Building Java Programs

Lecture 1: Java Review

reading: Ch. 1-9

Copyright 2008 by Pearson Education

 A Java program (1.2)
class: a program
public class name {
public static void main(String[] args) {
statement;
statement; method: a named group
... of statements
statement;
}
} statement: a command to be executed

Every executable Java program consists of a class,

 that contains a method named main,
 that contains the statements (commands) to be executed.

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 System.out.println
A statement that prints a line of output on the console.
 pronounced "print-linn"
 sometimes called a "println statement" for short

Two ways to use System.out.println :

• System.out.println("text");

Prints the given message as output.

• System.out.println();

Prints a blank line of output.

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 Static methods (1.4)
static method: A named group of statements.
 denotes the structure of a program
class
 eliminates redundancy by code reuse
method A

statement
 procedural decomposition: 
statement
dividing a problem into methods 
statement
method B

statement
Writing a static method is like 
statement
adding a new command to Java. method C

statement

statement

statement
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 Declaring a method
Gives your method a name so it can be executed
 Syntax:
public static void name() {
statement;
statement;
...
statement;
}

 Example:
public static void printWarning() {
System.out.println("This product causes cancer");
System.out.println("in lab rats and humans.");
}

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 Calling a method
Executes the method's code
Syntax:
name();

 You can call the same method many times if you like.

Example:
printWarning();

 Output:

This product causes cancer

in lab rats and humans.

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 Control flow
When a method is called, the program's execution...
 "jumps" into that method, executing its statements, then
 "jumps" back to the point where the method was called.

public class MethodsExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {
public static void message1() {
message1(); System.out.println("This is message1.");
}

message2(); public static void message2() {

System.out.println("This is message2.");
message1();

System.out.println("Done System.out.println("Done
with main."); with message2.");
} }

public static void message1() {

... System.out.println("This is message1.");
}
}
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 Java's primitive types (2.1)
 primitive types: 8 simple types for numbers, text, etc.
 Java also has object types, which we'll talk about later

Name Description Examples

 int integers 42, -3, 0,
926394
 double real numbers 3.1, -0.25,
9.4e3
 char single text characters 'a', 'X', '?',
'\n'
 boolean logical values true, false

• Why does Java distinguish integers vs. real numbers?

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 Expressions
expression: A value or operation that computes a value.

• Examples: 1 + 4 * 5
(7 + 2) * 6 / 3
42
 The simplest expression is a literal value.
 A complex expression can use operators and parentheses.

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 Integer division with /
When we divide integers, the quotient is also an integer.
 14 / 4 is 3, not 3.5

3 4 52
4 ) 14 10 ) 45 27 ) 1425
12 40 135
2 5 75
54
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More examples:
 32 / 5 is 6
 84 / 10 is 8
 156 / 100 is 1

 Dividing by 0 causes an error when your program runs.

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 Integer remainder with %
 The % operator computes the remainder from integer division.
 14 % 4 is 2
 218 % 5 is 3 What is the result?
3 43 45 % 6
4 ) 14 5 ) 218 2 % 2
12 20 8 % 20
2 18
15 11 % 0
3

Applications of % operator:
 Obtain last digit of a number: 230857 % 10 is 7
 Obtain last 4 digits: 658236489 % 10000 is
6489
 See whether a number is odd: 7 % 2 is 1, 42 % 2 is 0
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 Precedence
precedence: Order in which operators are evaluated.
 Generally operators evaluate left-to-right.
1 - 2 - 3 is (1 - 2) - 3 which is -4

 But */% have a higher level of precedence than +-

1 + 3 * 4 is 13
6 + 8 / 2 * 3
6 + 4 * 3
6 + 12 is 18

 Parentheses can force a certain order of evaluation:

(1 + 3) * 4 is 16
 Spacing does not affect order of evaluation
1+3 * 4-2 is 11
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 String concatenation
 string concatenation: Using + between a string and
another value to make a longer string.
"hello" + 42 is "hello42"
1 + "abc" + 2 is "1abc2"
"abc" + 1 + 2 is "abc12"
1 + 2 + "abc" is "3abc"
"abc" + 9 * 3 is "abc27"
"1" + 1 is "11"
4 - 1 + "abc" is "3abc"

 Use + to print a string and an expression's value together.

