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Programming with
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Readings from Programming with C++ © 2022 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Kyla McMullen, Elizabeth Matthews, WCN: 02-300
June Jamrich Parsons
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Brief Contents
prefacexiii Module 17
Polymorphism 309
Module 1
Computational Thinking 1 Module 18
Templates 319
Module 2
Programming Tools 15 Module 19
Linked List Data Structures 333
Module 3
Literals, Variables, and Constants 35 Module 20
Stacks and Queues 353
Module 4
Numeric Data Types and Expressions 49 Module 21
Trees and Graphs 371
Module 5
Character and String Data Types 63 Module 22
Algorithm Complexity and Big-O Notation 395
Module 6
Decision Control Structures 83 Module 23
Search Algorithms 411
Module 7
Repetition Control Structures 103 Module 24
Sorting Algorithms 427
Module 8
Arrays 125 Module 25
Processor Architecture 455
Module 9
Functions 145 Module 26
Data Representation 469
Module 10
Recursion 165 Module 27
Programming Paradigms 491
Module 11
Exceptions 185 Module 28
User Interfaces 507
Module 12
File Operations 205 Module 29
Software Development Methodologies 525
Module 13
Classes and Objects 231 Module 30
Pseudocode, Flowcharts, and Decision Tables 541
Module 14
Methods 245 Module 31
Unified Modeling Language 557
Module 15
Encapsulation 271
GLOSSARY 569
Module 16 Index 583
Inheritance 291
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Table of Contents
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Table of Contents v
Module 4 Module 6
Numeric Data Types and Decision Control
Expressions 49 Structures 83
Primitive Data Types 50 If-Then Control Structures 84
Data Types 50 Control Structures 84
Primitive Data Types 50 Decision Logic 85
Composite Data Types 51 If-Then Structures 85
Numeric Data Types 52 Relational Operators 87
Integer Data Types 52 The Equal Operator 87
Floating-Point Data Types 53 Using Relational Operators 88
Mathematical Expressions 54 Boolean Expressions and Data Types 89
Arithmetic Operators 54 Multiple Conditions 91
Order of Operations 56 If-Then-Else Structures 91
Compound Operators 56 Nested-If Structures 93
Numeric Data Type Conversion 58 Else If Structures 96
Convert Integers and Floating-Point Numbers 58 Fall Through 97
Rounding Quirks 59 Conditional Logical Operators 100
Formatting Output 60 The AND Operator 100
Formatted Output 60 The OR Operator 101
Formatting Parameters 60 Summary 102
Summary 62 Key Terms 102
Key Terms 62
Module 7
Module 5 Repetition Control
CHARACTER AND STRING DATA TYPES 63 Structures 103
Character Data Types 64 Count-Controlled Loops 104
Working with Character Data 64 Loop Basics 104
Character Memory Allocation 65 Control Statements 105
Digits 66 For-Loops 105
Character Output Format 67 User-Controlled Loops 108
Character Manipulation 68
Counters and Accumulators 109
String Data Types 69 Loops That Count 109
Working with String Data 69 Loops That Accumulate 111
Escape Characters 70
String Indexes 71
Nested Loops 112
Loops Within Loops 112
String Functions 72
Inner and Outer Loops 113
String Manipulation 72
String Length 72 Pre-Test Loops 116
Change Case 73 While-Loops 116
Find the Location of a Character 74 Infinite Loops 117
Retrieve a Substring 75 Breaking Out of Loops 118
Concatenation and Typecasting 76 Post-Test Loops 120
Concatenated Output 76 Do-Loops 120
Concatenated Variables 77 Test Conditions and Terminating
Coercion and Typecasting 78 Conditions 123
Summary 80 Summary 124
Key Terms 81 Key Terms 124
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vi Programming with C++
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Table of Contents vii
Reading from a File 216 Method Cascading and Method Chaining 263
Opening a File for Reading 216 Calling Multiple Methods on the Same Object 263
Reading from a File 218 Using Constructors 266
Closing a File 222 Specifying How to Construct an Object 266
Closing Files after Use 222 Constructing an Object from Another Object 268
Trying to Close a File 222 Summary 269
Creating and Writing New Files 222
Key Terms 269
Creating a File 222
Opening a File for Writing 223 Module 15
Writing to and Appending a File 224
Anticipating Exceptions 228 Encapsulation 271
Summary 229 Components of Class Structure 271
Key Terms 230 Data Hiding 271
Designing Objects 273
Self-Reference Scope 276
Module 13 Accessor and Mutator Context 277
Classes and Objects 231 Viewing Data from an Object 277
Classes in Object-Oriented Programming 232 Changing Data in an Object 278
Representing the Real World with Code 232 Using Constructors 280
Using Classes 232 Parameters and Arguments 280
Class Components 233 Default Parameters and Constructor
Using Objects 236 Overloading 281
Creating Objects 236 Encapsulation Enforcement
Objects as Variables 238 with Access Modifiers 283
Object-Oriented Features and Principles 238 Access Modifiers 283
Using Static Elements in a Class 239 Public Variables and Methods 283
Private Variables and Methods 284
Static Member Variables 239
Static Methods 240 Interfaces and Headers 286
Static Classes 241 Interfaces 286
Characteristics of Objects Programming an Interface 287
in Object-Oriented Programs 242 Summary 290
Object Identity 242 Key Terms 290
Object State 242
Object Behavior 243 Module 16
Summary 244 Inheritance 291
Key Terms 244 Using Inheritance 291
Creating Classes from Other Classes 291
Module 14 Family Trees in OOP 292
Methods 245 Levels of Access 295
Necessary Components for Inheritance 296
Using Methods 245
Defining a Parent Class 296
Why Use Methods? 245 Defining a Child Class 297
Anatomy of a Method 251
Creating a Child Class That Inherits
Using Methods 251
from a Parent Class 298
Changing the Default Behavior
Inheritance Syntax 298
of an Object 255 Customizing Behavior 301
Using Objects as Regular Variables 255
Overloading Methods 258 Summary 307
Setting One Object to Equal Another 262 Key Terms 307
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viii Programming with C++
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Table of Contents ix
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x Programming with C++
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Table of Contents xi
Module 31
Unified Modeling Language 557
Purpose of Unified Modeling
Language (UML) 557
Communicating Ideas to Other Programmers 557
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Preface
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About the Authors
Dr. Kyla McMullen is a tenure-track faculty member published research in the areas of procedural genera-
in the University of Florida’s Computer & Information tion, video game enjoyment factors, and freshwater
Sciences & Engineering Department, specializing in algae identification with HCI.
