CONCURRENT STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE TRAINING

EFFECTS ON RUNNING ECONOMY IN MASTER

ENDURANCE RUNNERS
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MARIA FRANCESCA PIACENTINI,1 GIULIA DE IOANNON,1 STEFANIA COMOTTO,1

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ALESSANDRO SPEDICATO,1 GIANLUCA VERNILLO,2 AND ANTONIO LA TORRE2

1
Department of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico,” Rome, Italy; and 2Department of
Sport, Nutrition, and Health Sciences, Universita` degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION

O
Piacentini, MF, De Ioannon, G, Comotto, S, Spedicato, A, ver the years, the number of healthy older indi-
Vernillo, G, and La Torre, A. Concurrent strength and endurance viduals practicing sport activities has markedly
training effects on running economy in master endurance increased. This growth leads to a considerable
runners. J Strength Cond Res 27(8): 2295–2303, 2013—Run- increment of master athletes who perform at
ning economy (RE) has been seen to improve with concurrent
a high level for their age category (10). In particular, master
endurance athletes (i.e., .35 years of age) represent the larg-
strength and endurance training in young and elite endurance
est proportion of participants in marathon competitions, and
athletes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of
their participation in these events has dramatically increased
2 different strength training protocols on RE and strength
over the past decades (22). In fact, these athletes train and
parameters in a group of regularly training master marathon run- compete regularly, following detailed and structured training
ners. Sixteen participants were randomly assigned to a maximal schedules even though they do not have the same technical
strength training program (MST; n = 6; 44.2 6 3.9 years), support in terms of training and recovery. This is because,
a resistance training (n = 5; 44.8 6 4.4 years), and a control compared with younger athletes, they have to train between
group (n = 5; 43.2 6 7.9 years). Before and after the experi- very busy schedules because of work or family duties. Nev-
mental period, resting metabolic rate, body composition, 1 rep- ertheless, these athletes are capable of (a) remarkable athletic
etition maximum (1RM), squat jump, countermovement jump, and physiological functional performances (43), (b) training
and RE were evaluated. The MST group showed significant and competing regularly in long distance events and, in
increases (p , 0.05) in 1RM (+16.34%) and RE (+6.17 %) some cases, (c) improving the performance achieved at
at marathon pace. No differences emerged for the other groups a younger age. This is because the peak exercise perfor-
(p . 0.05). Anthropometric data were unchanged after the train-
mance for age category seems to increase continuously each
year (43) despite the well-documented decrease in endur-
ing intervention (p . 0.05). Taken together, the results of this
ance performance that occurs with age. In fact, loss in per-
preliminary study indicate that master endurance athletes seem
formance ability shows a slow but progressive decline from
to benefit from concurrent strength and endurance training
the ages of 30 to about 60 years (10). After that, a progres-
because the rate of force development may be crucial for sively steeper decrease is seen (43) even in athletes who are
RE improvement, one of the major determinants of endurance able to maintain sufficient training volume and intensity.
performance. Several studies have reported that regular endurance
training throughout the lifespan brings to half the decline in
KEY WORDS maximal strength training, 1RM, marathon
maximal aerobic capacity as seen in sedentary individuals (35).
runners
Endurance-running events are strongly related to physiological
determinants such as maximal aerobic capacity (V_ O2max), run-
ning economy (RE), and the exercise intensity at which a high
fraction of the V_ O2max can be sustained (15). Particularly, the
Address correspondence to Dr. Maria Francesca Piacentini, maria-
_
decrease in VO2max and the reduction in lactate threshold
francesca. appear to contribute to the decline in endurance exercise per-
[email protected]. formance from young adulthood to early middle age (43).
27(8)/2295–2303 Further, RE is defined as the V_ O2 required at a given absolute
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research exercise intensity. Therefore, runners with a better RE use less
Ó 2013 National Strength and Conditioning Association O2 than runners with a poor RE do at the same running speed

VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 8 | AUGUST 2013 | 2295

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 Maximal Strength Training in Master Athletes

