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Python Coding Tricks and Tips 16th

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PCL37862RE NOTE: This iso limited reader offer running from Ist Novernber 2023 to Ist March 2024, Terms and conditions apply and can be found at wixwspelpublications.com TRICKS & TIPS Python Coding Python Coding Tricks & Tips is the perfect digital publication for the user that wants to take their skill set to the next level. Do you want to enhance your user experience? Or wish to gain insider knowledge? Do you want to learn directly from experts in their field? Learn the numerous short cuts that the professionals use? Over the pages of this essential advanced user guide you will learn everything you will need to know to become a more confident, better skilled and experienced owner. Ova Auser that will make the eeouee the page absolute most of their abe ee Hh Continues, coding and ultimately eae ee $e with you Python coding itself. An info ‘Y Stage to advice achievement you can earn by ‘eltm and ultimately simply enabling us to taspive you to exclusively help and teach you 90 Further, the abilities we have gained over our decades of experience. Er] Ey) 35 36 40 Mouse Controlled Turtle "Simple Python Calculator Creve cre eos A ae i asf i i Fa twa Ke 7 A i a ear By (in LGA [Niwa am - "There's so much you can do with Python and within these pages you'll find everything you need to know to become a Python programmer, ready for the next level of advanced coding.” False Lore ata Ree enor) Py ae stil end -ad Me ee Using Modules Me ar unr source file that contains the necessary Cage eae nee Ree ete eee Merete nes Puke eur teeta cs Soe ces INN Me a TTT your use of these modules to adda ecu ier serine Then read on and learn how they can be used to Fashion fantastic code with Pea eMC eee ek CLL | Breuer LE) vinatoases Calendar Module Beyond the Time module, the Calendar module can produce some interesting results when executed within your code. It does far more than simply display the date in the Time module-like format, you can actually call up a wall calendar type display. WORKING WITH DATES. The Calendar module is built into Python 3. However, if For some reason it’s not installed you can add it using pip install ‘calendar as a Windows administrator, or sudo pip install calendar For Linux and macOS. FETIIEDD Leunch Python 3 andenter: import calendar to «allup the module and itsinherent Functions, Once itloaded into memory, sartby entering - neh (2018, 9) sepecalendar. TextCalendar (calendar. SUNDAY) ‘Python 353 Shalt [Be Eat Shel ebog gptons wndow wep Sleedits" or “2icense()" for sare information. ‘You can see that the days of September 2019 are clsplayed in a wal calendar Fashion. Naturally you can change the 2019, 9 part ofthe second tine to any year and ‘month you want, a birthday for example (1973, 6).The Fist line configures TextCalendar to start its weeks on 2 Sunday, you can opt for Monday ifyou prefer. thon 383 shat S terms gett meen ‘There are numerous functions within the Calender ‘module that may be of interest to you when Forming your own code. For example, you can display the number of leap years between two specific yeas: 3 (@afault, Sep 27 2018, 372539) ‘aokrasie) on Timex copyright, "eredits” or "License()” for nore information Se Sr calendar ° 25> keeled anaanys(aon, 200) You could even fashion that particular example into apiece of working, user interactive Python code: Oiag You can also create a program that will display all 1d Amport calendar yearsint (input ("Enter the year to display: print (calendar.prcal (year) (We're sure you'lagree that’s quite a handy bit of code to have tohand. » Interestingly we can also list the number of daysin a month by using a simple: For loop: Ae cece i print (i) ETE D the ossystem0 functionis what allows interaction with external programs you can even call up previous Python programs using this method. You will obviously reed to know the ful path and program file name fort to work successfully, However, you can use the following import os os-system(*start chrome “https://wmw.youtube.com/ feed/masic*’) FEPTIDD For step 5's example we used Windows, to show that the OS module works roughly the same across all platforms. n that case, we opened YouTube's music Feed page, so Itistherefore possible to open specific pages: import 03 ce-eystem(‘chromiun-browser "http://banpublicationa.com/*/)%20%20Note%20in%20the%20previous%20step%E2%80%99s%20example%20the%20use%20ofsingle%20and%20double-quotes.%20The%20single%20quotes%20encasethe%20entire%20command%20and%20launching%20Chromium,%20whereas%20the%20double%7Bquotes%20open%20the%20spectied%20page.%20You%20can%20even%20use%20variables%20to%20call%E2%80%98multiple%20tabsin%20the%20same%20browser:import%20osa=(%E2%80%98chronium-browser%20%E2%80%9Chttycon/*") be (*chromium-browser “heey os.system(a + b) +/ Podmpublications. /rwee google.co.uk"") The ably to marolte rectors or folders lls you prefer, is one of the OS module's best features. For example, to create a new directory you can use import os (os mkdir (*NEW") ‘This creates a new directory within the Current Working Directory, named according to the objectin the mkair Function, You can also rename any directories you've created byentering: import os ‘og rename (NEN soup") To delete ther: import os (os rmdir (*0z0") ‘Another module that goes together with OSis shutil, You can use the Shutil module together with OS and time to create atime-stamped backup directory, and copy files into import os, shutil, time root_sre_dir = r*/hone/pi/Docunents* root_dst_dir = ‘/home/pi/backup/" + time.asctine() for ere_dix, dirs, files in oa.walk(root_sre_air): dst_dir = sxe_dir.replace(root_src dir, rost_ aet_dir, 1) Af not oa.path.exist (det_dir): os makedirs (dst_dir) for file_ in files: src_file = os.path.join(sre dir, file, dst_file = os.path.join (dst_dir, file, Af Os.path.exists (dat_file); 08. remove (dst_fi1e) shut il.copy(sre_file, dst_dir) print ("sssassssssBackup completecceececece") ED) viene Using the Math Module One of the most used modules you will come across is the Math module. As we've Nea sel McA Cole Uae Leader Ce nee Te) eee Me tell NM aLmol mt Lela n ure t] (Ke- MMC TR ot R Sele a E=MC? The Math module provides access to a plethora of mathematical Functions, From simply displaying the value of you create complex 30 shapes. “The Math module is builtin to Python 3;so there's noneed to PP instal t.As with the other modules present, you can import the module's Function by simply entering Amport. math into the Shell, or as part of your code in the Editor. Importing the Math module wil give you access to sue the module's code. From there, you can call up any of the availabe functions within Math by using mati, followed by the name of the Function in question. For example, enter: sin(2) This displays the sine of 2. watt Python S43 (aetaul®, Oct 19 201 {ce 4.9.1) on Linae Hype “copyrighe’s “credits” or “License()” for more information. See east S33 mathesincs) tohelping EEPEED 4s ouwil no doubt be aware by now, ifyou know the name of the individual functions within the module you can specifically import them. For instance, the Floor and Ceil functions round down and up afloat: a ) # returns 1 ceil(2.2) # returns 2 3> enc. ‘The Math module can also be renamed as you Import, as withthe other modules on offer within