Chapter 2

Basic Structures
Sets, Functions
Sequences, and Sums
 Objectives
 Sets
 Set operations
 Functions
 Sequences
 Summations
 An unordered collection of objects
2.1- Sets
 The objects in a set are called the elements, or members. A set is said to contain its elements.
 Some important sets in discrete mathematics
N = { 0,1,2,3,4,… }
Z = { … , -2,-1,0,1,2,…} Z+ = {1,2,…}
R: the set of real numbers

xA : x is an element of the set A // x belongs to A

xA: x is not an element of A

 p  G. Cantor
Q  r  p  Z , 0  q  Z 
 q 
V  a, u , o, i, e
 Sets…
Definitions:
 Finite set: Set has n elements, n is a nonnegative integer
 A set is an infinite set if it is not finite
 Cardinality of a set |S|: Number of elements of S
  : empty set (null set), the set with no element
 Two sets are equal  they have the same elements
A = B if and only if x (xA  x B)
 A B: the set A is a subset of the set B
A  B if and only if x (xA  x B)
 A  B: A is a proper subset of B
Venn diagram shows that A
A  B if and only if (A  B) ^ (A ≠ B) is a subset of B
 Theorem 1
For every set S ,
i)   S ii) S  S
Pr oof
i ) (x  )  False
So x  x    x  S   True
ii) x  x  S  x  S   True
a)d   
b) d  ,
  
c) sai
d) d  
e)d   ,
f)d   ,
a ) x  x d ) x  x
b) x  x e)   x
c) x  x f )   x
 Power Sets

Given a set S, power set P(S) of S is a

set of all subsets of the set S.
S= { 1,2,3}
P(S)= {Ø,
{1}, {2},{3},
{1,2}, {1,3},{2,3},
{1,2,3}}
 Cartesian Products
 The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,…,an) is the ordered
collection that has a1 as its first element, a2 as
its second element, …, and an as its nth element.
 Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A
and B, denoted by AxB,
A  B   x, y  x  A, y  B
B  A   s, t  s  B, t  A
For example
A= a, b B= 1, 2, 3
A  B   a,1 ,  a, 2  ,  a,3 , b,1 , b, 2  , b,3 
B  A  (1, a ) , (2, a ) , (3, a) , (1, b) , (2, b) , (3, b)
 Cartesian Products…
 The Cartesian product of A1,A2,…,An , denoted A1x A2 x…x An, is the set of ordered n- tuples (a1,a2,
…,an),


A1  A2  ...  An   x , x ,..., x  x  A , i  1, n
1 2
AxBxC= {(a,1,0),(a,1,1),(a,2,0),(a,2,1),(a,3,0),(a,3,1),
n i i

 A  A  ...  A   x , x ,..., x  x  A, i  1, n
(b,1,0),(b,1,1),(b,2,0),(b,2,1),(b,3,0),(b,3,1)}
n
A 1 2 n i

For example
A= a, b B= 1, 2,3, C  0,1
 2.2- Set Operations
The Union of sets A and B, denoted by A  B
A  B  x x  A  x  B
The difference of A and B, denoted by A - B ( A \ B )
A - B  x x  A  x  B
The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted by A  B
A  B  ( A  B) - ( A  B )  x ( x  A  x  B)  ( x  A  B )
Inter sec tion : A  B  x x  A  x  B
U is the universal set , complement of A is denoted by A
A  U - A  x x  A
 Set Identities 
Identity – See proofs : pages 125, 126 Name

A  = A A U = A Identity laws
A U= U A  = Domination laws
A A=A AA=A Idempotent laws
A A Complementation law
AB = B  A A B=B A Commutative laws
A (B C) = (A B) C Associative laws
A (B  C)= (A B)  C
A(B  C) = (A B) (A  C) Distributive laws
A  (B C) = (A  B) (A  C)
AB =AB A B = A B De Morgan laws
A  (A B) = A A  (AB) = A Absorption
AA =U A A =  Complement laws
Generalized Unions and Intersections
n
A1  A2  A3  ...  An   Ai  x x  Ai , i  1, 2,..., n
i 1
n
A1  A2  A3  ...  An  Ai
i 1

 x x  A1  x  A2  x  A3  ...  x  An 

Computer Representation of Sets

• Use bit string U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} U = “1111111111”
• A= {1,3,5,7,9 }  A = “1010101010”
• B= { 1,8,9}  B = “1000000110”
 Computer Representation of
Sets
 A = “10 1010 1010”
 B = “10 0000 0110”

A  B  10 1010 1010  10 0000 0110 = 10 1010 1110

A  B  1,3,5, 7, 8,9
A  B = 10 1010 1010  10 0000 0110  10 0000 0010
A  B  1, 9
 2.3. Functions / Mappings / Transformations…

 f: A → B : function f from A to B (or function f maps A to

B)
 A: domain of f
 B: codomain of f
 Functions as sets of ordered pairs

f :A B
a  b  f (a )
(a, b) b  f (a), a  A
 Functions / Mappings /
Transformations…

What are functions?

 f: →  : f(x) = x2 + 2
 f: →  : f(x) = 1/(x-1)2 + 5x
 f: →  : f(x) = (2x+5)/7
 f: →  : f(x) = (2x+5)2/(7-2x)
 Some Important Functions