 System.out.println("Grade: " + (95.1 + 71.9) / 2);

• Output: Grade: 83.5

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 Variables (2.2)
variable: A piece of the computer's memory that is given a
name and type, and can store a value.

A variable can be declared/initialized in one statement.

Syntax:
type name = value;

x 14
 double myGPA = 3.95;

 int x = (11 % 3) + 12; myGPA 3.95

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 Type casting
type cast: A conversion from one type to another.
 To promote an int into a double to get exact division from /
 To truncate a double from a real number to an integer

Syntax:

(type) expression

Examples:
double result = (double) 19 / 5; // 3.8
int result2 = (int) result; // 3
int x = (int) Math.pow(10, 3); // 1000

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 Increment and decrement
shortcuts to increase or decrease a variable's value by 1

Shorthand Equivalent longer version

variable++; variable = variable + 1;
variable--; variable = variable - 1;

int x = 2;
x++; // x = x + 1;
// x now stores 3
double gpa = 2.5;
gpa--; // gpa = gpa - 1;
// gpa now stores 1.5

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Modify-and-assign operators
shortcuts to modify a variable's value

Shorthand Equivalent longer version

variable += value; variable = variable + value;
variable -= value; variable = variable - value;
variable *= value; variable = variable * value;
variable /= value; variable = variable / value;
variable %= value; variable = variable % value;

x += 3; // x = x + 3;
gpa -= 0.5; // gpa = gpa - 0.5;
number *= 2; // number = number * 2;

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 for loops (2.3)
for (initialization; test; update) { header
statement;
statement;
... body
statement;
}

 Perform initialization once.

 Repeat the following:
 Check if the test is true. If not, stop.
 Execute the statements.
 Perform the update.

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 System.out.print
Prints without moving to a new line
 allows you to print partial messages on the same line

int highestTemp = 5;
for (int i = -3; i <= highestTemp / 2; i++) {
System.out.print((i * 1.8 + 32) + " ");
}

• Output:
26.6 28.4 30.2 32.0 33.8 35.6

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 Nested loops
nested loop: A loop placed inside another loop.
for (int i = 1; i <= 4; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= 5; j++) {
System.out.print((i * j) + "\t");
}
System.out.println(); // to end the line
}

Output:
1 2 3 4 5
2 4 6 8 10
3 6 9 12 15
4 8 12 16 20

Statements in the outer loop's body are executed 4 times.

 The inner loop prints 5 numbers each time it is run.

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 Variable scope
scope: The part of a program where a variable exists.
 From its declaration to the end of the { } braces
 A variable declared in a for loop exists only in that loop.
 A variable declared in a method exists only in that method.

public static void example() {

int x = 3;
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
System.out.println(x);
} x's scope
// i no longer exists here
} // x ceases to exist here

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 Class constants (2.4)
class constant: A value visible to the whole program.
 value can only be set at declaration
 value can't be changed while the program is running

Syntax:
public static final type name = value;
 name is usually in ALL_UPPER_CASE

 Examples:
public static final int DAYS_IN_WEEK = 7;
public static final double INTEREST_RATE = 3.5;
public static final int SSN = 658234569;

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 Parameters (3.1)
parameter: A value passed to a method by its caller.

 Instead of lineOf7, lineOf13, write line to draw any length.

 When declaring the method, we will state that it requires a
parameter for the number of stars.
 When calling the method, we will specify how many stars to draw.

7
mai lin ******
n e *
1 lin ************
3 e *

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 Passing parameters
 Declaration:
public static void name (type name, ..., type name) {
statement(s);
}

 Call:
methodName (value, value, ..., value);
 Example:
public static void main(String[] args) {
sayPassword(42); // The password is: 42
sayPassword(12345); // The password is: 12345
}
public static void sayPassword(int code) {
System.out.println("The password is: " + code);
} 24
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 Java's Math class (3.2)
Method name Description
Math.abs(value) absolute value
Math.round(value) nearest whole number
Math.ceil(value) rounds up
Math.floor(value) rounds down
Math.log10(value) logarithm, base 10
Math.max(value1, value2) larger of two values
Math.min(value1, value2) smaller of two values
Math.pow(base, exp) base to the exp power
Math.sqrt(value) square root
Math.sin(value) sine/cosine/tangent of
Math.cos(value) an angle in radians Constant Description
Math.tan(value) Math.E 2.7182818...
Math.toDegrees(value) convert degrees to Math.PI 3.1415926...
Math.toRadians(value) radians and back
Math.random() random double between 0 and 1
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 Return (3.2)
return: To send out a value as the result of a method.
 The opposite of a parameter:
 Parameters send information in from the caller to the method.
 Return values send information out from a method to its caller.