Oiag Python. This often saves time, but don’t Forget to make a comment to show someone else looking at your code what you've done: import math as m m.trunc(123.45) # Truncate removes the fraction ‘le Ed Shel Debug tens Windows Hep Bython SAF (Getault, Oct 19 20¥6, TBST) (6ec'2.9:1) on Line Tipe *epytaphe”, Seredses™ of “Licanse()* for nore information PoE" seh asthe = pas arnt. ‘thoughts not common pats ts possible to g1g?5 import Functions from a module and rename them. In this example, we're importing Floor from Math and renaming it tof. Although where lengthy code is in use, this process can quickly become contig ‘from math import floor as f £01.2) ‘le Eat Shell Debug Sions windows tielp 1 erggits” or “License()” for more information. SE cseonath Inport floor 2° F 333 Fetes STEP Importing all the Functions of the Math Module can bbe done by entering: from math import + while certainly handy, thsi often frowned upon by the developer community asi takes up unnecessary resources and isn't an efficient way of coding, However, iFt works For you then go ahead. Pyahon 5-43 (Seoul, Ok TOKE, T3aTETTD 1s Mergdits* or “License()” for more information 2 sarecé) 333 easeay FS) FETE AD terestinaly, some functions within the Math modile are more accurate, orto be more precise are designed to retum a more accurate value, than others. For exemple: LL ET will return the value of 0 999999999, Whereas: LE LET returns the value of 1.0, ys ergdits” or “License()* for more information yy ete te ate ot teats ate tnd (( Using the Math Module [> For further accra when comes tonumbers the Sus ‘exp and expm1 functions can be used to compute precise vals fron math import exp, xem exp(ie-5) = 1 # value accurate to 11 places ‘expml (1e-5) # result accurate to full precision ‘Teobabsoaooeaetne-05 232 arom) ; SH ° ESTEE tis tevel of accuracyis really quite impressive, but quite niche For the most pat Probably the two most used functions are eand Pi, where es the numerical constant cequato 2.71828 (where the circumference of crcl is vided by itsciameten import math print (mathe) print (math.pi) Python 3a? (aetaulk, Oct 19 2 (ee 49:1) on dine Tipe Seopytagne’. creates” or “Licensec)” for nore information Sa ngoet math >> prince) > ‘The wealth of mathematica functions available through the Math module s vast and covers ‘everything from factors toinfnity, powersto trigonometry and _angular conversion to constants. Look up httpsi//docs,python.org/3/ Uibrary/math.htmit for alist of avaliable Math module Functions. Eins Random Module The Random module is one you will likely come across many times in your Python programming lifetime; as the name suggests, it’s designed to create random numbers Cancer atie) Drolet neler ont a ATI ile come aCe} RANDOM NUMBERS There are numerous Functions within the Random module, which when applied can create some interesting and very useful Python programs. “tatesuithothermedisyourcedtoimoort (EMEP, owever he Rondo sed exclsely random before ou can Use ory ote reo formas Youcar oe tto sect aren roms we're going to look at in this tutorial. Let’s begin by simply printing a _ list From random, and the list can contain anything: ‘andom number om 105 ED i ourexample the number four was returned, However, enter the print function a Few more times andit wil display different Integer values From the set of ‘numbers given, zero to five. The ‘overall effect, although pseudo- random, is adequate for the average programmer to utlise in their code. ‘multiplication sign: Smport random print (random. random() *200) \will display a Floating point number between 0 and 100, tothe tune (of around Fifteen decimal points. PEPER Fora bigger set of numbers, including floating point values, you can extend the range by using the ies Sn Sie Sree or Lc fr mre ita ‘This will display one ofthe names of our adventurers at random, which isa great addition toa text adventure game. ‘Youcan extend the previous example somewhat by Bus having random.choice() select from a list of mixed variables, For instance Random Module ¢ > Ieingy ouceno seatincion wine EAR asic on nnple ee cote hc ga Sue Random module to shuffle the items in the list, thus Gu) virtual coin ten thousand times and counts how adding alittle more randomness into the equation many times it wil land on heads or tals: random. shuffle(1st) import random print (ist) output “Taser :0} Thisway,youcankeep shuffling the ist before displaying random SoAM=MsE (output keys) ) item from. for 4 im range (10000) + ee ce eed print (*Heads:", output [*Heads"]) print (“Taile:", output [*Taile"]) cera Using shuffle, you can create an entirely random list ‘of numbers. For example, within a given range: import random Aete[ [i] for T in range (20)1 yandon.ehuffle(1st) BSTESEERD Here'san interesting piece of code. Usinga text print (1et) file containing 466 thousand words, you can pluck ‘user generated numberof words fromthe file text ile Found at: Keep shuffiing the ist and you can have different selection of Se Se acer ‘wwnwithub.com/dwyVenglish-words import randon print (*s>>s>>5s>>Random Word Finderce File) and create a True/False while loop: import pygame import pygame pygane.init () from pygane.locale Smport * pygame. init () ‘ganewindowspygane. dieplay.set_node ((600,600)) pygane. display.set_caption ("Adventure Gane") rT runningstrue while running: for event in pygane.c' Af event .type==QUIT: running-False ygame quit () PPIIP DD Let's create asimple game ready window, and give ita tite: ganewindowspygane. display.set_wode ((600, 600) } pygane. display-set_caption (*hdventure Gane") gmorindon-pygane display set node((800-600)) Prose display-setcoption( Adventure cane") or"event.in pygae.event.getc): Youcan se thot tr the frst nested, ounce ck bck Pe eae aa the DLE Shlto conte ering coda, youcanchoge aes the title ofthe window to anything you tke (Pygame Module eC EEE thePyaamewindowstil won't close don't worry, it'sjust a discrepancy between the IDLE (whichis written with Tkinter) and the Pygame module. f you Ft Tae ep un your code va the command ine, it closes perfectly well You're going to shift the cade around abit now, ing-pygame image. lead (*/home/pi/Downloade/ running the main Pygame code withina whileloop; apeitel.png") Itmakes it eater and easier to follow. We've downloaded a graphic to-use and we need to set some parameters for pygame: def apritelx,y) ‘ganewindow Lit (img, (x,¥)) import pygame pygane- init () x=(800°0.45) y=(600%0.8) sunning-Teue gamewindow. £411 (white) while cunning eprite(x.y) ‘ganewindowspygane. @isplay.set_node ((600,600)) ES pygane.display.set_caption ("Adventure Game") for event in pygane.event .get() black=(0,0,0) Af event .types=pygame. QUIT whites (255,255,255) runningeFalse FTI L2t's cuickly go through the code changes. We've _dawnloaded image called sprite png and allocated it to the defined two colours, black and white together variable img; and also defined a sprite Function and the Bit function with their respective RGB colour values. Next we've loaded the vil allow us to eventually move the image. ao prams "um pygame Locals snport * premecaniti) emenindon.fillovhite) Spritecsy) Prame-display.update() ganenindow-pygune. display set_mode((800,600)) Prame-dispiay-setcaption( Adventure. cone”) Elscee(0:0°0). ‘for event in pygane event. get0 vaniten( 255,295,255) ST oven. eypersQurY Inespreme. anage-load(~/hone/pi/Domloads/spritet