TOP50

SQL INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS
Q 1. What is SQL?

Ans: SQL stands for Structured Query Language.

• It is a language used to interact with the database, i.e to create a
database, to create a table in the database, to retrieve data or update a
table in the database, etc.
• SQL is an ANSI(American National Standards Institute) standard. Using
SQL, we can do many things.
For example – we can execute queries, we can insert records into a table, can
update records, can create a database, can create a table, can delete a table,
etc.

Q 2. What is a database?

Ans: A Database is defined as a structured form of data storage in a computer

or a collection of data in an organized manner and can be accessed in various
ways.
It is also the collection of schemas, tables, queries, views, etc.
Databases help us with easily storing, accessing, and manipulating data held
on a computer.
The Database Management System allows a user to interact with the
database.

Q 3. What are the differences between SQL and PL/SQL?

Ans: Some common differences between SQL and PL/SQL are as shown
below:

SQL PL/SQL
 SQL is a query execution or PL/SQL is a complete
commanding language. programming language

SQL is a data-oriented language. PL/SQL is a procedural language

SQL is very declarative in nature. PL/SQL has a procedural nature.

It is used for manipulating data. It is used for creating applications.

We can execute one statement at a We can execute blocks of

time in SQL. statements in PL/SQL

SQL tells databases, what to do? PL/SQL tells databases how to do.

We can embed SQL in PL/SQL. We can not embed PL/SQL in SQL

Q 4. Write an SQL query to find the names of employees starting

with ‘A’.

Ans: The LIKE operator of SQL is used for this purpose.

It is used to fetch filtered data by searching for a particular pattern in the
where clause.
The Syntax for using LIKE is,

column_name LIKE pattern;

LIKE: operator namepattern: exact value extracted from the pattern to get
related data in
result set.
The required query is:

Q 5. What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR datatype in

SQL?

Ans :
1. CHAR Datatype:
It is a datatype in SQL which is used to store character string of fixed length
specified.
If the length of the string is less than set or fixed-length then it is padded with
extra blank spaces so that its length became equal to the set length
when PAD_CHAR_TO_FULL_LENGTH SQL mode is enabled.
The storage size of the CHAR datatype is n bytes(set length). We should use
this datatype when we expect the data values in a column are of the same
length.
Example:
Consider the Query:

CREATE TABLE Student(Name VARCHAR(30), Gender

CHAR(6));
INSERT into Student VALUES('Herry', 'Male');
INSERT into Student VALUES('Mahi', 'Female');
SELECT LENGTH(Gender) FROM Student;

OUTPUT:

LENGTH(Gender)
6
6

2. VARCHAR Datatype:
It is a datatype in SQL which is used to store character string of variable length
but a maximum of the set length specified.
If the length of the string is less than set or fixed-length then it will store as it
is without padded with extra blank spaces.
The storage size of the VARCHAR datatype is equal to the actual length of the
entered string in bytes.
We should use this datatype when we expect the data values in a column are
of variable length.

©Topperworld
Example:
Consider the Query:

CREATE TABLE Student(Name VARCHAR(20), Gender

CHAR(6));
INSERT into Student VALUES('Herry', 'Male');
INSERT into Student VALUES('Mahi', 'Female');
SELECT LENGTH(Name) FROM Student;

OUTPUT:

LENGTH(Name)
5
4

Q 6. What do you mean by data manipulation language?

Ans: Data manipulation Language or DML is used to access or manipulate

data in the database.
It allows us to perform the below-listed functions:

) Insert data or rows in a database

) Delete data from the database
) Retrieve or fetch data
) Update data in a database.
Q 7. What is the view in SQL?

Views in SQL are a kind of virtual table. A view also has rows and columns as
they are on a real table in the database.
We can create a view by selecting fields from one or more tables present in
the database. A View can either have all the rows of a table or specific rows
based on certain conditions.
The CREATE VIEW statement of SQL is used for creating views.
Basic Syntax:

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

FROM table_name
condition;

view_name : Name for the Viewtable_name: Name of the tablecondition :

Condition to select rows

Q 8. What do you mean by foreign key?