- Math.abs(42
42 )
4
mai 2
n 2.7
1
3
Math.round(2.71
)

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 Returning a value
public static type name(parameters) {
statements;
...
return expression;
}

Example:
// Returns the slope of the line between the given points.
public static double slope(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2) {
double dy = y2 - y1;
double dx = x2 - x1;
return dy / dx;
}

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 Strings (3.3)
 string: An object storing a sequence of text characters.
String name = "text";
String name = expression;

 Characters of a string are numbered with 0-based indexes:

String name = "P. Diddy";

index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
char P . D i d d y

 The first character's index is always 0

 The last character's index is 1 less than the string's length
 The individual characters are values of type char

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 String methods
Method name Description
indexOf(str) index where the start of the given string
appears in this string (-1 if it is not there)
length() number of characters in this string
substring(index1, index2) the characters in this string from index1
or (inclusive) to index2 (exclusive);
substring(index1) if index2 omitted, grabs till end of string
toLowerCase() a new string with all lowercase letters
toUpperCase() a new string with all uppercase letters

These methods are called using the dot notation:

String gangsta = "Dr. Dre";
System.out.println(gangsta.length()); // 7

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 String test methods
Method Description
equals(str) whether two strings contain the same characters
equalsIgnoreCase(str) whether two strings contain the same characters,
ignoring upper vs. lower case
startsWith(str) whether one contains other's characters at start
endsWith(str) whether one contains other's characters at end
contains(str) whether the given string is found within this one

String name = console.next();

if (name.startsWith("Dr.")) {
System.out.println("Are you single?");
} else if (name.equalsIgnoreCase("LUMBERG")) {
System.out.println("I need your TPS reports.");
}
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 The equals method
Objects are compared using a method named equals.
Scanner console = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("What is your name? ");
String name = console.next();
if (name.equals("Barney")) {
System.out.println("I love you, you love me,");
System.out.println("We're a happy family!");
}

 Technically this is a method that returns a value of type boolean,

the type used in logical tests.

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 Type char (4.4)
char : A primitive type representing single characters.
 Each character inside a String is stored as a char value.
 Literal char values are surrounded with apostrophe
(single-quote) marks, such as 'a' or '4' or '\n' or '\''

 It is legal to have variables, parameters, returns of type char

char letter = 'S';

System.out.println(letter); // S

char values can be concatenated with strings.

char initial = 'P';
System.out.println(initial + " Diddy"); // P Diddy

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 char vs. String
 "h" is a String
'h' is a char (the two behave differently)

 String is an object; it contains methods

String s = "h";
s = s.toUpperCase(); // 'H'
int len = s.length(); // 1
char first = s.charAt(0); // 'H'

 char is primitive; you can't call methods on it

char c = 'h';
c = c.toUpperCase(); // ERROR: "cannot be dereferenced"

 What is s + 1 ? What is c + 1 ?
 What is s + s ? What is c + c ?
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 System.out.printf (4.4)
System.out.printf("format string", parameters);
A format string contains placeholders to insert parameters into it:
 %d an integer
 %f a real number
 %s a string
 %8d an integer, 8 characters wide, right-aligned
 %-8d an integer, 8 characters wide, left-aligned
 %.4f a real number, 4 characters after decimal
 %6.2f a real number, 6 characters wide, 2 after
decimal

 Example:

int x = 3, y = 2;
System.out.printf("(%d, %d)\n", x, y); // (3, 2)
System.out.printf("%4d %4.2f\n", x, y); // 3 2.00
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 DrawingPanel (3G)
"Canvas" objects that represents windows/drawing surfaces

To create a window:

DrawingPanel name = new DrawingPanel(width, height);

Example:
DrawingPanel panel = new DrawingPanel(300, 200);

(0, 0)
x+
The window has nothing on it.
 We can draw shapes and lines
on it using another object of
type Graphics. y+

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 Graphics
"Pen" objects that can draw lines and shapes

 Access it by calling getGraphics on your DrawingPanel.