png") unninges sis prame- quit ot spratece.yy: Emenindon b1St¢img., (4.99) @) Using Modules FeTeeR AD ow we can change the code around again, this time containing a movement option within the while loop, and adding the variables needed to move the sprite around the screen: Amport. pygame from pygame.locals import * pygame. inst () punning-True ganewindow=pygane. display. set_wode ((800, 600)) pygane. display. eet_caption (* 2 Game") lack=(0,0, 0) whites (255,255,255) 4ing-pygane .inage. load (*/home/pi/Downloads/spritel. pn") def sprite (x.y): ‘ganewindow.bLit (ing, (x.y) x= (6040.45) ye(600*0.8) xehange=0 Lf event.type == pygane.KEYDOWN: Af event .keyeepygame.K_LEFT xchange=-5 eLif event -key--pygame.K RIGHT: change=5 if event .types-pygame. KEYUP: {Lf event .key==pygame.K LEFT or event ‘gamowindow. £11 (white) sprite(x,y) pygame.display update () ygame quit () FEED) Cut, Choose File > New File and use Edit» Past inthe new window. You now have two separate files, one with the Function definitions, the other with the Function cals IF you now try and execute the basic_math.py code ‘again, the error‘Name€sror: name 'timestwo' is Oiag not defined’ willbe displayed. This s due to the code no longer having access to the function definitions. ine etna drach. ine, in ale se Tt: at eto steps Wow thenewly created window containing the Function definitions, and lick File > Save As, Name this, minimath.py and save tin the same location as the original basic_math.py program. Now lose the minimath py window, so the basic_math.py window is leftopen. PPI) (2ck to the basic_math.py window: at the top ofthe code enter: from minimath Inport * ‘Thiswillmport the Function definitions asa module, Press F5 to save and execute the program to seein action, Sis You can now use the code Further to make the program alittle more advanced, utilising the newly created module tots Full Include some user interaction, Start by creating a basic menu the user can choose from: print ("Select operation.\n") print (*1.Times by two") print (*2.Times by Three") print (*3.square”) print (*4.Power of") choice input ("\nEnter choice (1/2/3/4):*) Now we can add the user input to get the number the code will wark on: muni = int (input (*\nEnter number: *)) ‘Thiswillsave the user-entered number as the variable num | Ble Edt Format Bun Options windows Help From minimath import * print(“select operation. \n") rine(=1-Tanes by tro") Feeetsa Ties by Thre) inet" square") printt"4.Power of") choice = input("\nénter choice (1/2/3/4): punt = intinput("\nEnter number: ")) (Create Your Own Modules eC Finally, youcan now create arange of statements to determine what to do with the number and utilise the newiy created function definitions: sum Print (timestwo (num) ) Lf choice == elif choice == 12 Print (timesthree (num) } elif choice == 43": ‘print (square (nut) ) elif choice == 44": ‘pun? = int (input (*Enter second number print (power (num, mum2)) ” eu print (“Invalid input*) ‘le Est Frat Groner Hey Note that forthe ast valle options, the Power Sui of choice, we've added a second variable, num2. This pases asecond number trough te function defniton cle power Save and execute the program osee kin ation Python in Focus: Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence (Al) and Machine Learning (ML) are the new hot topics of the IT iret en cea ee ulaeR ea Roe Reale Mace aCei naa] a apr cd ella n el ter re Ta) lade heh de Despite how close Al and ML are, there are distinct differences between the two technologies. Alrefers tothe study of how to train a ‘computer to accomplice the things that humans can do significantly better and Faster. Whereas, MLsthe ability For a computer to learn ee eee usa See ea rete ecu Pc en eee. Cee ty mee eects Rear eer oy ee ceed and, thanks to Python, that gap is getting closer every day. Both Al and ML are hugely present in today’s technology. Where, eee ester ey pean a a ae eet et een pees ater ear) peer Let's begin with the obvious use of Al and ML, the smartphone. Set ee tee » ere Olea ed QKIb Ec Hw 4° | Ve Ce ene, Python File Manager This File manager program displays FILEMAN.PY Se et LS Copy the code below into a New > File and save it as FileMan.py read a file, write to a file, append to. ‘Once executed it will display the program title, along with the Lon rate current time and date and the available options. of a directory'and much more. It’s remarkably easy to edit and insert Amport: shuts | Ca Re me Neols Ro iE econ foeeecee | | Amport subprocess def Read) Datheinput (Enter the fle path to xead:") —] ‘le-open(oath,"=") | printiaie. read) 4 Input (Breas Eater.) | fie.closed J dee writen patheinpat("Enter the path of file to write or create:") S£ o8.path.safile(path): print('Rebuilding the existing Mie’) else: rint(‘Creating the new ite’) textainput ("Enter text:") ‘Mlosopen(path,"w") ‘Sle.write(text) oe aaa patheinput("Enter the ile path") text=input ("Enter the text to addi") ‘Mlesopen(path,"2") Sle.write( \n'ttext) dot detetor) patheinput("Enter the path of file for deletion:") £¢ o2.path.exista(path): rint(‘File Found’) ‘8 renove(path) EInt(‘File has been deleted’) his part of the code imports the necessary modules. BB the 0 and Subprocess modules deal withthe the program. ase: withinthe Eint('Pile Does not exist’) othe main doe pinlist() patirinput(’Enter the Directory path to display:") artofthe code that checks to se what OS fovtlistesorted(os listdis(pat) fs running. In Wind he CLS comman ad sthe screen, whereasin Linux and macOS, the wideticien(sorttist): command wipesthe screen. Fhe code tes oD torun when being used in Linux or macOS, an * error occurs, which then prompts ito run the Cle er coma ‘peint nput(check existence of \nl.File \n2 Directory) hese ae the options, from 1 to 12. Each executes Se tpn: Bene appropriate Function when the relevant numbe pPatheinpet ("inter the fle pathi") isentered be-pathistle(path) Af 0 path tania patn)—tzve rint(‘File Found’) PEine(File not found’) Af fpmea: pathainput(*Enter the directory path:” fs path. dadi(path) Lf os path isdir (path)enFalse: Print (‘Directory Pound’) [Print(‘Directory Not Found’) dee Move() ‘athininput( ‘Enter the source path of file to move:') Ie-int(input(/1 Rename \n2.Move \n')) ‘path2uinpat(‘Enter the destination path and fle name:’) ‘hutil nove(patht,path2) print(File renamed’) Af mrmed: patharinput(‘Enter the path te move:') shutl nove(path1,path2) Print(‘File moved’) ee copy ‘pathisinput ‘Enter the path of tho file to copy or ronane:') path2ainput(‘Enter the path to copy to:’) shutt copy path path2) Print(‘File copied’) dee Makedir( ‘patheinput("Enter the directory nase with path to make \nog. CA\Welto\Wewdte \nihere Nowa i= now aizectory:") os.makedirs(path) Print(‘Directory Created’) dof Ronovedir() pathainput(‘Enter the path of Directory:') ‘treedir=int (input(‘L Deleted Dizectory \n2.Delete Directory Tree \n3.Exit \n!)) os endir(path) Af troedixen shut rmtree(path) print( ‘Directory Deleted’) Af treed: exito, det opensiie) patheinput('Enter the path of program’) try: on startale(path) excep PEInE(File not found’) white(rune=) try: of.systent cles’) except Osteror: os.systom(cls") print(\\mspooosppobython 3 File Managerceccceeece\n!) print(The current time and date is:',time.asctine()) [Print(\nChoose the option nuaber: \n’) dec=int(input(""1.Read a fie S.Append text to a fle Python File Manager Tove 3 218 8.copy a