Human-Centered Computing. Her research interests June Jamrich Parsons is an educator, digital book
are in the perception, applications, and development pioneer, and co-author of Texty and McGuffey Award-
of 3D audio technologies. Dr. McMullen has authored winning textbooks. She co-developed the first com-
over 30 manuscripts in this line of research and is the mercially successful multimedia, interactive digital
primary investigator for over 2 million dollars’ worth textbook; one that set the bar for platforms now
of sponsored research projects. being developed by educational publishers. Her
Dr. Elizabeth A. Matthews is an Assistant Professor of career includes extensive classroom teaching, prod-
Computer Science at Washington and Lee University. uct design for eCourseware, textbook authoring for
She has taught computer science since 2013 and has Course Technology and Cengage, Creative Strategist
been an active researcher in human–computer inter- for MediaTechnics Corporation, and Director of Con-
action and human-centered computing. Matthews has tent for Veative Virtual Reality Labs.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Acknowledgments
The unique approach for this book required a seasoned friends who help me to remain sane, remind me of who
team. Our thanks to Maria Garguilo who ushered the I am, and never let me forget whose I am.
manuscripts through every iteration and kept tight Elizabeth Matthews: I want to thank my parents,
rein on the schedule; to Mary E. Convertino who sup- Drs. Geoff and Robin Matthews, for their support and
plied her expertise in learning design; to Lisa R
uffolo understanding in my journey. I would also like to thank
for her excellent developmental edit; to Courtney my advisor, Dr. Juan Gilbert, for seeing my dream to
Cozzy who coordinated the project; to Kristin McNary the end. Finally, I would like to thank my cats, Oreo
for her leadership in Cengage’s computing materials; and Laptop, who made sure that writing this book was
to Rajiv Malkan (Lone Star College) for his instruc- interrupted as often as possible.
tional input; to Wade Schofield (Liberty University) June Jamrich Parsons: Computer programming can
for his reviewing expertise; and to John Freitas for his be a truly satisfying experience. The reward when a
meticulous code review. It was a pleasure to be part program runs flawlessly has to bring a smile even
of this professional and talented team. We hope that to the most seasoned programmers. Working with
instructors and students will appreciate our efforts three programming languages for this project at the
to provide this unique approach to computer science same time was certainly challenging but provided
and programming. insights that can help students understand com-
Kyla McMullen: Above all things, I would like to thank putational thinking. I’ve thoroughly enjoyed work-
God for giving me the gifts and talents that were uti- ing with the team to create these versatile learning
lized to write this book. I would like to thank my amaz- resources and would like to dedicate my efforts to
ing husband Ade Kumuyi for always being my rock, my mom, who has been a steadfast cheerleader for
sounding board, and biggest cheerleader. I thank my me throughout my career. To the instructors and stu-
parents, Rita and James McMullen for all of their sacri- dents who use this book, my hope is that you enjoy
fices to raise me. Last but not least, I thank my spirited programming as much as I do.
Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
MODULE
1
COMPUTATIONAL
THINKING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1.1 ALGORITHMS 1.2.3 Differentiate the concepts of algorithms and
decomposition.
1.1.1 Define the term “algorithm” as a series of steps for
solving a problem or carrying out a task. 1.2.4 Identify examples of structural decomposition.
1.1.2 State that algorithms are the underlying logic for 1.2.5 Identify examples of functional decomposition.
computer programs. 1.2.6 Identify examples of object-oriented decomposition.
1.1.3 Define the term “computer program.” 1.2.7 Provide examples of decomposition in technology
1.1.4 Provide examples of algorithms used in everyday applications.
technology applications. 1.2.8 Explain how dependencies and cohesion relate to
1.1.5 Confirm that there can be more than one algorithm decomposition.
for a task or problem and that some algorithms 1.3 PATTERN IDENTIFICATION
may be more efficient than others.
1.3.1 Define the term “pattern identification” as a technique
1.1.6 Explain why computer scientists are interested in for recognizing similarities or characteristics among
algorithm efficiency. the elements of a task or problem.
1.1.7 List the characteristics of an effective algorithm. 1.3.2 Identify examples of fill-in-the-blank patterns.
1.1.8 Write an algorithm for accomplishing a simple, 1.3.3 Identify examples of repetitive patterns.
everyday technology application.
1.3.4 Identify examples of classification patterns.
1.1.9 Write an alternate algorithm for an everyday
technology task. 1.3.5 Provide examples of pattern identification in the real
world and in technology applications.
1.1.10 Select the more efficient of the two algorithms you
have written. 1.4 ABSTRACTION
1.2 DECOMPOSITION 1.4.1 Define the term “abstraction” as a technique for
generalization and for simplifying levels of complexity.
1.2.1 Define the term “decomposition” as a technique for
dividing a complex problem or solution into smaller 1.4.2 Explain why abstraction is an important computer
parts. science concept.
1.2.2 Explain why decomposition is an important tool for 1.4.3 Provide an example illustrating how abstraction can
computer scientists. help identify variables.
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2 PROGRAMMING WITH C++
1.4.4 Provide examples of technology applications that 1.4.6 Explain how the black box concept is an
have abstracted or hidden details. implementation of abstraction.
1.4.5 Provide an example illustrating the use of a class as 1.4.7 Identify appropriate levels of abstraction.
an abstraction of a set of objects.
1.1 ALGORITHMS
Algorithm Basics (1.1.1, 1.1.4)
A password might not be enough to protect your online accounts. Two-factor authentication adds an extra layer
of protection. A common form of two-factor authentication sends a personal identification number (PIN) to your
cell phone. To log in, you perform the series of steps shown in Figure 1-1.
The procedure for two-factor authentication is an example of an algorithm. In a general sense, an algorithm
is a series of steps for solving a problem or carrying out a task.
Algorithms exist for everyday tasks and tasks that involve technology. Here are some examples:
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Module 1 Computational Thinking 3
Q Programming algorithms tell the computer what to do. Can you tell which of these algorithms
is a programming algorithm?
Algorithm 1: Algorithm 2:
Connect to the website’s login page. Prompt the user to enter a user ID.
Enter your user ID. Prompt the user to enter a password.
Enter your password. Make sure that the user ID and password match.
Wait for a text message containing a PIN to If the user ID and password match:
arrive on your smartphone. Generate a random PIN.
On the website’s login page, enter the PIN. Send the PIN to user’s phone.
Prompt the user to enter the PIN.
If the PIN is correct:
Allow access.
A Algorithm 1 is not a programming algorithm because it outlines instructions for the user.
Algorithm 2 is a programming algorithm because it specifies what the computer is supposed
to do. When you formulate a programming algorithm, the instructions should be for the
computer, not the user.
There can be more than one programming algorithm for solving a problem or performing a task, but some
algorithms are more efficient than others.
Q Here are two algorithms for summing the numbers from 1 to 10. Which algorithm is more
efficient?
Algorithm 1: Algorithm 2:
Add 1 1 2 to get a total. Get the last number in the series (10).
Repeat these steps nine times: Divide 10 by 2 to get a result.
Get the next number. Add 10 1 1 to get a sum.
Add this number to the total. Multiply the result by the sum.
A Both algorithms contain four instructions, but Algorithm 2 is more efficient. You can use it to
amaze your friends by quickly calculating the total in only four steps. Algorithm 1 is also four
lines long, but two of the instructions are repeated nine times. Counting the first step, that’s
19 steps to complete this task!
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4 PROGRAMMING WITH C++
When formulating an algorithm, you can easily check to make sure it satisfies all the criteria for a good algo-
rithm. You can see how these criteria apply to an algorithm in Figure 1-2.