(6). Accordingly, RE seems to be a better predictor of endur- decline in leg strength and muscle fiber area and type distri-
ance performance than maximal oxygen uptake (37) and does bution does not appear until after the age of 70 (44).
not seem to change with advancing age (8). Moreover, it has Therefore, the purpose of this study was to answer the
been suggested that there is a relationship between neuromus- question if incorporating regular strength training on top of
cular characteristics and RE (i.e., the more “economical” an the normal running program of Master endurance athletes
individual, the higher the level of contractile strength and mus- would be beneficial to RE, as already seen for younger or elite
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cular stiffness he or she presents) (2). Therefore, strength train- athletes. Our hypothesis is that maximal strength training
ing programs have received more attention as powerful stimuli (MST) or RT added to regular endurance training would lead
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to improve mechanical efficiency, muscle coordination, motor to different neuromuscular adaptations and consequently
unit recruitment patterns (36), and lower limb stiffness regula- different effects on RE in master endurance runners.
tion with an overall enhancement in the RE. In fact, it has been
suggested that an overall increase in the strength parameters METHODS
can facilitate changes and corrections in the technical model Experimental Approach to the Problem
because of an enhancement in the motor unit recruitment (21), The hypothesis that MST or RT added to regular endurance-
especially for individuals who started training at a more running training would lead to different neuromuscular
advanced age such as Master athletes. Although a combination adaptations, and consequently, different effects on RE in
of strength and endurance training have been advocated for master runners was tested. To answer this question, a 6-week
optimal physical function and health in the elderly, most of training period was chosen because 4- to 8-week cycles of
these studies have been performed on an untrained population strength training are commonly used in the literature (46),
(19). Moreover, a number of studies involving young adults and it was hypothesized that most of the adaptations in RE
have reported impairment in strength development when may occur after 4–6 weeks of strength training (as presented
endurance training is added to a strength training program in this study) and that longer protocols may not add further
(19). This potential conflict has been referred to as an “inter- improvements in RE.
ference phenomenon” because endurance training seems to Thus, a parallel, 3-group, randomized, longitudinal (pretest-
compromise optimal strength development (17). Nevertheless, posttest), experimental design was used. To investigate the
studies performed on young trained or even elite athletes do possible effects of 2 different strength training programs on
support the contention that concurrent training does not alter RE during the preparation of a marathon in Master endurance
the ability to positively adapt to endurance training (11). In athletes, anthropometric data, resting metabolic rate (RMR),
fact, strength training for endurance athletes is finalized to RE, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), maximal strength
optimize their endurance performance. As a consequence, (1 repetition maximum [1RM]), squat jump (SJ), counter-
the use of concurrent strength and endurance training in the movement jump (CMJ), and stiffness (STIF) were measured
endurance training periodization has been shown to improve before (at week 0) and after a 6-week strength training
performance in different endurance sports such as crosscoun- program (at week 7). All the subjects performed familiariza-
try skiers (18), cyclists (41), and triathletes (33). Concurrent tion trials before the testing days.
Sixteen marathon runners engaged in the same endurance
strength and endurance training has also been shown to
training program were randomly assigned to 1 of the
increase the RE in distance runners (14,21,38,40,46).
following groups: MST, RT, and a control group (CG). The
Despite the fact that master marathon runners represent
MST and the RT groups performed RT on top of their normal
the largest proportion of participants in marathon events,
running program, whereas the CG only performed the
studies have been mainly conducted on young or elite
normal endurance training regimen. We used as independent
athletes, and it is not known if this older athletic population
variable, the group, whereas the dependent variables were
will respond in a similar manner as elite or younger athletes or
body fat, body mass, 1RM, RMR, CMJ, SJ, and V_ O2. The
if including extra training days will induce them to non-
1RM on leg press has been shown to have high intraclass
functional overreaching. Recent evidence (24) suggests that
correlation coefficients (ICCs [0.99]) (28), whereas CMJ and
aging affects stress-response signaling. The study demon-
SJ performances show high ICCs (range: 0.997–0.998) for
strates that after the same resistance training (RT) program,
adult male individuals (13). Controlled reliability on RE has
older individuals show no significant increase in myofiber been seen indicating that results are relatively stable (37).
hypertrophy adaptation, whereas younger individuals experi-
ence 2 times the growth in type 2 myofibers compared with Subjects
their older counterparts. Only the younger population was Twenty-one master endurance runners from the same
capable of type 1 myofiber growth. Moreover, older individ- running team (5 women and 16 men) were originally
uals have a higher percentage of type 1 muscle fibers and recruited to take part in the study and were randomly
therefore are able to generate less force (23). However, divided into 1 of the 3 experimental groups (n = 7 per
a cross-sectional study on master endurance athletes aged group). The protocol was approved by the University Ethi-
40–88 years demonstrated that a significant age-associated cal Committee and the participants gave their written
the TM

