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27 views31 pagesNew Doc 01-08-2023 12.47
MCA BCA assignments
Uploaded by
BCA SY 63 Aaditi RanawareCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 31
Chapter 1A
Sets and Probabilities
1.1 Fundamental concepts of set theory
Set:
7 setis nei of well defined distinct: objects.
enerally a set is denoted by capital letters A,B, C & —
denoted by small letters a, b, ¢,..: ge ge
e.g.1) A= {1,2,3}, B= {a,b,c}, C={1,2,a,b}
2) Group ofall S.E. students is also aset. 6 efomenfs
3) The rivers in India
4) The vowels of alphabets
Remarks: ~
1) _ Assetis collection of well defined distinct objects in that case we use the set
{a,,b,c} is a redundant representation of the set {a,b,c}: Such types ofredundancy
are avioded by using the set {a1,a2,b,c} where al & a2 are considered as two.
distinct elements of the set.
2) Theelementsinaset are not ordered and they are in any fashion. set {a,b,c}& set
{b,c,a} both represent the same collection of elements.
Notations
Ifx is a element of A,.we write “x belongs to A” denoted by “xe A”.
Ifxis not an element of set A then we say “x does not belong toA” denoted
by “xe A”.
a) Listing Method:
Elements are listed by braces
eg. i) A=({pencil, byte, 5}
i) B= (2,4,6,8,.3
ey
© scanned with OKEN Scanner 2 Chapter 1
b) Statement form:
Astatement describing the set especially where the elements share common
characteristic.
eg. i) Theset ofall equivalent weights
i) Colours of Rainbow.
it) Set ofall SE students
©) — Set-builder Notation :
Itis the compact way of describing the set to specify property shared by all
elements of the set,
The property is denoted by p(x), where pis the statement concerning an element
xof the set.
setiswrittenas- e.g. A= {x|x> 10}
Aisa set ofall x such that x is greater than 10.
{x| p(x)} where the braces { } denote the clause “ the set of” & the slash or
stroke/ denotes “such that”,
Singleton set :
A cetcontaining only one element is called as singleton set,
e-g.A= {0}, B= {5}, C= {a}
Null set or Empty Set :
Asset which does not contain any’
void set. It is denoted by®.
CBA= (x|x<2&x>5)
A=QieA=®
Subset :
element is called as empty set or null set or
LetA & B be two sets then A is g
“Ais subset of B” is denoted by
©8-IfAis nota subset of B th
A={1,2,3)
Be (1,9,3,4,5)
ACB,
Remark: i) AcA
tubset of B if every element of A is inB,
“AcR”
en, A g B,
then
i} GCA
© scanned with OKEN Scanner a subset of jtself ang CMe
Every setis
ed as proper subset of B if every g,
or Subset Aiscall sac
Prop’ sets then Jcment in B which is notin A, “Aig wot
Let A& Bbetwo® s atleast one C
by“AC BY
x,a,d,b} then AC B.
Remark: ochif
Equality of Two Sets: : F ra
q two sets A & B aresaid to be equal ifACB&BCA. ‘Ais equal to Brg
denoted by “A=B”.
eg. If A= {FE, SE, TE} & Q= {TE, FE, SE}
~ A=Q sACQ&QcA
If A= {x/x<10 & xis even}
B= (2,4,6,8} &
C= {x/x>1 & x< 10 & xis even}
AcB, BcC, AcC
Then all the three sets are equal
Disjoint sets :
LetA & B be two sets. Then A & B are called as disjoint sets ifA VB =0.
eg A={I,3,5} & B= {2,4,6} ,
thn ANMB=6
A&Bare disjoint sets,
Family of sets:
A
setP i i i
< contains elements which are itself sets then itis called family of 8“
set of sets,
S& P= (£1,2,3),{0,2,4),(1,3,5}}
Pisasetof sets, q
Universal Set : .
Ifali sets consid. i
5 fered duri , th
Sets called ag calves Specific discussion are subsets ofa givenscb iM
Telative Concept Sclandis denoted byU. — Hences the univ re!
asthe un; lent on the specif a: is
the Wniverse of discourse the specific discussion, therefore, itis ls°
© scanned with OKEN Scanner 4
Chapter 1
Some Special Sets
N
Zz
z
R
Q
5 Set of all natural nos {1, 2,3, ...0}
9 Set of all integers {.....- =2,-1,0, 1, 2.....}
5 Set of all positive integers {1, Due}
Set of real numbers
_3 Null or empty set denoted by { } or by >.
