SYLLABUS LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Linear Integrated © ec-402 05 porioasiWeek periods / Semester = 90 TIME SCHEDULE Major Topice 4 | IC Manufacturing 2 | Operational Amy 3. | Op-Amp Applications 18 28 2 2 4 | Non Linear Wave Shaping Circuits, 26 23 3 2 Timers and amplifiers, A/O& 16 26 2 2 ‘Torat 90 110 10 8 BJECTIVE: Ugon completion ofthe course the student should be able to 1.0 Explain the IC Manufacturing methods 14 1.2 Classify 1Cs based on fabrication techniques (monolithic, thin fm, thick flim and hybed). 1.3 Compare the diferent types of above fabrication techniques, 1.4 Explain the manufacturing process of monolithic ICs, 1.8 Explain the fabrication of resistor, and capacitor on monolithic IC 1.6 Explain the fabrication of diode and transistor on monolithic 1C 7 18 discrete assembly. Ich of above package types 1.9 Mention the pow Ing of above packages.fo lll TT [CONTENTS CHAPTER - 4 1¢ MANUFACTURING | 0 ITRODUCTION : 1 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT : 3 1.2 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF 1S COMPARISON OF DISCRETE AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF C'S 4.5. IMPORTANT TERNS 16 APPLICATIONS OF ICS 1.7 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF MONOLITHIC ICS 118 FABRICATION OF COMPONENTS ON MONOLITHIC IC 18) Fabrication of Di 1.9 IC PACKAGES 19.1 Fanti of C Packages 19.8 Levels of megan SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY ADVANTAGES OF SMT OVER PIN THROUGH HOLE MOUNTING. 12 UMITATIONS OF SAT O suMMaRY (© REVIEWQUESTIONS2 OPERATIONAL AMPUFER PARAMETERS 14) OPERATIONAL AMPUFIER POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS FOR UP-ANP INVERTING AMPUFIER 2.8 CONCEPT OF VIRTUAL GROUND OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 2 summary 2 REVIEW QUESTIONS CHAPTER - 3 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS _ 3.1 OP-AMP WEIN » BRIDGE OSCILLATOR ee a‘| i= erace - svusasus - conTenrs | WT OSCILLATOR PHASE GAIN BANDWIDTH PRODUCT a as : Be . oo ‘ 4 TRANSISTOR SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR * 39 TRANSISTOR SHUNT REGULATOR: 7 3.30 IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS : J) THREE TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS 2 3.12 FINED POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR (78 Xx SERIES) > 4.13. FRED NEGATIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR (79 01 SERIES) : 2.34 ADJUSTABLE POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM 317) 2 2 sumary 2 ©. REVIEW QUESTIONS 2 CHAPTER - 4 40 iwTRoDUCTION 2 41 cupeer cincurr x 42° CLASSIFICATION OF cuIPPER ciRcUITS : > 43 SeRies oIODE cLippeR cincuiT ; 44 SHUNT DIODE cUPPER ciRcUrT : 45 BIASED sHuNT DIODE CLIPPER : 4 DOUBLE CLIPPER OR Two LEVEL CLIPPER : 47 TWO LEVEL CLIPPER USING ZENER O1ODES ‘ 48 cuupen cincur 5a9 420 aa an 4a 4m 43 426 4a 429 420 an [sry " NEGATIVE VOLTAGE CLAMPER CIRCUIT BIASED CLAMPER APPLICATIONS OF CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS : | ‘weer cRCUITS ‘WEEP WAVEFORM AND INPORTANT DEFINITIONS SWEEP VOLTAGE GENERATION BOOTSTRAP SWEEP CIRCUIT MLLER sweer CIRCUIT ILLER INTEGRATOR USING OF ANP (CURRENT TIME BASE GENERATOR 2 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN VOLTAGE SWEEP & CURRENT SWEEP GENERATORS APPLICATIONS OF SWEEP CIRCUITS mucrivipRaToR TRANSISTOR ASTABLE MULTIIBRATOR ASTABLE MULTIIBRATOR ‘MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR STABLE. MULTIVIBRATOR (P-AMP SCHMITT TRIGGER cIRCUTT APPLICATIONS OF MULTIVIBRATORS 427.1 Applian of Atle Malivbraor 427.2 Applicaton of Monstsbe Me 427.5. Applicaton of sabe Ms 4274 Application of Shmiter Tiger 1C 555 TIMER 4281 Panctonl black Daron IC 555 MONOSTABLE muLTiVBRATOR C555 ASTABLE MULTIVIRATOR PHASE LOCKED LOOP (PLL) SSre ”:—ltt—SSS Irvernce -smvanus conrenrs | oN oF PLL TYPE Um - 585 an Rn 1a LOCK RANGE OF PLL 2 Jt CAPTURE RANGE OF PLL 2 [APPLICATIONS OF PLL Ly MULTIPLIER USING PLL FREQUENC FM DEMODULATOR USING PLL . ‘aas VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR UM 565 xu o. SUNMARY a © REVIEW QUESTIONS 38 CHAPTER - 5 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS A/D AND D/A CONVER’ 5.0. INTRODUCTION 5.1 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER 5.2 ADVANTAGES OF INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER os 3 5.3 VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER 3 5.4 CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTOR ‘ 5.5. NEED FOR A/D CONVERTERS 4 5.6 NEED FOR O/A CONVERTER, 5 5.7 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF D/A CONVERSION . 