2296 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

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consent before participation. The participants had a history of between 7:00 and 8:30 AM. Pretraining and posttraining meas-
consistently participating in road races (from 10 km to mara- urements were performed at the same time. After 5 minutes of
thon distance). Five voluntarily discontinued participation and sitting rest, the subjects were fitted with a mask (Fitmate,
only 16 (12 men and 4 women) completed the 6-week training Cosmed, Rome, Italy) to measure V_ O2. Thereafter, they were
period. Therefore, the groups were formed as follows (mean 6 asked to lie down in a quiet room in a supine position, and
SD): MST (n = 6; 4 male and 2 female: 44.2 6 3.9 years, height a 30-minute habituation period was allowed (34) in a thermo-
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170.2 6 7.6 cm, body mass 71.9 6 13.1 kg); RT (n = 5; 3 male neutral environment (24 6 0.58 C). The subjects were given
and 2 female: 44.8 6 4.4 years, height 170.3 6 13.8 cm, body 15 minutes to rest, breathing through a mask, during which
mass 67.9 6 14.7 kg) and a CG (n = 5; 5 male: 43.2 6 7.9 years,
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the RMR was measured. After the RMR measurements, body

height 175.2 6 6.9 cm, body mass 71.3 6 13.7 kg). To prevent composition was assessed before and after the training period
potential contaminating effects of the athlete’s ability level using the Jackson and Pollock (20) 7-site skinfold equation.
and different training schedules, the participants included in Skinfold measurements were taken by the same experienced
this study had to fulfill the following inclusion criteria: (a) be operator on the right side and recorded to the nearest 0.1 mm
Master athletes (.35 years of age); (b) have at least 5 years of using a Lange skinfold caliper (Cambridge Scientific Instru-
previous endurance training; (c) to be part of the same track ment, Cambridge, MD, USA). Measurements were taken 3
and field team followed by the same trainer. times per site, and the mean value was recorded. Body density
was calculated, whereas percent body fat was estimated with
Procedures
the Siri equation (39). Body mass and body height were mea-
All the tests were performed before and after a 6-week
sured after the RMR test at the same time of the day and
intervention program during the first 6 weeks of their specific
under comparable nutritional and training conditions. Body
12-week marathon-training program, and measurements were
weight and height were measured with a calibrated clinical
taken before (week 0) and after the strength training
balance to the nearest gram.
interventions (week 7). The tests were separated by a 24-hour
resting period. All the tests were performed at the same time
of the day 62 hours in a climate-controlled laboratory (;21 One-Repetition Maximum
to 228 C, 53% relative humidity) except for RMR that was Maximal strength was estimated through the 6RM test on
performed early in the morning. The participants did not the leg press. All the subjects were positioned on a horizontal
perform any physical activity in the 24 hours resting period leg press (Technogym, Gambettola, Italy) and the knee angle
and were requested to refrain from using caffeine-containing (908) was fixed to maintain the same position in all test
food or beverages, alcohol, cigarette smoking, or any form occasions. The athletes were required to perform a 5-minute
of nicotine intake during this period. The subjects were warm-up period at 40–60% of their maximal predicted 1RM.
requested to replicate the same food intake before each test. After a brief recovery period, the athletes were requested to
All the subjects performed familiarization trials. perform the first session with a preliminary load of 15 rep-
The participants were provided with written and oral etitions. Thereafter, the load was increased every step by
instructions before all the testing procedures. The MST and 30% until the athlete could not successively complete
RT program was performed in addition to their regular a 6RM repetition (1). The 1RM was estimated through
endurance training, twice a week and before and after the a conversion table (3). The 1RM was measured at week
experimental period, RMR, body composition, 1RM, SJ, CMJ, 0 and after training at week 7. All the tests were performed
STIF, and an RE test at 3 running speeds were measured for each individual at the same time of the day.
(Figure 1). All the tests were ran-
domized; however, the same
order was respected in the pre-
test and posttest for each
individual.
Resting Metabolic
Rate Measurements
Individuals were asked to
refrain from vigorous activity
at least 24 hours before the
resting metabolic measure-
ments, to eat the same dinner
the day before the RMR meas-
Figure 1. Experimental timeline: testing periods in weeks 0 and weeks 7, training from weeks 1 to week 6. MST =
urements, and to be 12 hours maximal strength training group (performing MST + endurance training); RT = resistance training group
fasted. They were asked to plan (performing RT + endurance training).
their arrival in the laboratory