Ans : A Foreign key is a field that can uniquely identify each row in another
table. And this constraint is used to specify a field as a Foreign key. That is this
field points to the primary key of another table. This usually creates a kind of
link between the two tables.
Consider the two tables as shown below:
Orders:
O_ID ORDER_NO C_ID
1 2253 3
2 3325 3
3 4521 2
4 8532 1
Customers:
C_ID NAME ADDRESS
1 RAMESH DELHI
2 SURESH NOIDA
3 DHARMESH GURGAON

As we can see clearly, that the field C_ID in the Orders table is the primary key
in the Customers’ table, i.e. it uniquely identifies each row in the Customers
table.
Syntax:

(
O_ID int NOT NULL,

int,

Q 9. What is a join in SQL? What are the types of joins?

Ans : An SQL Join statement is used to combine data or rows from two or
more tables based on a common field between them. Different types of Joins
are:
➢ INNER JOIN: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as
long as the condition is satisfied. This keyword will create the result set by
combining all rows from both the tables where the condition satisfies i.e.
the value of the common field will be the same.

➢ LEFT JOIN: This join returns all the rows of the table on the left side of the
join and matching rows for the table on the right side of the join. For the
rows for which there is no matching row on the right side, the result set
will be null. LEFT JOIN is also known as LEFT OUTER JOIN.

➢ RIGHT JOIN: RIGHT JOIN is similar to LEFT JOIN. This join returns all the
rows of the table on the right side of the join and matching rows for the
table on the left side of the join. For the rows for which there is no
matching row on the left side, the result set will contain null. RIGHT JOIN
is also known as RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
➢ FULL JOIN: FULL JOIN creates the result set by combining the results of
both LEFT JOIN and RIGHT JOIN. The result set will contain all the rows
from both tables. For the rows for which there is no matching, the result
set will contain NULL values.

Q 10. What is normalization?

Ans: It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their

functional dependencies and primary keys to achieve the following desirable
properties:
✓ Minimizing Redundancy
✓ Minimizing the Insertion, Deletion, And Update Anomalies
Relation schemas that do not meet the properties are decomposed into
smaller relation schemas that could meet desirable properties.

Q 11. What is Denormalization?

Ans : Denormalization is a database optimization technique in which we add

redundant data to one or more tables. This can help us avoid costly joins in a
relational database.
Note that denormalization does not mean not doing normalization. It is an
optimization technique that is applied after normalization.
In a traditional normalized database, we store data in separate logical tables
and attempt to minimize redundant data. We may strive to have only one copy
of each piece of data in the database.

Q 12. Explain WITH clause in SQL?

Ans : The WITH clause provides a way relationship of defining a temporary

relationship whose definition is available only to the query in which the with
clause occurs.
SQL applies predicates in the WITH clause after groups have been formed, so
aggregate functions may be used.

Q 13. What are all the different attributes of indexes?

Ans: The indexing has various attributes:

⚫ Access Types: This refers to the type of access such as value-based
search, range access, etc.

⚫ Access Time: It refers to the time needed to find a particular data

element or set of elements.

⚫ Insertion Time: It refers to the time taken to find the appropriate space
and insert new data.

⚫ Deletion Time: Time is taken to find an item and delete it as well as

update the index structure.

⚫ Space Overhead: It refers to the additional space required by the index.

Q 14. What is a query?

Ans : An SQL query is used to retrieve the required data from the database.
However, there may be multiple SQL queries that yield the same results but
with different levels of efficiency.
An inefficient query can drain the database resources, reduce the database
speed or result in a loss of service for other users. So it is very important to
optimize the query to obtain the best database performance.

Q 15. What are the different operators available in SQL?

Ans: Generally, there are three types of operators that are used in SQL.

1. Arithmetic Operators

2. Comparison Operators

3. Logical Operators

➢ Arithmetic SQL Operators

Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations such as

addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication. These operators usually
accept numeric operands.

➢ Comparison SQL Operators

Comparison operators in SQL are used to check the equality of two

expressions. It checks whether one expression is identical to another.
Comparison operators are generally used in the WHERE clause of a SQL query.
The result of a comparison operation may be TRUE, FALSE or UNKNOWN.
When one or both the expression is NULL, then the operator returns
UNKNOWN. These operators could be used on all types of expressions except
expressions that contain a text, ntext or an image.
➢ Logical SQL Operators

Logical operators are those operators that take two expressions as operands
and return TRUE or False as output. While working with complex SQL
statements and queries, comparison operators come in handy and these
operators work in the same way as logic gates do.

Q 16. What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE

commands?

TRUNCATE TABLE removes the data

The DELETE statement removes
by deallocating the data pages used
rows one at a time and records an
to store the table data and records
entry in the transaction log for
only the page deallocations in the
each deleted row.
transaction log.