5 5.8 SPECIFICATION OF 0/A CONVERTERS 5 5.9 D/A CONVERTER USING WEIGHTED RESISTORS 7 591 Dis td Resists Method ” 5.10 D/A CONVERTER USING R-2R LADDER NETWORK 0 510.1. dvanages of R= 28 LadlerNeowork n 5.11 A/D CONVERSION i 5.12 A/D CONVERSION USING COUNTER METHOD 2 S121 Disadvame ‘ “anverton ”> SIANARY 2) REVIEW QUESTIONS——_ao~"S—s=_SsM—(_C.—C—saF—sF—s——tféf —_—— LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 7 1¢ MANUFACTURING[uvess intecraren ciecuns | INTRODUCTION The circuit fabricated by joing components by wires or plated conductors on printed boards are known as discrete circuits. Because each component added to the circuit in discrete from the others. The discrete circuits have many disadvantages. To overcome these problems. engineers started a drive for miniature circuit. This led to the pment of micro electronics in the late 1950's devel An integrated circuit (IC) has various components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, wansistor ete fabricated on a small semiconductor chip. How circuits containing hundreds of components are fabricated on a small semiconductor chip to produce an IC is a fascinating feat of micro-electronics. ICs have reduced the size weight and power requirements of todays electronic equipment. In this chapter we discuss about ICs and manufacturing INTEGRATED CIRCUIT An integrated circuit is one in which circuit components such as transistors, diode, resistors, capacitors. etc.. are automatically part of a small semiconductor chip An integrated circuit comprises of a number of circuit components such as transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors etc., and their interconnections in a single package to perform a complete electronic function. These components are formed and connected with in a small chip of a semiconductor material. The following are the important points about integrated circuits In an IC, the various components are automatically part of a small semiconductor chip and the individual components cannot be removed or replaced. This is in contrast to descrete assembly in which individual components can be removed or replaced if necessary. FIG 1.1 : Typical Semiconductor Chipie Manufacturing, a Jousrrer-t K xtremely small, In fact [Cs are so small that you normally need a The size of an IC ise that connection between the components. Fig. 1.1 shows a typical 0.1 mm. Itis possible to 2 microscope to see semiconductor chip h ircuits containing many diodes, transistors re having dimensions 2mm « 2mm « produce ¢ »sistors, capacitors etc. on the surface of this chip 3, No component of an IC are seen to project aboue the surface of the chip This is because all the components are formed within the chip. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF ICS : ADVANTAGES OF IC: am IC possess the following advantages over a discrete circuits 1. _ Increased reliability due to lesser number of connections. 2. Extremely small size due to the fabrication of various circuit elements in a single- chip ot semiconductor material Lesser weight due to miniaturized circuit. 3. 4, Low power requirements 5, Greater ability to operate at extreme values of temperature: 6. Low cost because of simultaneous production of hundreds of alike circuits on a ‘small semiconductor wafer. 1.2.2 LIMITATIONS OF ICS An IC has the following Limitations. 1, Hany components in an IC goes out of order. the whole IC has to be replaced by the newone. 2. Inan IC, itisneither convenient nor economical to fabricate capacitances exceeding 30pF Therefore, for high values of capacitance, discrete components exterior of IC chip are connected, 3. It is not possible to fabricate inductors and transformers on the surface of semiconductors chip. Therefore these components are connected exterior to the semiconductor chip. 4. Itis not possible to produce high power ICs.= COMPARISON OF DISCRETE AND INTEGRATED © S.No. Discrete Circuit 1. These are fabricated by joining components by Here the cory wires or plated conductors on printed circuit boards. _ single semicor 2. Components are inter connected by wires of tracks Components of PCBs. aluminium layer ‘Components are isolated from each other by isolation ditlusion. 