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Module IV

Networks and Internet

Computer Networks

A computer network may be defined as “an interconnection of two or

more computers, attached with communication media for the purpose of
sharing information and resources”.

Uses of Computer Networks

 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.

 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.

Types of Networks

The geographic area covered by the computer network decides its type.

1.Personsal Area Network (PAN)

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A computer network used for communicating between computer devices like

printers, fax machines, scanners, etc. close to a computer system is called a
Personal Area Network (PAN). The reach of a PAN is limited to 20 to 30 feet.

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network
that connects computers through a common communication path, contained within
a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers
connected over a server.

The two important technologies involved in this network

are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high with
easy maintenance and low cost.

Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory,

college, office, etc.

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

This is a type of computer network that is usually used in places like a school or
colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads across
several buildings within the campus.
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4.Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of
computer network that connects computers over a geographical distance through a
shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area.

Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a

large area within multiple buildings, etc.
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5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that

communicate with each other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line
& Dial-up technology.

Common example of WAN is the Internet.

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Network Topologies

Network topology refers to the way that nodes and connections are
physically and logically arranged in a network.

A network topology also describes how these components are arranged in

relation to each other and how data moves through the network.

1. Bus Topology

In a bus network, each node is connected to a single cable, like bus stops
branching off from a bus route. The data transmission all flows through that one
central connection. Because everything is connected in a straight line off one
central cable, it’s a cost-effective topology, and simple to set up and add new
nodes.

Drawbacks.
In a system that has one central link with many dependencies, a failure of that
central link causes all dependencies to fail. Bus networks are also not as secure as
some other types due to this shared central link. Additionally, the more nodes that
share a central cable, the slower a network is.
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2. Ring Topology

In a ring network, the nodes and links are arranged in a ring. Each node has
exactly two neighbors. Data usually flows unidirectionally in a ring network.

Advantage: These kinds of networks are cheap to install and expand, and
data flows quickly within the network.

Drawback: A failure of a single node can bring down the whole network.

3. Star topology

In a star network, all the nodes are connected to a central hub. The nodes are
positioned around that central hub in a shape that roughly resembles a star.

If a single node fails, the rest of the network is unaffected. That said, if the
central hub goes down, then the entire network goes down with it.

In a star network, the performance of the entire network depends on the

central hub and the connections to it.

4. Tree topology

It’s useful to think of a tree topology as a combination of a bus network and

a star network.

In a tree topology, you still have one central hub that is connecting
everything, but instead of single nodes that branch out from that central root node,
it’s other star networks. This topology allows for more devices to connect to a
central data center, which speeds the flow of data. Like in a star network,
identifying issues with individual nodes is relatively easy.

If that central connection goes down, everything goes down.

5. Mesh topology

In a mesh network, each device is connected to at least one other node in the
network.

In a full mesh network, each node is connected to every other node.

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In a partial mesh network, only some of the nodes connect directly with each
other, while others need to pass through additional nodes to reach the targeted
node.

Since nodes can communicate directly with each other, rather than through a
central hub, communication on a mesh network is often very fast. A great example
of a mesh network is the internet itself, where each computer is a node in a
network provided by different internet service providers that also connect to each
other.

Advantage

Because mesh networks have multiple routes over which information can travel,
they are more resilient than many other topologies and can continue to function if a
node or connection fails. Mesh networks also offer greater security—if a node is
attacked or compromised it can be replaced.

Disadvantage

Mesh networks are often expensive to set up, requiring many cables to
establish the connections. Meshing multiple paths can also make installation
complicated and lead to maintenance costs that are higher than in other types of
topologies.

6. Hybrid topology

A hybrid network topology is any type of network that uses a combination of

topologies.

A tree network that combines a star network and a bus network is a type of hybrid
topology.

Advantage

Hybrid networks offer flexibility and help organizations design a topology

that specifically meets its needs.

Drawback
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Creating a customized network architecture can be challenging and can

require more cabling and network devices, raising maintenance costs.

Basic Communication Technology

For transmitting data between two computers, a communication media or

channel is required. Basically there are two types of communication media. They
are

1. Wired Communication Media (Guided medium)

2. Wireless Communication Media (Unguided medium)

1. Wired Communication (Wired Networking Technology)

Wired communication requires cables and wires for establishing

communication. Different types of cables such as

1. Two wire cable

2. Twisted-pair cable

3. Co-axial cable

4. Optical fiber cable

are used for this purpose.

