers use

them for a reason.

Benefits of Programming Software

IDEs have tools like highlighting errors in code. They also contain in-built compilers and
preview how the app will work before testing it on a phone.

Trying to track down a bug over thousands of lines of code is next to impossible in a
simple text editor. Yet an IDE makes that easier resulting in quicker development time
and robust software.

Driver Software

Driver software communicates with hardware and control devices and peripherals
attached to a computer. It does this by gathering input from the OS (operating system)
and giving instructions to the hardware to perform an action or other designated task.

Internal components like the hard drive and processor each require its own driver. If the
wrong software’s installed the device won’t work correctly.

In older versions of Windows, device drivers became the bane of office life.

New peripherals like a printer required the correct driver. When the CD went missing it
took forever to find the right driver software online.
Thankfully Windows and other operating systems install and manage drivers behind the
scenes. The result is an optimised and working machine.

Examples of Driver Software

All hardware devices require drivers. For example:

 Graphic cards
 Network cards
 Mouse and keyboard

When you insert a USB flash drive into your computer, the OS recognises it as a new
device. The driver then gets installed automatically to make it functional.

Benefits of Driver Software

Drivers are part of the system software category. Without them, nothing would work.

Hardware manufacturers are usually responsible for creating driver software. However,
Linux and Chromebook often get overlooked because of their small market share.

Thankfully the coding community comes to the rescue.

Someone writes the code to make the device work correctly on their system. They then
share the driver online for others to download and use.

Freeware

Freeware sounds like free software or open-source software but there’s a difference.

Freeware software does not expose or share its source code. Yet the software owner
does not charge others to use it.

Freeware licences vary as to what the software can be used for and who can share it.

Some developers only allow their freeware for private or personal use. Businesses need
a paid licence or get written permission. An example of this is GPT-3 – and only
approved developers and marketers can get access to the program.

Always read the small print and be wary of the copyright of freeware licences.

Examples of Freeware
Freeware software examples cover a wide base of useful applications from audio to
virtual machines.

Explore some of this year’s best freeware software here. And if you want a great free
alternative to Adobe Photoshop check out gimp.org.

Benefits of Freeware

You pay nothing for fully developed software. You can uninstall it if you don’t like the
features. There are no companies ‘forcing’ you to upgrade.

Freeware also helps the online community to share and grow. Developers can
showcase their talents while businesses can avail of some excellent apps.

Shareware

Like freeware, shareware is free to use and share with others, but only for a short time.

It acts as an evaluation. You can try some or all of the features before committing to a
purchase.

Examples of Shareware

WinZip is one of the most established shareware apps.

It started in 1991 when compression software wasn’t included in Windows. Nearly thirty
years later, it still sees high download volumes. The free trial is time-limited but all
versions include encryption.

Benefits of Shareware

Shareware lets you try the software for free before purchasing a full licence.

Some give a limited feature set or are time-locked. “Try before you buy” is a great way
to check if the software is right for your business’s needs.

Open Source Software

Open source means you can explore the actual code that the app was written in.

Strict software licences restrict what another developer is able to do with the code.

However, the ethos behind open-source is to encourage development.
Open source means evolving the code to make it better for everyone.

Examples of Open Source Software

The Linux OS is the perfect example of open-source software.

Developers can download the source code and edit it as they see fit. New flavours of
Linux help target a certain need as a result.

Benefits of Open Source Software

Github.com is the top destination for coders to save and share their code.

Repositories are often open source and developers can find the right solution to their
issues easily. They can clone whole projects or download elements for free.

Closed Source Software

Most applications are closed source in that they do not expose the original code.

Licences are stringent. No unauthorised copying or cracking is allowed. The app can be
commercial or private but it requires payment of some kind to use.

Examples of Closed Source Software

Any app that hides or encrypts its source code is considered closed-source.

For example, Skype allows video conferencing. It’s owned by Microsoft and although
free to use, the corporation charges high-volume users a fee.

Benefits of Closed Source Software

Closed source software is designed for commercial use.

Developers are often employed to write code. That costs money. Therefore companies
don’t want their investment shared without recompense.

Utility Software

Utility software is designed to analyse and optimise a device.

These apps are usually bundled with an OS. They track performance and alert the
system if there’s a problem like overheating.

Examples of Utility Software

The Windows Task Manager shows all open processes in Windows. It details
performance over time and showcases how much memory each uses.

Utilities also include anti-virus software and backup apps.

Benefits of Utility Software

Keeping a close eye on overheating is essential as is scanning for malware.

Utility software helps to keep things stable. It’s designed to make your system run
smooth and not get damaged due to overuse.