1.2 DECOMPOSITION
Decomposition Basics (1.2.1)
A mobile banking app contains many components. It has to provide a secure login procedure, allow users to
manage preferences, display account balances, push out alerts, read checks for deposit, and perform other tasks
shown in Figure 1-3.
The algorithm for such an extensive app would be difficult to formulate without dividing it into smaller parts,
a process called decomposition. When devising an algorithm for a complex problem or task, decomposition can
help you deal with smaller, more manageable pieces of the puzzle.
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Module 1 Computational Thinking 5
Fraud alerts
Change user
Secure login
preferences
iStock.com/vector.S
Pay bills Withdrawals
Transfer money
Mobile banking
Two-factor
Balances Bill pay
authentication
Direct Money
deposits transfers
Structural decomposition is a process that identifies a hierarchy of structural units. At the lowest levels
of the hierarchy are modules, indicated in yellow in Figure 1-4, that have a manageable scope for creating
algorithms.
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6 PROGRAMMING WITH C++
• Use a top-down approach. The nodes at the top break down into component parts in the nodes below them.
• Label nodes with nouns and adjectives, rather than verbs. For example, “Account management” is the
correct noun phrase, rather than a verb phrase, such as “Manage accounts.”
• Don’t worry about sequencing. Except for the actual login process, the components in a mobile bank-
ing system could be accessed in any order. This is a key difference between an algorithm and decom-
position. An algorithm specifies an order of activities, whereas decomposition specifies the parts of
a task.
Validate Compare
Generate Send PIN
Prompt for Prompt for user ID and Prompt user user-entered Handle
one-time to
user ID password password for PIN PIN to mismatches
PIN mobile
match generated PIN
Nodes in yellow
require further
decomposition.
Notice how the levels of the functional decomposition diagram get more specific until the nodes in the lowest
levels begin to reveal instructions that should be incorporated in an algorithm.
Here are some tips for constructing functional decomposition diagrams and deriving algorithms from them:
• Label nodes with verb phrases. In contrast to the nodes of a structural decomposition diagram, the
nodes of a functional decomposition are labeled with verb phrases that indicate “what” is to be done.
• Sequence from left to right. Reading left to right on the diagram should correspond to the sequence in
which steps in the algorithm are performed.
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Module 1 Computational Thinking 7
Each node
represents an
object.
PIN generator
Methods
Login screen Attribute: One-time PIN describe what an
object can do.
Attribute: Entered user ID Method: Generate random PIN
Attribute: Entered password Method: Send PIN to mobile
number
Method: Display login boxes
Method: Verify entered user ID
and password
Method: Verify PIN
Method: Handle mismatches
Valid user
An object-oriented decomposition does not produce a hierarchy. Instead it produces a collection of objects
that can represent people, places, or things.
Tips for object-oriented decomposition:
• Node titles are nouns. Each node in the object-oriented decomposition diagram is labeled with a noun.
• Attributes are nouns. A node can contain a list of attributes, which relate to the characteristics of an object.
• Methods are verb phrases. An object can also contain methods, which are actions that an object can
perform. You may need to devise an algorithm for each method.
• Sketch in connection arrows. Connection arrows help you visualize how objects share data.
• Minimize dependencies. Although input and output may flow between nodes, changing the instructions
in one module or object should not require changes to others.
• Maximize cohesion. Each object or module contains attributes, methods, or instructions that perform a
single logical task or represent a single entity.
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8 PROGRAMMING WITH C++
Now, what if the challenge is to add the numbers from 1 to 200? That algorithm looks like this:
Get the last number in the series (200).
Divide 200 by 2 to get a result.
Add 200 1 1 to get a sum.
Multiply the result by the sum.
Notice a pattern? This fill-in-the-blank algorithm works for any number:
Get the last number in the series (____________________).
Divide ____________________ by 2 to get a result.
Add ____________________ 1 1 to get a sum.
Multiply the result by the sum.
The process of finding similarities in procedures and tasks is called pattern identification. It is a useful com-
putational thinking technique for creating algorithms that can be used and reused on different data sets. By recog-
nizing the pattern in the Amaze-Your-Friends math trick, you can use the algorithm to find the total of any series
of numbers.
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Module 1 Computational Thinking 9
Recognizing this repetition, you can streamline the algorithm like this:
Get a password.
Repeat three times:
If the password is correct, allow access.
If the password is not correct, get the password again.
If the password is correct, allow access.
If the password is not correct, lock the account.
1.4 ABSTRACTION
Abstraction Basics (1.4.1, 1.4.2, 1.4.3)
Think back to the Amaze-Your-Friends math trick. By identifying a pattern, you formulated a general algorithm
that works for a sequence of any length, whether it is a sequence of 1 to 10 or 1 to 200.
Get the last number in the series (____________________).
Divide ____________________ by 2 to get a result.
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10 PROGRAMMING WITH C++
Q Can you envision a class that’s an abstraction of the collection of objects shown in Figure 1-7?
Budnyi/Shutterstock.com
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Module 1 Computational Thinking 11
In concept, a black box is anything that accepts some type of input and performs a specific process to
produce output without requiring an understanding of its internal workings. See Figure 1-9.
Black box
The black-box concept of abstraction is a fundamental aspect of computer science. Think about it. C
omputer
programs are abstractions. For example, you can use a social media app without knowing anything about the
programming that makes it work. The icons that you touch on the screen abstract away the details of the under-
lying programming.
Programmers make extensive use of abstraction within programs by creating a set of instructions that func-
tions like a black box. For example, you could bundle the instructions that handle login attempts into a black
box like the one in Figure 1-10.
Programming languages also have built-in abstractions that perform standard tasks. For example, the built-in
random function generates a random number when given a range, such as 1–100. You can incorporate the random
function in a program without knowing how it works internally.
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12 PROGRAMMING WITH C++
Black box
With experience, you’ll be able to identify useful abstractions and gauge the correct level of abstraction
to use.
SUMMARY
• Computational thinking techniques help programmers define problems, find solutions, delineate tasks,
and devise algorithms.
• An algorithm is a series of steps for solving a problem or carrying out a task. Programming algorithms
are the blueprints for computer programs.
• Standard algorithms exist for many computing tasks. When an algorithm does not exist, you can step
through a process manually and record the steps, or apply computational thinking techniques, such as
decomposition, pattern identification, and abstraction.
• Decomposition divides a complex problem or task into manageable units.
• Pattern identification reveals sequences and repetitive tasks that can lead to algorithm efficiencies.
• Abstraction is a key computer science concept that suppresses details, substitutes a generalization for
something specific, and allows an algorithm to work for multiple inputs.
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Module 1 Computational Thinking 13
Key Terms
abstraction computer program objects
algorithm decomposition object-oriented decomposition
attributes Functional decomposition pattern identification
classes level of abstraction programming algorithm
classification patterns methods Structural decomposition
Computational thinking modules
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MODULE
2
PROGRAMMING TOOLS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
2.1 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 2.3.5 Explain the purpose of a linker.
2.1.1 Explain the significance of the Hello World! program. 2.3.6 Associate virtual machines with Java and
bytecode.
2.1.2 Reiterate that programming languages are used to
create software. 2.3.7 Explain how an interpreter works.