3. Components are isolated by air 4. Heavy in weight Lighter in weight 5 Occupies large space Cocoupies less sP2ce 5. More power consumption Low power consumption. 7. Less roliable due to mere numberof ons High degree of reliably 8 Components can be removes or replaced ‘components cannot be removed of i necessary repmced, But IC tel can Be replaced. 9. Components are projected at random. components are not projected fom the surface of the chip. 1 possible to produce high power Ics (> 10) 10. High cost Low cost 11. High power circuits can be produced, 1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF IC’S Integrated circuits are classified according to their manufacture as follows 1, Monolithic 2. Thin film 3. Thick film 4. Hybrid “These are classified according to their packages as followsJewarrer 18 1 IMPORTANT TEAMS the process of locations to produce dind by etching the Si 0, ‘The main difference between the thick laid hin fm ICs the layer but not the relative thickness. The gen th thick and thin fim IC's are same. The film to 1 micron. Resistors made using screen printing techniques. The a such as diodes, transistors are added external circuit. Thick employs evaporation or cathode sputtering technique. Hybrid 1C ‘The hybrid IC is formed by a combination of the film and monolithic IC technigues. In hybrid ICs the active devices are first formed within a silicon we technique. Film techniques are employed to form the passive el the surface, Connections are made from the lm tothe monolithic structure through windows cut in Si Op layer Ic: technique, thin film circuit employs an by mont Lines 1e ICs input and outputs are of analog type. Hence these are also analog ICs. Some ICs are low powered (LW) linea ‘Amp (741), TimeDigital ICs = 5. 1.6 The digital ICs are mostly used in computer industry. Di [ unear nvreceateo cincuns | tal ICs contain circuit whose input and output voltage are of two possible levels j.e.. either low or high. It is so because digital signals are usually in binary. Examples of di igital ICs are microprocessors (8085), Flip-flops (7476), Logic gates (7400,7402). Counters (7490, 7492), Memory chips, registers etc APPLICATIONS OF ICS Linear ICs Applications : These ICs are used widely in 1 on een 10, Radio receivers TM. receivers Industral applications Microwave applications Publ addressing systems Telephony/telegraphy circults Radars Radio transmitter TY. transmitter Defence applications etc. Applications of Digital ICs : These are widely used in Computers Calculators Digital counters, Digital clocks Memory circuits Adder/subtractor circuits Data selector Digital display units Digital instrumentsJouoren 7 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF MONOLITHIC ICS A monol means “one chip” The base productions process step in the makin 8 25.1 then cut by a dia being 200 um. One si 1, Epitaie put the wat fas mixture of silicon atoms and 9 petra walent atoms is passed over the ‘This forms a thin layer of n-type ductor on the heated surface of ‘as shown in Fig. 1.3. This thin yer and is about 10 4 layer that — the whole integrated circuit is formed 3. Insulating Layer : In order to prevent the contamination of the epitaxial layer, a thin '5,0z layer about 1 jim thick is deposited lover the entire surface an shown in Fig 4.4, This is achieved by passing pure Eee oxygen over the epitaxical layer. The , ‘oxygen atoms combine with silicon atoms to form a layer of sicon dioxide (S, 02). 6 14 surg18 Prod tothe substrate at specific location to produce diodes, Etching ; Before any impurity is added to the subst (layer) is etched. The process of etching exposes the production of designed components. The te layer at the desired locations + In practice the wafer shown (0 a large number of areas. Each of these areas separate chip. The manufact hundreds of alike ICs on the wafers over fon each area, To separate individual ICs the wafer is divided into small chips by a process similar to glass cutting, This is ilustrated in Fig, 1.5 It may be seen that hundreds of alike ICs can be produced from a smal w ‘This simultaneous mace production is the tegrated circuits FIG 1.5 : Separation of Chips is bonded to its mounting and connections are made between leads. The IC is then encapsulated to prevent it from becoming contaminated by the surrounding atmosphere, FABRICATION