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2298

Maximal Strength Training in Master Athletes

TABLE 1. Description of the imposed strength training for the MST, the RT, and the CG.*†

Strength training protocol

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
the

Days Recovery between

Week per week Lower body exercise Upper body exercise Sets/reps sets (min) % 1RM

MST 6 2 1/2 Squat with arm weights, calf exercise Bench press, lat machine, pulldown machine, 4 3 3–4 3–4 85–90%
(leg press), lunges with arm weights, cable machine (pushdown), triceps extension,
eccentric quadriceps contractions, dumbbell biceps curl
leg press
RT 6 2 1/2 Squat with arm weights, calf exercise Bench press, lat machine, push up, pulldown 3 3 10 2–3 70%
(leg press), lunges with arm weights, machine, core strength, cable machine,
leg press, eccentric quadriceps triceps extension, dumbbell biceps curl
contractions, seated calf raise
CG Regular endurance training protocol

*MST = maximal strength training; RT = resistance training; CG = control group.

†Resistance was increased in each group every week to maintain the correct number of repetitions per set.
TM

TABLE 2. Body mass, FFM, FM, percent body fat, and RMR for all the groups before and after the 6-week intervention period.*†

MST RT CG

Pre Post Change % Pre Post Change % Pre Post Change %

Body mass (kg) 71.9 6 13.1 71.8 6 13.3 0 67.9 6 14.7 68.9 6 14.8 1 71.3 6 13.7 72 6 14.3 0
% Body fat 17.4 6 4.7 16.3 6 3.3 26 16.6 6 5.5 16 6 5.0 23.6 15.1 6 3.8 14.0 6 3.0 27
FM (kg) 12.3 6 4.5 11.6 6 3.2 25 11.1 6 3.6 10.8 6 3.1 22 11.1 6 4.8 10.7 6 4.1 23
FFM (kg) 58.8 6 12.4 60.2 6 11.6 2 56.8 6 14.9 58.1 6 13.9 2 60.2 6 9.6 61.4 6 10.4 2
RMR (kcal) 1,625 6 254 1,631 6 261 0 1,540 6 276 1,538 6 268 0 1,620 6 204 1,630 6 213 0

*MST = maximal strength training; RT = resistance training; CG = control group; FFM = fat-free mass; FM = fat mass; RMR = resting metabolic rate.
†Data are presented as mean 6 SD and % change from prevalues.

