OST-UNIT2

Nayana Vaidya
◦ Starting and maintaining your own opensource project
◦ Open source hardware
◦ Open source design
◦ Open source teaching
◦ Open source media
◦ Introduction to github
◦ In the same way that open source software is created
and shared amongst a large community, resources are
freely available on the Internet.
◦ The open source teaching tools combined with numerous
social media sites and conferences can give you all the
support you otherwise lack.
◦ Open source teaching is an approach where people can
produce,share and build on knowledge which would be
beneficial to others
◦ Sharing is most imp characteristic of education
◦ It can be implemented by various methods
◦ Elearning
◦ 1.virtual learning environment
◦ We can use virtual learning environment like moodle
◦ Moodle is open source LMS software.
◦ It can be used by various institutions
◦Online lectures
◦This type of open source teachingcan be used
where several users want to involve in a
session over the web
◦Textual chats can be used
◦It can contain different audio and video
sessions
◦Users can share their ideas to each other
◦ Interactive content creation
◦ Many online toolkits can be used to create interactive
training materials
◦ Ebook authoring
◦ Libreoffice can be used for word processing and drawing
programs for simple publishing
◦ Ebooks can be created using simple tools
◦ You can not only create, but also publish and
distribute your eBooks through this tool.
◦ the traditional publishing model where authors had to connect with multiple
people to create one book.
◦ Everyone is assigned a different task such as the cover page illustration,
printing, proofreading, text alignment, etc.
◦ Now, with the help of authoring tools, the process of book publishing has
become much simpler.
◦ Everything can be done in one place by one person.
◦ You can manage the layout of the eBook, font styles, enhancements,
illustrations etc., on one single platform.
◦ publishers spend a good amount of time searching and comparing different
authoring tools.
◦ Here’s a Simple guide to help you select the best eBook authoring tool:
◦ 1. Find and Understand Your Audience's Needs:
◦ Before looking for an eBook authoring tool, list down all the requirements of your audience.
◦ Say for example, if you’re publishing for S-12 students, what would they require in order to
have a great learning experience?
◦ Are you going to include an explanatory video?
◦ If yes, then would you require animation in it?
◦ Or would a simple eBook with some images and basic zoom/pan/scroll interactivity suffice?
◦ Think over what your audience would expect from your eBook and what would you like to
provide them, and accordingly you can select a software package that suits the requirements.
◦ 2. Look for Ease of Use:
◦ The basic requirement of any tool you purchase is that you and your team must be able to use
it without any difficulty.
◦ Hence, look for software which has an easy-to-use and intuitive interface.
◦ Something that most people will be able to use without much technical know-how.
◦ Most ebook authoring tools offer simple features like drag and drop, making it easy to create
an eBook.
◦ 3. Responsive Design:
◦ A responsive design will eliminate the need to create multiple versions of courses for different devices.
◦ People have a lot of choices in mobile devices today.
◦ You want to ensure that your content is accessible to everyone irrespective of the type of device they
use.
◦ you can ensure that users can view your content on any device of any size and orientation.
◦ Responsive content fits perfectly according to the user’s screen size.
◦ Previously, all content used to be made on a Flash-based platform.
◦ But now as Flash has become obsolete, all companies are trying to shift their content from Flash-based
platform to HTML5.
◦ This ensures greater compatibility with different devices.
◦ Ensure the eBook authoring tool supports HTML5 elements so that you can build interactive and
responsive content for your audience.
◦ 4. Interactive Elements:
◦ There are multiple interactivities that can be included in an eBook.
◦ Check if multimedia elements like video, audio, images can be
added.
◦ Check the file types that are supported by the tool.
◦ Annotation, text highlight, search feature etc., are all used to create
an interactive eBook.
◦ You first have to determine whether your audience really require so
many elements or just a simple eBook with few interactivities
would be enough.
◦ 5. Analytics:
◦ With the help of analytics, publishers can measure the number of visits, the
duration of the visit, bounce rate etc.
◦ Tracking these numbers help you understand the user behavior.
◦ You can view the stories that are performing well, and the topics which the
audiences seem to engage more with.
◦ These reports give you an idea about future market trends, so that you can
accordingly create content and design your sales strategies.
◦ Having an analytics feature will thus help you receive valuable and actionable
inputs about your content.
◦ 6. Cloud-based eBook Authoring:
◦ Working on a cloud-based platform gives you the ability to work from
anywhere and anytime.
◦ You do not have to be around your workstation to create content.
◦ Sit anywhere, be it a cafe or a park, and create your eBook with ease.
◦ This feature comes really handy when you have to update your content on an
immediate basis.
◦ Rather than waiting to access your system to make changes, you can directly
do it from your mobile phones or tablets
◦ 7. Content Security:
◦ Some educational institutes have their own content that is generally not
available with other institutes.
◦ Such kind of content needs digital protection.
◦ Keeping them away from unauthenticated use and piracy is vital in such a
scenario.
◦ Even otherwise, you wouldn’t want your content to be plagiarized. So, ensure
that the authoring platform offers DRM protection. With DRM, you can be
assured that only authorized users with an access code can access your content.
◦ There are multiple types of licensing provided by various tools- individual
licensing, group licensing etc. You can choose one based on your requirements
◦ 8. Try the Product by creating an eBook Before Buying:
◦ A company would never tell you upfront if the product has some drawback or
lacks some integral element that’s available in other software packages.
◦ They’ll always project their product as the best.
◦ It’s your duty to check if the tool really does what it says.
◦ Most eBook authoring tool companies offer a free trial period or a demo of
their product.
◦ 9. Read Public Reviews About eBook creation Tool:
◦ Also read reviews written about the software package on the web.
◦ People who have used the product write detailed reviews of its flaws and
strengths.
◦ There are many online forums where experts come together to discuss and
share the pros and cons of each tool.
◦ 10. Check the Level of After Sales Support:
◦ Once you purchase the software and start using it to create your new eBook,
what if a few months down the line you face some technical glitch?
◦ What if the tool is throwing up some error?
◦ Will the company provide any technical support?
◦ Here’s a list of the best eBook creation software
1.Kitaboo – Award-winning cloud-based digital publishing platform to create, publish, and securely
deliver multimedia-enhanced interactive eBooks.
2.Epubeemaker – Free ebook publishing software in the form of a word add-in, it helps you create
ePub directly from your word document.
3.Flipbuilder – An ebook creator that converts PDF into Media Rich eBooks with a flipbook style.
4.Blurb – An ebook publishing software capable of assisting throughout the publishing and
distribution process.
5.Pressbooks – Offers e-publishing solutions to educational institutions, authors, and self-
publishers.
6.FlipHTML5 – HTML5 digital publishing platform
7.Mobipocket ebook creator – A simple ebook creator with a great interface.
8.Vellum– A premium Mac-exclusive ebook creation software
9.Kotobee – A paid software for creating engaging eBook content
10.Scrivener – eBook creator software for authors who write novels and fiction.
◦ Classroom Tools
◦ 1) Interactive Whiteboard Software
◦ A free and open-source interactive whiteboard software compatible with any
projector and pointing device named as OpenSankore provides an interactive
interface for whiteboards, touch tables etc.
◦ It supports Whiteboard-style drawing
◦ Also, it allows to insert documents and media.
◦ Interactive Whiteboard Software (also known as Collaborative Whiteboard software)
creates a digital version of traditional whiteboards that allows users from various
locations to interact visually in real-time.
◦ These interactive whiteboards allow teams to brainstorm online.
◦ They are of particular utility to organizations with limited meeting room space, or
with a large majority of remote employees.
◦ They have also become increasingly popular in the education space, as it allows
educators to have more flexibility with where and how they teach.
◦ What is Miro?
◦ Miro is an online collaborative whiteboard for cross-functional teams,
boasting over 20 million product managers, project managers, Agile
coaches, developers, and other team members around the world as users
of Miro to collaborate, brainstorm, and visualize ideas.
◦ 2) Classroom Management
◦ The remote-controlled computers can be used to provide support
◦ .In classroom management a teacher can view students' screens in
overview mode.
◦ Illustration can be broadcasted at all workstations.
◦ Here the various workstations can be locked to reduce distractions .
◦ Library Systems
◦ Koha is an open source Integrated Library System which is used world-wide by
public, school and special libraries
◦ It supports standard formats and protocols to ensure interoperability with other
library systems.
◦ Mobile Solutions
◦ A variety of mobile devices are supported through a single web interface using
feature detection.
◦ Data can be retrieved from a range of sources.
◦ Management Information Systems
◦ The different modules and web-based systems can be used to manage
information of student.
◦ The term Web 2.0 consists of a set of technologies that has
redefined the Internet's user interface and radically changed the way
people use the Internet.
◦ Among the most important Web 2.0 features are social-networking
sites, video- and photo-sharing sites, blogs, RSS feeds, tags,
podcasts, wikis, and discussion forums.
◦ Knowledge transfer has become a two-way process, with users both
receiving and contributing information.
◦ As a result, information has become a common and accessible
commodity,
◦ Web 2.0 enables students to participate in a many-to-many information-sharing
operation.
◦ Common Web Tools
◦ The Web 2.0 tools most commonly used in education are blogs wikis, podcasting and
media-sharing sites
◦ Teachers all over the world encourage their students to get more involved in creating
to enhance peer communication in and outside the classroom.
◦ Blogs are the most extensively used Web 2.0 tools.
◦ Open source blogging platforms such as WordPress, LifeType, and Roller allow the
free creation of blogs (as do many commercial services).
◦ Open online portals permit keeping content and feedback on the same platform.
◦ Teachers and students can collect, create, and share their own online knowledge
resources.
◦ Wiki technology allows site visitors to edit the site's content,
accelerating content generation.
◦ The most common example is Wikipedia, the online free
encyclopedia.
◦ Podcasting has been adopted by many institutions to make content
available to students in audio form.