1,2 Combination of Sets
when OfTwo Sets :
1. LetA& B betwo sets. Then “A union B” or “A cup B” is a set denoted by
“A UB" is defined as.
AUB= {x/xe A orxe B}
ie.
ie.
eg.1. IfA={1,2,3,5} & B= {2, 4, 6}
xis an clement either in A or in B orin both.
xis an element of atleast one set.
then AUB= {1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6}
2. IfA={x/xe Zand x28} whereZisaset ofall integers.
B= {x/xe Zandx2 15}
then A UB = {x|xe Zandz28}
Remarks :
a:
er ayvayp
AUA=A Idempotent law
. AUOHA
AUU=U Uisuniversal set
ACAUB
BCAUB
AUB=BUA Commutative law
guo=o
» (AUB) UC=AU (BUC) Associative law
Ietetion of two sets :
LetA& B be two sets. Then “A intersection B” is a set denoted by “ANB” &
isdefinedas ANB = {x/xe A&xe BY
eg. A= {I,2,3,5} & B= (2,4, 6}
© scanned with OKEN Scanner Sets and Probabilities
then AMB= {2}
eg. A INEZ&NZBYER 1
B= {v/we Z&x215)
then =AQB= {x/xe Zand x2 15)
Remarks :
1) ANA=A Idempotent law
2) ANO=$
3) ONO=o
4) ANU=A
5) AABCA
6 AABcB
T) (ANB)AC=AN(BNC) __ Associativelaw
3) AN B=BONA. Commutative law
fsplement of a set :
Let ACU, then complement of set A is denoted by A’ or A & is defined as
{al|xeU&xe¢ A}
If U={l,2,3,4,5, 6}
& A={i,2,5,6}
then A’= {3, 4}
2. Wo U={1,2,3,4) 55 oes}
& A={1,3,5,..}
then A’ = {2, 4, 6,
LetP bea given set, complement of P is denoted byP defined as
P= (xlxeU & xe P}
3. P= {x[ris areal no &x <7} then
P= {a[visareal no &x>7}
Remarks :
U'
=
AUA'=U
ANA’ =o
fe me
© scanned with OKEN Scanner Chapter 1
5. AGBSB’CA’
6. (ANBY =A’UB’
j
i
i
7
7. (AUBY=A'AB! 2
8& (AY=A.
Difference of Two Sets or Relative Complement of a set :
LetA &B be two sets.
Then difference of A & B or relative complement of B in A is a set denoted by
A-B &is defined as
A-B= (are & x¢ B} set containing exactly those elements in A & not in B,
B-A= {alreB&x eA}
eg If A= {1,2,3,5}
B= {2,4, 6}
then A~B= {1,3, 5}
B-A= {4,6}
Let A & B betwo sets then
) A=U-A
i) A-A=o
ii) A-A=A
i) A-g=A
Symmetric Difference :
1a SB betwo seis. Then symmetric difference A & B is denoted by A@B
&is defined as,
AGB = & Ize (AUB)&x¢ (ANB)}
A@B=(AUB)~(ANB) ~
ce If A={1,2,3,4,5)
& B= (2,3,4,b, ¢}
then AGB = (1, 4, 5, a,b, c}
©
A@®B =(AUB)—(AnB)
Remarks :
1. A@A=4
2. AGO=A
3. A@B= BoA
© scanned with OKEN Scanner ~ sats and Probabilities ,
c=AG(B OO) Associative lay
(A@B)
5. ert =(AUB)- (AnB)
=(A-B) UB -A)
solve: LetA= {1,2,3, «-- 10}, B= £2, 4, 6, ress 10) ands,
find the following sets. {l
a) AUB b) ANB o ANC dd) Auc
2 BNC ff} BUC g A-B }) Ac
Power Set:
Powerset of; is
ofA. Ais denoted by P(A) the set that containexat
Ifs= 9)
=e) ; a a |
sa 7 {b}, {a,b} ;
P(S)=
re oe (2), 43, 5}, (5, 2}, (2, 3}, 3, 5,23}
‘S)
"oe eS, ee fa, eee {od}, {dah att
© scanned with OKEN Scanner Chapter 1
IfS contains n elements then power set of S contains 2° element.
eg. LetA= (a,b, {a,b}} Find Tor F.