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 the TM

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Jumping Performance
All the subjects performed an SJ, CMJ, and an STIF test

Change %
during the same test day. Each test was separated by
a 5-minute rest period. Vertical jump performance was

27

13
7

10
assessed using the SJ and the CMJ tests according to the
procedures suggested by Bosco et al. (5). Jumping height
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was calculated from flight time using kinematic equations

37.1
3.7z
4.3z
2.8
(27). Flight time was recorded using an infrared photocell
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connected to a digital computer (Optojump System, Micro-

Post

6
6
6
6
CG
gate SARL, Bolzano, Italy). All the tests were performed in

291.6
28.6
27.2
20.4
a randomized order. For the SJ, the participants were
instructed to squat down and hold a knee position (;908
knee angle) for a few seconds with arms blocked. When

21.9
3.0
3.4
3.6
cued, the participant was instructed to jump as high as pos-

Pre

6
6
6
6
sible. A trial was considered successful when there was no

26.6
24.0
18.6
312.0
further squatting or countermovement before the execution
of the jump. Three trials separated by 1 minute of passive
recovery were performed. The best one was recorded for

Change %
further analysis. To perform the CMJ, the subjects were

TABLE 3. The 1RM test, CMJ, SJ, and STIFF tests for all the groups before and after 6 weeks of training.*†

10

13
instructed to start in a standing position with their arms

3
6
blocked, perform a 2-legged CMJ consisting of a fast down-
ward movement to a freely chosen angle, immediately
followed by a fast maximal vertical thrust. Any jump that

58.0

3.7z
5.4
5.5
was perceived to deviate from the required instructions was

Post

6
6
6
6
repeated. Three trials separated by 1 minute of passive recov-

RT

21
254.8

20.4
17.4
ery were performed. The best one was recorded for further
analysis. A multirebound test (7 consecutive jumps) was per-
formed to measure STIF. The participants had 2 trials sepa-

75.0
rated by a 5-minute passive recovery period. The participants

5.8
5.2
3.5

*MST = maximal strength training; RT = resistance training; CG = control group.

were asked to keep their knees as stiff as possible during the
Pre

6
6
6
6
test, to jump as high as possible, and to have the shortest
20.4
19.2
15.1
231.6
contact time. The results from the best trial were used for
further analysis. Jumping performance was measured at week

†Data are presented as mean 6 SD and % change from prevalues.

0 and after training at week 7. All the tests were performed for
Change %

each individual at the same time of the day.

17

11
3

Running Economy
The RE was determined by measuring submaximal V_ O2 dur-
zSignificant differences from PRE tests (p , 0.05).
64.3z

ing 3 different running speeds on a treadmill: 5 minutes at 1

4.0
3.3
2.8

km$h21 slower than the marathon pace (9.75 6 1.3 km$h21),

Post

6
6
6
6

5 minutes at the marathon pace (10.75 6 1.3 km$h21), and

MST

299.5
22.5
22.2
18.1

5 minutes at 1 km$h21 faster than the marathon pace (11.75

6 1.3 km$h21) after a standardized warm-up. Before each
test, the Cosmed flow meter (Quark b2, Cosmed) was cali-
58.1

brated with a 3-L syringe, and the oxygen analyzer was cali-
3.9
4.1
3.4

brated with known gas mixtures (16% O2 and 5% CO2) and

Pre

6
6
6
6

environmental air (20.9% O2 and 0.03% CO2). During each

257.0
21.8
20.0
18.1

step, the heart rate was continuously monitored using a heart

rate monitor with an internal memory (Polar Team System,
Polar, Kempele, Finland), and the subjects were asked to rate
STIFF (cm)
CMJ (cm)
1RM (kg)

their perceived effort according to the rating perceived exer-

SJ (cm)

tion scale (CR-10 scale) (4) before, at the end of each step, and
after exercise. Throughout the tests, the respiratory and pul-
monary gas-exchange variables were measured using
a breath-by-breath gas analyzer (Quark b2, Cosmed). The