◦ Podcasting technologies have encouraged an increase in learner-
generated content, enhancing learner participation in digital
education.
◦ Open source podcasting software such as Audacity and Juice is
widely employed by the user community.
◦ Media-sharing sites have emerged as powerful tools for the learning
community.
◦ Many teachers use still images and video, especially those registered
under Creative Commons licenses, for both offline and online courses.
◦ Media-sharing sites can also be used to publish student-generated video or
photographs, shared with peers and teachers to receive critical feedback.
◦ Some photo-sharing sites allow the addition of annotations to an image,
facilitating distance learning.
◦ Online learning makes education available to the global community.
◦ Students almost everywhere have access to quality education through
the Internet.
◦ Open access is an initiative to give worldwide access to peer-created
and -reviewed journal content.
◦ The core idea behind such projects is best embodied in the words of
the Budapest Open Access Initiative:
◦ Online learning makes education available to the global
community.
◦ Students almost everywhere have access to quality
education through the Internet.
◦ Open access is an initiative to give worldwide access to
peer-created and -reviewed journal content.
◦ The core idea behind such projects is best embodied in the
words of the Budapest Open Access Initiative:
◦ Accelerate research, enrich education, share the learning of the rich
with the poor and the poor with the rich, make this literature as
useful as it can be, and lay the foundation for uniting humanity in a
common intellectual conversation and quest for knowledge.
◦ A large chunk of digital education is guided by e-commerce goals,
however. Some online courses cost as much as on-campus courses,
making higher education financially inaccessible to many students.
In addition, mass-marketing of education might decrease the brand
value of prestigious online courses, undercutting the commercial
goals for online education. The university's status is a major factor
attracting students and influencing employers in evaluating online
degrees.
◦ Some online courses cost as much as on-campus courses, making
higher education financially inaccessible to many students.
◦ In addition, mass-marketing of education might decrease the brand
value of prestigious online courses, undercutting the commercial
goals for online education.
◦ The university's status is a major factor attracting students and
influencing employers in evaluating online degrees.
Introduction to github
◦ Github is a webbased interface that uses git the opensource version control software that lets
multiple people make separate changes to webpages at the same time
◦ It allows for real time collaboration
◦ Github encourages teams to work together to build and edit their site content
◦ Github allows multiple developers to work on a single project at the same time reduces the
risk of duplicate or conflicting work and can help decrease the production time
◦ Developers can build code,track changes and innovate solutions to problems that might arise
during the site development process simultaneously
◦ Nondevelopers can also use github to create,update and edit website content
◦ GitHub is a code hosting platform for collaboration and
version control.
◦ GitHub lets you (and others) work together on projects.
◦ Sign up for GitHub at https://github.com/:
◦ GitHub essentials are:
• Repositories
• Branches
• Commits
• Pull Requests
• Git (the version control software GitHub is built on)
◦ Repository
◦ A GitHub repository can be used to store a development project.
◦ It can contain folders and any type of files (HTML, CSS, JavaScript,
Documents, Data, Images).
◦ A GitHub repository should also include a licence file and a README file
about the project.
◦ A GitHub repository can also be used to store ideas, or any resources that
you want to share.
◦ Branch
◦ A GitHub branch is used to work with different versions of a repository
at the same time.
◦ By default a repository has a master branch (a production branch).
◦ Any other branch is a copy of the master branch (as it was at a point in
time).
◦ New Branches are for bug fixes and feature work separate from the
master branch.
◦ When changes are ready, they can be merged into the master branch.
◦ If you make changes to the master branch while working on a new branch,
these updates can be pulled in.
◦ Commits
◦ At GitHub, changes are called commits.
◦ Each commit (change) has a description explaining why a change was
made.
◦ Pull Requests
◦ Pull Requests are the heart of GitHub collaboration.
◦ With a pull request you are proposing that your changes should
be merged (pulled in) with the master.
◦ Pull requests show content differences, changes, additions, and
subtractions in colors (green and red).
◦ As soon as you have a commit, you can open a pull request and start a
discussion, even before the code is finished.
◦ Today, GitHub is one of the most popular resources for developers to share code and work on
projects together.
◦ It’s free, easy to use, and has become central in the movement toward open-source software .
◦ GitHub is an online software development platform used for storing, tracking, and
collaborating on software projects.
◦ It enables developers to upload their own code files and to collaborate with fellow developers
on open-source projects.
◦ GitHub also serves as a social networking site in which developers can openly network,
collaborate, and pitch their work.
◦ Since its founding in 2008, GitHub has acquired millions of users and established itself as a
go-to platform for collaborative software projects.
◦ The service is free and comes with several helpful features for sharing code and working with
others in real-time.
◦ On top of its code-related functions, GitHub also encourages users to build a personal profile
and brand for themselves.
◦ You can visit anyone’s profile and see what projects they own and contribute to.
◦ This makes GitHub a type of social network for programmers and fosters a collaborative
approach to software and website development.
◦ we’ll need to understand the technology that GitHub is based on, Git.
◦ What is Git?
◦ Git is open-source version control software, used for managing and tracking file revisions.
◦ It can be used with any file type, but is most often used for tracking code files.
◦ Git is the most widely used version control system in software development, and GitHub
leverages this technology for its service, hence its name.
◦ For example, Google Docs (as well as other Google Workspace tools) has a “Version History”
tool where you can view changes to the document at different points in time.
◦ Microsoft Office has something similar with its “Track Changes” feature.
◦ Or, you might prefer saving multiple copies of a file and labeling them “v1”, “v2”, etc.
◦ Advanced version control is necessary for software projects, especially collaborative ones.
◦ When building software, developers are frequently and simultaneously updating the code to
add features and fix bugs.
◦ It wouldn’t make sense to make these changes to the source code directly, since any issues
would affect users.
◦ Instead, developers work with their own copies of the code, then — after the code has been
thoroughly tested — add this code to the main codebase.
◦ That seems all well and good. But, with multiple contributors, things can get very messy very
quickly if there’s no way to combine everyone’s contributions into one unified codebase or see
who contributed what changes.
◦ These changes also must be tracked and stored in case something breaks and the developers
need to backtrack and restore a previous version.
◦ This is what Git is for.
◦ When a developer wants to make a change to the software,
they download their own copy of the source code from its
central storage location (called a repository, or “repo” for
short) to their local system, make modifications safely to
their own copy, then merge their revised copy back with the
source files in the repository along with comments
explaining the changes.
◦ Git tracks all of these modifications and stores previous
versions as backups.
◦ What is GitHub used for?
◦ GitHub allows software developers and engineers to create remote, public-facing repositories
on the cloud for free.
◦ Once you’ve set up a repository on GitHub, you can copy it to your device, add and modify
files locally, then “push” your changes back to the repository where your changes are
displayed to the public.
◦ So, why would you prefer GitHub over developing with a private repository? Here are the key
reasons why GitHub is such a big player:
◦ Enhanced Collaboration
◦ The single biggest selling point of GitHub is its set of project collaboration features, including
version control and access control.
◦ To illustrate what’s possible with GitHub, imagine this scenario: You want to code up an
online game, and you enlist your friend to help you. You create a repository on GitHub that
stores all the files, including current and past versions, then give your friend collaborator
access to this repo as well.
◦ You decide to work on the main gameplay and screens while your partner tackles the game’s
menu and settings screens. In order for you both to push your changes at the same time
without interfering with the other’s work, you create a branch — a separate development area
— where your teammate can build out their screens. Meanwhile, you continue work in your
branch.
◦ Once your friend finishes their work, they can make a pull request asking to combine
their work with yours. If you approve, you can merge your branches, and thus your code.
◦ Now, say another developer sees your game’s repository and has an idea to add
multiplayer mode. They can fork — or make their own copy of — your repository, then
add their new features. Once finished, they can submit a pull request to you. If you
approve, this forked repository merges with yours, and your game is now multiplayer!
Note that anyone can fork a public repository, but it's up to the repository owners to
accept or reject pull requests.
◦ Of course, no software is perfect on the first go, which is why your GitHub repo also has
an Issues section for listing to-dos and reporting problems with your game, discussing
them, and marking them resolved. To address these issues, you might look back at a file’s
changelog to see when and where things went wrong.
◦ To sum up, GitHub provides a centralized space where several, dozens, or even thousands
of developers can seamlessly contribute to a project, without worrying about overriding
anyone’s work or losing track of changes.
◦ Easy File Management
◦ GitHub adds a graphical user interface (GUI) layer on top of Git. On its own, Git operates
through the command line (a computer’s text-based interface). Developers know how to use
the command line, but for many, it’s not always the most efficient way to interact with files.
◦ GitHub’s interface provides a clean and user-friendly means to perform Git actions as well as
view file history. This is more convenient for developers and more accessible for beginners
getting the hang of Git.
◦ Another benefit that makes GitHub more accessible is its cloud-based infrastructure. A GitHub
user may access their repository from any location and any device, download the repository,
and push their changes. Using GitHub means you’re not limited to one device or environment .
◦ Social Networking
◦ Any GitHub user knows the platform is more than just a place to work on code. All GitHub
users have profiles to display their projects, contributions, and activity on the site, and can see
anyone’s public-facing profile and repositories.
◦ GitHub’s social network is critical to its success, as it encourages developers to explore and
contribute to open-source projects of all kinds. Previously, aspiring collaborators would have
to personally reach out to project owners asking for permission to contribute. With GitHub, it’s
as easy as forking a project and then making a pull request. A project owner can then vet
someone’s profile and past contributions before accepting their request.
◦ GitHub also serves as a way to showcase projects for employers, acting as a portfolio of sorts.
For example, recruiters often use GitHub to scout talent, since prospects’ code is available for
anyone to review.
◦ but how does GitHub make money if everything is free and open-source?