DELETE command is slower than While the TRUNCATE command is

the identityTRUNCATE command. faster than the DELETE command.

To use Delete you need DELETE To use Truncate on a table we need at

permission on the table. least ALTER permission on the table.

The identity of the column retains

The identity of the column is reset to
the identity after using DELETE
its seed value if the table contains an
Statement on the table.
identity column.
 The delete can be used with Truncate cannot be used with indexed
indexed views. views.

Q 17. What are local and global variables and their differences?

Ans :
⚫ Global Variable:
Global variables are variables that are defined outside of functions. These
variables have global scope, so they can be used by any function without
passing them to the function as parameters.

⚫ Local Variable:
Local variables are variables that are defined within functions. They have
local scope, which means that they can only be used within the functions
that define them.

Global Variable Local Variable

Global variables are declared Local Variables are declared within a

outside all the function blocks. function block.

The scope remains throughout the The scope is limited and remains within
program. the function only in which they are
declared.
 Any change in global variable Any change in the local variable does not
affects the whole program, affect other functions of the program.
wherever it is being used.

A global variable exists in the A local variable is created when the

program for the entire time the function is executed, and once the
program is executed. execution is finished, the variable is
destroyed.

It can be accessed throughout the It can only be accessed by the function

program by all the functions statements in which it is declared and not
present in the program. by the other functions.

If the global variable is not If the local variable is not initialized, it

initialized, it takes zero by default. takes the garbage value by default.

Global variables are stored in the Local variables are stored in a stack in
data segment of memory. memory.

We cannot declare many variables We can declare various variables with the
with the same name. same name but in other functions.

Q 18. What is Auto Increment?

Ans : Sometimes, while creating a table, we do not have a unique identifier

within the table, hence we face difficulty in choosing Primary Key.
So as to resolve such an issue, we’ve to manually provide unique keys to
every record, but this is often also a tedious task.
So we can use the Auto-Increment feature that automatically generates a
numerical Primary key value for every new record inserted. The Auto
Increment feature is supported by all the Databases.
Q 19. What is the difference between Cluster and Non-Cluster
Index?

Ans :

CLUSTERED INDEX NON-CLUSTERED INDEX

The clustered index is faster. The non-clustered index is slower.

The clustered index requires The non-Clustered index requires more

less memory for operations. memory for operations.

In a clustered index, the index In the Non-Clustered index, the index is a

is the main data. copy of data.

A table can have only one A table can have multiple non-clustered
clustered index. indexes.

The clustered index has an The non-Clustered index does not have
inherent ability to store data the inherent ability to store data on the
on the disk. disk.

The non-Clustered index store both value

Clustered indexes store
and a pointer to the the the actual row
pointers to block not data.
that holds data.

In a Non-Clustered index, leaf nodes are

In Clustered index leaf nodes
not the actual data itself rather they only
are actual data itself.
contain included columns.

In the Clustered index, the In the Non-Clustered index, the index key
Clustered key defines the order defines the order of data within the
of data within the table. index.
 CLUSTERED INDEX NON-CLUSTERED INDEX

A Clustered index is a type of A Non-Clustered index is a special type of

index in which table records index in which the logical order of index
are physically reordered to does not match the physical stored order
match the index. of the rows on the disk.

Q 20. What is MySQL collation?

Ans : A MySQL collation is a well-defined set of rules which are used to

compare characters of a particular character set by using their corresponding
encoding.
Each character set in MySQL might have more than one collation, and has, at
least, one default collation.
Two character sets cannot have the same collation.

Q 21. What are user-defined functions?

We can use User-defined functions in PL/SQL or Java to provide functionality

that is not available in SQL or SQL built-in functions. SQL functions and User-
defined functions can appear anywhere, that is, wherever an expression
occurs.

Q 22. What are all types of user-defined functions?

Ans : User-Defined Functions allow people to define their own T-SQL

functions that can accept 0 or more parameters and return a single scalar data
value or a table data type.
Different Kinds of User-Defined Functions created are:

1. Scalar User-Defined Function A Scalar user-defined function returns one

of the scalar data types. Text, image, and timestamp data types are not
supported. These are the type of user-defined functions that most developers
are used to in other programming languages. You pass in 0 to many
parameters and you get a return value.