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 Maximal Strength Training in Master Athletes

differences in the dependent

variables at pretest. Thereafter,
a 1-way ANOVA for repeated
measures was used to identify
differences between the 3
groups of subjects, by exami-
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nation of the group 3 time

interaction to evaluate differ-
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ences resulting from the train-

ing programs. Post hoc
assessment was undertaken
by means of a Bonferroni mul-
tiple comparison test. Data are
presented as mean 6 SD for
each group (MST, RT, CG)
or percent increase. For all sta-
Figure 2. The V_ O2 measured pretraining and posttraining at 3 different running speeds on a treadmill: 5 minutes
at 1 km$h21 slower than marathon pace (step 1: 9.75 6 1.3 km$h21), 5 minutes at marathon pace (step 2: 10.75
tistical analyses, a p value of
6 1.3 km$h21), and 5 minutes at 1 km$h21 faster than marathon pace (step 3: 11.75 6 1.3 km$h21); 0.05 was accepted as the level
* = significant differences from the PRE tests (p , 0.05); MSE = maximal strength training (black bars); of statistical significance.
RT = resistance training (gray bars); CG = control group (white bars).
RESULTS
The data followed a normal
RE was defined as the V_ O2 determined by averaging the last distribution. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test score was 0.09.
2 minutes of each running speed. The RE was measured at Before the training period, the subjects did not differ in terms
week 0 and after training at week 7. All the tests were per- of any variable measured (p . 0.05). After the 6-week pro-
formed for each individual at the same time of the day. gram, there were no significant changes in body mass, fat-
free mass (FFM), fat mass, percent body fat, or RMR for all
Training Protocol
the groups (Table 2).
The subjects were well-trained master runners, who started
The MST group showed a significant 17% increase (p , 0.05)
the season in September 2009 and already participated to
in 1RM after training. In fact, premean and postmean values
different races (10–21 km) in the months before the study
were 257.0 6 58.1 and 299.5 6 64.3 kg, respectively, whereas no
(from September to January 2010). The training interven-
significant differences (p . 0.05) were observed in the RT group
tions took place from the beginning of January to Mid-
and in the CG (Table 3). The MST group showed no significant
February, and the marathon was scheduled at the end of
differences (p . 0.05) in the CMJ, SJ, or STIF tests with the
March. All the subjects were engaged in the same endur-
6-week training protocol. The RT group showed a significant
ance training program that consisted of 4–5 d$wk21 for
13% increase in the STIF test (pre: 15.1 6 3.5 cm vs. post:
a total of 50 km$wk21 distributed in slow runs, interval
17.4 6 3.7 cm, p , 0.05) and no difference in CMJ or SJ
training, and tempo runs emphasizing improvement in
(p . 0.05). The CG showed a significant 7% improvement in
V_ O2max. The subjects were then divided into different
CMJ (pre: 26.6 6 3.0 cm vs. post 28.6 6 3.7 cm, p , 0.05) and
strength training protocols while the CG continued only
a significant 13% improvement in the SJ (pre 24.0 6 3.4 cm vs.
with the regular running program. Resistance was increased
post 27.2 6 4.3 cm, p , 0.01) with no difference observed for
every week to maintain the correct number of repetitions
STIF. All data regarding the 1RM and the jumping ability tests
per set. The strength training program (Table 1) consisted of
are given in Table 3.
2 training sessions a week and was supervised by a certified
The RE improved significantly (p , 0.05) in the MST group
fitness instructor. The MST program consisted of 4 sets of
(6.17%) only at marathon pace (second step, Figure 2). No
3–4 repetitions of exercises for the lower and upper body at
significant differences were observed in the RE for the MST
85–90% of the estimated 1RM. Rest intervals between sets
groups at the other running speeds. The RT and CG did not
were 3 minutes. The RT included a general conditioning of
show significant improvements in the RE for any of the running
the main muscle groups of the body and consisted of 3 sets
speeds (p . 0.05; Figure 2). The RPE showed no difference
of 10 repetitions at 70% 1RM.
from pretraining values at all exercise intensities (p . 0.05).
Statistical Analyses
SPSS statistical software (v10.1 for Windows) was used for all DISCUSSION
statistical analyses. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was applied Studies regarding master athletes have been mainly con-
to verify the assumption of normality. One-way analysis of ducted to understand the rate of performance decline with
variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate between-group aging (10,22,43) more than the impact of different training
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interventions on the physiological variables implicated in production and a reduced age-related difference in perfor-
endurance performance. Therefore, the main focus of this mance. In fact, before the strength training, younger individu-
study was to investigate the impact of a concurrent strength als showed higher muscular strength and cycling efficiency,
and endurance training on RE in master athletes and under- whereas after training, the age-related differences were
stand if the results are similar to those found in young or elite reduced, strengthening the hypothesis that adding a 2 times
subjects. Accordingly, the results of this study demonstrated per week MST to an endurance training program may help
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a 6.17% improvement in the RE in the MST group, a signif- reduce the age-related decrements in performance. Therefore,