2.1.3 Name some popular programming languages. 2.3.8 Differentiate between source code, bytecode,
object code, and executable code.
2.1.4 Distinguish between syntax and semantics in the
context of programming languages.
2.4 DEBUGGING TOOLS
2.1.5 Identify the key characteristics common to
2.4.1 Explain the purpose of debugging.
programming languages.
2.4.2 List common syntax errors.
2.1.6 Explain options for accessing programming
language implementations. 2.4.3 List common runtime errors.
2.1.7 Identify programming tools. 2.4.4 List common logic errors.
2.4.5 Classify program errors as syntax errors, logic
2.2 CODING TOOLS
errors, or runtime errors.
2.2.1 Define a program editor as the tool used to enter
2.4.6 Classify a debugger as utility software that allows
program code.
programmers to walk through the code of a target
2.2.2 List the types of editors that can be used for program to find errors.
coding.
2.4.7 List handy features provided by a debugger.
2.2.3 List some handy features of code editors and
explain how they help programmers create 2.5 IDEs AND SDKs
clean code.
2.5.1 List the purpose and typical features of an
2.2.4 Identify the basic structure and syntactical integrated development environment (IDE).
elements for a program written in the
2.5.2 Explain how IDEs support visual programming.
programming language you use.
2.5.3 Confirm that some IDEs are installed locally, while
2.3 BUILD TOOLS other IDEs are accessed online.
2.3.1 Explain the purpose of build tools. 2.5.4 Identify popular IDEs.
2.3.2 Explain the difference between source code and 2.5.5 List the purpose and typical features of a software
object code. development kit (SDK).
2.3.3 Describe how a compiler works. 2.5.6 Provide examples of SDK functionality.
2.3.4 Explain the purpose of a preprocessor. 2.5.7 Identify popular SDKs.
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16 PROGRAMMING WITH C++
Q Take a look at the Hello World! programs in Figure 2-1. They are written in three popular
programming languages, C11, Java, and Python. What differences can you identify?
A lot of backstory is bundled into the Hello World! program that can be applied to learning a programming
language. Let’s unbundle this famous program to discover the basics about your programming language.
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Module 2 Programming Tools 17
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18 PROGRAMMING WITH C++
Keyword Purpose
int Define a value as an integer.
float Define a value as a floating-point number.
char Define something as a letter, numeral, punctuation mark, or symbol.
class Define the characteristics of a person, place, or thing.
new Create an object based on the characteristics of a class.
if Execute program statements when a condition is true.
then
else
case Specify several alternative conditions or decisions.
switch
for Begin a section of code that repeats one or more times.
while
do
return Bring a value back from a function.
import Incorporate a prewritten code module in a program.
try Catch errors and handle them gracefully.
Q Suppose you want to code a program to output “Hello World!” 10 times. What keyword could
you use?
A Figure 2-3 lists the for, while, and do keywords for specifying code that repeats one or
more times.
You’ll acquire a vocabulary of keywords for your programming language gradually. Language references
provide a list of keywords and examples of their use. You can find language references online. In fact, it is often
helpful to create or find a “cheat sheet” of keywords to keep beside your computer as you learn a new language.
The syntax of a programming language is equivalent to the grammar rules of a written language, such as
English or Cyrillic. Syntax defines the order of words and the punctuation you are required to use when compos-
ing statements.
Various programming languages use different punctuation syntax. One of the early steps in learning a
programming language is to get a handle on its syntax.
Remember the different use of punctuation in the C11, Java, and Python Hello World! programs? Take a closer
look in Figure 2-4 and notice how punctuation helps to separate and structure the statements in a C11 program.
C++ Program
Statements end with a
#include <iostream>
semicolon.
using namespace std;
int main()
{
Curly braces for (int i = 1; i <= 10, i++)
separate blocks of {
statements. These cout << "Hello World!" << endl;
braces set off the cout << "Hola Mundo!" << endl;
statements in the }
return 0; Statements between
main() function.
} braces are indented.
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Module 2 Programming Tools 19
Like C11, Java also uses lots of punctuation. Figure 2-5 points out how the commonly used style for placing
curly braces in Java is slightly different from C11. However, either style works equally well as long as the braces
are paired. The key is consistency in the project you are working on.
Python uses quite a different approach to punctuation. See if you can spot the differences in Figure 2-6.
Python Program
The colon indicates
for count in range(0, 10): the beginning of a
print("Hello World!") block of statements.
print("Hola Mundo!") Python does not use
Statements
braces.
in a block
are indented.
Pressing Enter or
Return marks the end
of a statement.
In C11 and Java, statements are enclosed in a structure of curly braces and each statement ends with a semi-
colon. In contrast, Python uses indents to structure statements, and the linefeed that is generated when you press
the Enter key marks the end of a statement. Remember the punctuation style for the language that you are using.
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20 PROGRAMMING WITH C++
Programming tools are available as system utility software that can be installed on your computer. Another
option is to use an online programming app.
Your programming toolbox includes the following essentials:
Coding tools provide a way for you to codify an algorithm.
Build tools transform your code into a binary format that a computer can execute.
Debugging tools help you test programs and track down errors.
You can acquire these programming tools as individual components, or you can look for a comprehensive
development environment. Let’s explore these tools in more detail to find out how they can help you develop
brilliant programs.
Word processor: Despite the attraction of visual programming tools, you will likely end up typing
some if not all of the statements for your programs. For that task, you could use a word processor, but
it embeds all kinds of codes for formatting and font effects which can’t be included in your high-level
code.
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Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
“In scarce a circumstance of my life that has brought me in the least
under the cognizance of the public have I ever been judged justly.”
There is no doubt that he himself—or rather the temperament given
him by nature—was to blame for this, but the fact is unquestionable.
Add to this that he was, in his way and in what was unfortunately
the most obnoxious way, a reformer. That is, he was what may be
called a reformer in the conservative direction,—he belabored his
fellow citizens for changing many English ways and usages, and he
wished them to change these things back again, immediately. In all
this he was absolutely unselfish, but utterly tactless; and inasmuch
as the point of view he took was one requiring the very greatest tact,
the defect was hopeless. As a rule, no man criticises American ways
so unsuccessfully as an American who has lived many years in
Europe. The mere European critic is ignorant of our ways and frankly
owns it, even if thinking the fact but a small disqualification; while the
American absentee, having remained away long enough to have
forgotten many things and never to have seen many others, may
have dropped hopelessly behindhand as to the facts, yet claims to
speak with authority. Cooper went even beyond these professional
absentees, because, while they are usually ready to praise other
countries at the expense of America, Cooper, with heroic impartiality,
dispraised all countries, or at least all that spoke English. A
thoroughly patriotic and high-minded man, he yet had no mental
perspective, and made small matters as important as great.
Constantly reproaching America for not being Europe, he also
satirized Europe for being what it was.