OF COMPONENTS ON MONOLITHIC IC ‘An IC comprises number of cicuit elements inseparably associated in a single small package to perform a complete electronic function. This di where separately manufactured components are joined by hhow vatious circuit, elements can be constructed in an IC FABRICATION OF DIODES 18.1 FABRICATION OF D1 ‘One or more diodes are formed by difusing one or more small n-type deposits at appropriate locations on the substrate Fig. 1.6 shows how a diode is formed on a ic IC. Part of $;02 layer is etched off, exposi vial layer as shown in Fig. 1.6 0}. The wafers then pu exposing the tne te etna! yer The acne ae a ym n-type semiconductor type. Thus we got on island of n-ty fal under the S, 02 layer as shown in Fig. 1.6 (b) re[ even ivtectoteo ciecurs | Electncal Contacts the same principle as for diodes. Fig. 1.8 shows now ‘on of the substrate of a monolithic IC where P ye steps used nds has been to avoid repetition. FIG 1.8 : Fabrication of TransistorUs exposing the p-epitaxial layer ough the window. The- [ unere nreceareo cmcuns | 1.84 FABRICATION OF CAPACITORS Fig. 1.10 shown the process of fabricating a capacitor In the stage isto difuse an n-type material into the substrate which forms capacitor as show in Fig, 1.10 (a) then §, O2 passing pure oxycen as shown in by 1.10 (b) = _ ] fig, of the ayer is re-formed over the water by | | Ah b ® - FIG 1.10 : Fabrication of Capacitor The S)Oz layer formed acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. The oxide layer is etched ‘and terminal 1 is added as shown in Fig. 1.10 (c). Next a layer metallic electrode is deposited on the {Oz layer and form the second plate of the capacitor. The oxide layer is etched and terminals 2 is added. This gives an integrated capacitor. The value of capacitor formed depending upon the dielectric constant of S{Oz layer, thickness of SjO2 layer and the area of cross-section of the smaller of the two electrodes. IC PACKAGES a IC Packages are of two types 1.9 1. Hermetic (metal or ceramic with glass) 2, Non - Hermetic (Plast | Plastic are cheaper than hermetic but are still not regarded as satisfactory in extremes of temperature and humilly. The three most popular types of IC packaged are shown in Fig 1.11quarter ‘ed the popularity of this package with the users. a flat pack container with 14 leads, seven on each side. ) shows ly into the standard print 13.1 FUNCTIONS OF IC PACKAGES To protect the sensitive semiconductor device from external environment that could degrade the circuit performance. To provide adequate mechanical protection. ‘To provide a convenient means for interconnecting many i 1e IC, the package must To act as a path for heat resulting from power dissipatio Aissipate this heat to the surrounding air or conduct it to @ heat sink a eefn] [ unean ivtecnateo ei 19.2 The type of package to use for a p basis of five fac 1 lerconnecting cost 2 3. Comparative package cost 4. Component density per unit volume Comparative system size ‘on the application and quality The choice of a suitable package is wide and depende! of the finished product. 1,9.3\_LEVELS OF INTEGRATION The level of Integration of an IC is based on the number of components incorporated in an IC. The level of integration in IC’s is increasing day by day. An approximate classification of IC based on level of integration is as follows 1. Small Scale Integration (SSI) : The number of circuts linear of logical that consists of less than 12 gate equivalent circults in the same chip (number of components are less than 5( 2. Medium - Seale Integration (MSI) : In this case the number of circuits contained Is in between 12 to 100 equivalent gates (number of components are in between 50 and 500) Large - Scale Integration (LSI) : In this case the namber of circuits contained is 3. in between 100 to 1000 equivalent gates (number of components are in between 500 to 50,000) 4. Very - Large Scale Integration (VLSI) : In this case the number of circuits contained is more than 1000 gate equivalent circuits (number of components are more than 50,000) 1.10 SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY _ Electronic products are becoming miniature with improvements in integration and interconnection on the chip it self and service to device interconnection. Surlace mont technology (SMT) is 2 significant contributor to device te device interconnection