me o.create a directory a0.Delete a directory 11.Open a program write Sf doce: aaa Delete) Dirlisto check’) move) Sf doom: copy) Makedir) Renovedte() Sf doom ‘pense exit) runsint (input(/1.Return to ment\n2.Bxst \n")) exit) Imports There ae three modules to importhere: Shut, OS and Time, Te firsttwo deal with the operating system and File ‘management and manipulation; and the Time module simply splays the current time and date, Note how we've included a try and except black to checkif the user isrunning the code on a Linux system or Windows. \Windows uses CLS to clear the screen, while Linux uses clear The try black should work well enough but it'sa point of possible improvement depending on your own system. a a EDS te he BUCA CS-E Tua allae (aol re el maolel NUMBERGUESS.PY Se i eek Copy the code and see if you can beat the computer within Random'module, print and input, five guesses. It’s an interesting bit of code that can be quite Pecan ei handy when you Implementing a combination of the Random BNC a nee le . and the'randomnamber range'tan (import random Hi Cpe cca elcelon | guessestsed = 0 7 | Nano=input(‘Hello! What is your nane? °) [number = random.candint(t, 30) Print(‘Greetings, ‘+ Name +‘, 1m thinking of a number between 1 and 30.’) ‘guess=int (input ‘Guess the nunber within 5 guesses...) gues = guessosUsed + 1 Eint(‘Too low, try again’) Af guess > number: print (‘Too high, try again.’) Af guess, quessestsed = str(guessestsed) Print('Woll done," + Name +‘! You gues correctly in * + guessestsed +‘ guesses.’) | | Af guess != number: number = str(nunber) Eint((Sorzy, out of guesses. The number I wa: | thinking of i= + number) ae ees Beer ftew rare tere ae some elements to the code that are worth pointing out. To begin with, you need to import the Random module, asyou're using andar numbers withinthe code ‘number=random.randint, 30) it too high though orthe player wil co quessit IF the player quesses too low ar too high they are given ‘appropriate output and asked to try again wile the numbe (of quessesis less than Five. You can also increase the number of {quesses from 5 by altering the while quessesUsed < 5: value, my tele qused the coe ruberthnteyae gens ibe player uns cut ass hate gue oe OD delayed sta, ong wth revel the mbar the como. wartngot Remember 300 doar he tes he crib hapetig he gut ort renter uses te payer canta hen ong with the arable ues, ovat need toa ctansgeninthe pn § ci BI iP a i vel ed Code Improvements Since this is such a simple script to apply to asituation, theres plenty of raom to mess around with itand makeit more interesting. Perhaps you cn include an option to take score, the best out of three rounds. Maybe an elaborate way to congratulate the player forgetting a hole in one’ correct. guess on ther First try Moreover, the number guessing game code does offer some room forimplementing nto your code na different manner. What ‘we mean by thsi, the code can be used to retrievea random number between arange, which in tum can give you the start of a ‘character creation defined Function within an adventure game, Imagine the star ofa text adventure written in Python, where the player names their character. The next step isto oll the virtual random dice to decide what that characters combat. rating, strength, endurance and luck values are. These can then be. carried Forward into the game under a set of variables that can be reduced or increased depending onthe circumstances the player's character ends up in For example, as per the screenshot provided, you could use something along the lines of creo ‘Endurance = random randint(2, 15) (CR = random.randint(1, 20) lick = random. randint(1, 10) Print (‘Your character's stats are as follows:\n") Print (*Endurance:*, Endurance) Print(*Combat Rating:", CR) Print ('Luck:", Luck) ‘The player can then decide to elther stick with thei roll or try again forthe hope of better values being picked. There's ample waysin which to implement this code into abasic adventure game. cro aed EDS te ee! LUT ay) Lee- pe ea 8-1) ero} Mee caelea tet a aleliehls elements with any programming language. It's what'separates agood program from a great Program, one that‘allows the user ood le Tele ya Te tel that Tato ; pr er More Input ‘hile an easy code to follow, Itcould be more interesting if you prompt the user For more input. Perhaps you can provide ther ‘with adaition, subtraction, multiplication elements with their numbers. Ifyou Feeling clever, see if you can pass the code 2 Tkinter window or even the Ticker window thats on Page 16. Furthermore, the core of game, where + fightssomething 2 ‘along with the enemy’, isreduced by a random nur bbe mixed with the previous code from Page 32's Number Guessing Game, where we defined the stats for the adventure game's character code can be used ina ath, fae eens ‘You can also introduce the Turtle module into the code and perhaps set some defined rules fr drawing a shape, abject. or Something based on a user inputted random value from arange © = really interesting, eee] ed al Ole eae ed adventure This can cof numbers. takes a tle working out but the effects certainly RNDNUMGEN.PY ltmight be simple but this little piece of code will ask the user For two sets of numbers, a start and a finish. The code will then pluck out a random number between the two sets and display it. from random import + print *\mo>o>>oo>>Random Number Generatorcceceeccee\n") nmbisint(input("Enter the start number: ")) mb2=int(input("Enter the last munber: ")) x = zandint (ambi, nmbz) [Print(*\nfhe random number betwoon” nb, "and”;nmb2,"is:\n") Eine x) For example, the code could be edited to this: ‘from random import * printi(\noos5p>20>Random Turtle Imageccceecccce\n") imbinint(input "Enter the start number: )) rmb2nint(input (“Enter the second number: ")) imnb3eint(input ("Enter tho third number: ")) mmbéeint(input (“Enter the fourth munber: ")) turtle. forward(anbi) turtle. lett 90) ‘turtle. forvard(nmb2) turtie.1eft(0) turtle. forvard(amb3) turtle.1eft 00) ‘turte.forvardianbs) turtle. lett 00) \Whilstt'slitle rough around the edges, you can easly makellt more suitable, Random Number Generator/Password Generator Random Password Generator We're always being told that our Passwords aren't secure enough; well here’s a solution for you to implement into your own future programs. The random password generator code below will create a 12-letter string of words (both cases) and numbers each time it’s executed. Secure Passwords. ‘There's plenty you can do to modify this code and imprave it further. For one, you can increase the number of characters the ‘generated password displays and perhaps you can include special characters too, such as signs and symbols. Then, you can output the chosen password tafe, then securely compressit using the previous random number generator asa file password and send it toa user Fortheirnew password. ‘Aninteresting aspect to this codes the ability to introduce loop. {and print ary numberof random passwords. Lets assume you have. alistof 50 users fora company and you're in charge of generating ‘random password for them each month. RNDPASSWORD.PY Copy the code and run it; each time you'll get a random string of characters that can easily be used as a secure password which willbe very difficult For a password cracker to hack. import string import random def randompassword(): charswstring.ascii _ uppercase + string.ascii _ lowercase + string digits size @ return “'join(random.choice(chars) for x in range(eize,20)) ‘Print (randompassword()) ‘Adding a loop to print a password fifty timesis extremely easy, for example: sport string smport random def randompassyord(: charsestring.ascii _ uppercase + string.ascii _ lowercase + string digite izes 4 return “.jein(random.choice(chars) for x in ange(size,20)) mo shite neso: This will output fifty random passwords based onthe previous random selection of characters 4 : haa ee Ee ae) TXT2BIN.PY this texttobihaly convertors < Naturally were using the Format function to convert the actuallyquite good Fun.Ittalso B ) user's entered text string into its binary equivalent. If you teat ea want to checkits accuracy, you can plug the binary into an Roy ac eee aa ae ‘toxtsinput("Enter text to convert to Binary: ") eae) Pa peint(’ ‘join(formatiord(2), ‘b’) for x in text)) eluate a eet et tne erry er ay aL: Sea eee | oat] da Bile Edit Format Run Options windows Help print(">>>>>>>>>>Text to Binary Conver tor<<<<<<<<<<\n") text=input(“Enter text to convert to Binary: ") t( *.join(format(ord(x), "b*) for x in text) Nm ed 1000010 1101001 1101110 1100001 1110010 1111001 ‘The text to binary corwertor does offer some room For improvement and enhancement. There are many uses itcould be Ublisedin a password or secret word script as pat ofan adventure ‘game oF just. a novel way to display someone's name, \with regards to improvements, you could display the binary conversion ina Pygame window, using the animated text options From page 18. You could also ask the userif they wanted to have ‘another go, or even askif they wanted the binary output to be saved toa fle. \with regards to rendering the outputted binary conversion to Pygame window, complete with rotating text, you can use: import: pygame ygame.init) BACK = (0, 0, 0) WRITE = (255, 255, 255) BUIE = (0, 0, 258) GREEN = (0, 255, 0) RED = 255, 0, 0) print /s>oosspoootext to Binary Convertoreccceeeccc\n") conversionsinput(‘Enter text to convert to Binary: ") size = (600, 00) screen = pygane.display.set _node(size) = pygane.display.set _ caption("Binary Conversion”) done = False clock = pygane.tine.clock() ‘text _rotate_ degrees = 0 Binary=(° ‘Join(format(ordix), °b') for x sn conversion)) wate not done: for event in pygane.event. get: Le event.type = pygame. QUIT: ‘done = True ‘screen. (WHITE) font = pygame.font.sysFont('Calibri', 25, True, False) text = font-render(Binary, True, BLACK) Pygame.display.05p0) clock. tick(60) pygame.quit( Print() ‘Join(format(ord(x), °b’) for x in conversion) gubleatonscom 37 ere AUER eci-cielate} flreono exe eer orci file browser that's presented in'a graphical usef interface using the BU ecim uilocolt) cot an -eeed Cole Colt Ke-]h) Tire h eal Reels Fre Rua) PS me te eel ea Eee ed 4 > ees eee Ove ad FILEBROWSER.PY ‘Tkinteris the main module in use here but we're also using idlelib, so you may need to pip install any extras if the dependencies fail when you execute the code. ‘from tkinter import Te from idlelib.treeWidget import Serolledcanvas, FilefresItem, TroeNode root = 70. root title("File Browser”) ‘sc = Scrolledcanvas(root, bg="white”, ‘s¢-frane.pack(expand-1, fill="both’, side="left”) Aton = FileTrecrten(os.gotowd()) node = TreeNode(ac.canvas, None, iten) node.expand() oot mainloop() ‘Advanced Filing ‘When executed, the code wil display the current drectory’s contents. I you want to see the contents of another directory you ‘anrun the code from a command tne within the chosen directory, just remember to call the code From where i's located on your system, as per the second screenshot. You can also double-= 0") sys.exie@) Af minutes < 0: print ("Invalid value for minutes, should be > sys.exit(l) Af minutes else: ‘unit _word =" minutes” print (‘Sleeping for ° sleep (seconds) print ("Wake up") for 4 in range(S): eint (chr(7)), sleep) except Keyboardinterrupt! print (“Interrupted by user”) syz.exit() + stefminutes) + unit _vord) Wakey Wakey E There's some good use of try and except blocks here, alongside } some other useful loops that can help you get firmer Understanding of how they workin Python. The code itself can be used in a variety of ways a game where something happens after a set amount of time or simply as ahandy desktop alarm clock for your tea break. Linux users, try making the alarm clock code into an alias, so {you can una simple command to execute it. Then, why not integrate auser input atthe beginning to ask the user For the length oF time they want until the alarm goes of, rather than having to include tin the command line. Windows users, Python 3s the only version installed on your system then you willneed to execute the code without adding the 3to the end ofthe Python command. For example: python Alazmclock.py 10 ‘Again, you could easly incorporate ths into a Windows batch fileand even eta schedule to activate the alarm at certain times ofthe day ee) er rete eer ape ee ime | Vertically Scrolling Text Der axe uf e I 5 AG al ss 0M a .@ Ole Pate ed What's not to like about vertically EPICSCROLL.PY So ed We've used the poem Cimmeria by Robert E. Howard for the beginning of a game or introduction code's scrolling text, along with a dramatic black background epee nee eee enna? and red text. We think you'll agree, it's quite epic. Clg P Ce SUV ele credits at the end of something} such co:) air) Peele Loy ants list eee i po.inito ‘text _liet = 1 remember The dark woods, masking slopes of sonbre hills; ‘The dusky streams that flowed without a sound, And the lone winds that whispered down the passes. Vista on vista marching, hills on hills, Slope beyond slope, each dark with sullen trees, our gaunt land lay! So when a man climbed up A ragged peak and gazed, his shaded eyo Slope beyond slope, each hooded like its’ brothers, it was a gloomy land that seened to hold All winds and clouds and dreams that shun the sun, With bare boughs rattling in the lonesome winds, And the dark woodlands brooding over all, Not even lightened by the rare dim sun Cinmeria, land of Darkness and deep Night. twas so long ago and far aay T have forgot the very name men called me. The axe and flint-tipped spear are like a dream, ‘And hunts and wars are shadows, I recall Only the stillness of that sombre land; ‘The dinness of the everlasting woods. Cimmeria, land of Darkness and the Right, eeey Es Deleted Oh, soul of mine, born out of shadowed hills, How many deaths shall serve to break at last This heritage which wraps me in the grey Apparel of ghosts? I search my heart and find Cimmeria, land of Darkness and the Might! eh a Perr eee yee wr gplse cn’) ete et Td or} class Credits: dof __ init__(self, screen_rect, 1st): selelet = let self.size = 16 self.color = (255,0,0) selé_butf _centery self_buff~ lines = 50 self-delay = 0 self.make_ surfaces() self.crect-height/2 + 5 dof make _toxt(solf message) font = pg.font.SysFont(Arial’, self.size) text = font render (eessage,True,self.color) rect = text get _rect{center = (self erect, centers, self.eroct.centery + self. buff _centery) ) def make _surtaces(se1é) self.taxt = for i, Line in enunerate(self.1st): 1H selé.make _ text(line) Ly + itself bute lines ‘self.text.appenda) def update(sels): Af pg.tine.get _ ticks()-self.timer > self delay: self.tiner = pg.tine.get _ticke() for text, rect in self.taxt: recty -= 1 def render(selé, surf): for text, rect