1.Two Wire Open Cable

It contains two wires of copper and each wire is insulated from the other.

It is the simplest transmission channel. This is suitable for shorter distance

up to 100 meters.

2.Twisted-pair cable

The twisted-pair cable also known as “Ethernet cables” are used for
telephone connections. They contain two wires of conducting material insulated
from each other.

The wires are twisted together in a helical form and hence the name.
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Advantage

Twisted-pair cables are very cheap and easily available.

Disadvantage

Now they are rarely used for computer network interconnections because of
their inability to avoid disturbances.

3.Co-axial Cable

The co-axial cables are most commonly used to connect your television to
the cable operator’s setup.

4.Optical Fiber Cable

The fiber optic cables carry data and information and transmit them in the
form of light rays. Hence, they are free from any outside interference like noise.

Advantage

Capable of transmitting data in huge volumes and high speeds.

Disadvantage

Optical cables are costly, widely used in computer networks.

Wireless Communication (Wireless Networking Technology)

Wireless communication does not need wires and cables for

communication. It is the transmission of data through air. The
following are the important types of wireless media.

1. Infrared Transmission

2. Broadcast Radio

3. Microwave Transmission

4. Bluetooth

5. Wi-Fi Technology
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1.Infrared Transmission

Infrared Wireless Transmission sends data signals using infrared light

waves. People encounter infrared waves everyday. The human eye cannot see it,
but humans can detect as heat.

Infrared ports can be found on laptop computers, digital cameras, printers,

TV remote control units.

Features:

 Communication distance is very low.

 Signals cannot penetrate walls.

 It is point to point communication, which means from one device to another

at a time.

Drawback:

Infrared devices work only when two devices are in straight line.

2.Broadcast Radio

When you tune into AM or FM radio station, you are using broadcast radio. It
is a wireless transmission medium that sends data over long distance.

Ham radio, cell phones, GPS, pages use different radio frequencies to
support wireless communications.

3.Microwave Transmission

Microwave is an electromagnetic wave used to transmit voice and data

between ground stations and satellites. Communication between satellites and
cellular telephone towers is through microwave technology.

Advantages

1. Microwave communication media is more reliable because there is no

physical link between the sending and receiving systems.
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2. Microwave technology requires no amplifiers and repeaters between the

sending and receiving stations.

Disadvantage

It is expensive for its ground installation than other communication media.

4.Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a communication technology which uses radio frequency to

transmit data to other devices.

Features

 Bluetooth can automatically detect and communicate with other Bluetooth

devices without any user input.

 Bluetooth devices can penetrate walls.

Bluetooth is used in mobile phones, cameras, laptop, headset and

printers.

5.Wi-Fi Technology

Wi-Fi allows an electronic device to exchange data wirelessly (using radio

waves) over a computer network.

Wi-Fi is an abbreviation for “Wireless Fidelity” known as 802.11 wireless

networks. The term Wi-Fi used as a synonym for “WLAN” (Wireless Local Area
Network).

Requirements for a network

Server

A server is a computer that provides information to other computers called

"clients" on a computer network. This architecture is called the client–server
model.
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Servers can provide various functionalities, often called "services", such as

sharing data or resources among multiple clients or performing computations for a
client.

A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use
multiple servers.

A client process may run on the same device or may connect over a network
to a server on a different device.

Examples of servers are

database servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game
servers, and application servers.[3]

Workstation

Workstation, a high-performance computer system that is basically

designed for a single user and has advanced graphics capabilities, large
storage capacity, and a powerful central processing unit.

A workstation is more capable than a personal computer (PC) but is

less advanced than a server (which can manage a large network
of peripheral PCs or workstations and handle immense data-processing and
reporting tasks).

Networking Devices

Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer

network to communicate and interact with each other. Network devices like hubs,
repeaters, bridges, switches, routers and gateways help manage and direct data
flow in a network.
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Modems

Modems is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is

used to convert digital signal into analog signal of different frequencies and
transmits these signal to a modem at the receiving location.

These converted signals can be transmitted over the cable systems, telephone
lines, and other communication mediums.

A modem is also used to convert analog signal back into digital signal.
Modems are generally used to access internet by customers of an Internet Service
Provider (ISP).