As a result, he was for a time equally detested by the press of both
countries. The English, he thought, had “a national propensity to
blackguardism,” and certainly the remarks he drew from them did
something to vindicate the charge. When the London “Times” called
him “affected, offensive, curious, and ill-conditioned,” and “Fraser’s
Magazine,” “a liar, a bilious braggart, a full jackass, an insect, a grub,
and a reptile,” they clearly left little for America to say in that
direction. Yet Park Benjamin did his best, or his worst, when he
called Cooper (in Greeley’s “New Yorker”) “a superlative dolt and the
common mark of scorn and contempt of every well-informed
American”; and so did Webb, when he pronounced the novelist “a
base-minded caitiff who had traduced his country.” Not being able to
reach his English opponents, Cooper turned on these Americans,
and spent years in attacking Webb and others through the courts,
gaining little and losing much through the long vicissitudes of petty
local lawsuits. The fact has kept alive their memory; but for Lowell’s
keener shaft, “Cooper has written six volumes to show he’s as good
as a lord,” there was no redress. The arrow lodged and split the
target.
Like Scott and most other novelists, Cooper was rarely successful
with his main characters, but was saved by his subordinate ones.
These were strong, fresh, characteristic, human; and they lay, as I
have already said, in several different directions, all equally marked.
If he did not create permanent types in Harvey Birch the spy,
Leather-Stocking the woodsman, Long Tom Coffin the sailor,
Chingachgook the Indian, then there is no such thing as the creation
of characters in literature. Scott was far more profuse and varied, but
he gave no more of life to individual personages, and perhaps
created no types so universally recognized. What is most remarkable
is that, in the case of the Indian especially, Cooper was not only in
advance of the knowledge of his own time, but of that of the authors
who immediately followed him. In Parkman and Palfrey, for instance,
the Indian of Cooper vanishes and seems wholly extinguished; but
under the closer inspection of Alice Fletcher and Horatio Hale, the
lost figure reappears, and becomes more picturesque, more poetic,
more thoughtful, than even Cooper dared to make him. The instinct
of the novelist turned out more authoritative than the premature
conclusions of a generation of historians.
It is only women who can draw the commonplace, at least in
English, and make it fascinating. Perhaps only two English women
have done this, Jane Austen and George Eliot; while in France
George Sand has certainly done it far less well than it has been
achieved by Balzac and Daudet. Cooper never succeeded in it for a
single instant, and even when he has an admiral of this type to write
about, he puts into him less of life than Marryat imparts to the most
ordinary midshipman. The talk of Cooper’s civilian worthies is, as
Professor Lounsbury has well said,—in what is perhaps the best
biography yet written of any American author,—“of a kind not known
to human society.” This is doubtless aggravated by the frequent use
of thee and thou, yet this, which Professor Lounsbury attributes to
Cooper’s Quaker ancestry, was in truth a part of the formality of the
old period, and is found also in Brockden Brown. And as his writings
conform to their period in this, so they did in other respects:
describing every woman, for instance, as a “female,” and making her
to be such as Cooper himself describes the heroine of “Mercedes of
Castile” to be when he says, “Her very nature is made up of religion
and female decorum.” Scott himself could also draw such inane
figures, yet in Jeanie Deans he makes an average Scotch woman
heroic, and in Meg Merrilies and Madge Wildfire he paints the
extreme of daring self-will. There is scarcely a novel of Scott’s where
some woman does not show qualities which approach the heroic;
while Cooper scarcely produced one where a woman rises even to
the level of an interesting commonplaceness. She may be
threatened, endangered, tormented, besieged in forts, captured by
Indians, but the same monotony prevails. So far as the real interest
of Cooper’s story goes, it might usually be destitute of a single
“female,” that sex appearing chiefly as a bundle of dry goods to be
transported, or as a fainting appendage to the skirmish. The author
might as well have written the romance of an express parcel.
His long introductions he shared with the other novelists of the
day, or at least with Scott, for both Miss Austen and Miss Edgeworth
are more modern in this respect and strike more promptly into the
tale. His loose-jointed plots are also shared with Scott, but Cooper
knows as surely as his rival how to hold the reader’s attention when
once grasped. Like Scott’s, too, is his fearlessness in giving details,
instead of the vague generalizations which were then in fashion, and
to which his academical critics would have confined him. He is
indeed already vindicated in some respects by the advance of the art
he pursued; where he led the way, the best literary practice has
followed. The “Edinburgh Review” exhausted its heavy artillery upon
him for his accurate descriptions of costume and localities, and
declared that they were “an epilepsy of the fancy,” and that a vague
general account would have been far better. “Why describe the dress
and appearance of an Indian chief, down to his tobacco-stopper and
button-holes?” We now see that it is this very habit which has made
Cooper’s Indian a permanent figure in literature, while the Indians of
his predecessor, Charles Brockden Brown, were merely dusky
spectres. “Poetry or romance,” continued the “Edinburgh Review,”
“does not descend into the particulars,” this being the same fallacy
satirized by Ruskin, whose imaginary painter produced a quadruped
which was a generalization between a pony and a pig. Balzac, who
risked the details of buttons and tobacco pipes as fearlessly as
Cooper, said of “The Pathfinder,” “Never did the art of writing tread
closer upon the art of the pencil. This is the school of study for
literary landscape painters.” He says elsewhere: “If Cooper had
succeeded in the painting of character to the same extent that he did
in the painting of the phenomena of nature, he would have uttered
the last word of our art.” Upon such praise as this the reputation of
James Fenimore Cooper may well rest.
VI
CHARLES BROCKDEN BROWN
CHARLES BROCKDEN BROWN
When, in 1834, the historian Jared Sparks undertook the
publication of a “Library of American Biography,” he included in the
very first volume—with a literary instinct most creditable to one so
absorbed in the severer paths of history—a memoir of Charles
Brockden Brown by W. H. Prescott. It was an appropriate tribute to
the first imaginative writer worth mentioning in America,—he having
been born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on January 17, 1771, and
died there of consumption on February 22, 1810,—and to one who
was our first professional author. He was also the first to exert a
positive influence, across the Atlantic, upon British literature, laying
thus early a few modest strands towards an ocean-cable of thought.
As a result of this influence, concealed doors opened in lonely
houses, fatal epidemics laid cities desolate, secret plots were
organized, unknown persons from foreign lands died in garrets,
usually leaving large sums of money; the honor of innocent women
was constantly endangered, though usually saved in time; people
were subject to somnambulism and general frenzy; vast conspiracies
were organized with small aims and smaller results. His books,
published between 1798 and 1801, made their way across the ocean
with a promptness that now seems inexplicable; and Mrs. Shelley, in
her novel of “The Last Man,” founds her whole description of an
epidemic which nearly destroyed the human race, on “the masterly
delineations of the author of ‘Arthur Mervyn.’”
Shelley himself recognized his obligations to Brown; and it is to be
remembered that Brown himself was evidently familiar with Godwin’s
philosophical writings, and that he may have drawn from those of
Mary Wollstonecraft his advanced views as to the rights and
education of women, a subject on which his first book, “Alcuin,”
offered the earliest American protest. Undoubtedly his books
furnished a point of transition from Mrs. Radcliffe, of whom he
disapproved, to the modern novel of realism, although his immediate
influence and, so to speak, his stage properties, can hardly be traced
later than the remarkable tale, also by a Philadelphian, called
“Stanley; or the Man of the World,” first published in 1839 in London,
though the scene was laid in America. This book was attributed, from
its profuse literary quotations, to Edward Everett, but was soon
understood to be the work of a very young man of twenty-one,
Horace Binney Wallace. In this book the influence of Bulwer and
Disraeli is palpable, but Brown’s concealed chambers and aimless
conspiracies and sudden mysterious deaths also reappear in full
force, not without some lingering power, and then vanish from
American literature forever.