◦ The answer is that GitHub provides paid services as well, including private repositories. On a
paid plan, teams can collaborate on GitHub while keeping their code behind closed virtual
doors. GitHub also offers enterprise solutions that equip organizations with internal
collaboration tools.
◦ How to Get Started Using GitHub
◦ Sold on GitHub? Here’s how to get started. Just a heads up: You should be comfortable using
the command line before working with GitHub, as Git uses the terminal as its interface.
◦ 1. Install the latest version of Git on your device. You’ll need Git installed to work with your
GitHub repository. There are various ways to do this, so follow the recommendations on the
Git website. The Git software is free.
◦ 2. After installing Git, go to GitHub’s website and create an account with your email address.
◦ 3. Once your GitHub account is set up, you’ll be taken to your dashboard. To start your first
repository, click Create repository on the left side.
◦ 4. On the Create a new repository screen, enter your repository name and an optional description
(you can change both later).
◦ 5. On the same screen, add a README file (a text file that describes your project, and a best practice
in development), a .gitignore (which removes irrelevant files like .DS_Store), and a license for your
project.
◦ 6. Click Create repository. You’ll be taken to your main repository page, which lists your files.

◦ 7. You’ll now create a local copy of your GitHub repository (or in

GitHub terms, “clone” your repository) where you’ll edit your files and
push your changes. On your main repository page, click the
green Code button, then copy the HTTPS URL of your repository.
◦ 8. Open your terminal and navigate to the directory you want to place
your repository copy.
◦ 9. In the terminal, enter git clone. After this paste in the repository URL
that you previously copied. Your command should look like this:
◦ 10. Press Enter to clone the repository. You’ll see a new file added to your local filesystem with
your repository’s name. If you open this file, you’ll see it contains the files in your GitHub
repository. These are copied versions of your repository’s files that you can edit and then push
back to your repository.
◦ 11. Let’s end by creating a new file in your cloned repository, then pushing it to GitHub. In your
local clone, create a new text file called hello.txt. In it, paste the text Hello, world! and save the
file.
◦ 12. In the terminal, navigate to inside your cloned repository.
◦ 13. In the terminal, type git add . and press Enter. This prepares all files in your cloned
repository to be pushed.
◦ 14. In the terminal, type git commit -m “added hello.txt” and press Enter. This commits your
changes to the changelog. The text in quotes is a comment briefly describing the purpose of the
commit.
◦ 15. Type git push origin main in the terminal and press Enter.
◦ 16. Back in your GitHub repository, you’ll see your new file added.
Reporting issues
◦ All IT projects need a bug tracking system
◦ There are various bug tracking tools such as---
◦ 1.Bugzilla
◦ Bugzilla is an open-source issue/bug tracking system that allows developers to keep track
of outstanding problems with their product.
◦ It is written in Perl and uses MYSQL database.
◦ Bugzilla is a Defect tracking tool, however, it can be used as a test management tool as such
it can be easily linked with other Test Case management tools like Quality Center, Testlink
etc.
◦ Key features of Bugzilla includes
• Advanced search capabilities
• E-mail Notifications
• Modify/file Bugs by e-mail
• Time tracking
• Strong security
• Customization
• Localization
◦ How to log-in to Bugzilla
◦ Step 1) Use the following link for your hands-on. To create an account in Bugzilla tool or to login into
the existing account go to New Account or Log in option in the main menu
◦ How to log-in to Bugzilla
◦ Step 1) Use the following link for your hands-on. To create an account in Bugzilla tool or to login into
the existing account go to New Account or Log in option in the main menu
◦ Step 2) Now, enter your personal details to log into Bugzilla
1. User ID
2. Password
3. And then click on “Log in”
◦ Creating a Bug-report in Bugzilla
◦ Step 1) To create a new bug in Bugzilla, visit the home-page of Bugzilla and click on NEW tab from the main menu
◦ Step 2) In the next window
1.Enter Product
2.Enter Component
3.Give Component description
4.Select version,
5.Select severity
6.Select Hardware
7.Select OS
8.Enter Summary
9.Enter Description
10.Attach Attachment
11.Submit
◦ NOTE: The above fields will vary as per your customization of Bugzilla
◦ Step 4) Bug is created ID# 26320 is assigned to our Bug. You can also add additional
information to the assigned bug like URL, keywords, whiteboard, tags, etc. This extra-
information is helpful to give more detail about the Bug you have created.
1.Large text box
2.URL
3.Whiteboard
4.Keywords
5.Tags
6.Depends on
7.Blocks
8.Attachments
◦ Step 5) In the same window if you scroll down further. You can select deadline date and also status of the bug. Deadline in Bugzilla
usually gives the time-limit to resolve the bug in given time frame.
◦ What is Mantis Bug Tracker?
◦ Mantis is an open source bug tracking software that can be used to track software defects
for various software projects. You can easily download and install the Mantis for your use.
Mantisbt now also provides a hosted version of the software. You can easily customize
Mantis to map your software development workflow.
◦ Some salient features of Mantis Bt are
• Email notifications: It sends out emails of updates, comments, resolutions to the concerned
stakeholders.
• Access Control: You can control user access at a project level
• Customize: You can easily customize Mantis as per your requirements.
• Mobile Support: Mantis supports iPhone, Android, and Windows Phone Platforms.
• Plugins: An ever-expanding library of plugins to add custom functionality to Mantis Issue
Tracker.
◦https://mantishub.com/bitnami.com/stack/
mantis
◦ How to Report an Issue
◦ There is no need to download Mantis, you use the online
demo
◦ You can create a project
◦ Create a user
◦ Create custom fields,report an issue
Introduction to wikipedia
◦ Introduction to Wikipedia.
◦ Wikipedia is the free encyclopedia.
◦ Wikipedia is free of charge, user do not have to pay any charges.
◦ It is also called as the "open content".
◦ It means anyone can copy and make changes to it, if they follow the rules for editing and also copying.
◦ Wikipedia is held by an American organization Wikipedia foundation which is in San Francisco and
California
◦ Wikipedia started on 10 January 2001 by the Larry Sanger and the Jimmy Wales as part of internet
encyclopaedia named as Nupedia.
◦ On 15 January 2001, Wikipedia became a separate website of its own..
◦ It says that wiki runs using the software mediawiki.
◦ • In December 2007, Wikipedia had about the 9.25 million pages in 253 language and 1.74 billion
words across all Wikipedia•
◦ In all language, English Wikipedia is the biggest one .
◦ Wikipedia is a
◦ multilingual
◦ free online encyclopedia
◦ written and maintained by a community of volunteers
◦ through open collaboration and a wiki-based editing system.
◦ Its editors are known as Wikipedians.
◦ Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history
◦ It is consistently one of the 10 most popular websites
◦ as of 2022, Wikipedia was ranked the 7th most popular site.
◦ It is hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation, an American non-profit organization funded
mainly through donations.
◦
◦ On January 15, 2001, Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger launched Wikipedia.
◦ Sanger coined its name as a blend of "wiki" and "encyclopedia".
◦ Initially available only in English, versions in other languages were quickly developed.
◦ Its combined editions comprise more than 59 million articles, attracting around
2 billion unique device visits per month and more than 17 million edits per month
(1.9 edits per second) as of November 2020
◦ In 2006, Time magazine stated that the policy of allowing anyone to edit had made
Wikipedia the "biggest (and perhaps best) encyclopedia in the world".
◦ Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with
limited success.
◦ Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language
encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal
process.
◦ It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis, a web portal company.
◦ Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia
and later Wikipedia.
◦ Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but even before
Wikipedia was founded,
◦ Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman.
◦ Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia,
◦ while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal.
◦ On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder"
project for Nupedia
◦ Though the English Wikipedia reached three million articles in August 2009, the
growth of the edition,
◦ in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors, appears to have peaked
around early 2007.
◦ Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that
average was roughly 800.
◦ A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to the
project's increasing exclusivity and resistance to change.
◦ Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because articles that could be
called "low-hanging fruit"—topics that clearly merit an article—have already been
created and built up extensively
◦ Restrictions

◦ Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing
restrictions for certain cases.
◦ For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only registered users may create a
new article.[
◦ On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive or vandalism-prone pages have
been protected to varying degrees.
◦ A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only
"autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it.
◦ A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes.
◦ A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps
the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas".
◦ In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors,
depending on certain conditions.
◦ For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews.
◦ Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes"
system in December 2012.
◦ Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are
reviewed by established users before they are published
◦ Review of changes
◦ Although changes are not systematically reviewed, the software that powers
Wikipedia provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others.
◦ Each article's History page links to each revision.
◦ On most articles, anyone can undo others' changes by clicking a link on the article's
History page.
◦ Anyone can view the latest changes to articles, and anyone registered may maintain
a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes.
◦ "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious
problems.
◦ In 2003, economics Ph.D. student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low
transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative
development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a
page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction"
◦ In short, Wikipedia is a multilingual, openly collaborative online information
platform.
◦ Like the "wikis" that came before it, the online encyclopedia's content is editable by
volunteers from across the globe.
◦ Wikipedia has tens of thousands of editors, from issue experts to the casual fans, who
can expand, delete, or change information at will.
◦ This allows for a wide array of information to be supplied and verified about a
particular person, place, or thing.
◦ As a result, Wikipedia can function as a great starting point for research, providing
users with general information that can be followed up with more legitimate and
reliable sources outside of the site.
◦ For instance, a Wikipedia article may introduce a reader to a particular concept or
idea, leading to further exploration of the finer details and the veracity of the claims
made.
◦ Contributing to Wikipedia
◦ Wikipedia basics and very basic, are step-by-step guides explaining how to contribute.
◦ The Wikipedia Adventure is a comprehensive and fun 7-mission interactive guided tour, which
covers all the essentials about editing and the expectations of the Wikipedia community.
◦ • You do not have to log in to read Wikipedia.
◦ You do not even have to log in to edit articles on Wikipedia.