1) aeA T
2) {a}eA F as {a} issubset of A
3) {abjeA T
4) {{ab}}oA T as subset containing single elements {a,b} of A.
5) {ab}cA T a,baselementsofA.
© {a, {b}}CA F {b}isnotanelement ofA.
Cartesian Product:
"Let A& Bbetwo sets then carterian product ofAand Bis denoted by AXB &
is defined AXB = {(a,b)/ac A& be B}
eglf A={5,6,7}&B={1,2,8,9}
then AxB= {(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 8), (5,9); (6, 1), (6,2); (6. 8). (6, 9). (7. De
(7, 2),(7, 8), (7, 9}
Remarks :
IA contains m elements & B containsn elements thenAXB contains mn elements.
1) AXB#¥BxA
2) IfAcontains m elements then AXA contains m? elements.
3) Axo=6
4) OxB=6
5) oxo=6
ALGEBRA OF SET OPERATIONS :
Commutative laws :
1) AUB=BUA
2) ANB= BONA
Proof: letx be any arbitary element ofA UB. Then
lt x€AUB sx@orxe B
=xeBorve A
=xE BUA
AUB=BUA wee a)
© scanned with OKEN Scanner a ee 9
Conversely, let x be any arbitary element of BUA Then
Letxe BUA =xe Borxre aA
=>xeAorxeB
=xE€ AUB
BUASAOBF a=) (cis (2)
from (1) & (2)
AUB=BUA
Distributive laws :
1) AU (BOC) =(AUB)N(AUC)
2) AN(BUC)=(ANB)U(ANC)
3) AAYB)AC=(ANC)UBNAG
4) (ANB) UC=(AUC)N(BUCG)
Proof: Letxbe any arbitary element of the set AU (B UC). Then
Lettxe AU(BUC) =>xeAorxe (BUC
=xe Aor (xe Bandxe C)
= (xe Aorxe B) and (xe Aorxe B)
=xeAUBand xe AUC
=xe (AUB)Nxe(AUC)
7 AU(BUC) (AUB) A(AUC) (i)
Conversaly, let x be any arbitarty element of the set (AUB) (AUC). Then
Letx €(A UB) AN (A UC) = xe (AUB) and xe (AUC)
=> (xe Aorxe B) and (x € Aorxe C)
=xeA or(xe Bandxe C)
Left distributive laws
Right distributive laws
=xeEAU(BUC)
“ (AUB)M(AUC) AU(BUC)
from (1) & (2)
AU(BAC)=(AUB)A(AUC)
Tdempotent laws :
1) AUA=A eg, A= (1,2, 3)
2 ANA=A AVA = {1,2,3) U (12,3)
= {1,2,3}
© scanned with OKEN Scanner {
f
:
cnapier +
10 ——
=A
ANA ={1,2,3}.9 {1,2, 3}
lees)
a
Absorption laws :
1) AU(ANB)=A_— eg. A= {1,2} B= {2,3}
2) AQ(AUB)=A ANB={2}
AU {2} = {1, 2} {2} = {1, 2} =A.
De Morgan’s Laws :
1) (AnBY=4'UB
2) (AUBY'=4'AB'
Proof: Letx be any arbitary element of the set (A> BY’. Then
x€(ANB) >x¢(ANB)
=x¢ Aand x¢B
=>xeA'orxe B’
=> xe(A'UB’)
(ANB) c(4'UB)). )
Conversaly, let x be any arbitarty element of the set (4'UB’). Then.
x€A'UB'=> xe A'orxe B’
=>x¢ Aorxe B
=> x¢(ANB)
>xe(AnBy
“ (AUB) C(ANBY
From (1) and (2)
(ANBY=A'UB’
Associative laws :
Shifting of brackets is allowed
1) AU BUC =(AUB)UC=AUBUC
2) AN BOO) =(ANB)AC=ANBAC
© scanned with OKEN Scanner Sets and Probabilities ee
ae ar
Venn Diagrams a a
Sets obtained from combination of given sets can be represented
; i
These diagrams are known as Venn diagrams Pl orig,
PUQ PAQ
Solve : To prove PQ Xk
BG .