See Figure 10 – Page 143

Floor function
f:  → such that f(x)= x = largest integer
that less than or equal to x, x x
Ceiling function
f:  → such that f(x)= x = smallest integer
that greater than or equal to x, xx

 x   x   x 
 One-to-One/ Injective functions
Function f is one-to-one (or
injective) if and only if
a  b → f(a)  f(b)
for all a and b in the domain of f.
 f :  → , f(x) = x2
f is not one-to-one
(we have f(-1) = f(1))
Ví dụ về đơn ánh
f :[0, )  R
f ( x)  x 2  1
C1: a, b  [0, ) : a  b
ta CM f (a )  f (b)
a  b  a 2  b 2  a 2  1  b 2  1  f (a )  f (b)
C 2 : a, b  [0, ) : f (a)  f (b)
ta CM a  b
f (a )  f (b)  a 2  1  b 2  1  a 2  b 2  a  b
 Onto Functions
A function f from A to B is called onto, or
surjective, iff
for every element b in B there is an element
a in A with f(a)=b.
 f:  → , f(m) =m-1
f is onto because y , y=f(m)=m-1,
where m=y+1
Ví dụ về toàn ánh
g : R  [1, )
g ( x)  x 4  1

y  [1, ), ta tìm x  R thỏa mãn phương trình y  x 4  1 (*)

 x  4 y 1
(*)  
 x   4 y  1

y  R, x   4 y  1 : y  g ( x)  x 4  1

Vậy g là toàn ánh

 One-to-one Correspondence /
Bijective Functions
Function f is a one-to-one
corespondence or a bijection if it is both
one-to-one and onto.

f: {A,B,…,Z} →{65,66,…,90} is a bijection

Ví dụ về song ánh
h:R  R
h( x )  x 3  1

y  R, ta tìm x  R thỏa mãn phương trình y  x 3  1 (*)

(*)  x  3 y  1

y  R, ! x  3 y  1 : y  h( x )  x 3  1

Vậy h là song ánh

 Inverse Functions
Let f is a bijection from A to B. The inverse function,
denoted by f-1, of f is the function that assigns to an
element b belonging to B the unique element a in A such
that f(a)=b. Hence f-1(b)=a when f(a)=b.
 Inverse Functions…
f:→ such that f(x)=x+1
Is f invertible? And if it is, what is its inverse?
Step 1: Show that f is onto
f(y-1)=y for all y
 f is onto
Step 2: Show that f is one-to-one
f(a)=a+1= f(b)=b+1  a=b  f is one-to-one
 f is bijection  f is invertible
Step 3: Find inverse function
f(x)= y=x+1 x=f-1(y)
x=y-1  f-1(y)=y-1
Ví dụ về ánh xạ ngược
Vì pt y  x3  1 có nghiệm duy nhất nên h là song ánh.

Do đó tồn tại ánh xạ ngược

h 1 : R  R
y  h 1 ( y )  x

Vì x  3 y  1 nên h 1 ( y )  3 y  1

Thay y bởi x ta được h 1 ( x)  3 x  1

 Composition of Functions
Let g:A → B, f: B → C
The composition of f and g, denoted by fg, is defined by: (fg)
(x)= f(g(x))

Example:
f:  →, f(x)=x+1
g:→, g(x)= x2
(fg)(x)= f(g(x))= f(x2) = x2+1
(gf)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x+1)= (x+1)2
 2.4- Sequences

 Sequence : a1, a2, a3,…, an,…

Ex: 1,3,5,8 : Finite sequence
Ex: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,… : Infinite sequence
 A sequence is a function from a subset of
integers to a set S.
 an : image of the integer n
 ai : a term of the sequence
 {an= 1/n}: +→   1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, …
 Sequences…
Geometric progression an 1  r.an , n  
f(n) = arn  a, ar, ar2, ar3, …, arn
Arithmetic progression an 1  an  d , n  
f(n) = a + nd  a, a+d, a+ 2d, … , a+nd,…..
a: initial term,
r: common ratio, a real number
d: common difference, real number
Do yourself
bn= (-1)n , n>=0 cn= 2(5)n , n>=0
tn= 7-3n, n>=0 an= -1 + 4n, n>=0
 Some Useful Sequences

n !  1.2.....(n  1).n  ( n  1)!.n

0!  1
 Summations
n
am  am 1  am  2  ...  an   a j   j  m a j  m j  n a j
n

j m

// 1 + 2 +3+4+…+n
a : Sequence long sum1 ( int n) // n additions
j : Index of summation { long S=0;
for (int i=1; i<=n; i++) S+= i;
m: Lower limit
return S;
n : Upper limit }
n // 1 addition, 1 multiplication, 1 division
 x  x .x ....x
i 1
i 1 2 n
long sum2 (int n)
{ return ((long)n) * (n+1)/2;
}

See examples 10, 11. Page 154

 Summations….

Theorem 1- (Summation of geometric series)

See the proofs in page 155

Some Useful Summation Formulae

See example 15, page 157

 Cardinality

 Cardinality = number of elements in a set.

 The sets A and B have the same cardinality if and only if there is
a one-to-one correspondence from A to B
 A set that is either finite or has the same cardinality as the set of
positive integers is called countable.
a1, a2, a3,….., an,……
 A set that is not countable is called uncountable.
 When a infinite set S is countable, we denote the cardinality of S
is |S|= 0‫( א‬aleph null)
 For example, |0‫ א‬because  is countable and infinite but  is
uncountable and infinite, and we say |0‫א‬
 n 2n

f :   K  n 2 n  
n f ( n)  2n
 n1 , n2   : n1  n2
 2n1  2n2
 f (n1 )  f (n2 )
 p  K  p 2  n0   : p  2n0  f (n0 )
 card ()  card ( K )
 Examples p.159, 160
sets countable uncountable cardinality
{a, b, …, z}, {x| x5 -3x2 – 11 = 0},   <
…
{0, 2, 4, …, }   0‫א‬

N, Z+, Z, Q, ZZ, …   0‫א‬

{x| 0 < x < 1}, R,…   20 ‫א‬

 Summary
 Sets
 Set operations
 Functions
 Sequences
 Summations
Thanks