Graphics g = panel.getGraphics();

Draw shapes by calling methods

on the Graphics object.
g.fillRect(10, 30, 60, 35);
g.fillOval(80, 40, 50, 70);

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 Graphics methods
Method name Description
g.drawLine(x1, y1, x2, y2); line between points (x1, y1), (x2, y2)
g.drawOval(x, y, width, height); outline largest oval that fits in a box of
size width * height with top-left at (x, y)
g.drawRect(x, y, width, height); outline of rectangle of size
width * height with top-left at (x, y)
g.drawString(text, x, y); text with bottom-left at (x, y)
g.fillOval(x, y, width, height); fill largest oval that fits in a box of size
width * height with top-left at (x, y)
g.fillRect(x, y, width, height); fill rectangle of size width * height with
top-left at (x, y)
g.setColor(Color); set Graphics to paint any following
shapes in the given color

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 Color
Create one using Red-Green-Blue (RGB) values from 0-255
Color name = new Color(red, green, blue);
 Example:
Color brown = new Color(192, 128, 64);

Or use a predefined Color class constant (more common)

Color.CONSTANT_NAME

where CONSTANT_NAME is one of:

 BLACK, BLUE, CYAN, DARK_GRAY, GRAY,
GREEN, LIGHT_GRAY, MAGENTA, ORANGE,
PINK, RED, WHITE, or YELLOW
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 Scanner (3.3)
System.out
 An object with methods named println and print

System.in
 not intended to be used directly
 We use a second object, from a class Scanner, to help us.

Constructing a Scanner object to read console input:

Scanner name = new Scanner(System.in);
 Example:
Scanner console = new Scanner(System.in);

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 Scanner methods
Method Description
nextInt() reads a token of user input as an int
nextDouble() reads a token of user input as a double
next() reads a token of user input as a String
nextLine() reads a line of user input as a String
 Each method waits until the user presses Enter.
 The value typed is returned.

System.out.print("How old are you? "); // prompt

int age = console.nextInt();
System.out.println("You'll be 40 in " +
(40 - age) + " years.");

 prompt: A message telling the user what input to type.

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 Testing for valid input (5.3)
Scanner methods to see what the next token will be:
Method Description
hasNext() returns true if there are any more tokens of
input to read (always true for console input)
hasNextInt() returns true if there is a next token
and it can be read as an int
hasNextDouble() returns true if there is a next token
and it can be read as a double
hasNextLine() returns true if there are any more lines of
input to read (always true for console input)
 These methods do not consume input;
they just give information about the next token.
 Useful to see what input is coming, and to avoid crashes.

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 Cumulative sum (4.1)
A loop that adds the numbers from 1-1000:
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= 1000; i++) {
sum = sum + i;
}
System.out.println("The sum is " + sum);

Key idea:
 Cumulative sum variables must be declared outside the loops
that update them, so that they will exist after the loop.

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 if/else (4.2)
Executes one block if a test is true, another if false

if (test) {
statement(s);
} else {
statement(s);
}

Example:
double gpa = console.nextDouble();
if (gpa >= 2.0) {
System.out.println("Welcome to Mars University!");
} else {
System.out.println("Application denied.");
}
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 Relational expressions
A test in an if is the same as in a for loop.
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) { ...
if (i <= 10) { ...
 These are boolean expressions, seen in Ch. 5.

Tests use relational operators:

Operato Meaning Example Valu
r e
== equals 1 + 1 == true
2
!= does not equal 3.2 != true
2.5
< less than 10 < 5 false
> greater than 10 > 5 true
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<= less than or equal to
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 Logical operators: &&, ||, !
Conditions can be combined using logical operators:

Operato Descriptio Example Resul

r n t
&& and (2 == 3) && (-1 < false
5)
|| or (2 == 3) || (-1 < true
5)
"Truth tables" for each, used with logical values p and q:
! not !(2 == 3) true
p q p && q p || p !p
q true false
true true true true false true
true false false true
false true false true
false false false false
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 Type boolean (5.2)
boolean: A logical type whose values are true and false.
 A test in an if, for, or while is a boolean expression.