AYBOC)=(AVB)V(ALC) KOU Ve of
ale AU(BAC)
© scanned with OKEN Scanner pean Sa Se
R.H.S. 1)
e
(AYB)M(AUC)
Hence proved
olve: To prove (A®B)®C = A®(B@C)
e
U U
WLS. 1) 2)
A@®B
w
r4 U
ELS. 1 2
) e )
Bec A®(BO® & le
Hence proved 2
© scanned with OKEN Scanner Solve : To prove
AB
Hence proved
canst prove AU(BOC) = (AUB)NAYS) fe
L.ELS. 1)
fu(BOO) .
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1
The set of all even integers is denumerable.
The set of all odd integers is denumerable.
[fAandB are countable sets than A U B and A x Bare also countable
The cardinality of the set of natural numbers N is denoted by N, (aleph
naught)
ie. INJ=N,
8. The cardinality of the set of real numbers is denoted by c
(continum)
ie. [RJ=c
Risuncountably infinite set.
raAws
The Addition principle
LetA &B be finite sets which are disjoint then |A U B| = |A| + |B].
Proof: Let A & B be empty set
\AUBI=|9|=0
lA!=0, [B|=0=0
JA+B/=0+0
0)
NowAssume,
Azd, Bee.
Since A & B are finite disjoint sets,
Let A= {a,,a,
B= {b,b,,.
|Al=m-
(AB) 9 (ANB) = 4
A=(A-B)U(AnB)
IAI=|A-B) + [An By
i {A|-| An Bi=|A-B|
ie IABI=IAI-| An Bi
© scanned with OKEN Scanner |
se ol Pr Exclusion
injeof Inclusion Exclu
ear ctsthen|AUB)= [A+ BI IA
Let A& Bbetwo finite s
Proof: Consider the venn diagram.
A-Bis the shaded portion.
A&B will havesome common elements i.e,A > BI.
counted twice in Al +B].
AUB =(A-B)UB
AUB) =|A-Bi+ BB]
=IAI-IA NB) + By
=|Al+/BI-|A nB)
Theorem : Principle of inclusi i
er catia al Soe for th
UBUC LetD=Buc
AUDA = 181+ Da py
Pi= Bu I+ICl- [Buc =
“A980 =n BU AAG
fom nag) YBN An Bac]
© scanned with OKEN Scanner Chapter
sen: 4, 2000 people were asked whether they read India Today or Busines
Inasurvey, 2
mes. It was found that 1200 read India Today, 900 read B. Times & 400 reai
Bok Find how many read atleast one paper & how many read neither
i
‘Ans: A-India Today, B-—B.Times
JA|= 1200
[B= 900
|An Bi=400
{A UB|=|Al+ [BI-|A 9 BI
= 1200 + 900 — 400 = 1700
{A UB|-real atleast one paper i.e. 1700 .
D=2000
|Aup|=2000-|A UB|=read neither
=300
Solve :
Inacomputer laboratory out of 6 computers.
)) 2have floating pt. arithmetic unit. z
i) Shave magnetic disk: memory,
ii) 3have graphics display. |
iv) 2have both FPAU & magnetic disk memory.
¥) 3have both mag. disk memory & graphics display.
W) 1 has both floating pt. arithmetic unit & graphics display.
vil) 1 has floating pt arithmetic mag. disk memory & graphics display.