in self.toxt: surf blit(text, rect) screen = py.display.set _mode((200,600)) screen _rect = screan.get _ rect () clock = pg-tine.clock() running=True cred = Credits(ecreen rect, text _ list) for event in pg.event.get() if event.type == QUIT: screen.fi11((0,0,0)) cxed.update() cred. render(screen) pg.display.update() clock tick(60) C Vertically Scrolling Text ALong Time Ago. ‘The obvious main point of enhancementisthe actual text itself Replace itwith a list of credits, or an equally epic opening storyline to your Python game, and twill certainly hitthe ‘mark with whoever plays it Don’ forget to change the screen resolution if needed; we're currently running itat 800 x 600, et ea a ees eae oy ia © B 0 BkIb Be Bw 4° | eee ene, Python Dig BUN Eyl ele Ra le eel) on the desktop of most operating systems but it's always handy to have one on top of the currently open Wintel CMereitete Maat easel a Python digitaliclock thatcan be a 4 feu ue) desktop widget foryou. Been en Olea ad > Peyote) DIGCLOCK.PY This sa surprisingly handy little script and one that we've used in the past instead of relying on a watch or even the clock in the system tray of the operating system. import time import tkinter as te def tick(timel=") # got the current time from the PC timed = time.strEtime("4H:44:tS") Sf time? '= timel: time = time? clock.config(text=time2) clock.after(200, tick) clock. eek ‘tkabel(root, font=('arial, 20, "bold’), bg='green’) clock pack{Gll="both’, expand=1) tick) oot aninloop() Tick Tock This isa piece of cade we've used many times inthe past to keep track of time while working on multiple monitors and with just a ‘Quick olance to where we've placedit onthe screen ‘The Tkinter box can be moved around without affecting the time, maximised or closed by the user at wil. We haven't given the Tkinter clock window a title, so you can add to that easily enough bysnipping the code from other examples inthis book. ‘Another area of improvementsto include this code when, ‘Windows or Linuxstarts soit automaticaly pops up on the desktop See als, iF youre able to improve its Functionality by including afferent time zones: Rome, Pars, Landon, New York, Moscow and son. ‘Another example, expanding on the original code, could bea: >spp>op awesome Adventurecccecc *) rint(nane, "the barbarian, sword in hand and leoking for adventure!”) time.sleepd) Print(‘However, evil is lurking nearby....") ‘imo. leep() Peint("A pair of bulbous eyes regards the hero...") time.sleep(2) PEint(‘Will", name, "prevail, and win great fortune...”) time.sle6p() pEint(‘Or die by the hands of great evil...2") ‘ine. sleep() eine *\n" #3) print (‘Only time will tell...”) ‘ine. leep(2) peine(.") time.aleep(2) Eine(*..") time.sleepQ) eine") ‘ine. leep() eine") time. aleep(S) PEint(*\n" #200) peint(\”’ You find yourself at a small inn. There's Little gold in your purse but your sword is sharp, With you are three other customers, A ragged looking man, and a pair of dangerous looking guards."”) dor start) print(*\n — ) PFint(‘Do you approach the...”) print (*\n") Beint(*1. Ragged looking man”) print("2, Dangerous looking guards") end-getond(endlist) if ond ragged) elif ond = "2": guards() a: def ragged): ‘Print("\n" * 200) rint(’"'You walk up to the ragged looking man and greet him. Ho smiles a toothless grin and, with a strange accent, says. “Buy me a cup of wine, and great treasure...”") time.sleep@) Vil tell you of dof guards(): rint("\n” *200) Print(’’'You walk up to the dangerous looking guards and grect them. The guards look up from their drinks and snarl at you. Swat do you want, barbarian?” One guard reaches for the hilt of his sword...) time.eleep@2) Adventure Time ‘This, asyou cansee,s just the beginning of the adventure and takes up afar Few tines of code, When you expand it, and weave the story along, youll Find that you can repeat certain instances | such as a chance meeting with an enemy orthe lke. We've created each ofthe two encounters asa defined set ‘of Functions along witha list of possible choices under the ‘emit list, and cmd variable, of which isalso a defined Function, Expanding on thisis quit easy, just map out each encounter and ‘choice and create a defined Function around it. Providing the user doesn't enter quit into the adventure, they can keep playing. ‘There's also roomin the adventure fora set of variables designed Far combat, luck, health, endurance and even an inventory or ‘amount of gold earned. Each successful combat situation can Feduce the main character's health but increase thei combat skis, ‘or endurance. Pls, they could loot the body and gain gold or earn ‘gold through quests. Finally, how about introducing the Random module. This wl ‘enable you ta include an element of chance nthe game. For ‘example, in combat, when you stike an enemy you willdoa random amount of damage as will they. You could even work out the maths behind improving the chance ofabetter hit based on your or your opponent's combat ski, current health, strength and, ‘endurance. You could create a game of dice inthe inn, to see if you win or lose gol (again, improve the chances of winning by working ‘out your luck Factr into the equation) Needless to say, your text adventure can grow exponentially {and prove tobe a work of wonder. Good luck, and have fun with your adventure. (Text Adventure Script elif ond == "help": print(*\ninter your choices as detailed in the game.") Print(‘or enter ‘quit’ to leave the game”) return gotond(cndlist) elif ead == "quit" print (*\n- time.sieep(2) print (‘Sadly you return to your homeland without, oer cr A ae ee ey er Ole E ate ad Sol Valassis tel cola tlm ala one of thesnippets of code we're ie olla aos scrolling'ticker. Whilst we've covered various forms of scrolling text previously, the ticker is something eect coker sient acon ode) a A 4 nae Ticker Time ve obviousimprovernents to the Ticker code liein the speed of the text and what the text will display wise you can change the backaround colour of window, the Font and the Font colour, along with the geometry ofthe Tknter window i you want to. ‘Yet another interesting element that could be introduced s one ofthe many textto Speech modules availabe for Python 3. You could pipinstall one, import thenas the ticker displays the text, the text to speech Function will read out the variable atthe same time, since the entice texts stored in the variable labeled s Thettcker example cn be used For systern warnings, perhaps something that wil dsplay across your work or home network detaling the shutting down of a server cover the weekend for maintenance; or even just to inform everyone a to what's happening. We're sure you willcome up with some good uses fori. TICKER.PY We're using Tkinter here along with the Time module to determine the speed the text is displayed across the window. import time import tkinter as tk root = te7k() canvas = tk.canvas(root, root title("Ticker Code”), hheight=80, width=600, bge"yellow”) ccanvas.pack() font = (‘courier’, 48, ‘bold’) foxt blocks insert here... a1 = “this ie a scrolling ticker example. As you ccan seo, it’s quite long but can be a lot longer if 22 = “We can even extend the length of the ticker message by including more variables..." the code, ‘s4 = “Don't forget to concatenate thom all before the 4 pad front and end of text with spaces # concatenate if all Stal + a2 + ad + ah +05 ‘text = canvas.croate_toxt(x, y, anchor~'nw', text=s, horizontal movenent only 4 the pixel value depends on dx, font and length of text pixels = 9000, for p in range(pixels) # move text object by increments dx, dy # dx -> right to lest canvas.nove(text, dx, dy) canvas.update) # shorter delay ~-> faster movement. time. sLeep(0.005) fprint(k) # test, helps with pixel value oot mainloop() Python Scrolling Ticker Script/Simple Python Calculator Simple Python Calculator Sometimes the simplest code can be the most effective. Take For example, this Simple Python Calculator script. It's based on the Create Your Own Modules, section seen earlier but doesn’t utilise any external modules. CALCULATOR.PY We created some Function definitions to begin with, then lead ‘onto the user menu and inputs. It's an easy piece of code to follow and as such can also be expanded well too. An") dof addtx, ¥): return x+y dof subtracts, vit return x - y dof multiply(x, y): return x * y dof divides, yi: return /¥ print("Select operation.