Brown’s style, and especially the language put by him into the
mouths of his characters, is perhaps unduly characterized by
Professor Woodberry as being “something never heard off the stage
of melodrama.” What this able critic does not sufficiently recognize is
that the general style of the period at which they were written was
itself melodramatic; and that to substitute what we should call
simplicity would then have made the picture unfaithful. One has only
to read over the private letters of any educated family of that period
to see that people did not then express themselves as they now do;
that they were far more ornate in utterance, more involved in
statement, more impassioned in speech. Even a comparatively terse
writer like Prescott, in composing Brown’s biography only sixty years
ago, shows traces of the earlier period. Instead of stating simply that
his hero was a born Quaker, he says of him: “He was descended
from a highly respectable family, whose parents were of that
estimable sect who came over with William Penn, to seek an asylum
where they might worship their Creator unmolested, in the meek and
humble spirit of their own faith.” Prescott justly criticises Brown for
saying, “I was fraught with the apprehension that my life was
endangered”; or “his brain seemed to swell beyond its continent”; or
“I drew every bolt that appended to it”; or “on recovering from
deliquium, you found it where it had been dropped”; or for resorting
to the circumlocution of saying, “by a common apparatus that lay
beside my head I could produce a light,” when he really meant that
he had a tinder-box. The criticism on Brown is fair enough, yet
Prescott himself presently takes us halfway back to the florid
vocabulary of that period, when, instead of merely saying that his
hero was fond of reading, he tells us that “from his earliest childhood
Brown gave evidence of studious propensities, being frequently
noticed by his father on his return from school poring over some
heavy tome.” If the tome in question was Johnson’s dictionary, as it
may have been, it would explain both Brown’s style of writing and the
milder amplifications of his biographer. Nothing is more difficult to
tell, in the fictitious literature of even a generation or two ago, where
a faithful delineation ends and where caricature begins. The four-
story signatures of Micawber’s letters, as represented by Dickens, go
but little beyond the similar courtesies employed in a gentlewoman’s
letters in the days of Anna Seward. All we can say is that within a
century, for some cause or other, English speech has grown very
much simpler, and human happiness has increased in proportion.
In the preface to his second novel, “Edgar Huntley,” Brown
announces it as his primary purpose to be American in theme, “to
exhibit a series of adventures growing out of our own country,”
adding, “That the field of investigation opened to us by our own
country should differ essentially from those which exist in Europe
may be readily conceived.” He protests against “puerile superstition
and exploded manners, Gothic castles and chimeras,” and adds:
“The incidents of Indian hostility and the perils of the western
wilderness are far more suitable.” All this is admirable, but
unfortunately the inherited thoughts and methods of the period hung
round him to cloy his style, even after his aim was emancipated. It is
to be remembered that almost all his imaginative work was done in
early life, before the age of thirty, and before his powers became
mature. Yet with all his drawbacks he had achieved his end, and had
laid the foundation for American fiction.
With all his inflation of style, he was undoubtedly, in his way, a
careful observer. The proof of this is that he has preserved for us
many minor points of life and manners which make the Philadelphia
of a century ago now more familiar to us than is any other American
city of that period. He gives us the roving Indian; the newly arrived
French musician with violin and monkey; the one-story farmhouses,
where boarders are entertained at a dollar a week; the gray cougar
amid caves of limestone. We learn from him “the dangers and toils of
a midnight journey in a stage coach in America. The roads are knee
deep in mire, winding through crags and pits, while the wheels groan
and totter and the curtain and roof admit the wet at a thousand
seams.” We learn the proper costume for a youth of good fortune
and family,—“nankeen coat striped with green, a white silk waistcoat
elegantly needle-wrought, cassimere pantaloons, stockings of
variegated silk, and shoes that in their softness vie with satin.” When
dressing himself, this favored youth ties his flowing locks with a black
ribbon. We find from him that “stage boats” then crossed twice a day
from New York to Staten Island, and we discover also with some
surprise that negroes were freely admitted to ride in stages in
Pennsylvania, although they were liable, half a century later, to be
ejected from street-cars. We learn also that there were negro free
schools in Philadelphia. All this was before 1801.
It has been common to say that Brown had no literary skill, but it
would be truer to say that he had no sense of literary construction.
So far as skill is tested by the power to pique curiosity, Brown had it;
his chapters almost always end at a point of especial interest, and
the next chapter, postponing the solution, often diverts the interest in
a wholly new direction. But literary structure there is none: the plots
are always cumulative and even oppressive; narrative is inclosed in
narrative; new characters and complications come and go, while
important personages disappear altogether, and are perhaps fished
up with difficulty, as with a hook and line, on the very last page.
There is also a total lack of humor, and only such efforts at vivacity
as this: “Move on, my quill! wait not for my guidance. Reanimated
with thy master’s spirit, all airy light. A heyday rapture! A mounting
impulse sways him; lifts him from the earth.” There is so much of
monotony in the general method, that one novel seems to stand for
all; and the same modes of solution reappear so often,—
somnambulism, ventriloquism, yellow fever, forged letters, concealed
money, secret closets,—that it not only gives a sense of puerility, but
makes it very difficult to recall, as to any particular passage, from
which book it came.
VII
HENRY DAVID THOREAU
HENRY DAVID THOREAU
There has been in America no such instance of posthumous
reputation as in the case of Thoreau. Poe and Whitman may be
claimed as parallels, but not justly. Poe, even during his life, rode
often on the very wave of success, until it subsided presently
beneath him, always to rise again, had he but made it possible.
Whitman gathered almost immediately a small but stanch band of
followers, who have held by him with such vehemence and such
flagrant imitation as to keep his name defiantly in evidence, while
perhaps enhancing the antagonism of his critics. Thoreau could be
egotistical enough, but was always high-minded; all was open and
aboveboard; one could as soon conceive of self-advertising by a
deer in the woods or an otter of the brook. He had no organized
clique of admirers, nor did he possess even what is called personal
charm,—or at least only that piquant attraction which he himself
found in wild apples. As a rule, he kept men at a distance, being
busy with his own affairs. He left neither wife nor children to attend to
his memory; and his sister seemed for a time to repress the
publication of his manuscripts. Yet this plain, shy, retired student,
who when thirty-two years old carried the unsold edition of his first
book upon his back to his attic chamber; who died at forty-four still
unknown to the general public; this child of obscurity, who printed but
two volumes during his lifetime, has had ten volumes of his writings
published by others since his death, while four biographies of him
have been issued in America (by Emerson, Channing, Sanborn, and
Jones), besides two in England (by Page and Salt).