How many have atleast one Specification, :
Ans:
A~ Floating pt. arithmetic unit
B~Magnetic disk memory
C~ Graphics display,
Al=2 Bis Icl=3
IANBl=2
BUcj=3
© scanned with OKEN Scanner a a
Sets and Probabilities watch basket ball games
4) 45 watch football & basket ball games
5) 70 watch football & hockey games
6 50 watch hockey & basket ball games
7) 50 do not watch any of the three game
Determine:
Dd How many people watch atleast one of three games
2) How many people in the survey watch all the games
Ans:
|s| = 500
|F| = 285
\Bi= 115
H|= 195
IFAB|=45.
|FOH|=70
Ao Bi=50 :
[FOHUB) ~ 50 -
Now,
seta 4
B) = n(S)
IFUHY BI + [FOHUBI
© scanned with OKEN Scanner 22 Chapter 1
[FU HOB)+ [FAH AB] © 500
[IFUHUB|+ 50500
“ [FOHU Bl 450ie. Atleast one game,
Now,
POR OB) = IF +A} (B)=[F A i= [FA BL |H On BL + IE AH BI
450 = 285 +195 + 115-45 ~ 70 50+ /F AHA BI
450 = 595-165 +|F AHA BI
450 = 430 + |F AH A BI
IF AHAB =20 All three games,
» _ Solve:
_ Asurvey was conducted among 1000 people of these 595 are democrats, 595
were glasses and 550 like ice-cream, 395 of them are democrat who wear glasses,
350 of them are democrats who like ice-cream and 400 of them wear glasses and
like ice-cream, 250 of them were democrats who were glasses & like ice- cream.
How many of them who are not democrats do not wear glasses & do not like ice-
cream ? How many of them are democrats who do not wear glasses, and do not
like ice-cream.
Ans:
n(D)=595
n(G)=595
n(I) = 550
n(D 0G) = 395
nD N1)=350
n(G 1) = 400
nD AG At) =250
(XD UG 1) =n(D) + (G) + (1) ~0(D AG) - nD nh - ALND) +n(D 4
Gol)
n(D UG U1) = 595 + 595 + 550 ~ 395 ~ 350 ~ 400 + 250
= 845
© scanned with OKEN Scanner sets and Pt robabilites _— —
eet en(puvG)
| =n($)-(D V1UG)
= 1000 ~ 845
| = 155
) a(oolos)
i) Number of democrats neither wear glasses nor they like ice-cream,
= n(D)-0[(D.9G)YUDD)
=nD)- ((D.NG) +0 DO D)-2D aGrpny
=rD)-{(DNG)+nDaN)-nD nGnyy_
= 595 — {395 + 350 — 250}
= 595 - 495
= 100.
¢ Ss 1000
100 democrats who do not wear plasses and do not like ice-cream.
© scanned with OKEN Scanner IMaP|=7
|POB\=10
\MoPoB| = 30
i) No. of students studing all three subjects
IMUPUB| =|MUPLB|
MU PUB=|S|-|MUPUB|
= 100-30
=70.
@) MUPUB) =|M\+/P|+/BJ-[MaBi-[MnP|-|P AB) + | Mara
70 =32+20+45-15-7-10+|MAP OBI
70 =97-32+|[MOPOB
70 =65+|MAP OB
70-65=|MAPOB|
* MAPOAB|=5
No. of students studing all three subject
Students studing exactly maths = | M| —| PUB |
Maths = |M|-|MOP|-|MaB|+|IMnP Bi
=32-7-15+5
=16
Similarly,
Students studing only Biology =8
Students studing only Physics = 25
+. Exactly one subject =15+8+25=48,
\S Mathematical induction :
. Problems:
1) Prove by mathematical induction that : 1+3-+5-+——---- +(2n—1)=n?
Ans: 1) Basisofinduction
Letn=1
l=p
LHS.=RHS. formal
Induction step : Let the result be true forn=k
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14345 tin, (k= 1) m2 ——
Now forn=k4
1 Eo toe + (2k 1
i )4 [2k -
b LHS. =k4+— aa RK +1) 1]= «+1
=h42k+1
=(k+1p
(%&
fase) =RHS.
Hence proved,
2. Prove by mathematical induction that :
P4324 524.
+ (2n-1)= Aen“ Den+
Ans: Basis ofinduction
Let n=1
Parsela= | ——
Rus. =
from (1) & (2)
LH.S.=R.HS.
The resultis true forn=1
Letn=2
ers, = 1? +3?
=14+9
LHS. =10 0 —---- (3)
pus, = 222 re
_ 24-1441)
eo
m2,3,
3,
10 wreeeee (@)
From (3) & (4)
LH.S.=R.HS.
‘The result is true forn = 2
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