Firewalls

A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of
data between your computer or network and the internet. It acts as a barrier,
blocking unauthorized access while allowing trusted data to pass through.

Firewalls help protect your network from hackers, viruses, and other
online threats by filtering traffic based on security rules.

Repeater
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Its job is to amplify (i.e., regenerate) the signal over the same network
before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the
signal can be transmitted over the same network.

Hub

A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from

different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects
different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices.

Bridge

It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

Switch

A network switch is a physical device that connects devices, such as

computers, printers, etc., in a network and allows them to ‘talk’ by exchanging data
packets.

Router

A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses.

Gateway

A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may
work upon different networking models.

History of Internet

The origin of the internet dates back to the 1950s when the world was
grappling with the Cold War, and researchers sought to create a communication
system that could withstand disruptions.

Key Milestones in Internet History

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 1969: Launch of ARPANET, the first operational packet-switching network.

 1971: The first email is sent by Ray Tomlinson.
 1983: Adoption of TCP/IP as the standard protocol for ARPANET.
 1989-1990: Tim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web.
 1993: The first graphical web browser, Mosaic, is released.
 1998: Google is founded, revolutionizing search engines.
 2007: The iPhone introduces widespread mobile Internet access.
 2010s: Rise of cloud computing, social media, and streaming services.

Internet Access Methods

Internet connection is provided by the Internet service Provider(ISP).

ISP is a company which provides internet access to the users against a fee.
BSNL, Asianet, Satyam, Airtel, Dishnet etc. are the popular ISP’s in India.
ISP’s provide internet access to the users in many forms.

1. Dial up connection
2. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
3. ISDN(Integrated Services Digital Network)
4. Cable Network
5. Fiber Optic
6. Internet over Satellite (IoS)
7. Cellular Broadband
8. Internet in Mobile Phones
9. Wi-Fi
10.WiMAX
11.Broadband over Power Line (BPL)
1. Dial up Connection

Under this method, internet is accessed using a telephone line and a modem.
The connection is established by dialing the ISP number.

It uses analog telephone line. Encoding and decoding analog signals is done
by modem.

Disadvantages

 Dial up connection is very slow.

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 When connected to the internet it is not possible to make or receive phone

calls.
2. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

DSL utilizes existing telephone line and modem. DSL integrates regular
phone service and internet access using a DSL hub.

Advantages

 Here, there is no need to dial the ISP number because the user is always
connected to the internet.

3. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

ISDN is an international communication standard for sending voice, video and

data over digital telephone lines. It allows fast digital connection.

It is an upgraded telephone line that can be used for high speed internet
access and for regular phone calls simultaneously.

4. Cable Network
Cable network provides broadband internet connection over cable TV
lines. The computer is connected to the cable modem via a network card
(NIC) and an Ethernet cable.
Cable internet connection speed varies with the number of users on
the service at a particular time.
5. Fiber Optic
The latest broadband service is fiber optic, which is the fastest internet
connection so far.

Advantage

 Fiber optic internet access has become more available and affordable for
consumers and businesses.
 The increasing number of service providers makes this access method a
better alternative to cable.

Disadvantage
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This type of internet service is quite limited because of the cost involved in
laying down the fiber-optic cable.

6. Internet over Satellite (IoS)

Internet over Satellite allows to access high-speed internet connection via

satellites. Satellite internet service is used in ships and in locations where cable or
telephone access is not available.

Due to long distance between satellite and ground station dish antenna, IoS is
slower than other methods, but faster than dial up connection.

7. Cellular Broadband

Now internet connection is available through cell phones which can be

connected go a PC or laptop through USB or Bluetooth.

Cellular broadband connections are useful when the user is travelling by car or
train.

8. Internet in Mobile Phones

Mobile phones can also connect to the internet, allowing people to access
websites, social media, email and other online services. This is usually done
through a cellular data plan, which is provided by the mobile phone company.
When you access the internet on your mobile phone, your phone connects to the
mobile network, which then routes your data to the internet.

9. Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a family of wireless network protocols based on the IEEE
802.11 family of standards, which are commonly used for local area
networking of devices and Internet access, allowing nearby digital devices to
exchange data by radio waves.
10.WiMAX
It is a type of wireless technology that provides wireless internet
service over longer distances than standard Wi-Fi. WiMAX (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) is based on standard IEEE 802.16
technology and can provide broadband wireless access up to 30 miles.
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11.Broadband over Power Line (BPL)

BPL is the delivery of broadband over the existing low and medium voltage
electric power distribution network.