◦ Anyone can edit almost any article at any given time, even without logging in.
◦ However, creating an account isfree and has several benefits (for example, the ability to create pages, upload media
and adit without one's IP address being visible to the public).
◦ To create an account in seconds, click the "Create an account now" link and fill out the few required fields.
◦ This will be logged, your account will be created and you will be provided with a link back to this page.
◦ Wikipedia is the product of thousands of editors' contributions, each one brings something different to the table,
whether it be: researching skills, technical expertise, writing prowess or tidbits of information but most importantly a
willingness to help
◦ Nobody owns articles, so if you see a problem that you can fix, do so. Everyone is encouraged to copyedit articles, add
content if they have knowledge about the topic at hand or are willing u do the necessary research to improve it.
◦ When adding content and creating new articles an encyclopaedic style with a formal tone is
important.
◦ Wikipedia articles should have a straightforwardcontent past the facts style.
◦ Although you should use a broad vocabulary of regular, non-technical terms, do not use
words or expressions that many readers may not know.
◦ If an article is written in highly technical manner, but the material permits a more
understandable explanation. then editors are strongly encouraged to rewrite it..
◦ Wikipedia is a free encyclopedia project, written collaboratively by volunteers.
◦ Many people view Wikipediaarticles every day, but don't contribute.
◦ There are 8 Steps to Contribute to Wikipedia:
◦ 1. Create a Wikipedia account: Account creation is not required: however, if you register for an
account, you will be given more privileges than a non-registered user.For all of these privileges
to take place, your account must be at least four days old and have at least ten edits
◦ 2. Expand stubs: An article that is not complete, or written in full detail, may be marked with a
{(Stub)) tag
◦ You can help by adding content to the articles currently marked as stubs.
◦ Articles may also have a more detailed ((stub)) meaning that the stub has been sub-sorted.
◦ Sub-sorted stubs include anything from Arts, Cultures, Design, Broadcast Media, Radio,
Television, Literature, and more.
◦ 3. Add a Photo: An encyclopedia is not complete without pictures. You can upload as many
pictures as you wish; however, you must need to provide detailed information on the source and
the license of the file.
◦ If you cannot provide that information, do not upload any photos. If you still choose to upload
photos, they will be deleted.
◦ 4. Write a New Article: Wikipedia is rapidly growing although the growth has slowed down since
2008.The English version of Wikipedia currently has over 5.168.000 articles!
◦ You can help continue this growth by writing an article of your own You should write an article about
something you are very knowledgeable, so that you can write a complete and Informative article.
◦ Articles created as test pages, pure vandalism, attack pages, etc. will be deleted on the spot without
any further debate.
◦ 5. Remove Spam: Wikipedia is accessed by millions of people every day, thus, there tends to be a lot
of vandalism or spamming.
◦ People who vandalize or spam a page may have added inappropriate links, blanked the page, added
nonsense,
◦ You can help out by removing or reverting this vandalism.
◦ Removing vandalism will make Wikipedia a betterplace for people to gather information and
resources
◦ 6 Helping Out: Even though Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, it is also a community. You can help out
newcomers make it a bigger and better community for the encyclopedia.
◦ 7. Doing Maintenance: You can help Wikipedia run optimally by doing maintenance tasks
like removing copyright violations, fixing up articles, participating in deletion processes, and
all sorts of other things. & Revert vandalism: using tools if you like.
◦ If you are getting good at it you'll get a tool called 'rollback' that lets you revert vandalism
faster.
◦ Remember, spam is also vandalism!
◦ If somebody is persistent about vandalising a page, report them to theAdministrator
◦ Intervention against Vandalism' board-AIV for short- once they have been warned suitably.
Open source hardware
◦ "Open hardware," or "open source hardware," refers to the design specifications of a physical object which
are licensed in such a way that said object can be studied, modified, created, and distributed by anyone.
◦ "Open hardware" is a set of design principles and legal practices, not a specific type of object.
◦ The term can therefore refer to any number of objects—like automobiles, chairs, computers, robots, or even
houses.
◦ Like open source software, the "source code" for open hardware—blueprints, logic designs, Computer
Aided Design (CAD) drawings or files, etc.—is available for modification or enhancement by anyone under
permissive licenses.
◦ Users with access to the tools that can read and manipulate these source files can update and improve the
code that underlies the physical device.
◦ They can add features or fix bugs in the software.
◦ They can even modify the physical design of the object itself and, if they wish, proceed to share such
modifications.
◦ Open hardware's source code should be readily accessible, and its components are preferably easy for
anyone to obtain.
◦ How is open hardware licensed?
◦ Open source hardware licenses generally permit recipients of the designs and documentations
to study them, redistribute and modify them, and then to distribute any modifications.
Additionally, open hardware licenses don't prevent someone from giving away or even selling
the project's documentation.
◦ Like software, hardware designs and inventions are subject to copyright and patent law. And
like open source software, open source hardware uses these intellectual property laws
creatively to make hardware designs publicly accessible. Because of their similarity to open
source software projects, many open hardware projects simply use existing free and
open source software licenses when licensing their works. Others use the
Creative Commons By Attribution licenses, which are more focused on the features of works
of art, as opposed to software. Both copyright law (in the case of source code and design
documentation) and patent law (in the case of design processes and material technologies)
apply to open hardware. Trademark law is also pertinent to the branding names and logos of
open hardware
◦ How is open source hardware different from open source software?
◦ Because open hardware projects usually result in the production or prototyping of a physical
object, they almost always involve monetary investment for physical materials.
◦ While open software projects do involve labor costs and monetary investment, software can
typically be distributed with lower overhead and is sometimes offered "free as in beer" (or
"gratis").
◦ Aside from offering documentation and source files to the public for no cost, it's not
financially feasible for most open hardware projects' physical components to be offered gratis.
◦ Open-source hardware (OSH) consists of physical artifacts of technology designed
and offered by the open-design movement. Both free and open-source software
(FOSS) and open-source hardware are created by this open-source culture
movement and apply a like concept to a variety of components. It is sometimes, thus,
referred to as FOSH (free and open-source hardware). The term usually means that
information about the hardware is easily discerned so that others can make it –
coupling it closely to the maker movement.[1] Hardware design (i.e. mechanical
drawings, schematics, bills of material, PCB layout data, HDL source code[2] and
integrated circuit layout data), in addition to the software that drives the hardware, are
all released under free/libre terms. The original sharer gains feedback and potentially
improvements on the design from the FOSH community. There is now significant
evidence that such sharing can drive a high return on investment for the scientific
community.[3]
◦ It is not enough to merely use an open-source license; an open source product or
project will follow open source principles, such as modular design and community
collaboration
◦ The term hardware in open-source hardware has been historically used in opposition
to the term software of open-source software. That is, to refer to the electronic
hardware on which the software runs (see previous section). However, as more and
more non-electronic hardware products are made open source (for example
WikiHouse, OpenBeam or Hovalin), this term tends to be used back in its broader
sense of "physical product". The field of open-source hardware has been shown to go
beyond electronic hardware and to cover a larger range of product categories such as
machine tools, vehicles and medical equipment.[28] In that sense, hardware refers to
any form of tangible product, be it electronic hardware, mechanical hardware, textile
or even construction hardware. The Open Source Hardware (OSHW) Definition 1.0
defines hardware as "tangible artifacts — machines, devices, or other physical
things".
◦ Computers[edit]
◦ Due to a mixture of privacy, security, and environmental concerns, a number of
projects have started that aim to deliver a variety of open-source computing devices.
Examples include the EOMA68 (SBC in a PCMCIA form-factor, intended to be
plugged into a laptop or desktop chassis), Novena (bare motherboard with optional
laptop chassis), and GnuBee (series of Network Attached Storage devices).
◦ Several retrocomputing hobby groups have created numerous recreations or
adaptations of the early home computers of the 1970s and 80s, some of which
include improved functionality and more modern components (such as surface-mount
ICs and SD card readers).[30][31][32] Some hobbyists have also developed add-on cards
(such as drive controllers,[33] memory expansion,[34] and sound cards[35]) to improve the
functionality of older computers. Miniaturised recreations of vintage computers have
also been created
◦ Electronics[edit]
◦ Electronics is one of the most popular types of open-source hardware. There are
many companies that provide large varieties of open-source electronics such as
Sparkfun, Adafruit and Seeed. In addition, there are NPOs and companies that
provide a specific open-source electronic component such as the Arduino electronics
prototyping platform. There are many examples of specialty open-source electronics
such as low-cost voltage and current GMAW open-source 3-D printer monitor[37][38] and
a robotics-assisted mass spectrometry assay platform.[39][40] Open-source electronics
finds various uses, including automation of chemical procedures.
◦ Licenses[edit]
◦ Rather than creating a new license, some open-source hardware projects use existing,
free and open-source software licenses.[44] These licenses may not accord well with
patent law.[45]
◦ Later, several new licenses were proposed, designed to address issues specific to
hardware design.[46] In these licenses, many of the fundamental principles expressed in
open-source software (OSS) licenses have been "ported" to their counterpart hardware
projects. New hardware licenses are often explained as the "hardware equivalent" of a
well-known OSS license, such as the GPL, LGPL, or BSD license.
◦ Despite superficial similarities to software licenses, most hardware licenses are
fundamentally different: by nature, they typically rely more heavily on patent law than on
copyright law, as many hardware designs are not copyrightable.[47] Whereas a copyright
license may control the distribution of the source code or design documents, a patent
license may control the use and manufacturing of the physical device built from the
design documents. This distinction is explicitly mentioned in the preamble of the
TAPR Open Hardware License :
◦ Open source hardware offers relatively inexpensive alternatives to their
closed, proprietary counterparts.