 You can create boolean variables, pass boolean parameters,

return boolean values from methods, ...

boolean minor = (age < 21);

boolean expensive = iPhonePrice > 200.00;
boolean iLoveCS = true;
if (minor) {
System.out.println("Can't purchase alcohol!");
}
if (iLoveCS || !expensive) {
System.out.println("Buying an iPhone");
}

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 De Morgan's Law
De Morgan's Law:
Rules used to negate or reverse boolean expressions.
 Useful when you want the opposite of a known boolean test.

Original Negated Alternativ

Expression Expression e
a && b !a || !b !(a && b)
a || b !a && !b !(a || b)
 Example:

Original Code Negated Code

if (x == 7 && y > 3) { if (x != 7 || y <= 3) {
... ...
} }
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 if/else Structures
 Exactly 1 path: (mutually exclusive)  0 or 1 path:
if (test) { if (test) {
statement(s); statement(s);
} else if (test) { } else if (test) {
statement(s); statement(s);
} else { } else if (test) {
statement(s); statement(s);
} }
 0, 1, or many paths: (independent tests, not exclusive)
if (test) {
statement(s);
}
if (test) {
statement(s);
}
if (test) {
statement(s);
}

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 Fencepost loops (4.1)
fencepost problem: When we want to repeat two tasks,
one of them n times, another n-1 or n+1 times.
 Add a statement outside the loop to place the initial "post."
 Also called a fencepost loop or a "loop-and-a-half" solution.

 Algorithm template:

place a post.
for (length of fence - 1) {
place some wire.
place a post.
}

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 Fencepost method solution
Write a method printNumbers that prints each number
from 1 to a given maximum, separated by commas.
For example, the call:
printNumbers(5);

should print:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Solution:
public static void printNumbers(int max) {
System.out.print(1);
for (int i = 2; i <= max; i++) {
System.out.print(", " + i);
}
System.out.println(); // to end the line
} 50
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 while loops (5.1)
while loop: Repeatedly executes its
body as long as a logical test is true.
while (test) {
statement(s);
}

Example:
int num = 1; // initialization
while (num <= 200) { // test
System.out.print(num + " ");
num = num * 2; // update
}
 OUTPUT:
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
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 do/while loops (5.4)
do/while loop: Executes statements repeatedly while a
condition is true, testing it at the end of each repetition.

do {
statement(s);
} while (test);

 Example:

// prompt until the user gets the right password

String phrase;
do {
System.out.print("Password: ");
phrase = console.next();
} while (!phrase.equals("abracadabra"));

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 The Random class (5.1)
A Random object generates pseudo-random* numbers.
 Class Random is found in the java.util package.
import java.util.*;
Method name Description
nextInt() returns a random integer
nextInt(max) returns a random integer in the range [0, max)
in other words, 0 to max-1 inclusive
nextDouble() returns a random real number in the range [0.0, 1.0)

 Example:

Random rand = new Random();

int randomNumber = rand.nextInt(10); // 0-9

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 "Boolean Zen"
Students new to boolean often test if a result is true:
if (bothOdd(7, 13) == true) { // bad
...
}

But this is unnecessary and redundant. Preferred:

if (bothOdd(7, 13)) { // good
...
}

A similar pattern can be used for a false test:

if (bothOdd(7, 13) == false) { // bad
if (!bothOdd(7, 13)) { // good
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 "Boolean Zen", part 2
Methods that return boolean often have an
if/else that returns true or false:

public static boolean bothOdd(int n1, int n2) {

if (n1 % 2 != 0 && n2 % 2 != 0) {
return true;
} else {
return false;
}
}

Observation: The if/else is unnecessary.

 Our logical test is itself a boolean value; so return that!

public static boolean bothOdd(int n1, int n2) {

return (n1 % 2 != 0 && n2 % 2 != 0);
}
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 break (5.4)
break statement: Immediately exits a loop.
 Can be used to write a loop whose test is in the middle.
 Such loops are often called "forever" loops because their
header's boolean test is often changed to a trivial true.
while (true) {
statement(s);
if (test) {
break;
}
statement(s);
}

 Some programmers consider break to be bad style.