cost,‘4, Thermal management of the assembled package ice in ce mount technology entails making reliable interconnections onthe board at great fin the smallest possible real estate at reduced cost, Each facts other. To achieve these goals, SMT needed new types of suriace mou limes. SMT is, Sur dé spec contradict the jing technique and a new set of design gui ym insulation mounting. Types of Components : Surface mount components (SMC) canbe mounted on the arlace of the printed wiring board without having to drill rough the board for inse ‘of component leads, Mounting of SMCS : Mounting of the SMCS has three basic issues, fa) Assuming mechanical strength at the component substrate interiace majority of surface - mount assemblies depend on the solder joint strength itsel ) During wave soldering, the components should not drift when they ht:he turbulent solder wave and therefore requite adhesive fixing ) Where to apply the adhesive, on the component itself or on the predesigned location on the board Applying the Adhasive : Adhesive can be applied through 1 Pi 2 Pressure syringe tan 3. Screen Transfer Solder Paste : Solder is available in many form: Powders and pastes. Paste is the not sultable form for sur Pasteic Simultaneous placement 3. Automatic sequential placement and imultaneous methods, 4, Automatic placement with factors of the sequential and simul thod : soldering of pin throu SMD Soldering Methods : Soldering of SMDs differs from soldering of pI igh hole component. Soldering of SMDs are by. 1. Reflow Soldering 2. Infrared reflow 3. Vapour - phase reflow 4. Hot air reflow 5. Hot - gas soldering 6. Laser soldering Cleaning of Soldered Joints : Cleaning of the soldered joints is mandatory for long- term reliability of the assembly. The flux and residues left on the board must be removed If not the joint will corrode leading to future. 1.11 ADVANTAGES OF SMT OVER PIN THROUGH HOLE MOUNTING Pin through hole |PTH) is an older of fusing relatively low density components to one side of board substrate utilizing the pin through hole connections. SMT is a latest version ter connection. The merits of SMT over PTH are. 1. Reduced component size Increased circuit density Reduced Board size Reduced weigh More rugged Less EMI Connecter Interconnect Greater Relial‘omponents are aval be only as SMDs package standards Evolving oot heat dissipation “Thermal mismatch pifficult testing pecreased mechanical strength New learning curve. he circuits fabricated by joining components by wires or platted Discrete Circt ‘conductors on printed boards are known as discrete circuits Integrated Circuits: An IC has various components such a8 resistors, capactors, diodes fabricated on a small semiconductor chip transistors ete. one in which all circuit components and the Monolithic formed on a sing in water chu. Film IC : It is one in which the components are formed by \ed by a combination of the film and mon Hybrid IC IC techniques. CeIn ‘output are of analog type pear IC input at Linear 10 possble levels ke. In digital ICs the input and output voltages are low or high. Level of Integration : It is based on number of components incorporate in an ICJunere Large Seale Integr 0 1000 equivate Very Large Se e Integr lace Mount Technology 1 features of an IC. (OctiNow. 2013) (Oct'Nov. 2013, 2010) to their manufacture, type of packages, package density and hy (Oct Now. 2007) tations of ICs over discrete components assen tegrated circuits over discrete assembly (March April. 2016 ; Oct'Now. 2011, 2008) mages of 2) Monolithic IC b) Rm ic Hybnd IC15. 16 essay Type Ou 1 10. types of packages in ICs and compare them (Oct Nov. 2007) ax the choice ofthe packages ist aflrent IC packages (Oct Now. 2012. 2011) wre briefly about Surface Mounting Technology SMT} (Oct'Nov. 2011. 2010) az an ments of surface mount tchnology (SMT) (March Aprit. 2016) Lis jestions ame the different levels of integation ust the advantages of Hinear and dita pescribe fabrication of diode and transistor on mon ic IC (Oct Nov. 2011, 2010) Describe the fabrication of resistor on monolithic IC (Oct Now. 2012) bbe the stages of fabrication of capacitor on monolithic IC. Descrit (March April. 2016 : Oct Nov. 2012) ic ICs. (March April, 2016 : Oct Nov. 2006) Explain the manufacturing process of How will you made mon Explain how a diode can be con how a tran! Describe the function of IC packages.