Some good examples of open source hardware are Arduino boards. These
boards are part of a complete open source electronics prototyping platform
including a software development environment. A complete Arduino system
is made up of both open source software and hardware. Because the
supporting software of Arduino systems can be downloaded for free and the
reference designs for the hardware are available under an open source
license, people could easily create their own boards or build devices out of
the Arduino software and hardware at a minimal cost.
◦ Just like open source software (OSS), open source hardware uses licenses. A
majority of these licenses are based on existing OSS licenses. Some of the
widely used licenses for open source hardware include the TAPR Open
Hardware License, Balloon Open Hardware License and the Hardware Design
Public License.
◦ 1. Let’s start at the beginning
◦ The term “open-source” first appeared with the early open software movement in the 1970s,
which aimed to spread the concept of freely-sharing source codes for software development.
The movement grew and has had much success. A wide variety of software is freely licensed
to grant users the right to use, change, and study the source code without restrictions. The idea
of open-source hardware emerged from the concept of open-source software.
◦ 2. What is open-source hardware?
◦ Open-source hardware is a hardware whose design is made publicly available so anyone can
study, modify, distribute, make and sell the design or hardware based on that design. Using
open-source hardware can significantly reduce research expenses while contributing to the
integrity of science in general. Researchers individually develop the same equipment over and
over again when they could be using technology developed by another researcher for the same
scope. Application of open-source hardware supports innovation and a more sustainable
future.
◦ 3. The Arduino electronic prototyping platform
◦ A good example of open-source hardware is the Arduino electronic prototyping platform. It’s
an easy-to-learn microcontroller that allows you to take information from the Arduino
platform and act on that environment. In the old days, learning to program a microcontroller
was very difficult. Now, Arduino is an open-source project. There are codes and designs
published open access, but also many researchers contributed to build up libraries with new
ideas and schematics. Therefore, it’s currently much easier to automate processes of many
tasks.
◦ 4. Fundamental advantages
◦ Rapid open-source technological evolution in electronics and 3D printing has resulted in the
democratization of digital manufacturing. It’s not just having access to the theory; it’s having
access to the same equipment researchers use to run their experiments. There is an opportunity
to harness these trends to radically reduce the costs of experimental research while improving
it by supporting the development of free and open-source hardware for science.
◦ 5. The power of open-source
◦ Open-source hardware is powerful because one researcher can create and publish a design, and
all researchers can benefit from it. This leads to an immediate opportunity to catch up to the
best practices, so that it is possible to continue to push science. By harnessing a scalable open-
source methodology, funding is spent only once for development of scientific equipment and
then a return on the investment is realized by direct digital replication of scientific devices for
only the costs of materials.
◦ 6. Where can I publish my designs?
◦ HardwareX is Elsevier’s journal for open hardware. It is an open access journal created to
promote free and open-source designing, building and customizing of
hardware. HardwareX publishes hundreds of designs; they have all the information needed to
replicate the device, and you are able to do custom things with a low cost. Find out more about
the importance of hardware articles.
◦ Open Source Hardware (OSHW) is a term for tangible artifacts – machines, devices, or other
physical things – whose design has been released to the public in such a way that anyone can
make, modify, distribute, and use those things. This definition is intended to help provide
guidelines for the development and evaluation of licenses for Open Source Hardware.
◦ It is important to note that hardware is different from software in that physical resources must
always be committed for the creation of physical goods. Accordingly, persons or companies
producing items ("products") under an OSHW license have an obligation not to imply that
such products are manufactured, sold, warrantied, or otherwise sanctioned by the original
designer and also not to make use of any trademarks owned by the original designer.
◦ The distribution terms of Open Source Hardware must comply with the following criteria:
◦ 1. Documentation
◦ The hardware must be released with documentation including design files, and must allow
modification and distribution of the design files. Where documentation is not furnished with
the physical product, there must be a well-publicized means of obtaining this documentation
for no more than a reasonable reproduction cost, preferably downloading via the Internet
without charge. (((What does "well-publicized" mean in a world where mainstream media are
in collapse, one wonders.)))
◦ The documentation must include design files in the preferred form which a hardware
developer would use to modify the design. Deliberately obfuscated design files are not
allowed. Intermediate forms analogous to compiled computer code – such as printer-ready
copper artwork from a CAD program – are not allowed as substitutes. Should the
documentation be created utilizing a proprietary CAD program, an open document format
shall be provided, ex. pdf; iges; step; etc.
◦ 2. Necessary Software
◦ If the hardware requires software, embedded or otherwise, to operate properly and fulfill its
essential functions, then the documentation requirement must also include at least one of the
following: The necessary software, released under an OSI-approved open source license, or
other sufficient documentation such that it could reasonably be considered straightforward to
write open source software that allows the device to operate properly and fulfill its essential
functions.
◦ 3. Derived Works
◦ The license shall allow modifications and derived works, and shall allow them to be
distributed under the same terms as the license of the original hardware. The license shall
allow for the manufacture, sale, distribution, and use of products created from the design files
or derivatives of the design files. (((I'm trying to imagine persnickety rules like this imported
to some technosocial area where nothing has ever been licensed in the first place, like, say, a
Sinai-Palestinian smuggling tunnel.)))
◦ 4. Free redistribution
◦ The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the project documentation
as a component of an aggregate distribution containing designs from several different sources.
The license shall not require a royalty or other fee for such sale. The license shall not require
any royalty or fee related to the sale of derived works.
◦ 5. Attribution
◦ The license shall require derived works to provide attribution to the original designer when
distributing design files, manufactured products, and/or derivatives thereof. The license shall
also require derived works to carry a different name or version number from the original
design.
◦ 6. No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups
◦ The license must not discriminate against any person or group of persons. (((Imagining a
future class of open-source apartheid victims who are not allowed to use anything open-
source. How would you do that, exactly? "Hey ten-year-olds! Stay away from my open-source
cigarette-rolling machine.")))
◦ 7. No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor
◦ The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the hardware in a specific field of
endeavor. For example, it may not restrict the hardware from being used in a business, or from
being used in nuclear research. (((Can't wait to see the open-source hard ware improvised-
explosive device wiki. I don't doubt it exists, but it's still in Arabic.)))
◦ 8. Distribution of License
◦ The rights attached to the hardware must apply to all to whom the product or documentation is
redistributed without the need for execution of an additional license by those parties.
◦ 9. License Must Not Be Specific to a Product
◦ The rights attached to the hardware must not depend on the hardware being part of a particular
larger product. If the hardware is extracted from that product and used or distributed within the
terms of the hardware license, all parties to whom the hardware is redistributed should have
the same rights as those that are granted in conjunction with the original distribution.
◦ 10. License Must Not Restrict Other Hardware or Software
◦ The license must not place restrictions on other hardware or software that may be distributed
or used with the licensed hardware. For example, the license must not insist that all other
hardware sold at the same time be open source, nor that only open source software be used in
conjunction with the hardware.
◦ 11. License Must Be Technology-Neutral
◦ No provision of the license may be predicated on any individual technology or style of
interface.
◦ Operating system is a software that manages the computer hardware
◦ Provides safe environment for running programs
◦ It is an interface between programs and the hardware resources like memory hardisk,printer
◦ OS is loaded into memory when computer is booted
◦ OS remains active as long as machine is up
◦ Because of OS users can copy a file,delete a file,create directory,save files,send mails,back up files
◦ OS is a software which gives life to a machine
◦ OS carries out functions like accessing memory,accessing devices like harddisks for reading or writing
files
◦ OS allocates memory to a program
◦ It loads the CPU registers with control information related to a program
◦ The registers maintain the memory locations where each segment of a program is stored
◦ The instructions in the program are executed by CPU
◦ OS keeps track of the instruction that was last executed
◦ The program can be resumed again if it had to be taken out from CPU before it completed execution
◦ Unix is an operating system like DOS and windows
◦ It arrived earlier than the other 2 and gave us the internet
◦ Unix is a giant operating system
◦ It runs on practically any hardware
◦ Its open source
◦ Unix operating system uses many symbols
◦ You need a sequence of commands to achieve a task
◦ It doesn’t tell you whether you are right or wrong
◦ You interact with unix operating system through a command interpreter called shell
Torvalds is the father of Linux the free UNIX that has swept the computer world by storm
Stallman runs the free software foundation formerly known as GNU
Many linux tools were supplied by GNU
◦ Many computer users run a modified version of the GNU system every day, without
realizing it.
◦ Through a peculiar turn of events, the version of GNU which is widely used today is often
called “Linux,” and many of its users are not aware that it is basically the GNU system,
developed by the GNU Project.
◦ There really is a Linux, and these people are using it, but it is just a part of the system they
use.
◦ Linux is the kernel: the program in the system that allocates the machine's resources to the
other programs that you run.
◦ The kernel is an essential part of an operating system, but useless by itself; it can only function
in the context of a complete operating system.
◦ Linux is normally used in combination with the GNU operating system: the whole system is
basically GNU with Linux added, or GNU/Linux.
◦ All the so-called “Linux” distributions are really distributions of GNU/Linux.
◦ Linux is an operating system: a series of programs that let you interact with your
computer and run other programs.
◦ An operating system consists of various fundamental programs which are needed by
your computer so that it can communicate and receive instructions from users; read
and write data to hard disks, tapes, and printers; control the use of memory; and run
other software.
◦ The most important part of an operating system is the kernel.
◦ In a GNU/Linux system, Linux is the kernel component. The rest of the system consists
of other programs, many of which were written by or for the GNU Project.
◦ Because the Linux kernel alone does not form a working operating system, we prefer to
use the term “GNU/Linux” to refer to systems that many people casually refer to
as “Linux”.
◦ Linux is modelled on the Unix operating system.
◦ From the start, Linux was designed to be a multi-tasking, multi-user system.
◦ nobody owns Linux. Much of its development is done by unpaid volunteers.
◦ Development of what later became GNU/Linux began in 1984, when the
Free Software Foundation began development of a free Unix-like operating system called GNU.