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 Reading files (6.1)
To read a file, pass a File when constructing a Scanner.
Scanner name = new Scanner(new File("file name"));

Example:
File file = new File("mydata.txt");
Scanner input = new Scanner(file);

or, better yet:

Scanner input = new Scanner(new File("mydata.txt"));

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 The throws clause
throws clause: Keywords on a method's header that state
that it may generate an exception.

Syntax:
public static type name(params) throws type {

 Example:
public class ReadFile {
public static void main(String[] args)
throws FileNotFoundException {

 Like saying, "I hereby announce that this method might throw
an exception, and I accept the consequences if it happens."
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 Input tokens (6.2)
 token: A unit of user input, separated by whitespace.
 A Scanner splits a file's contents into tokens.

 If an input file contains the following:

23 3.14
"John Smith"
The Scanner can interpret the tokens as the following types:
Token Type(s)
23 int, double, String
3.14 double, String
"John String
Smith" String

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 Files and input cursor
Consider a file numbers.txt that contains this text:
308.2
14.9 7.4 2.8

3.9 4.7 -15.4

2.8

A Scanner views all input as a stream of characters:

308.2\n 14.9 7.4 2.8\n\n3.9 4.7 -15.4\n 2.8\n
^

input cursor: The current position of the Scanner.

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 Consuming tokens
consuming input: Reading input and advancing the cursor.
 Calling nextInt etc. moves the cursor past the current token.

308.2\n 14.9 7.4 2.8\n\n3.9 4.7 -15.4\n 2.8\n

^

double x = input.nextDouble(); // 308.2

308.2\n 14.9 7.4 2.8\n\n3.9 4.7 -15.4\n 2.8\n
^

String s = input.next(); // "14.9"

308.2\n 14.9 7.4 2.8\n\n3.9 4.7 -15.4\n 2.8\n
^

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 Scanner exceptions
InputMismatchException
 You read the wrong type of token (e.g. read "hi" as int).

NoSuchElementException
 You read past the end of the input.

Finding and fixing these exceptions:

 Read the exception text for line numbers in your code (the first
line that mentions your file; often near the bottom):
Exception in thread "main" java.util.NoSuchElementException
at java.util.Scanner.throwFor(Scanner.java:838)
at java.util.Scanner.next(Scanner.java:1347)
at CountTokens.sillyMethod(CountTokens.java:19)
at CountTokens.main(CountTokens.java:6)

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 Output to files (6.4)
PrintStream: An object in the java.io package that lets
you print output to a destination such as a file.
 Any methods you have used on System.out
(such as print, println) will work on a PrintStream.

 Syntax:
PrintStream name = new PrintStream(new File("file name"));

Example:
PrintStream output = new PrintStream(new File("out.txt"));
output.println("Hello, file!");
output.println("This is a second line of output.");

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 System.out and PrintStream
The console output object, System.out, is a PrintStream.

PrintStream out1 = System.out;

PrintStream out2 = new PrintStream(new File("data.txt"));
out1.println("Hello, console!"); // goes to console
out2.println("Hello, file!"); // goes to file

 A reference to it can be stored in a PrintStream variable.

 Printing to that variable causes console output to appear.

 You can pass System.out as a parameter to a method

expecting a PrintStream.
 Allows methods that can send output to the console or a file.

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 Arrays (7.1)
array: object that stores many values of the same type.
 element: One value in an array.
 index: A 0-based integer to access an element from an array.

inde 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x
value 12 49 -2 26 5 17 -6 84 72 3

element 0 element 4 element 9

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 Array declaration
type[] name = new type[length];
 Example:
int[] numbers = new int[10];

inde 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x
valu 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e

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 Accessing elements
name[index] // access
name[index] = value; // modify
 Example:

numbers[0] = 27;
numbers[3] = -6;
System.out.println(numbers[0]);
if (numbers[3] < 0) {
System.out.println("Element 3 is negative.");
}

inde 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x
value 27
0 0 0 -6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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 Out-of-bounds
Legal indexes: between 0 and the array's length - 1.
 Reading or writing any index outside this range will throw an
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.
Example:
int[] data = new int[10];
System.out.println(data[0]); // okay
System.out.println(data[9]); // okay
System.out.println(data[-1]); // exception
System.out.println(data[10]); // exception

inde 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x
value 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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 The length field
An array's length field stores its number of elements.
name.length

for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) {

System.out.print(numbers[i] + " ");
}
// output: 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

 It does not use parentheses like a String's .length().