2. Inline Table-Value User-Defined Function An Inline Table-Value user-

defined function returns a table data type and is an exceptional alternative to
a view as the user-defined function can pass parameters into a T-SQL select
command and, in essence, provide us with a parameterized, non-updateable
view of the underlying tables.

3. Multi-statement Table-Value User-Defined Function A Multi-Statement

Table-Value user-defined function returns a table and is also an exceptional
alternative to a view, as the function can support multiple T-SQL statements
to build the final result where the view is limited to a single SELECT statement.

Q 23. What are Union, minus, and Interact commands?

Ans : Set Operations in SQL eliminate duplicate tuples and can be applied
only to the relations which are union compatible. Set Operations available in
SQL are :
➢ Set Union
➢ Set Intersection
➢ Set Difference
•

UNION Operation: This operation includes all the tuples which are present
in either of the relations.
For example: To find all the customers who have a loan or an account or both
in a bank.
 SELECT CustomerName FROM Depositor
UNION
SELECT CustomerName FROM Borrower ;

The union operation automatically eliminates duplicates. If all the duplicates

are supposed to be retained, UNION ALL is used in place of UNION.

INTERSECT Operation: This operation includes the tuples which are

present in both of the relations.
For example: To find the customers who have a loan as well as an account in
the bank:

SELECT CustomerName FROM Depositor

INTERSECT
SELECT CustomerName FROM Borrower ;

The Intersect operation automatically eliminates duplicates.

If all the duplicates are supposed to be retained, INTERSECT ALL is used in
place of INTERSECT.
EXCEPT for Operation: This operation includes tuples that are present in
one relationship but should not be present in another relationship.
For example: To find customers who have an account but no loan at the
bank:

SELECT CustomerName FROM Depositor

EXCEPT
SELECT CustomerName FROM Borrower ;

The Except operation automatically eliminates the duplicates. If all the

duplicates are supposed to be retained, EXCEPT ALL is used in place of
EXCEPT.

Q 24. What is an ALIAS command ?

Ans : Aliases are the temporary names given to a table or column for the
purpose of a particular SQL query.
It is used when the name of a column or table is used other than its original
name, but the modified name is only temporary.
➢ Aliases are created to make table or column names more readable.
➢ The renaming is just a temporary change and the table name does not
change in the original database.
➢ Aliases are useful when table or column names are big or not very
readable.
➢ These are preferred when there is more than one table involved in a
query.
Q 25. What is the difference between TRUNCATE and DROP
statements?

Ans :

S.NO. DROP TRUNCATE

The DROP command is used to Whereas the TRUNCATE

1. remove the table definition and command is used to delete all
its contents. the rows from the table.

While the TRUNCATE command

In the DROP command, table
2. does not free the table space
space is freed from memory.
from memory.

Whereas the TRUNCATE is also a

DROP is a DDL(Data Definition
3. DDL(Data Definition Language)
Language) command.
command.

In the DROP command, a view of While in this command, a view of

4.
the table does not exist. the table exists.

In the DROP command, integrity While in this command, integrity

5.
constraints will be removed. constraints will not be removed.

While in this command, undo

In the DROP command, undo
6. space is used but less than
space is not used.
DELETE.

The DROP command is quick to

While this command is faster
7. perform but gives rise to
than DROP.
complications.
Q 26. What are aggregate and scalar functions?

Ans : For doing operations on data SQL has many built-in functions, they
are categorized into two categories and further sub-categorized into seven
different functions under each category. The categories are:
Aggregate functions:
These functions are used to do operations from the values of the column and
a single value is returned.

Scalar functions:
These functions are based on user input, these too return a single value.

Q 27. Explain SQL AND OR statement with an example?

Ans : In SQL, the AND & OR operators are used for filtering the data and
getting precise results based on conditions.
The AND and OR operators are used with the WHERE clause.
These two operators are called conjunctive operators.
AND Operator: This operator displays only those records where both
conditions condition 1 and condition 2 evaluate to True.
OR Operator: This operator displays the records where either one of the
conditions condition 1 and condition 2 evaluates to True. That is, either
condition1 is True or condition2 is True.
Q 28. Why do we use Commit and Rollback commands?

Ans :

COMMIT ROLLBACK

COMMIT permanently saves the

ROLLBACK undo the changes
changes made by the current
made by the current transaction.
transaction.

The transaction can not undo changes Transaction reaches its previous
after COMMIT execution. state after ROLLBACK.