What is Broadband?

Broadband internet service is a form of high speed internet access.

Since speed is measured by bit rate ( the number of bits processed per unit of
time ), broadband internet service is defined as being 256 kbps (kilobits per
second) or faster.

Currently, all internet connections other than dial up connection come under
the category “Broadband”.

What is the TCP/IP model?

The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a

foundational Internet and network communication framework. The Department of
Defense developed this in the 1970s to maintain reliable and secure
communication across different networks.

TCP/IP transmits data in packets. These packets are routed from sender to
receiver and reassembled at the destination. In this process, we can break it into
two actions:

 TCP provides reliable data delivery.

 IP handles addressing and routing packets across networks.
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Main applications of the TCP/IP model

1.Web browsing
2. Email exchange
3. File transfer
4. Remote access
5. Streaming services

What is HTTP?

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of the World

Wide Web, and is used to load webpages using hypertext links.

Clients and servers communicate by exchanging individual messages (as

opposed to a stream of data). The messages sent by the client are
called requests and the messages sent by the server as an answer are
called responses.

HTTP

o HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.

o It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
o The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text,
hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
o This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its
efficiency that allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there are
rapid jumps from one document to another document.
o HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to
another host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one
connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.
o HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
o HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and
server. The HTTP differs from the SMTP in the way the messages are sent
from the client to the server and from server to the client. SMTP messages
are stored and forwarded while HTTP messages are delivered immediately.
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Features of HTTP:

o Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP client

initiates a request and waits for a response from the server. When the server
receives the request, the server processes the request and sends back the
response to the HTTP client after which the client disconnects the
connection. The connection between client and server exist only during the
current request and response time only.
o Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can be
sent as long as both the client and server know how to handle the data
content. It is required for both the client and server to specify the content
type in MIME-type header.
o Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know
each other only during the current request. Due to this nature of the protocol,
both the client and server do not retain the information between various
requests of the web pages.

HTTP Transactions
The client initiates a transaction by sending a request message to the server.
The server replies to the request message by sending a response message.

Messages

HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message types
follow the same message format.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

(an address on the web)
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o A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address

and to facilitate the access of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of
Uniform Resource Locator (URL).

The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any

kind of information on the internet.

o The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port, and path.

o Method: The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a
server. For example, HTTP.
o
o Host: The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the
computer is given an alias name. Web pages are mainly stored in the
computers and the computers are given an alias name that begins with the
characters "www". This field is not mandatory.
o
o Port: The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an
optional field. If the port number is included, then it must come between the
host and path and it should be separated from the host by a colon.
o
o Path: Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored. The
path itself contain slashes that separate the directories from the
subdirectories and files.

Example: https://www.apple.com.

FTP

o FTP stands for File transfer protocol.

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o FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting

the files from one host to another.
o It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the
computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
o It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.

Objectives of FTP

o It provides the sharing of files.

o It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
o It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

Why FTP?
Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and
straightforward, but sometimes it can cause problems. For example, two systems
may have different file conventions. Two systems may have different ways to
represent text and data. Two systems may have different directory structures. FTP
protocol overcomes these problems by establishing two connections between hosts.
One connection is used for data transfer, and another connection is used for the
control connection.

Mechanism of FTP

There are two types of connections in FTP:

o Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can transfer a line of
command or line of response at a time. The control connection is made
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between the control processes. The control connection remains connected

during the entire interactive FTP session.
o Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data
types may vary. The data connection is made between data transfer
processes. The data connection opens when a command comes for
transferring the files and closes when the file is transferred.

Advantages of FTP:

o Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of
the fastest way to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
o Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the
operations to get the entire file.
o Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and
password. Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
o Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth.
Suppose you are a manager of the company, you send some information to
all the employees, and they all send information back on the same server.

Disadvantages of FTP:

o The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions
should be encrypted..
o FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network.
However, the size limit of the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't
allow you to run simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
o Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted
eavesdropping. So, it is quite possible that attackers can carry out the brute
force attack by trying to guess the FTP password.
o It is not compatible with every system.

IP Address
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How Do I Locate My IP Address?