◦ The GNU Project has developed a comprehensive set of free software tools for use with Unix™
and Unix-like operating systems such as Linux.
◦ These tools enable users to perform tasks ranging from (such as copying or removing files from
the system) to the (such as writing and compiling programs or doing sophisticated editing in a
variety of document formats)
◦ While many groups and individuals have contributed to Linux, the largest single contributor is
still the Free Software Foundation, which created not only most of the tools used in Linux, but
also the philosophy and the community that made Linux possible.
◦ Linux kernel first appeared in 1991
◦ Linux is also less likely to crash, better able to run more than one program at the same time,
and more secure than many operating systems.
◦ With these advantages, Linux is the fastest growing operating system in the server market.
More recently, Linux has begun to be popular among home and business users as well.
◦ GNU/Linux is a Unix-like operating system made up of different OS components and
services that create the Linux OS.
◦ GNU stands for GNU's not Unix, which makes the term a recursive acronym, or an
acronym in which one of the letters stands for the acronym itself. The GNU Project
initially created most of the components and services used in GNU/Linux and later
added the Linux kernel to create the GNU/Linux OS. The Linux kernel is the core
component of GNU/Linux, as it provides basic services and allocates OS resources.
◦ GNU/Linux is not one organization's product, as several organizations and individuals
contribute to it. The OS comes with source code that can be copied, modified and
redistributed. GNU/Linux also branches off into many different software packages,
called distributions. Distributions change the appearance and function of GNU/Linux,
making it an especially flexible OS.
◦ Although there are numerous distributions, Debian, Fedora and Ubuntu are three
user-friendly examples of GNU/Linux desktop distributions.
◦ Debian was developed by the community-supported Debian Project and is one of the
oldest OSes based around the Linux kernel. It is developed openly and distributed
following the principles of the GNU Project. The Free Software Foundation (FSF)
sponsored Debian between 1994 and 1995.
◦ Fedora was developed by the Fedora Project and is sponsored by Red Hat Inc. Its
goal is to lead in open source technologies by focusing on integrating new
technologies and working closely with Linux-based communities.
◦ The Ubuntu OS, which is based on the Debian Linux distribution, is composed of free
and open source software. Ubuntu is an OS typically used for cloud computing and is
supported by OpenStack.
◦ Free software movement activist and programmer Richard Stallman announced the
GNU/Linux project and, with others, formed FSF in 1985
◦ How is GNU/Linux used?

◦ GNU/Linux is not much different from Microsoft Windows. Commercial-quality

software is available for users to work with, with additional free, high-quality
applications users can find and install.
◦ The original purpose of the GNU Project was to create a free OS. Free -- not in the
context of cost -- but in terms of giving users the freedom to run, copy, distribute,
study, change and improve the software as needed. As such, individuals can change
the OS and exchange its components however they want. The Linux community
participates in the development and improvement of the OS.
◦ Software developers profit by selling support and services around their own
GNU/Linux distribution. Corporate customers buy security updates and support. Other
organizations contribute to GNU/Linux by pre-installing the OS on servers they sell.
◦ What are the advantages of GNU/Linux?
◦ GNU/Linux comes with the following benefits:
• Software customization. Users can customize the OS' software to their liking. For
example, users can choose from different command-line shells, which are programs
that enable them to process or give commands to a computer program in text. It is
referred to as a shell, as it is an outer layer of the OS.
• Stability. The OS is stable, as it rarely crashes.
• Open standards. GNU/Linux integrates with other open source platforms, as it
supports open
• Community. The GNU/Linux user base is a wide and varying group that can create,
distribute and help support software.
• Transparency. Users can study the source code, as well as modify and share it.
Distributions are also developed in the open.
◦ What are the disadvantages of GNU/Linux?
◦ Some disadvantages of GNU/Linux include the following:
• Learning curve. If a user is accustomed to Windows or macOS, it might take time to get used
to the new system and applications.
• Different software. Users might miss familiar applications, such as Microsoft Office or the
Adobe Creative suite.
• Potential lack of hardware support. Even though a lot of hardware supports GNU/Linux, not
all does. Users must know beforehand if the hardware they want supports their OS.
◦ What is the Free Software Foundation?
◦ FSF is a nonprofit organization with the worldwide goal of promoting "computer user freedom."
It was founded in 1985, along with its demonstration of the GNU Project, during the free
software movement. Richard Stallman, a Massachusetts Institute of Technology professor, and
others created FSF to demonstrate that an entire OS could be developed and shared freely --
with the result being GNU/Linux. FSF was also formed to promote the idea that any user should
be able to study the source code of a program, modify it and share improved versions of it.
Android operating system
◦ Android is a mobile operating system based on a modified version of the Linux kernel and
other open-source software, designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets.
◦ Android is developed by a partnership of developers known as the Open Handset Alliance and
commercially sponsored by Google.
◦ It was disclosed in November 2007, with the first commercial Android device, the HTC
Dream, launched in September 2008.
◦ It is free and open-source software. Its source code is Android Open Source Project (AOSP),
primarily licensed under the Apache License.
• About 70% of Android Smartphone runs Google's ecosystem, some with vendor-customized
user interface and some with software suite, such as TouchWizand later One UI by Samsung,
and HTC Sense.
◦ Features of Android Operating System
◦ Below are the following unique features and characteristics of the android
operating system, such as:
◦ 1. Near Field Communication (NFC)
◦ Most Android devices support NFC, which allows electronic devices to interact across
short distances easily. The main goal here is to create a payment option that is simpler
than carrying cash or credit cards, and while the market hasn't exploded as many
experts had predicted, there may be an alternative in the works, in the form of
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).
◦ 2. Infrared Transmission
◦ The Android operating system supports a built-in infrared transmitter that allows you
to use your phone or tablet as a remote control.
◦ 3. Automation
◦ The Tasker app allows control of app permissions and also automates them.
◦ 4. Wireless App Downloads
◦ You can download apps on your PC by using the Android Market or third-party options like AppBrain. Then it automatically
syncs them to your Droid, and no plugging is required.
◦ 5. Storage and Battery Swap
◦ Android phones also have unique hardware capabilities. Google's OS makes it possible to upgrade, replace, and remove your
battery that no longer holds a charge. In addition, Android phones come with SD card slots for expandable storage.
◦ 6. Custom Home Screens
◦ While it's possible to hack certain phones to customize the home screen, Android comes with this capability from the get-go.
Download a third-party launcher like Apex, Nova, and you can add gestures, new shortcuts, or even performance
enhancements for older-model devices
◦ 7. Widgets
◦ Apps are versatile, but sometimes you want information at a glance instead of having to open an app and wait for it to load.
Android widgets let you display just about any feature you choose on the home screen, including weather apps, music
widgets, or productivity tools that helpfully remind you of upcoming meetings or approaching deadlines.
◦ 8. Custom ROMs
◦ Because the Android operating system is open-source, developers can twist the current OS and build their versions, which
users can download and install in place of the stock OS. Some are filled with features, while others change the look and feel of
a device. Chances are, if there's a feature you want, someone has already built a custom ROM for it.
◦ Architecture of Android OS
◦ The android architecture contains a different number of components to support any android device needs. Android software
contains an open-source Linux Kernel with many C/C++ libraries exposed through application framework services.
◦ Among all the components, Linux Kernel provides the main operating system functions to Smartphone and Dalvik Virtual
Machine (DVM) to provide a platform for running an android application. An android operating system is a stack of software
components roughly divided into five sections and four main layers, as shown in the below architecture diagram.
• Applications
• Application Framework
• Android Runtime
• Platform Libraries
• Linux Kernel
◦ An application is the top layer of the android architecture. The pre-installed applications like camera, gallery, home, contacts,
etc., and third-party applications downloaded from the play store like games, chat applications, etc., will be installed on this layer.
◦ It runs within the Android run time with the help of the classes and services provided by the application framework.
◦ 2. Application framework
◦ Application Framework provides several important classes used to create an Android application. It provides a generic abstraction
for hardware access and helps in managing the user interface with application resources. Generally, it provides the services with
the help of which we can create a particular class and make that class helpful for the Applications creation.
◦ It includes different types of services, such as activity manager, notification manager, view system, package manager etc., which
are helpful for the development of our application according to the prerequisite.
◦ The Application Framework layer provides many higher-level services to applications in the form of Java classes. Application
developers are allowed to make use of these services in their applications. The Android framework includes the following key
services:
• Activity Manager: Controls all aspects of the application lifecycle and activity stack.
• Content Providers: Allows applications to publish and share data with other applications.
• Resource Manager: Provides access to non-code embedded resources such as strings, colour settings and user interface layouts.
• Notifications Manager: Allows applications to display alerts and notifications to the user.
• View System: An extensible set of views used to create application user interfaces.
◦ 3. Application runtime
◦ Android Runtime environment contains components like core libraries and the Dalvik virtual machine (DVM). It provides the
base for the application framework and powers our application with the help of the core libraries.
◦ Like Java Virtual Machine (JVM), Dalvik Virtual Machine (DVM) is a register-based virtual machine designed and
optimized for Android to ensure that a device can run multiple instances efficiently.
◦ It depends on the layer Linux kernel for threading and low-level memory management. The core libraries enable us to
implement android applications using the standard JAVA or Kotlin programming languages.
◦ 4. Platform libraries
◦ The Platform Libraries include various C/C++ core libraries and Java-based libraries such as Media, Graphics, Surface
Manager, OpenGL, etc., to support Android development.
• app: Provides access to the application model and is the cornerstone of all Android applications.
• content: Facilitates content access, publishing and messaging between applications and application components.
• database: Used to access data published by content providers and includes SQLite database, management classes.
• OpenGL: A Java interface to the OpenGL ES 3D graphics rendering API.
• os: Provides applications with access to standard operating system services, including messages, system services and inter-
process communication.