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 Quick array initialization
type[] name = {value, value, … value};
 Example:
int[] numbers = {12, 49, -2, 26, 5, 17, -6};

inde 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
valu 12 49 -2 26 5 17 -6
e

 Useful when you know what the array's elements will be.
 The compiler figures out the size by counting the values.

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 The Arrays class
Class Arrays in package java.util has useful static
methods for manipulating arrays:
Method name Description
binarySearch(array, value) returns the index of the given value
in a sorted array (< 0 if not found)
equals(array1, array2) returns true if the two arrays
contain the same elements in the
same order
fill(array, value) sets every element in the array to
have the given value
sort(array) arranges the elements in the array
into ascending order
toString(array) returns a string representing the
array, such as "[10, 30, 17]"
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 Arrays as parameters
Declaration:
public static type methodName(type[] name) {

 Example:
public static double average(int[] numbers) {
...
}

Call:
methodName(arrayName);
 Example:
int[] scores = {13, 17, 12, 15, 11};
double avg = average(scores);
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 Arrays as return
• Declaring:
public static type[] methodName(parameters) {
 Example:

public static int[] countDigits(int n) {

int[] counts = new int[10];
...
return counts;
}

• Calling:
type[] name = methodName(parameters);
 Example:

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] tally = countDigits(229231007);
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(tally));
} 73
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 Value semantics (primitives)
value semantics: Behavior where values are copied when
assigned to each other or passed as parameters.
 When one primitive variable is assigned to another,
its value is copied.
 Modifying the value of one variable does not affect others.

int x = 5;
int y = x; // x = 5, y = 5 x
y = 17; // x = 5, y = 17
x = 8; // x = 8, y = 17
y

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 Reference semantics (objects)
reference semantics: Behavior where variables actually
store the address of an object in memory.
 When one reference variable is assigned to another, the object
is not copied; both variables refer to the same object.
 Modifying the value of one variable will affect others.

int[] a1 = {4, 5, 2, 12, 14, 14, 9};

int[] a2 = a1; // refer to same array as a1
a2[0] = 7;
System.out.println(a1[0]); // 7

a1 inde 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
a2 value
valu 7
4 5 2 12 14 14 9
e
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 Null
null : A reference that does not refer to any object.
 Fields of an object that refer to objects are initialized to null.
 The elements of an array of objects are initialized to null.

String[] words = new String[5];

DrawingPanel[] windows = new DrawingPanel[3];

inde 0 1 2 3 4
words x
valu null null null null null
e
inde 0 1 2
windows x
value null null null

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 Null pointer exception
dereference: To access data or methods of an object with
the dot notation, such as s.length().
 It is illegal to dereference null (causes an exception).
 null is not any object, so it has no methods or data.

String[] words = new String[5];

System.out.println("word is: " + words[0]);
words[0] = words[0].toUpperCase();

Output:
word is: null
Exception in thread "main"
java.lang.NullPointerException
at Example.main(Example.java:8)

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 Classes and objects (8.1)
class: A program entity that represents either:
1. A program / module, or
2. A template for a new type of objects.

 The DrawingPanel class is a template for creating

DrawingPanel objects.

object: An entity that combines state and behavior.

 object-oriented programming (OOP): Programs that
perform their behavior as interactions between objects.

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 Fields (8.2)
field: A variable inside an object that is part of its state.
 Each object has its own copy of each field.
 encapsulation: Declaring fields private to hide their data.

Declaration syntax:
private type name;

 Example:

public class Student {

private String name; // each object now has
private double gpa; // a name and gpa field
}

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 Instance methods
instance method: One that exists inside each object of a
class and defines behavior of that object.

public type name(parameters) {

statements;
}
 same syntax as static methods, but without static keyword

Example:
public void shout() {
System.out.println("HELLO THERE!");
}

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 A Point class
public class Point {
private int x;
private int y;
// Changes the location of this Point object.
public void draw(Graphics g) {
g.fillOval(x, y, 3, 3);
g.drawString("(" + x + ", " + y + ")", x, y);
}
}
 Each Point object contains data fields named x and y.
 Each Point object contains a method named draw that draws
that point at its current x/y position.