Windows computer users can look up their IP address by typing "cmd"

into the search tab and hitting Enter, then typing "ipconfig" into the pop-up
box. Mac computer users can find their IP address by heading into System
Preferences and selecting Network.

To look up an IP address on a mobile phone, users need to head into

Settings, then open the Wi-Fi menu and their network menu. The IP address should
be listed under the Advanced section, depending on the phone they use.

IP address definition

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a

local network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules governing
the format of data sent via the internet or local network.

The internet needs a way to differentiate between different computers,

routers, and websites. IP addresses provide a way of doing so and form an essential
part of how the internet works.

What is an IP Address?

An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods. IP addresses are

expressed as a set of four numbers — an example address might be 192.158.1.38.
Each number in the set can range from 0 to 255. So, the full IP addressing range
goes from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

IP addresses are not random. They are mathematically produced and

allocated by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), a division of
the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).

ICANN is a non-profit organization that was established in the United

States in 1998 to help maintain the security of the internet and allow it to be usable
by all. Each time anyone registers a domain on the internet, they go through a
domain name registrar, who pays a small fee to ICANN to register the domain.

IP Versions
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What Is IPv4?

IPv4 is the first major version of the Internet Protocol. IPv4 assigns 32-bit IP
addresses to devices. Each address has four groups of numbers (8-bit sections
called octets) separated by a period, such as:

192.158.1.38

The value of each octet ranges from 0 to 255, so the IPv4 model includes every
address between 0.0.0.0 and 255.255.255.255.

All IPv4 addresses have two parts:

 The network ID (the first three octets) that indicates which network the
device is on.
 The host ID (the fourth octet) that identifies the specific device on that
network.

For example, if your home network has a 192.168.1.1 address, 192.168.1 is the
network ID, while the final octet (1) is the host ID. In most networks, the router
gets the .1 value by default.

IPv4 enables the creation and use of 4,294,967,296 unique addresses (more
commonly expressed as 2^32).

What Is IPv6?

IPv6 is the latest Internet Protocol version and the successor to IPv4. IPv6
aims to fulfill the need for more IP addresses, the main issue of the previous IP.
Another common name for IPv6 is IPng (Internet Protocol next generation).

Unlike its predecessor, IPv6 uses 128-bit hexadecimal IP addresses. This

model enables 2^128 unique addresses.

IPv6 addresses are significantly longer than IPv4 variants (eight 16-bit
blocks with groups of four symbols, often called hextets or quartets) and are
alphanumeric. Also, whereas IPv4 relies on periods for formatting, IPv6 uses
colons, such as in this example:

2001:0db8:0000:0001:0000:ff00:0032:7879
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All IPV6 addresses have two parts:

 The network ID (the first four 16 bit blocks) that indicates which network
the device is on.
 The host ID (the last four 16 bit blocks) that identifies the specific device
on that network.

Inter network
An internet network is defined as two or more computer network LANs,
WANs, or computer network segments that are connected by devices
and configured with a local addressing system. The method is known as
internetworking. There are two types of Internetwork.
Intranet:
Intranet may be defined as “a private communication network created
using internet technology accessible only to members of a particular
organization”
Extranet:
An extranet can be viewed as an extension of an organization’s intranet that is
extended to users outside the organization, usually partners, vendors and suppliers.

Telnet

Telnet is an internet service for accessing remote computers. EThrough

telnet, a user can access someone else’s computer remotely.

To use telnet, the user must know the internet address of the remote
computer and should have a valid user name and password.

Search Tools
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There are three basic types of search tools that most people use to find what
they are looking for on the Web: Search Engines; Subject Directories and
MetaSearch Tools. Search Engines are more generic and much larger than Subject
Directories. Meta Search Tools get their results from several search engines.

Search Engines

Search engine is a tool for locating information from a collection. Search

engines uses information about the information (such as metadata, catalogue)
stored in the database to locate information.

Search Direcetories

Search directories are classified collections of documents. They are good for
searching with a context. These directories are good for browsing.

Meta Search Engines

Meta Search engines are online tools (search engines) which performs
simultaneous search on more than one search engine at a time. These search
engines aggregates the results into a single list and displays them according to their
source.

e.g. Dogpile is a metasearch engine and gets its results from Google, Yahoo,
MSN Search, Ask , About, MIVA, LookSmart, and more.