Thoreau was born in Boston on July 12, 1817, but spent most of
his life in Concord, Massachusetts, where he taught school and was
for three years an inmate of the family of Ralph Waldo Emerson,
practicing at various times the art of pencil-making—his father’s
occupation—and also of surveying, carpentering, and housekeeping.
So identified was he with the place that Emerson speaks of it in one
case as Thoreau’s “native town.” Yet from that very familiarity,
perhaps, the latter was underestimated by many of his neighbors, as
was the case in Edinburgh with Sir Walter Scott, as Mrs. Grant of
Laggan describes.
When I was endeavoring, about 1870, to persuade Thoreau’s
sister to let some one edit his journals, I invoked the aid of Judge
Hoar, then lord of the manor in Concord, who heard me patiently
through, and then said: “Whereunto? You have not established the
preliminary point. Why should any one wish to have Thoreau’s
journals printed?” Ten years later, four successive volumes were
made out of these journals by the late H. G. O. Blake, and it became
a question if the whole might not be published. I hear from a local
photograph dealer in Concord that the demand for Thoreau’s
pictures now exceeds that for any other local celebrity. In the last
sale catalogue of autographs which I have encountered, I find a
letter from Thoreau priced at $17.50, one from Hawthorne valued at
the same, one from Longfellow at $4.50 only, and one from Holmes
at $3, each of these being guaranteed as an especially good
autograph letter. Now the value of such memorials during a man’s
life affords but a slight test of his permanent standing,—since almost
any man’s autograph can be obtained for two postage-stamps if the
request be put with sufficient ingenuity;—but when this financial
standard can be safely applied more than thirty years after a man’s
death, it comes pretty near to a permanent fame.
It is true that Thoreau had Emerson as the editor of four of his
posthumous volumes; but it is also true that he had against him the
vehement voice of Lowell, whose influence as a critic was at that
time greater than Emerson’s. It will always remain a puzzle why it
was that Lowell, who had reviewed Thoreau’s first book with
cordiality in the “Massachusetts Quarterly Review,” and had said to
me afterwards, on hearing him compared to Izaak Walton, “There is
room for three or four Waltons in Thoreau,” should have written the
really harsh attack on the latter which afterwards appeared, and in
which the plain facts were unquestionably perverted. To transform
Thoreau’s two brief years of study and observation at Walden, within
two miles of his mother’s door, into a life-long renunciation of his
fellow men; to complain of him as waiving all interest in public affairs
when the great crisis of John Brown’s execution had found him far
more awake to it than Lowell was,—this was only explainable by the
lingering tradition of that savage period of criticism, initiated by Poe,
in whose hands the thing became a tomahawk. As a matter of fact,
the tomahawk had in this case its immediate effect; and the English
editor and biographer of Thoreau has stated that Lowell’s criticism is
to this day the great obstacle to the acceptance of Thoreau’s writings
in England. It is to be remembered, however, that Thoreau was not
wholly of English but partly of French origin, and was, it might be
added, of a sort of moral-Oriental, or Puritan Pagan temperament.
With a literary feeling even stronger than his feeling for nature,—the
proof of this being that he could not, like many men, enjoy nature in
silence,—he put his observations always on the level of literature,
while Mr. Burroughs, for instance, remains more upon the level of
journalism. It is to be doubted whether any author under such
circumstances would have been received favorably in England; just
as the poems of Emily Dickinson, which have shafts of profound
scrutiny that often suggest Thoreau, had an extraordinary success at
home, but fell hopelessly dead in England, so that the second
volume was never even published.
Lowell speaks of Thoreau as “indolent”; but this is, as has been
said, like speaking of the indolence of a self-registering thermometer.
Lowell objects to him as pursuing “a seclusion that keeps him in the
public eye”; whereas it was the public eye which sought him; it was
almost as hard to persuade him to lecture (crede experto) as it was
to get an audience for him when he had consented. He never
proclaimed the intrinsic superiority of the wilderness, as has been
charged, but pointed out better than any one else has done its
undesirableness as a residence, ranking it only as “a resource and a
background.” “The partially cultivated country it is,” he says, “which
has chiefly inspired, and will continue to inspire, the strains of poets
such as compose the mass of any literature.” “What is nature,” he
elsewhere says, “unless there is a human life passing within it?
Many joys and many sorrows are the lights and shadows in which
she shines most beautiful.” This is the real and human Thoreau, who
often whimsically veiled himself, but was plainly enough seen by any
careful observer. That he was abrupt and repressive to bores and
pedants, that he grudged his time to them and frequently withdrew
himself, was as true of him as of Wordsworth or Tennyson. If they
were allowed their privacy, though in the heart of England, an
American who never left his own broad continent might at least be
allowed his privilege of stepping out of doors. The Concord school-
children never quarreled with this habit, for he took them out of doors
with him and taught them where the best whortleberries grew.
His scholarship, like his observation of nature, was secondary to
his function as poet and writer. Into both he carried the element of
whim; but his version of the “Prometheus Bound” shows accuracy,
and his study of birds and plants shows care. It must be
remembered that he antedated the modern school, classed plants by
the Linnæan system, and had necessarily Nuttall for his elementary
manual of birds. Like all observers, he left whole realms uncultivated;
thus he puzzles in his journal over the great brown paper cocoon of
the Attacus Cecropia, which every village boy brings home from the
winter meadows. If he has not the specialized habit of the naturalist
of to-day, neither has he the polemic habit; firm beyond yielding, as
to the local facts of his own Concord, he never quarrels with those
who have made other observations elsewhere; he is involved in
none of those contests in which palæontologists, biologists,
astronomers, have wasted so much of their lives.
His especial greatness is that he gives us standing-ground below
the surface, a basis not to be washed away. A hundred sentences
might be quoted from him which make common observers seem
superficial and professed philosophers trivial, but which, if accepted,
place the realities of life beyond the reach of danger. He was a
spiritual ascetic, to whom the simplicity of nature was luxury enough;
and this, in an age of growing expenditure, gave him an unspeakable
value. To him, life itself was a source of joy so great that it was only
weakened by diluting it with meaner joys. This was the standard to
which he constantly held his contemporaries. “There is nowhere
recorded,” he complains, “a simple and irrepressible satisfaction with
the gift of life, any memorable praise of God.... If the day and the
night are such that you greet them with joy, and life emits a
fragrance, like flowers and sweet-scented herbs,—is more elastic,
starry, and immortal,—that is your success.” This was Thoreau, who
died unmarried at Concord, Massachusetts, May 6, 1862.
VIII
EMERSON’S “FOOT-NOTE PERSON,”—ALCOTT
EMERSON’S “FOOT-NOTE PERSON,”—ALCOTT
The phrase “foot-note person” was first introduced into our
literature by one of the most acute and original of the anonymous
writers in the “Atlantic Monthly” (July, 1906), one by whose consent I
am permitted to borrow it for my present purpose. Its originator
himself suggests, as an illustration of what he means, the close
relation which existed through life between Ralph Waldo Emerson
and his less famous Concord neighbor, Amos Bronson Alcott. The
latter was doubtless regarded by the world at large as a mere “foot-
note” to his famous friend, while he yet was doubtless the only
literary contemporary to whom Emerson invariably and candidly
deferred, regarding him, indeed, as unequivocally the leading
philosophic or inspirational mind of his day. Let this “foot-note,” then,
be employed as the text for frank discussion of what was, perhaps,
the most unique and picturesque personality developed during the
Transcendental period of our American literature. Let us consider the
career of one who was born with as little that seemed advantageous
in his surroundings as was the case with Abraham Lincoln, or John
Brown of Ossawatomie, and who yet developed in the end an
individuality as marked as that of Poe or Walt Whitman.