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 The implicit parameter
implicit parameter:
The object on which an instance method is called.
 During the call p1.draw(g);
the object referred to by p1 is the implicit parameter.

 During the call p2.draw(g);

the object referred to by p2 is the implicit parameter.

 The instance method can refer to that object's fields.

 We say that it executes in the context of a particular object.
 draw can refer to the x and y of the object it was called on.

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 Kinds of methods
Instance methods take advantage of an object's state.
 Some methods allow clients to access/modify its state.

accessor: A method that lets clients examine object

state.
 Example: A distanceFromOrigin method that tells how far a
Point is away from (0, 0).
 Accessors often have a non-void return type.

mutator: A method that modifies an object's state.

 Example: A translate method that shifts the position of a
Point by a given amount.

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 Constructors (8.4)
constructor: Initializes the state of new objects.

public type(parameters) {
statements;
}

 Example:
public Point(int initialX, int initialY) {
x = initialX;
y = initialY;
}

 runs when the client uses the new keyword

 does not specify a return type; implicitly returns a new object
 If a class has no constructor, Java gives it a default constructor
with no parameters that sets all fields to 0. 84
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 toString method (8.6)
tells Java how to convert an object into a String
public String toString() {
code that returns a suitable String;
}
 Example:

public String toString() {

return "(" + x + ", " + y + ")";
}

called when an object is printed/concatenated to a String:

Point p1 = new Point(7, 2);
System.out.println("p1: " + p1);

Every class has a toString, even if it isn't in your code.

 Default is class's name and a hex number: Point@9e8c34
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 this keyword (8.7)
this : A reference to the implicit parameter.
 implicit parameter: object on which a method is called

Syntax for using this:

 To refer to a field:
this.field

 To call a method:
this.method(parameters);

 To call a constructor from another constructor:

this(parameters);

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 Static methods
static method: Part of a class, not part of an object.
 shared by all objects of that class

 good for code related to a class but not to each object's state

 does not understand the implicit parameter, this;

therefore, cannot access an object's fields directly
 if public, can be called from inside or outside the class

Declaration syntax:

public static type name(parameters) {

statements;
}

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 Inheritance (9.1)
inheritance: A way to form new classes based on existing
classes, taking on their attributes/behavior.
 a way to group related classes
 a way to share code between two or more classes

One class can extend another, absorbing its data/behavior.

 superclass: The parent class that is being extended.
 subclass: The child class that extends the superclass and
inherits its behavior.
 Subclass gets a copy of every field and method from superclass

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 Inheritance syntax (9.1)
public class name extends superclass {

 Example:

public class Secretary extends Employee {

...
}

By extending Employee, each Secretary object now:

 receives a getHours, getSalary, getVacationDays, and
getVacationForm method automatically

 can be treated as an Employee by client code (seen later)

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 Overriding methods (9.1)
override: To write a new version of a method in a subclass
that replaces the superclass's version.
 No special syntax required to override a superclass method.
Just write a new version of it in the subclass.

public class Secretary extends Employee {

// overrides getVacationForm in Employee class
public String getVacationForm() {
return "pink";
}
...
}

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 super keyword (9.3)
Subclasses can call overridden methods with super

super.method(parameters)
 Example:
public class LegalSecretary extends Secretary {
public double getSalary() {
double baseSalary = super.getSalary();
return baseSalary + 5000.0;
}
...
}

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 Polymorphism
polymorphism: Ability for the same code to be used with
different types of objects and behave differently with each.
 Example: System.out.println can print any type of object.
 Each one displays in its own way on the console.

 A variable of type T can hold an object of any subclass of T.

Employee ed = new LegalSecretary();

 You can call any methods from Employee on ed.

 You can not call any methods specific to LegalSecretary.

When a method is called, it behaves as a LegalSecretary.

System.out.println(ed.getSalary()); // 55000.0
System.out.println(ed.getVacationForm()); // pink
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