icant 17% increase in 1RM, with no concomitant changes in although older individuals have a larger percentage of type I
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body mass, FFM, percent body weight, fat mass, and RMR. muscle fibers and are therefore able to generate less force (23),
The 17% increase in 1RM observed in this study is lower they seem to respond positively to RT programs (for a review
than what was found in previous studies that evaluated the see [30]) also when concurrent to endurance training.
effects of RT on older adults (19,30). Strength development Although strength gains in our study are slightly lower, the
has been shown to be lower when endurance training is increase in RE (6% increase found only in the MST) is similar
added to a strength training program (19) because the phys- to what was observed for younger individuals. In fact, with an
iological stimuli directed to skeletal muscle as a result of increase in strength, a lower percentage of 1RM in the lower
strength training and endurance training are divergent in limb extensors will be taxed in each stride, lowering the actual
nature (16). In adding endurance training to strength, a lim- demands of number of motor units recruited (18). Johnston
itation in muscle hypertrophy has been suggested as a mech- et al. (21) was one of the first groups to associate the effects of
anism for decreasing gains in strength (31) compared with the inclusion of a whole-body RT program on the RE in
strength training alone, possibly because of a limited increase female distance runners. The protocol consisted of a 10-week
in type I fiber area (25). To be effective, especially on endur- regimen based on 2–3 sets of 6–20 RM (each set performed to
ance athletes, the program needs to maximize increases in momentary concentric failure) that resulted in significant
1RM primarily from coordination and neural adaptations increases in upper and lower body strength with no changes
and changes in recruitment patterns, with minimal muscle in body composition and a 4% increase in RE. Similarly, Millet
hypertrophy. Less interference is in fact evident when train- et al. (33) found that the addition of 14 weeks of heavy weight
ing simultaneously maximal aerobic power and maximal training to the regular endurance program of elite triathletes
strength because the training stimulus for increasing strength determined a significant increase in the RE with a 25%
would be mainly directed at the neural system, while the increase in lower limb force. Moreover, the MST group
adaptations for increasing maximal aerobic power will showed a significant increase in the velocity associated with
mainly induce peripheral adaptations and the interference V_ O2max. Storen et al. (40) showed a 33% increase in 1RM and
seems to be less pronounced (7). Moreover, a cross-sectional a 5% increase in the RE in well-trained runners after an addi-
study on master endurance athletes aged 40–88 years, dem- tional 2 times a week MST program for 8 weeks. Guglielmo
onstrated that a significant age-associated decline in leg et al. (14) added a 4-week MST and explosive strength training
strength and muscle fiber area and type distribution does program in well-trained endurance runners. The authors found
not appear until after the age of 70 (44); therefore, chronic a 38% increase in 1RM in the MST and a 51% increase in 1RM
endurance training can delay the age of significant decline in in the explosive strength training groups, whereas the RE
peak torque and changes in muscle morphology of the improved only in the MST group. Similarly to Taipale et al.
vastus lateralis. This could explain the lower increase in (42), we found an increase in the 1RM only in the MST groups
1RM observed in our study compared with completely and no change in the RT and in the CG.
untrained older individuals performing an RT program. Because of the length of the program and because FFM did
Only 1 study evaluated the effects of a strength training not change, we can hypothesize that strength gains result
program on recreational runners of the same age as our from a better motor unit recruitment pattern as previously
runners (9) but with a lower weekly training volume com- shown (9). The RMR is largely related to the amount of FFM,
pared with the runners of this study. The authors found that and strength training programs focused on hypertrophy have
inserting 2 times a week an MST program in recreational been successfully used in dieting individuals to preserve both
runners had no effect on body weight or composition and no RMR and FFM (12). In this study, no significant changes
effect on the RE. However, they found an increase in mus- were observed in the RMR and anthropometric parameters,
cular strength that most probably may be advantageous for confirming that the strength gains observed are related to
the endurance runner in a long-term perspective. neural adaptations rather than to hypertrophy (41). It can
More recently, Louis et al. (29) evaluated the effects of therefore be hypothesized that most of the adaptations in
concurrent strength and endurance training in master endur- the RE may occur already after 4–6 weeks of strength training
ance cyclists. Their results indicated age-related differences (as presented in this study) and that longer protocols may not
in cycling efficiency, maximal and endurance torque– add further improvements in the RE because they might
generating capacities. In master athletes, the MST program impair further strength gains (31) and expose individuals to
showed an enhancement in maximal and endurance torque nonfunctional overreaching. Moreover, RE improvements of

VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 8 | AUGUST 2013 | 2301

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Maximal Strength Training in Master Athletes

.2.4% can be attributed to the training intervention and not willing to perform intensive training sessions for several months
to a day-to-day variability (37). to prepare themselves for 1 specific event (45). However, what
Strength training has been reported to improve muscle- is till questionable is if they will benefit from the same training
tendon stiffness (26), and this could be an advantage for programs normally reserved for younger or elite athletes. The
improving the rate of force development (47). Kubo et al. results of this study indicate that a well-structured MST pro-
(26) was the first group to show the effects of strength training gram for a limited amount of time during the conditioning
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on the elastic profiles of human tendon structures in vivo training period in preparation of long endurance events can
without noticing a significant hypertrophy. However, we increase the RE, without inducing hypertrophy. What is most
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found no difference in STIF in the MST group, whereas the interesting is that the RE improvements are similar to what was
CG and RT groups improved significantly. Animal models seen for younger individuals. Because this population has to
show that chronic exercise (endurance training) can modify squeeze training into very busy schedules and optimal training
the elastic proprieties of the tendon (48). This can explain the in older adults is fundamentally similar to optimal training in
improvements observed in the CG and RT groups. Similarly younger athletes, particular attention needs to be paid to the
to what we found, Millet et al. (33) observed no difference in total volume of training during the period of concurrent training
hopping stiffness and ground contact time in the MST group to avoid nonfunctional overreaching.
after 14 weeks of heavy weight training. In accordance with We suggest in the preparation period for major compet-
their conclusions, it can be hypothesized that the character- itions to add a 6-week MST protocol 2 times$per week
istics of the strength training performed is not optimal for concurrently to the regular endurance training targeted to
showing improvements in stiffness with a hopping test. increase maximal aerobic power. This could be a beneficial
The improvement in CMJ and SJ only in the CG denotes methodology to improve performance in endurance events
that improvements in 1RM are not sufficient to elicit improve- and a good way to diversify the training program of master
ments in jump performance (14). Similarly, Guglielmo et al. runners that often focus only on running, risking nonfunc-
(14) found that jump performance increased only in the explo- tional overreaching. Because of the restricted age range of
sive strength training group but not in the heavy weight train- this study, these data cannot be generalized to all age cate-
ing group. Häkkinen et al. (16) showed that individuals who gories that include master athletes. Moreover, a wider sam-
preformed strength training alone showed increases in rapid ple of athletes is needed to evaluate gender differences in the
force production of the trained leg extensors and a significant response to an MST protocol.
improvement in rapid neural activation, whereas the concur-
rent strength and endurance training groups showed no sig- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
nificant changes. These results suggest that concurrent The authors would like to thank all the participants of the
strength and endurance training lead to interferences in explo- “Villa Ada Green Runners” for the extra time they dedicated
sive strength development as seen also in our study. The to this study. No grant support was provided for this study.
authors hypothesize that there may be a reduced improve- The results of this study do not constitute endorsement of
ment in rapid voluntary neural activation (16). the product by the authors or the National Strength and
Despite the evidence of significant effects of MST on RE, Conditioning Association.
endurance athletes and in particular Master athletes either
include very little or no RT in their regular programs in
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