• text: Used to render and manipulate text on a device display.
• view: The fundamental building blocks of application user interfaces.
• widget: A rich collection of pre-built user interface components such as buttons, labels, list views, layout managers, radio
buttons etc.
• WebKit: A set of classes intended to allow web-browsing capabilities to be built into applications.
• media: Media library provides support to play and record an audio and video format.
• surface manager: It is responsible for managing access to the display subsystem.
• SQLite: It provides database support, and FreeType provides font support.
• SSL: Secure Sockets Layer is a security technology to establish an encrypted link between a web server and a web browser.
◦ 5. Linux Kernel
◦ Linux Kernel is the heart of the android architecture. It manages all the available drivers such as display, camera, Bluetooth,
audio, memory, etc., required during the runtime.
◦ The Linux Kernel will provide an abstraction layer between the device hardware and the other android architecture
components. It is responsible for the management of memory, power, devices etc. The features of the Linux kernel are:
• Security: The Linux kernel handles the security between the application and the system.
• Memory Management: It efficiently handles memory management, thereby providing the freedom to develop our apps.
• Process Management: It manages the process well, allocates resources to processes whenever they need them.
• Network Stack: It effectively handles network communication.
• Driver Model: It ensures that the application works properly on the device and hardware manufacturers responsible for
building their drivers into the Linux build.
◦ Android Applications
◦ Android applications are usually developed in the Java language using the Android Software Development Kit. Once
developed, Android applications can be packaged easily and sold out either through a store such as Google Play, SlideME,
Opera Mobile Store, Mobango, F-droid or the Amazon Appstore.
◦ Android powers hundreds of millions of mobile devices in more than 190 countries around the world. It's the largest installed
base of any mobile platform and growing fast. Every day more than 1 million new Android devices are activated worldwide.
◦ Advantages of Android Operating System
◦ We considered every one of the elements on which Android is better as thought about than different platforms. Below are some important
advantages of Android OS, such as:
• Android Google Developer: The greatest favourable position of Android is Google. Google claims an android operating system. Google
is a standout amongst the most trusted and rumoured item on the web. The name Google gives trust to the clients to purchase Android
gadgets.
• Android Users: Android is the most utilized versatile operating system. More than a billion individuals clients utilize it. Android is
likewise the quickest developing operating system in the world. Various clients increment the number of applications and programming
under the name of Android.
• Android Multitasking: The vast majority of us admire this component of Android. Clients can do heaps of undertakings on the double.
Clients can open a few applications on the double and oversee them very. Android has incredible UI, which makes it simple for clients to
do multitasking.
• Google Play Store App: The best part of Android is the accessibility of many applications. Google Play store is accounted for as the
world's largest mobile store. It has practically everything from motion pictures to amusements and significantly more. These things can be
effortlessly downloaded and gotten to through an Android phone.
• Android Notification and Easy Access: Without much of a stretch, one can access their notice of any SMS, messages, or approaches
their home screen or the notice board of the android phone. The client can view all the notifications on the top bar. Its UI makes it simple
for the client to view more than 5 Android notices immediately.
• Android Widget: Android operating system has a lot of widgets. This gadget improves the client encounter much and helps in doing
multitasking. You can include any gadget relying on the component you need on your home screen. You can see warnings, messages, and
a great deal more use without opening applications.
◦ Disadvantages of Android Operating System
◦ We know that the Android operating system has a considerable measure of interest for users nowadays. But at the same time, it
most likely has a few weaknesses. Below are the following disadvantages of the android operating system, such as:
• Android Advertisement pop-ups: Applications are openly accessible in the Google play store. Yet, these applications begin
demonstrating tons of advertisements on the notification bar and over the application. This promotion is extremely difficult
and makes a massive issue in dealing with your Android phone.
• Android require Gmail ID: You can't get to an Android gadget without your email ID or password. Google ID is
exceptionally valuable in opening Android phone bolts as well.
• Android Battery Drain: Android handset is considered a standout amongst the most battery devouring operating systems. In
the android operating system, many processes are running out of sight, which brings about the draining of the battery. It is
difficult to stop these applications as the lion's share of them is system applications.
• Android Malware/Virus/Security: Android gadget is not viewed as protected when contrasted with different applications.
Hackers continue attempting to take your data. It is anything but difficult to target any Android phone, and each day millions
of attempts are done on Android phones.
Free BSD and Open solaris
◦ Today we are going to discuss the term FreeBSD.
◦ The FREE term here basically means Free and Open Source,
◦ which means something free to use and open to modifying.
◦ Also, the latter term is Berkeley Software Distribution.
◦ FreeBSD is open-source software that is free to use.
◦ It is inherited from Berkeley Software Distribution, which was based on Research Unix.
◦ FreeBSD is very similar to a Unix operating system.
◦ FreeBSD was initially released in 1993.
◦ FreeBSD has very close similarities with Linux.
◦ However, FreeBSD is having two major differences in terms of licensing and scope.
◦ Let us have a look at how FreeBSD is different from a typical
◦ Linux operating system.
◦ It has a kernel, device drivers, and documentation,
◦ whereas Linux is only delivering drivers and a kernel.
◦ Linux generally relies on third-parties for mandatory system software.
◦ If we discuss licensing, then FreeBSD is monitored under a permissive BSD license, whereas
Linux is monitored under copyleft GPL
◦ What is the use of FreeBSD?
◦ The first and biggest advantage of FreeBSD is that it could be used as a general-purpose operating system. As of now, we know
that it could be used as an operating system hence could be used for various reasons. Let us look at each one by one.
◦ 1. As a Server – A FreeBSD generally contains lots of software’s which are related to servers in the base system and the ports
collection.
◦ FreeBSD can be used as a web server, Firewall, FTP server, DNS server, mail server, or router.
◦ 2. As Embedded System – It could be used as an embedded system as it could be easily extended to support PowerPC, MIPS,
and as ARM
◦ 3. In Networking – TCP/IP stack of FreeBSD greatly contributes to the widespread of these protocols. It supports a wide range
of networks like IPSec, SCTP, IPv6, whereas wireless networking over others. Even FreeBSD supports legacy protocols such as
IPX and AppleTalk. Also, as of now, FreeBSD supports CARP, which stands for Common Address Redundancy Protocol.
Common Address Redundancy Protocol was imported from OpenBSD. CARP helps us to allow multiple nodes to share a
common set of IP addresses. The basic advantage of this is that if one node crashes, then other’s are there to serve the request.
◦ Moving to our next advantage of FreeBSD is its important facility related to storage.
◦ It generally releases soft updates which could protect the consistency of a UFS filesystem.
◦ Here UFS stands for Unix File System.
◦ This maintenance of the UFS filesystem help us in case the system crashes;
◦ filesystem snapshot allows the creation of a file instantly during other useful processes;
◦ these snapshots allow us to take a reliable backup of a live filesystem.
◦ A modular framework named as GEOM provides RAID of levels 0, 1, and 3 currently, caching, concatenation, full disk
encryption and access to network-backed storage. GEOM also allows building complex storage solutions chaining with these
mechanisms.
◦ The next big advantage is Portability. Let us have a look at it
◦ 4.Portability – Generally, the FreeBSD project divides complete architectures into different tiers.
◦ These tiers characterize the different levels of support provided.
◦ Tier 1 architecture is fully supported and most mature, whereas Tier 2 architectures are having major development.
◦ If we discuss for Tier 3 architectures, they are experimental and do not go through development now; also,
◦ Tier 4 architectures have no support
◦ What can you do with FreeBSD?
◦ Following are the list of things for which we generally use FreeBSD. Let us have a look at it.
• For NAT firewall along with Packet filtering
• For using it as Home media servers
• Web content filtering proxy
• As NAS – 4x1TB with ZFS
• As a home serves for storing files of different extensions
• For Dynamic DNS service
• As of Apache web servers
• MySQL
• Moodle
• As DNS
◦ Advantages – Following are the advantages of FreeBSD.
• FreeBSD is an extremely clean and predictable OS.
• It can act as really a good alternative to traditional UNIX platforms
• It is a monolithic kernel, and its primary interest is security
• It is stable
• Good Documentation
• License
◦ Disadvantages – Now, let us have a glance over a few of its disadvantages.
• Issue of hardware compatibility as of now
• Also, there is less developer support
• A bit complex to understand
• It needs a good amount of practice
◦ Why should we use FreeBSD?
◦ Of course, there are several reasons why one should choose FreeBSD. Several points, as mentioned in its pros section, are
self-explanatory to use FreeBSD. It is highly customizable, and you can customize it as per your requirement.

◦ How will this technology help you in career growth?

◦ Well, this is one of the upcoming technology which is more or less replacing traditional UNIX or LINUX based operating
system. One can opt for it surely to learn more about it as its demand will automatically grow with the rising demand for a
good secured operating system.
◦ Introduction to Solaris OS
◦ It was developed by sun microsystems in 1992
◦ Bought by oracle in 2010
◦ Solaris Operating System itself is still proprietary software,
◦ meaning that it’s impossible to access freely to its source code,
◦ so there’s no way for third parties to modify its code.
◦ Open solaris is an open source unix like operating system
◦ Solaris Operating system has a kernel and a shell.
◦ OpenSolaris was offered as both development (unstable) and production (stable) releases
• Development releases included newer technologies, security updates and bug fixes, and more
applications, but may not have undergone extensive testing.
• Production releases underwent a QA process that includes security updates and bug fixes.
◦ OpenSolaris can be installed from CD-ROM, USB drives, or over a network with the Automated
Installer.
◦ CD, USB, and network install images are made available for both types of releases.
◦ OpenSolaris Features
• High scalability. OpenSolaris runs on both single processor machines and
multiprocessor machines with hundreds of CPUs and terabytes of RAM.
• Innovative file system and volume manager support.