Example: Dogpile, WebCrawler, Browsys

General Search Engines

Name Strengths Comments

Google Simple and straightforward, Google often provides A good place to start your Internet search.
a good list of relevant hits to your search. It also Google is often highly rated by users. It is
indexes PDF documents, Word documents, one of the largest indexers of the Web.
PostScript files, blogs, and YouTube,.

Google Image Easy and fast with excellent results. Clicking on an If you are looking for images this is a great
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Name Strengths Comments

Search image shows the image and the page from which it site to use.
came.

Google Searches “open-to-the-free-web” scholarly Often does not link to the full text of articles,
Scholar literature (papers, theses, books, articles, etc.). or requires a fee to link to full text. Try the
Provides access to some documents that are not advanced search tips.
indexed by databases.

DuckDuckGo This search engine’s claim to fame is that it Search results often contain “instant
doesn’t track or “bubble” users. It’s a tool that answers.” A goodies service includes all
respects privacy and makes sure you see all sorts of special searches (calculations,
relevant results, not just the results it thinks you conversions, dates, etc.)
want to see.

Yahoo Yahoo has become a portal site – a home base for Best of the old “directory” style search
news, e-mail, weather, and consumer advice – as engines. Subject-listed entries are selected
well as a search tool. by people and arranged by category. It is a
good place to start a search.

AltaVista A huge index, like Google. Use the advanced AltaVista and Yahoo are owned by the same
search feature for best results. Good for searching company, so you might lose track of where
various types of images. you are…

Bing Microsoft’s addition to the list of search engines. Search results are broken down into
categories listed on the left side of the page
for easier topical searches.

Domain Name System

An IP address contains a string of numbers that users

won’t easily remember. That’s where the Domain Name

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System (DNS) comes in to solve this problem. It converts those

complicated numerical addresses into easy-to-remember names.

Structure of a domain name

A domain name can be divided into three main elements based

on its structure—the top, second, and third level or subdomain.

Top-level domain

A top-level domain (TLD) is the final part of a web address.

For example, the TLD for hostinger.com is .com.

Generic top-level domain (gTLD)

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You might be familiar with some of the most popular generic TLDs:

 .com – for commercial sites, it’s now the most popular TLD.

 .net – a great alternative to .com, this TLD is suitable for

businesses in any sector.

 .org – more geared toward non-profit organizations. It’s the

second most popular TLD after .com.

Country-code top-level domain (ccTLD)

A ccTLD represents a particular country or region. It consists of

two letters based on the international country codes. To illustrate,

sites from India often use the .in domain extension, whereas

UK-based websites usually register .uk.

 .us → United States

 .mx → Mexico

 .se → Sweden

 .de → Germany

 .it → Italy
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Sponsored top-level domain

A private entity sponsors this type of TLD to serve a specific

community.

 .gov – can only be used by US government agencies.

 .edu – exclusive for accredited institutions of higher education

in the US.

 .mil – reserved for the US Department of Defense websites.

Second-level domain

A second-level domain (SLD) is located just before the extension.

In www.hostinger.com,

for example, “hostinger” is the SLD.

This is the only customizable part of the domain and often the most

memorable.
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Third-level domain

A third-level domain, better known as a subdomain, refers to the part

that comes before the main domain.

The www part in most URLs is technically a subdomain, suggesting

that a website is part of the World Wide Web.

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Search tools
Internet has in offer a variety of search tools such as search engines, search
directories to locate the information on web.

TYPES OF SEARCH TOOLS

1. Search Directory
2. Search Engines
3. Meta-search Engines

Search Directory

Search directories are classified collections of documents. They are good for
searching with a context. These directories are good for browsing. In subject
directories, documents are pre classified by a person.

Search Engines

World Wide Web is a network of several information databases. In recent years, an

exponential growth in these databases has made it difficult to locate a particular
piece of information.

Internet offers a powerful tool known as search engine to manage, filter and
retrieve the information for their users. Search engines are automated tools for
searching information from a collection using metadata stored in the database of
search engine. In other words, it is an information retrieval system and assists in
locating information on web.

Meta-search Engines

Meta Search engines are online tools (search engines) which performs
simultaneous search on more than one search engine at a time. These search
engines aggregates the results into a single list and displays them according to their
source.