When the transaction is successful, When the transaction is aborted,

COMMIT is applied. ROLLBACK occurs.

Q 29. What is a T-SQL?

Ans : T-SQL is an abbreviation for Transact Structure Query Language. It is a

product by Microsoft and is an extension of SQL Language which is used to
interact with relational databases.
It is considered to perform best with Microsoft SQL servers. T-SQL statements
are used to perform the transactions to the databases. T-SQL has huge
importance since all the communications with an instance of an SQL server are
done by sending Transact-SQL statements to the server. Users can also define
functions using T-SQL.
Types of T-SQL functions are :
➢ Aggregate functions.
➢ Ranking functions. There are different types of ranking functions.
➢ Rowset function.
➢ Scalar functions.
Q 30. What is the need for a MERGE statement?

Ans : The MERGE command in SQL is actually a combination of three SQL

statements:
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
In simple words, the MERGE statement in SQL provides a convenient way to
perform all these three operations together which can be very helpful when it
comes to handling large running databases. But unlike INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE statements MERGE statement requires a source table to perform
these operations on the required table which is called a target table.

Q 31. What are the advantages of PL/SQL functions?

Ans : The advantages of PL / SQL functions are as follows:

⚫ We can make a single call to the database to run a block of statements.
Thus, it improves the performance against running SQL multiple times.
This will reduce the number of calls between the database and the
application.
⚫ We can divide the overall work into small modules which becomes quite
manageable, also enhancing the readability of the code.
⚫ It promotes reusability.
⚫ It is secure since the code stays inside the database, thus hiding internal
database details from the application(user). The user only makes a call to
the PL/SQL functions. Hence, security and data hiding is ensured.

Q 32. What is SQL injection?

Ans : SQL injection is a technique used to exploit user data through web
page inputs by injecting SQL commands as statements. Basically, these
statements can be used to manipulate the application’s web server by
malicious users.
➢ SQL injection is a code injection technique that might destroy your
database.
➢ SQL injection is one of the most common web hacking techniques.
➢ SQL injection is the placement of malicious code in SQL statements, via
web page input.

Q 33. Can we disable a trigger? If yes, how?

Ans : Yes, we can disable a trigger in PL/SQL. If consider temporarily disabling

a trigger and one of the following conditions is true:
⚫ An object that the trigger references is not available.
⚫ We must perform a large data load and want it to proceed quickly
without firing triggers.
⚫ We are loading data into the table to which the trigger applies.
⚫ We disable a trigger using the ALTER TRIGGER statement with
the DISABLE option.
⚫ We can disable all triggers associated with a table at the same time using
the ALTER TABLE statement with the DISABLE ALL TRIGGERS option.
Q 34. Name the operator which is used in the query for appending
two strings?

Ans : In SQL for appending two strings, the ” Concentration operator” is

used and its symbol is ” || “.

Q 35. What is the difference between COALESCE() & ISNULL()?

Ans : COALESCE(): COALESCE function in SQL returns the first non-NULL

expression among its arguments.
If all the expressions evaluate to null, then the COALESCE function will return
null.
Syntax:

SELECT column(s),
CAOLESCE(expression_1,. ,expression_n)
table_name;

ISNULL(): The ISNULL function has different uses in SQL Server and MySQL.
In SQL Server, ISNULL() function is used to replace NULL values.

Syntax:

value_to_replace)
table_name;
Q 36. What is Case WHEN in SQL?

Control statements form an important part of most languages since they

control the execution of other sets of statements.
These are found in SQL too and should be exploited for uses such as query
filtering and query optimization through careful selection of tuples that
match our requirements.
In this post, we explore the Case-Switch statement in SQL. The CASE
statement is SQL’s way of handling if/then logic.
syntax: 1

case_value
WHEN when_value THEN statement_list

[ELSE statement_list]
CASE

syntax: 2

CASE
WHEN search_condition THEN statement_list

[ELSE statement_list]
CASE
Q 37. The difference between NVL and NVL2 functions?

Ans : These functions work with any data type and pertain to the use of null
values in the expression list. These are all single-row functions i.e. provide
one result per row.
NVL(expr1, expr2): In SQL, NVL() converts a null value to an actual value.
Data types that can be used are date, character, and number. Data types
must match with each other. i.e. expr1 and expr2 must be of the same data
type.
NVL2(expr1, expr2, expr3): The NVL2 function examines the first
expression. If the first expression is not null, then the NVL2 function returns
the second expression. If the first expression is null, then the third
expression is returned i.e. If expr1 is not null, NVL2 returns expr2. If expr1 is
null, NVL2 returns expr3. The argument expr1 can have any data type.