In looking back on the intellectual group of New England, eighty
years ago, nothing is more noticeable than its birth in a circle already
cultivated, at least according to the standard of its period. Emerson,
Channing, Bryant, Longfellow, Hawthorne, Holmes, Lowell, even
Whittier, were born into what were, for the time and after their own
standard, cultivated families. They grew up with the protection and
stimulus of parents and teachers; their early biographies offer
nothing startling. Among them appeared, one day, this student and
teacher, more serene, more absolutely individual, than any one of
them. He had indeed, like every boy born in New England, some
drop of academic blood within his traditions, but he was born in the
house of his grandfather, a poor farmer in Wolcott, Connecticut, on
November 29, 1799. He went to the most primitive of wayside
schools, and was placed at fourteen as apprentice in a clock factory;
was for a few years a traveling peddler, selling almanacs and
trinkets; then wandered as far as North Carolina and Virginia in a
similar traffic; then became a half-proselyte among Quakers in North
Carolina; then a school-teacher in Connecticut; always poor, but
always thoughtful, ever gravitating towards refined society, and
finally coming under the influence of that rare and high-minded man,
the Rev. Samuel J. May, and placing himself at last in the still more
favored position of Emerson’s foot-note. When that took place, it
suddenly made itself clear to the whole Concord circle that there was
not one among them so serene, so equable, so dreamy, yet so
constitutionally a leader, as this wandering child of the desert. Of all
the men known in New England, he seemed the one least likely to
have been a country peddler.
Mr. Alcott first visited Concord, as Mr. Cabot’s memoir of Emerson
tells us, in 1835, and in 1840 came there to live. But it was as early
as May 19, 1837, that Emerson wrote to Margaret Fuller: “Mr. Alcott
is the great man. His book [‘Conversations on the Gospels’] does
him no justice, and I do not like to see it.... But he has more of the
Godlike than any man I have ever seen and his presence rebukes
and threatens and raises. He is a teacher.... If he cannot make
intelligent men feel the presence of a superior nature, the worse for
them; I can never doubt him.”[12] It is suggested by Dr. W. T. Harris,
one of the two joint biographers of Alcott, that the description in the
last chapter of Emerson’s book styled “Nature,” finished in August,
1836, was derived from a study of Mr. Alcott, and it is certain that
there was no man among Emerson’s contemporaries of whom
thenceforward he spoke with such habitual deference. Courteous to
all, it was to Alcott alone that he seemed to look up. Not merely
Alcott’s abstract statements, but his personal judgments, made an
absolutely unique impression upon his more famous fellow
townsman. It is interesting to notice that Alcott, while staying first in
Concord, “complained of lack of simplicity in A⸺, B⸺, C⸺,
and D⸺ (late visitors from the city).” Emerson said approvingly to
his son: “Alcott is right touchstone to test them, litmus to detect the
acid.”[13] We cannot doubt that such a man’s own judgment was
absolutely simple; and such was clearly the opinion held by
Emerson, who, indeed, always felt somewhat easier when he could
keep Alcott at his elbow in Concord. Their mutual confidence
reminds one of what was said long since by Dr. Samuel Johnson,
that poetry was like brown bread: those who made it in their own
houses never quite liked the taste of what they got elsewhere.
And from the very beginning, this attitude was reciprocated. At
another time during that same early period (1837), Alcott, after
criticising Emerson a little for “the picture of vulgar life that he draws
with a Shakespearian boldness,” closes with this fine tribute to the
intrinsic qualities of his newly won friend: “Observe his style; it is full
of genuine phrases from the Saxon. He loves the simple, the natural;
the thing is sharply presented, yet graced by beauty and elegance.
Our language is a fit organ, as used by him; and we hear classic
English once more from northern lips. Shakespeare, Sidney,
Browne, speak again to us, and we recognize our affinity with the
fathers of English diction. Emerson is the only instance of original
style among Americans. Who writes like him? Who can? None of his
imitators, surely. The day shall come when this man’s genius shall
shine beyond the circle of his own city and nation. Emerson’s is
destined to be the high literary name of this age.”[14]
No one up to that time, probably, had uttered an opinion of
Emerson quite so prophetic as this; it was not until four years later, in
1841, that even Carlyle received the first volume of Emerson’s
“Essays” and said, “It is once more the voice of a man.” Yet from that
moment Alcott and Emerson became united, however inadequate
their twinship might have seemed to others. Literature sometimes,
doubtless, makes strange friendships. There is a tradition that when
Browning was once introduced to a new Chinese ambassador in
London, the interpreter called attention to the fact that they were
both poets. Upon Browning’s courteously asking how much poetry
His Excellency had thus far written, he replied, “Four volumes,” and
when asked what style of poetic art he cultivated, the answer was,
“Chiefly the enigmatical.” It is reported that Browning afterwards
charitably or modestly added, “We felt doubly brothers after that.” It
may have been in a similar spirit that Emerson and his foot-note
might seem at first to have united their destinies.
Emerson at that early period saw many defects in Alcott’s style,
even so far as to say that it often reminded him of that vulgar saying,
“All stir and no go”; but twenty years later, in 1855, he magnificently
vindicated the same style, then grown more cultivated and powerful,
and, indeed, wrote thus of it: “I have been struck with the late
superiority Alcott showed. His interlocutors were all better than he:
he seemed childish and helpless, not apprehending or answering
their remarks aright, and they masters of their weapons. But by and
by, when he got upon a thought, like an Indian seizing by the mane
and mounting a wild horse of the desert, he overrode them all, and
showed such mastery, and took up Time and Nature like a boy’s
marble in his hand, as to vindicate himself.”[15]
A severe test of a man’s depth of observation lies always in the
analysis he gives of his neighbor’s temperament; even granting this
appreciation to be, as is sometimes fairly claimed, a woman’s
especial gift. It is a quality which certainly marked Alcott, who once
said, for instance, of Emerson’s combination of a clear voice with a
slender chest, that “some of his organs were free, some fated.”
Indeed, his power in the graphic personal delineations of those about
him was almost always visible, as where he called Garrison “a
phrenological head illuminated,” or said of Wendell Phillips, “Many
are the friends of his golden tongue.” This quality I never felt more,
perhaps, than when he once said, when dining with me at the house
of James T. Fields, in 1862, and speaking of a writer whom I thought
I had reason to know pretty well: “He has a love of wholeness; in this
respect far surpassing Emerson.”
It is scarcely possible, for any one who recalls from his youth the
antagonism and satire called forth by Alcott’s “sayings” in the early
“Dial,” to avoid astonishment at their more than contemptuous
reception. Take, for example, in the very first number the fine saying
on “Enthusiasm,” thus:—
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