\n") print ("3.Maltiply”) print (“4.Divide”) ‘choice = imput(*\ntnter choice (1/2/3/4):") ‘num = int(input(\nEnter first: munbe ‘mun2 = int (input(Enter second number: » ” Af choice == W: ‘print (uuml,"4")mum2,"=", ad(mam2,mun2)) elif choice == 2: Print(numl,"-";mun2;"=", subtract (num mun2)) elif choice == 9: ‘print(num,"*",nun2,’=", multiply (mumi,mun2}) elif choice ==": ‘print num,"/";mum2;"=", divide (mami mum2)) else: ‘peint('Invalid input”) ti 6 toma bm tte doe Ie Improved Calculations ‘The obvious contender for improvement here is using the Create Your Own Modules route and extracting the Function definitions as a module. You can then cll the module and Focus fon the body ofthe code, ‘The other area of improvementis code itself. where there's Justa single shot at making a calculation, you could encase itn awhile loop, so once a values presented the user is sent back tothe main menu. Perhaps, improvement to the Invalid Input sections worth looking into as well PEI UrUE Ice Sueno Ic into Python. It canbe extremely complex, displaying graphics, the number of guesses left in the secret re lceME-altre Molla elm Cle) Rete picked at random and countless other eléments.It can also-be quite Buco aac vs tule erates ea Eee ed CI >. 2 alo vette ed HANGMAN.PY We've made a Hangman game board (the gallows) out of characters that can be displayed in the IDLE Shell, along with a huge bank of words to randomly choose from import random board = [”" ppp ppp plangmancceececk class Hangman: def __ init _ _(self,word): selEword = word self.nissed letters = (] self.guessed_letters = () def guoss{sel£,ietter): Af letter in selfvord and letter not in self. ‘guessed _letters self.guessed _ letters append(letter) elif letter not in self.word and letter not in self.missed letters: self.nissed _ letters.append(letter) else: return False return True def hangman _ over(sel#): return self.hangman _won() or (len(self.missed _ letters) = 6) ‘def hangman _won(sel#): Af *_" not dn self.hide _word0: return True return False def hide _word(eel®): a for letter in self.word: Lf letter not in self.guessed letters: rin d= else: tn += letter return rtn def print _gane_ status(selt) print (Goard{ien(self.missed _letters)}) print (Word: ‘+ selfhide word()) print (‘Letters Missed: *,) for letter in self.missed_ letters: print (letter,) print 0) print (‘Letters Guessed: for letter in self.quessed letters: print (letter,) print 0 def rand _word0: ‘bank = “ability about above absolute accessible accommodation accounting beautiful bookstore calculator clever engaged engineer enough hhandsone refrigerator opposite socks interested, stravberry backgammon anniversary confused dangerous entertainnent exhausted impossible overweight tomperature vacation scissors accommodation appointment decrease development ‘earthquake envizonnent brand environment necessary Hangman Game Script C} luggage responsible ambassador circunstance ‘congratulate frequent’.split() ‘return bank[random.randint(0,len(bank))] of main(): ‘game = Hangman(rand _word() while not gane.hangean over(: ‘game.print _ game _ status() user _input = input("\nznter a Lette ‘game guess(user input) gameprint _ game _ status() 4£ game.hangnan won): Print (‘\aCongratulations! You have won! else: Print (\nSorry, you have lost.’) print ("The word wae "+ gane.word) Print ("\nGoodbye!\n') Since this s the last example in our Python code repository, we thought we'd go out witha bang and feature the hangman gallows being drawn with each incorrect quess of the word. Don't worry fit looks misaligned in the text here, this is merely due to the differences between using the Python IDLE editor and pasting the code into a word processor (which Formats things differently) “There's plenty you can do to improve, enhance and expand on what we've presented here. You can include a routine that returns an errorif the user enters a number or character. You caninclude extra points for someone who guesses the entire word in one go rather than one letter ata time and you could perhaps adé Chopin's Funeral March should you lose the game; Dor something celebratory if you win >= Consider replacing the bank of words too, They're found under the banklist, and could easly be swapped out for something ‘more difficult: IFyou download waw.cithub.com/dwsvenglish words you can find atext document with over 466,000 words. Perhaps you could swap the wordsin the bank to instead read the contents ofthe text ile: of rand _word(): ‘with open("/hone/pi/Downloads/words.txt", "rt”) as bank readlines() return bank[randon.randint(0,1en(bank))] oer FI owes Cd Understandin Linux Linuxis a remarkably versatile and powerful operating eu et eRe eel Maa aces EL) engineering world, in science, space exploration, eee CE ees ea cum Resear erence ac Peete eu eet eee re PO eee ee eet ae Ny TT Chkag eee aa Raspberry Pi, for example, uses a Linux-based OS and, as such, makes for an excellent coding platform. Regardless of whether you're using a Pi, like us, or a Linux Mint or Pe een eee Python learning. Master Linux, master Python, and start CTT Rel meer Rite tom Coe ED) trending in What is Linux? Sess eM ne ect neSnau rs ee UR eeu erica cds what exactly is Linux? Where did it come from and what does it do? In a world where A YiaNeCone- Tare MuarleO MMe Er eel nM cco) MeL coke ole alamo e Reuter ted eae un enue a tae lay Linux isa surprisingly powerful, Fast, secure and capable operating system. It's used as the OS of choice for the Raspberry Pi, in tthe Form of Raspbian OS, as well as in some of the most unlikely places. Despite only enjoying a 1.96% share (according to netmarketshare, com) ofthe total desktop operating systern market, Linuxhas dedicated following of enthusiasts, users and contributors. It was created in 1991 by University of Helsink student, Linus Torvalds, who had become frustrated with the imitations and licensing of the popular educational system Minix, a miniature version ofthe Unix ‘operating system, in use at the time. Unix itself was released in the early "70s, asa multi-tasking, modular- designed operating system originally developed for programmers \who needed a stable platform to code on. However, its performance, power and portability meant thatit soon became the system of choice for companies and universities where high-end computing tasks were needed, ‘The bootloader is the software that initalises and boots up your computer. Ieloads