Q 38. How do we avoid getting duplicate entries in a query without

using the distinct keyword?

Ans :
DISTINCT is useful in certain circumstances, but it has drawbacks that it can
increase the load on the query engine to perform the sort (since it needs to
compare the result set to itself to remove duplicates). We can remove
duplicate entries using the following options:
➢ Remove duplicates using row numbers.
➢ Remove duplicates using self-Join.
➢ Remove duplicates using group by.

Q 39. What is a Live Lock?

Ans : Livelock occurs when two or more processes continually repeat the
same interaction in response to changes in the other processes without
doing any useful work.
These processes are not in the waiting state, and they are running
concurrently.
This is different from a deadlock because in a deadlock all processes are in
the waiting state.

Q 40. How to copy tables in SQL?

Ans : Sometimes, in SQL, we need to create an exact copy of an already

defined (or created) table. MySQL enables you to perform this operation.
Because we may need such duplicate tables for testing the data without
having any impact on the original table and the data stored in it.
CREATE TABLE Contact List(Clone_1) LIKE Original_table;

Q 41. How to find the available constraint information in the table?

Ans : In SQL Server the data dictionary is a set of database tables used to
store information about a database’s definition.
One can use these data dictionaries to check the constraints on an already
existing table and to change them(if possible).

Q 42. What is the SQL query to display the current date?

Ans : CURRENT_DATE returns to the current date. This function returns the
same value if it is executed more than once in a single statement, which
means that the value is fixed, even if there is a long delay between fetching
rows in a cursor.

Syntax:
CURRENT_DATE
or
DATE
Q 43. What is ETL in SQL?

Ans : ETL is a process in Data Warehousing.

It stands for Extract, Transform, and Load. It is a process in which an ETL tool
extracts the data from various data source systems, transforms it in the
staging area, and then finally, loads it into the Data Warehouse system.

These are three database functions that are incorporated into one tool to
pull data out from one database and put data into another database.

Q 44. What are Nested Triggers?

Ans : A trigger can also contain INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE logic within
itself, so when the trigger is fired because of data modification it can also
cause another data modification, thereby firing another trigger.
A trigger that contains data modification logic within itself is called a nested
trigger.
Q 44. How to find the available constraint information in the table?

Ans : In SQL Server the data dictionary is a set of database tables used to
store information about a database’s definition.
One can use these data dictionaries to check the constraints on an already
existing table and to change them(if possible).

Q 45. How can you fetch common records from two tables?

Ans : The below statement could be used to get data from multiple tables,
so, we need to use join to get data from multiple tables.
Syntax :

tablename2.columnnmae
FROM tablenmae1
JOIN tablename2

tablename2.columnnmae

Q 46. Are NULL values the same as zero or a blank space?

Ans : In SQL, zero or blank space can be compared with another zero or
blank space. whereas one null may not be equal to another null. null means
data might not be provided or there is no data.
Q 47. What is the need for group functions in SQL?

Ans : In database management, group functions, also known as aggregate

functions, is a function where the values of multiple rows are grouped
together as input on certain criteria to form a single value of more significant
meaning.
Various Group Functions
• Count()
• Sum()
• Avg()
• Min()
• Max()

Q 48. What are ACID properties?

Ans : A transaction is a single logical unit of work that accesses and possibly
modifies the contents of a database. Transactions access data using read-
and-write operations. In order to maintain consistency in a database, before
and after the transaction, certain properties are followed. These are
called ACID properties. ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) is
a set of properties that guarantee that database transactions are processed
reliably.

Q 49. Define SQL Order by the statement?

Ans : The ORDER BY statement in SQL is used to sort the fetched data in
either ascending or descending according to one or more columns.
➢ By default ORDER BY sorts the data in ascending order.
➢ We can use the keyword DESC to sort the data in descending order and
the keyword ASC to sort in ascending order.
Q 50. Explain SQL Having statement?

Ans : HAVING is used to specify a condition for a group or an aggregate

function used in the select statement.
The WHERE clause selects before grouping. The HAVING clause selects rows
after grouping. Unlike the HAVING clause, the WHERE clause cannot contain
aggregate functions.

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“UnlOck YOur
POtentiAl”

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