• The VFS is an abstraction layer between the application program
and the filesystem implementations $ cp /floppy/TEST /tmp/test
• Solaris uses a Virtual File System (VFS) layer so that different file systems can be
plugged in on top of it relatively easily.
• In addition to the standard Unix File System (UFS), OpenSolaris includes the
Solaris Volume Manager (SVM) and the new ZFS.
• Networking features, including a kernel-level, high-performance TCP/IP stack,
IPv6 support, IPsec, Network Auto-Magic (NWAM) for automatic detection and
configuration of network interfaces, and IP Network Multipathing (IPMP) for
fault tolerance and load balancing.
• Complex resource management, including processor pools, physical memory controls, and a fair share
scheduler.
• Sophisticated security, including role-based access control (RBAC), configurable privileges, and trusted
extensions.
• Rich observability and debugging support, including myriad system monitoring tools, the Modular Debugger
(MDB), and the dynamic tracing facility (DTrace).
• Predictive self-healing features in the form of the Fault Management Architecture (FMA) and Service
Management Facility (SMF). They work together to detect hardware and software faults and take appropriate
action.
• Multiple forms of virtualization. In addition to the operating-system-level virtualization of Solaris Zones,
OpenSolaris offers support for xVM Hypervisor, Logical Domains (LDoms), and VirtualBox, and runs in
VMware and other virtualization frameworks.
• Sophisticated 64-bit fully preemptable kernel. The OpenSolaris kernel is also modular—device drivers can be
installed without requiring a system reboot, and features can be configured without recompiling the kernel.
The virtual memory subsystem uses demand paging for greater performance and less memory usage. The
process scheduling system supports multiple scheduling classes, including timeshare, real time, interactive,
fair share, and fixed priority.
• Full POSIX compliance with a rich application programming API, including support for 64-bit applications.
• Integrated AMP stack (Apache, MySQL, PHP) for running web services.
◦ Drupal
◦ What is Drupal
◦ Drupal is a free and open-source Content Management System (CMS) that allows organizing,
managing, and publishing your content.
◦ It is built on PHP-based environments.
◦ This is carried out under GNU, i.e., General Public License, which means everyone can
download and share it with others.
◦ Drupal is used on millions of sites
◦ What is Content Management System
◦ The Content Management System (CMS) is a software that stores all the data of your content
(such as text, photos, music, documents, etc.) and is made available on your website.
◦ In addition, a CMS helps in editing, publishing, and modifying the content of the website.
◦ Why we should use Drupal
◦ Drupal CMS is more flexible than any other CMS.
◦ Drupal can be used for building large, complex sites.
◦ It is PHP based template and allows non-technical users to add and edit the content without
any HTML or Web design knowledge.
◦ Furthermore, Drupal CMS makes it easy to interact with other sites or technologies as Drupal
can handle complex forms and workflows.
◦ It is available with more than 16000 modules which can be addressed with Drupal core and
add-on modules.
◦ Features
• Drupal makes it easy to create and manage your site.
• Drupal translates anything in the system with built-in user interfaces
• Drupal connects your website to other sites and services using feeds, search engine connection capabilities, etc.
• Drupal is an open-source software hence requires no licensing costs.
• Drupal designs a highly flexible and creative website with adequate display quality, thus increasing visitors.
• Drupal can publish your content on social media such as Twitter, Facebook, and other social mediums.
• Drupal provides more customizable themes, including several base themes to design your themes for developing web
applications.
• Drupal manages the content on informational sites, social media sites, member sites, intranets, and web applications.
◦ Advantages
• Drupal is a flexible CMS that allows handling content types, including video, text, blog, menu handling, real-time statistics,
etc.
• Drupal provides several templates for developing web applications. There is no need to start from scratch if you are building
simple or complicated web applications.
• Drupal is easy to manage or create a blog or website. It helps to organize, structure, find and reuse content.
• Drupal provides some interesting themes and templates which give your website an attractive look.
• Drupal has over 7000 plug-ins to boost your website. Since Drupal is open-source, you can create your plug-ins
◦ Disadvantages
• Drupal is not a user-friendly interface. It requires advanced knowledge and few basic things
about the platform to install and modify.
• Drupal is a new content management system. Therefore, it is not compatible with other
software.
• Performance is low compared to other CMS. The website built using Drupal will generate big
server loads and never open with a slow internet connection .
◦ Some of the most commonly used contributed modules include:
• Content Construction Kit (CCK): allows site administrators to create content types by extending the
database schema dynamically. "Content-type" describes the kind of information. Content types include but
are not limited to events, invitations, reviews, articles, and products. The CCK Fields API is in Drupal core
in Drupal 7.
• Views: facilitates the retrieval and presentation of content to site visitors through a database abstraction
system. Basic views functionality has been added to core in Drupal 8.
• Panels: drag and drop layout manager that allows site administrators to design their site visually.
• Rules: conditionally executed actions based on recurring events.
• Features: enables the capture and management of features (entities, views, fields, configuration, etc.) into
custom modules.
• Context: allows the definition of sections of the site where Drupal features can be conditionally activated
• Media: makes photo uploading and media management easier
• Services: provides an API for Drupal.
• Organic Groups Mailing List
◦ Mozilla Firefox is nothing but a Web Bowser, with which one can access the internet.
◦ The web browser lets one access information in form of text, audio, images, and videos from
all around the world.
◦ Mozilla Firefox was developed by Mozilla Foundation in 2002 under the Phoenix community.
◦ Nowadays, it is called Firefox only as it is derived from Mozilla Web Browser it is also known
as Mozilla Firefox.
◦ Mozilla Firefox can also be used to browse via android and ios.
◦ Firefox officially was released on Nov 2004 and gave tough competition to Microsoft’s
Internet Explorer with its add-ons, security, and speed.
◦ Firefox got it’s the highest popularity at the end of 2009 when it had reached 32+% of total
market usage.
◦ But after the introduction of Google Chrome, the popularity of Firefox declined.
◦ As of now, it has around 5%, market users.
◦ Importance of Mozilla Firefox
◦ Mozilla Firefox is known for its speed.
◦ As Firefox browser needs a lot of memory for operating efficiently.
◦ It limits the multiple tasking of computers.
◦ However, It provides better network security.
◦ It has advanced security options that protect your system from spyware and malwares.
◦ It has strong popup blocker and authentication protocols which makes it safe from potential
attackers using any unauthorized codes.
◦ Further to enhance security users can use enhanced security options like Flashblock. (is an
extension which prevents flash adds from being displayed)
◦ Firefox has an interface which is very user friendly and the user can use a number of add-ons
◦ on top of that user can customize the browsing also.
◦ It has more than 6000 extensions, user can customize the browser with more than 500 themes.
◦ Mozilla offers Tabbed Browsing which can let the user open unlimited tabs in a single
window.
◦ It also has got embedded memory which makes it capable of remembering pages, in case if
your systems is turned off by mistake, you can recall all the open pages.
◦ Firefox is a safe browser when it comes to protecting personal data. It provides freedom of
browsing and protection as no other browser does.
◦ Firefox is a non-profit organization, which means it does not intend to get profit from
collecting personal browsing information of users.
◦ Firefox has an Open-Source-Project which makes it for anyone to see the code and have a
look at it how it works. And it does not share any information about the user with third-party
partners
◦ Uses of Mozilla Firefox

◦ Firefox is a web browser- a platform, which is used to browse the information via the internet.
◦ When we search for something, a web browser tries to fetch the data from various internet-
connected servers.
◦ Data fetching is done by rendering engine which is the software itself and translates the data
for user interpretation.
◦ The data is interpreted in HTML that is Hypertext Markup Language.
◦ Browser further reads this HTML code to the user, the way we see it.
◦ It could be text, image, audio, or video.
◦ All this information has a unique URL or web address that can directly be accessed using
browser like Mozilla Firefox.
◦ There are a number of other extensions are available nowadays like RSS, css,supported by
Firefox.
◦ If a user wants to get information from multiple sources, Firefox provides a better facility of multi-tab
tasking where users don’t have to lose hold of one information to get access to other information.
◦ Firefox does not record history or cookies used by users which makes it safer and more trustworthy.
◦ A cookie is a piece of data from a website that is stored within a web browser that the
website can retrieve at a later time. Cookies are used to tell the server that users have
returned to a particular website.
◦ Firefox earlier used to consume more memory for efficient browsing, but with the introduction of Firefox
Quantum, it has been reduced significantly.
◦ Which makes Firefox safe as well as fast.
◦ Users can download the information using the Download manager of Firefox, which is quite easy to use.
In this user can manage downloads and customize it also.
◦ If the user makes any typos or spelling mistakes,
◦ Firefox has a spell checker function. which will point out the mistake by crosschecking internally and
also will suggest alternatives for mistakes.
◦ Which makes it more user friendly and accessible by all types of peoples.
◦ Why we use Mozilla Firefox?

◦ When it comes to the Browser, it’s a very personal thing for people. People like to personalize their
browser for easy access. Now with Firefox Quantum update, this browser has the same great speed as
any other browser available.
◦ Firefox with this new Quantum uses 30% less memory than Chrome, which gives it the ability to respond
faster.
◦ Firefox does not track the personal information of the user like what websites the user has visited or what
activities have been done across multiple websites. It makes Firefox safer to use.
◦ A user can bookmark the pages which he is using frequently in order to access them quickly. This feature
saves time as well as efforts put by users to fetch the information.
◦ Firefox provides the facility of incremental search, that is with this functionality users can search a
specific word or a link on the whole page just by clicking the CTRL plus F button to do this.
◦ Firefox provides private browsing space, without keeping track of the sites or pages you have visited.
◦ Firefox is available in 75+ languages which makes it accessible to most of the people around the world.
Firefox can be accessed by desktop users as well as mobile users. All the functionality that we have
discussed so far is available for mobile users as well.