up the various modules the OS uses to begin to access the hardware in the system. You can modify a bootloader to load more than one OSinstalledon the system. Daemons are background services that startas the operating systems booting. These can enable printing, sound, networking and so on. They run unobtrusively rather than ‘under the direct control of the user, often wating tobe activated by an event or condition. ‘The Desktop Environment, or DE, i the main Graphical User Interface (GUI that uses interact with. t's the desktop, that includes internet browsers, productivity, games and whatever program or app you're using. There are countless DES ‘available. Raspbian uses PIXEL “Torvalds needed a system that could mirror Unix’ performance and Features, without the licensing cost, Thus was born Linux the Unlike operating system which used freely available cade from the GNU project. Tis enabled users around the world to utilise the ower ofthe Unix-like system, completely Free of charge, an ethos, that stil holds today: Linuxis ree to download, install and use. Linux is much tke any other operating system, such as Windows or ‘macOSin that it manages the computer hardware, provides an interface for the user to access that hardware and comes with programs for productivity, communications, gaming, science, ‘education and more. Linux can be broken up into a number of significant elements: ‘This is a module within Linux that provides 3 graphical output toyour monitor. t's referred to as the Xserver or simply just X. is an application that manages one or more graphical cisplays and one or more input devices (Keyboard, mouse, etc) connected to the computer. “The kernel is the core of the system and the single element that is actully called Linux. The Linux kernel manages the computer processor, memory, storage and any peripherals you have attached to your computer. It provides the basic services For all other parts of the OS. \With Linux being an open source, free operating system, it also makes use ofthe tens of thousands of freely available applications. The lkes of LibreOffice, GIMP and Python are just the tip of the icebera. whatisinoe CE SHELL ‘The Linux shellis a command:ine interface environment that 8 Linux user can use to enter commands to the OS that directly affect it, Within the shell you can add new users, reboot the system, create and delete files and Folders, and much more. BASH (Bourne Again Shel) isthe most popular shell, used in Linux, although more are available. The shellis algo known asthe Terminal, andit’s where youre going to work from through this section of the book 2 tte inst (inus tikes penguins) Linus Torvalds, the creator ofthe Linux kernel. Linux is used throughout the world, ina numberof basic and quite unique uses. While it may look radically different From one environment to the next, the actual Linux kernel, can be Found in modern smart TVs, in-car entertainment systerns and GPS, supercomputers, lo devices and the Raspberry Pi. t'sused by NASA, both in the command centre and on-board the ISS, Linux servers power the backbone of the internet, along with most of the ‘websites you visit daly Android utilises components of the Linux kemel, as do set top boxes, games consoles and even your fridge, Freezer, oven and washing machin. Linuxisatjusta free to use operating system. it's stable powerful and fast, easily customised and requires very litle maintenance. However, i’ mare than just performance stats, Linux means freedom from the walled garden approach oF other operating systems.’ lvly community oF ike-minded individuals (> espbion onthe Raspbery the wiho want more fromther computers without the shackles of price Linux lstribution of choice. or conformity. Linux means choc (TLEETITE Oy aa tee ‘ADesktop Environment can bbeas complex or as simple as the user desires. « peer Understanding Linux Using the Filesystem GETTING AROUND ‘To drop into the Terminal, click on the Fourth icon from the left along the top of the Raspberry Pi desktop, the one with a right facing arrow and an underscore. This s the shell, or Terminal older, however in Linux t's always called a directory These are and Downloads and Scrateh in Blue. You may also see other items placed inside each other using a “/” character. So when you see, fepending on how much you have used yout Raspberry Pl, The rome/piit means the pi directory inside the home directory, olour code is worth knowing: dtectories are bive while most Files Enter: clear and press return to clean the screen, Nowenter: pwd, _afe white, As you go on you's other colours: executable Files This stands For Print king Directory and displays /home/p (programs) are bright green, archived files are red and so on. Blue and white are the two you need to know to get stat Ez \When you lag into your Raspberry Pi, you don! EED Now you're going to move from the pi directory into start at the base ofthe hard drive, known asthe he Documents directory Enter: eDocument 8 ‘root '(also known asthe topmost director). Instead you begin Note the capital "D. Linux is case sensitive, which means you have inside your user directory, which is named by default and is toenter the exact name including correct capitalisation. The cd tselFin a directory called ‘home’. Directories arencicated by the’ command stands for change directory. Now enter: pwa again to fhome/pi tells you that inthe cory called view the directory path. I will display /home/pi/ Documents. E he next "/” says that inside torycalled 18 toview thefi he Documents directo 1uget back up to th mand “ed... In Linux fe, also knawn as the par ectory? By using dots meansthe ctory. Incidentally, 2 Pictures directory inside single dot." is used For the same directory. You never use "ed your Documents directory. You can switch to this directory using switch to the same diectory bu knowing because some ea Docu Pictures use ca tomove back up tw commands need you to specify the current directory parent directories STEP 1 STEP 3 STEP 2 5 Understanding Linux Listing and Moving Files LOOKING AT FILES Operating systems are built on files and Folders, or directories if you prefer. While you're used to vis operating systems keep other files out of sight. In Raspbian, you have access to ev BED We've already looked at "Is", which ists the files in the working directory, but you are more likely to ommand tke “ist he bit after the command (the known as the argument ,ehaviour ofthe command, his isan option that modifies the BED The "I" argument lists files and directories inlong Format. Each file and directory isnaw on a single ine, and before each ie isa lot of text. First youll see lots of letters ‘dashes, ike ‘drwar-xr-x’ Don't worry about these for now; they 35'permissions' and we'll ur own Files, most File inthe system, After the permission letters come a single number. Thisis the numberof Files in the item. Fits 3 file then il each directory contains two hidden Files; one witha single dot () e 1, butt’ a directory itl be atleast 2, This is because and one with two dots (.) Diectories containing Files of other irectories willhave a higher umber. ofthe le, a Next youl see the word “pi lsted twice on each ine. This efersto the user rather than the name of ter (your default usernames “pr. The irs isthe owner isthe group. Typically these will bth be ie -1/ that belong to

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